CURRENT PRACTICE NOTE
28
Watertight Concrete Structures
This Current Practice Note replaces
the previous edition of the document of
the same name published in 1995. This
update was prepared by the NSW Branch
Technical Sub-committee comprising:
James Trezona (Convenor)
Jim Forbes
Craig Heidrich
Radhe Khatri
Philip Sanders
Denis Egan
Daksh Baweja
The Institute also acknowledges the
assistance provided by:
Robert Marks, of Robert Marks Consulting
Services for editorial management
assistance in bring this publication to
finalisation.
Standards Australia, for permission to
reproduce Appendix F of AS 1478.1
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete,
Mortar and Grout, Part 1: Admixtures for
Concrete, 2000.
The Institute acknowledges the following
organsations for their contribution towards the
costs of this publication
■ Ability Building Chemicals
■ Ash Development Association of Australia
■ Australasian (iron and steel) Slag
Association
■ Department of Main Roads (Queensland)
■ Water Corporation (Western Australia)
■ Hanson Construction Materials, as a
Platinum company member, is recognised
for its support of a range of Institute
publications and activities
CPN 28 September 2005
ISBN 0 909375 68 2
f
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this Note is to outline the important
considerations that need to be addressed relating
to aspects of design and construction of watertight
concrete structures. It is not intended as a detailed
design manual, and the methods and techniques
described should be supplemented by specialist
advice from text books and codes of practice on the
subject.
ʻWatertightʼ materials and structures may be
defined as being impermeable to water except when
under hydrostatic pressure sufficient to produce
structural discontinuity by rupture1. Permeability
is the material property that allows the passage of
a fluid through pores, interstices and capillaries.
ʻWaterproofʼ is defined as being impervious to
water in either liquid or vapor state1. ʻWaterproofʼ
and ʻimperviousʼ are absolute terms that cannot be
applied to a porous material such as concrete, and
should not be used.
When assessing a concrete structure for its
ʻwatertightnessʼ, consideration should be given to
its practical use. A concrete structure may allow
the passage of small quantities of water through it,
and yet still be suitable for the service conditions.
AS 3735 Concrete structures for retaining liquids2,
Section 7 sets criteria for the assessment of liquid
retaining concrete structures and concrete roofs that
allow some passage of water.
To achieve watertight concrete structures that are
suitable for the service conditions requires the
synthesis of appropriate material selection and mix
design, adequate structural design, detailing and high
standards of construction techniques and practices.
All of these aspects must be adequately dealt with
simultaneously to achieve a watertight structure.
It is not possible to compensate for failure to
adequately address one of these aspects by achieving
high standards in the other areas.
1
For example, a structure may be composed of
relatively impermeable concrete (achieved through
judicious material selection and high standards
of construction), yet that structure may not be
watertight because of cracking resulting from
inadequate structural design and detailing, which
allows water ingress.
Watertight concrete structures frequently have
either construction joints or permanent articulation
joints in them, which typically provide a point
of vulnerability. The planning and construction
of joints is often critical to the performance of a
watertight concrete structure.
Where concrete structures are not sufficiently
watertight, either by design or otherwise, the
concrete can be sealed using post-construction
surface treatments or by injecting cracks to seal
them.
2
2.0 MIX DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
WATERTIGHT CONCRETE
A well-considered choice of binder materials and
appropriately-graded aggregates combined with an
optimum water-binder ratio and suitable chemical
admixtures will provide concrete with the material
properties necessary for a watertight structure.
2.1 Material Properties
The mechanisms of water penetrability into concrete
are complex. A full discussion of models currently
used to establish ingress characteristics is beyond the
scope of this document and readers are encouraged
to refer to cited references for more information.
Some general mechanisms for water ingress into
concrete are described below.
Consideration should be given to absorption,
diffusion, hydraulic permeability and porosity
mechanisms when selecting concrete for a watertight
concrete structure. These same considerations are
inextricably linked to the design for ʻdurabilityʼ of
concrete structures3.
It must be noted that there is no clear universally-
accepted method for measuring any of the
mechanisms mentioned. There is also some
debate as to which is the most relevant method for
modelling conditions on site, and if any will fully
reflect service conditions of a structure.
2.1.1 Permeability
The rate at which water can flow through concrete
under the action of a pressure differential is
determined by its permeability. The permeability of
cured cement paste with a low water-cement ratio is
very low, and the overall permeability of concrete
depends mainly on the size of the pores, capillaries,
micro cracks and macro cracks in it, and the extent
to which these are interconnected4.
Definitions and guides on measurements of
permeability and appropriate specification levels can
be found in the literature4. Mechanisms of moisture
movement into concrete are discussed in later
sections.
2.1.2 Porosity
Porosity is a volume property defining the content
of pores in concrete. Porosity and permeability
should not be confused. It is only when pores are
interconnected to allow the flow of water through
them that concrete becomes permeable4,5. It is noted
that pore volume and size is generally proportional
to water-binder ratio of concrete3,4.
2.1.3 Absorption
This process occurs where the concrete takes in a
fluid to fill pores/voids within the material through
capillary action4,5. Some researchers believe that
this can be an important parameter for durability
of concrete exposed to the elements or fluids in the
absence of a pressure differential, eg facades4,30.
2.1.4 Diffusion
This process occurs where liquids, gases or
ions pass through the concrete under the action
of a concentration gradient, eg chloride ions in
the presence of moisture4. This is an important
aspect to consider for material selection and mix
proportioning, especially for watertight structures in
coastal environments or in contact with aggressive
solutions where long-term durability is a major
consideration. Further details on this mechanism can
be found in Performance Criteria for Concrete in
Marine Environments5.
2.2 General Mix Design
Watertight concrete mixes can be achieved through:
■ Use of water-binder ratios as low as possible,
consistent with satisfactory workability, good
compaction and adequate hydration;
■ Proportioning aggregates and binder to
produce a cohesive concrete in order to avoid
segregation and excessive bleeding during
placement and compaction;
The selection of constituent materials which
■
limit the basic shrinkage strain to an acceptable
level (ie, which can be accommodated in the
structural design);
■ Use of dimensionally-stable aggregates
complying with AS 2758.1 Aggregates and
rock for engineering purposes Part 1: Concrete
aggregates6, and;
■ Use of admixtures complying with AS 1478.1
Chemical admixtures for concrete, mortar and
grout Part 1: Admixtures for concrete7.
Appendix F of AS1478.17 provides information
on permeability-reducing admixtures for use in
concrete, mortar and grout. The standard notes
that… “Permeability-reducing admixtures have
been used in roof slabs, slabs on the ground,
basements, water-retaining structures and concrete
blocks, although their use does not always produce
significant reduction in moisture transmission”.
For further information on these materials refer to
AS1478.1 Appendix F, which has been reproduced
in Appendix A of this document.
Materials for watertight concrete structures need
to conform to AS 3600 Concrete structures17 or
AS3735 Concrete structures for retaining liquids2
and AS 1379 Specification and supply of concrete25.
2.3 Binder
Binders must meet the requirements of AS 3972
Portland and blended cements8. Binder selection
should be based on required concrete performance,
including:
■ The required compressive strength and rate of
strength development;
■ Durability under the environmental conditions
expected in service;
■ Chemical stability of binder/aggregate
composite;
■ Placement, compaction and finishing
requirements;
■ Temperature and drying shrinkage properties,
and;
■ Permeability or absorption requirements.
Increased quantities of binders in concrete and
reduced water-binder ratios will also generally
reduce permeability and absorption characteristics.
Use of blended cements and supplementary
cementitious materials (eg fly ash, GGBFS or
amorphous silica as covered by AS 3582 Parts 1,
2 and 39) in concrete can contribute to reduced
permeability and absorption by reducing the size
and distribution of pores in the cement paste.
Whilst such concretes might exhibit an increased
propensity for plastic shrinkage, cracking resulting
from these effects will not necessarily lead to water
penetration into a structure. Such phenomena need
to be considered in the project design stage and
managed during construction. For more information
on the use of fly ash and GGBFS in concrete refer to
CPN 2510 and CPN 2611.
3
2.4 Heat Generation
Techniques to limit heat generation, temperature
differentials and the resulting cracking in thick
sections could include some of the following:
■ Insulating the concrete during the curing
period;
■ Using blended cements or supplementary
cementitious materials as defined under
AS 39728 and AS 35829;
■ Using binders conforming to Type LH
specifications;
■ Cooling mix water and/or ingredients;
■ Using liquid nitrogen in wet concrete, and;
■ Limiting binder contents.
Constructing watertight concrete structures in
regions of hot climates involves particular problems
due to the elevated ambient temperature and
compounding issues associated with heat generated
due to hydration31,32.
2.5 Chemical Admixtures
Information on current admixture technology and
the appropriate selection and use of admixtures is
available in AS1478.17 and elsewhere12.
2.5.1 Water Reducing or Retarding
Admixtures
These admixtures are normally used to improve
workability and reduce the water-cement ratio of the
concrete. They promote a more uniform dispersion
of cement grains and a more uniform pore structure
in the paste.
2.5.2 Superplasticisers
High-range water reducers (super-plasticisers) allow
flowable concrete to be produced from concrete
with a low initial slump and hence a low water-
binder ratio. This will reduce the permeability of
the concrete as well as minimising the potential
shrinkage strains. The higher workability achieved
with superplasticisers promotes efficient compaction
of the concrete.
2.5.3 Air-entraining Agents
These should be used to increase durability
where freeze-thaw environmental conditions are
encountered, as well as to improve workability
during concrete placement and to reduce bleeding.
4
2.5.4 Permeability and Absorption-reducing
Admixtures
As previously noted, Appendix F AS1478.17
(Appendix A of this document) provides information
on permeability-reducing admixtures for use in
concrete, mortar and grout. The standard notes that
no admixture is yet available that will make concrete
either ʻwaterproofʼ or ʻdamp-proofʼ. The standard
has therefore adopted the term ʻpermeability-
reducingʼ to describe such materials. AS1478.1
Appendix F classifies admixtures as follows:-
■ Inert pore fillers.
■ Chemically-reactive pore fillers.
■ Water-repelling substances.
■ Water-reducing and air-entraining admixtures.
■ Special purpose.
■ Other.
Whilst the Standard references “Permeability
Reducing Admixtures”, the details contained also
cover admixtures that reduce concrete absorption.
Further information on the various admixture
types and benefits of their inclusion can be found
in Appendix A of this publication and in other
published literature4,12,13,14,15,16.
Permeability and absorption-reducing admixtures
cannot be used alone to convert poor quality
concrete into watertight concrete. Whilst some
admixtures have been shown to improve the
watertightness of a concrete structure, they must be
used in conjunction with:
■ good structural design;
■ good construction practices;
■ good-quality mix designs;
■ low water-binder ratios,
■ good compaction, and;
■ proper curing.
Many admixture suppliers acknowledge the
importance of fundamental concrete properties such
as water-binder ratio, binder type and binder content
in achieving serviceable structural elements. It has
been noted in the technical literature16 that increased
benefits of using permeability and absorption-
reducing admixtures are difficult to accurately
quantify.
2.6 Polymer Modified Concrete
The addition of an acrylic copolymer latex to a
suitable mix will produce a composite material with
high resistance to penetration by water. The polymer
matrix minimises the migration of water, which
may assist in the hydration of the cement, and also
provides a polymeric network, which may enhance
the tensile strength and impact resistance of the
concrete.
The polymer film assists in preventing the concrete
from drying out, which may reduce the time for
application of moist curing. The containment of the
water within the concrete may also reduce drying-
shrinkage stresses.
3.0 CRACK CONTROL MEASURES
Often the failure of a watertight concrete structure
is the result of crack formation. Three main types of
cracking can occur in concrete elements, viz:
■ Flexural and shear cracks caused by self-
weight and externally-applied loads;
■ Surface cracking of fresh plastic concrete
due to rapid evaporation of bleed water
or settlement of fresh concrete over
reinforcement, or;
■ Cracking, of restrained members due to
concrete shrinkage or temperature change.
3.1 Control of Flexural Cracking
In the control of flexural cracking, reinforcement
must be provided to keep crack widths to within
acceptable limits, depending on the exposure
condition of the concrete. Crack widths up to
0.4 mm may be acceptable in dry areas protected
from the weather, while maximum crack widths
of 0.1 to 0.15 mm are recommended for concrete
structures for retaining liquids2. No other current
Australian Standard nominates or recommends crack
width criteria for watertight concrete structures.
Crack widths depend on several factors including
the magnitude of applied loads, the quantity of
reinforcement, the cover, bar size and bar spacing.
The best crack control is obtained when smaller,
closely-spaced reinforcing bars are well distributed
over the zone of concrete in tension. The aim is to
ensure that fine, closely-spaced cracks form, rather
than wider, coarsely-spaced cracks.
AS 360017 makes provisions for crack control in
reinforced concrete beams and slabs within a critical
tensile zone. This zone is defined as the zone where
the bending moment in service is greater than the
critical moment for flexural cracking, calculated
assuming a flexural tensile strength of concrete
equal to 3.0 MPa. Crack control in the critical tensile
zone is achieved by setting minimum amounts of
reinforcement, maximum covers, minimum bar
spacings and maximum steel stresses.
To control flexural cracking in prestressed
concrete beams and slabs, AS 3600 recommends
a maximum tensile stress under short-term service
loading of 0.25√ƒʼc. Where this stress is exceeded,
reinforcement or bonded tendons should be provided
near the tensile face of the member and either:
5
 ■ The maximum tensile stress in the concrete
under service load should not exceed 0.6√ƒʼc
for beams and 0.5√ƒʼc for slabs, or;
■ The increase in tensile stress in the
reinforcement under short-term service
load should not exceed the stress in the
reinforcement when the extreme concrete
tensile fibre is at zero stress by more than
200 MPa for beams and 150 MPa for slabs.
The maximum spacing of reinforcement and
tendons is 200 mm in beams and 500 mm in
slabs.
All beams over 750-mm deep require side-face
reinforcement.
AS 3600 requires control of flexural cracking in
concrete walls that are subjected to nominal axial
loads to be in accordance with the provisions for
slabs.
3.2 Control of Plastic Shrinkage and Early
Age Cracking
Plastic shrinkage cracking is caused by rapid
drying of the surface of the freshly placed concrete,
and can occur between one and eight hours after
placement19. This form of cracking is likely to occur
if the rate of evaporation approaches16 1 kg/m2/h.
Plastic shrinkage cracks may sometimes extend
through the full slab thickness allowing water
penetration. Strong winds, high temperatures and
low humidity are likely to cause rapid evaporation
and hence plastic shrinkage cracking.
Actions to minimise plastic shrinkage and other
early age cracks include:
■ Erecting wind breaks;
■ Dampening the sub-grade or forms prior to
placing;
■ Ensuring proper compaction;
■ Protecting the wet surface with aliphatic
alcohol (evaporative retardant) immediately
after initial screeding (when applied
in accordance with the manufacturerʼs
recommendations the aliphatic alcohol forms
a thin film over the wet concrete surface and
reduces evaporation by up to 80%. The film
breaks down with time and does not interfere
with final finishing of the surface);
■ Revibrating concrete prior to initial set;
6
■ Applying the curing membrane immediately
after finishing the concrete, and where
practicable, using ponding or other method of
moist curing16, and;
■ Sequencing concrete placement to avoid
extreme weather conditions.
Polypropylene and steel fibres, added to
concrete in accordance with the manufacturerʼs
recommendations, have been shown to provide
improved resistance to plastic shrinkage and
settlement cracking18,19. It is recognised that there is
little recent research on this issue, and that there is a
clear need for a greater understanding on the subject.
Some more recent related work in this area has been
published26,27,28,29.
3.3 Crack Control for Shrinkage and
Temperature Effects
Drying shrinkage and temperature changes cause
volumetric changes that will introduce tensile
stresses in concrete if restrained, and therefore can
lead to cracking.
Shrinkage cracks are frequently responsible for
water penetration in roof slabs, as they usually
extend through the full slab thickness.
Where cracking occurs, the spacing and width
of shrinkage cracks depend upon the quantity
of reinforcement in the concrete and its bond
characteristics.
AS 360017 gives minimum amounts of primary and
secondary reinforcement and/or prestress to control
cracking due to drying shrinkage and thermal
stresses in reinforced concrete slabs and walls.
3.3.1 Slabs
In the primary direction of a slab span, the minimum
reinforcement per unit gross concrete area is given
as:
■ 0.0025 for slabs supported by columns, and;
■ 0.002 for slabs supported by beams or walls.
However, in both cases it should be not less than
75% of the reinforcement required in the secondary
direction.
In the secondary direction, the minimum
reinforcement depends upon:
■ The degree of restraint to the slab against
expansion or contraction in the secondary
direction;
 ■ The exposure classification for the slab in
accordance with Table 4.3 of AS 3600, and;
■ The required degree of crack control, divided
into three categories.
The three categories of crack control are:
Minor control – where some cracks are
acceptable or hidden by finishes or coverings.
Moderate control – where cracks will be visible
but can be tolerated.
Strong control – where the appearance of
obvious cracks is unacceptable, eg off-form
finishes, or where cracks are liable to reflect
through render, tiles or other brittle finishes.
Use of minor or moderate crack control in restrained
structures required to be watertight would generally
be inappropriate without careful analysis of the
actual stresses caused by shrinkage and temperature
effects.
In slabs that are unrestrained, the minimum
reinforcement ratio is 0.00175. Table 1 summarises
the minimum secondary reinforcement requirements
for slabs that are restrained.
Where slabs are prestressed or partially prestressed,
the quantities of reinforcement discussed above can
be reduced or eliminated depending on the prestress
provided.
Cracking due to temperature and shrinkage effects is
deemed to be controlled if the average compressive
stress due to prestress is 0.7 MPa for unrestrained
slabs or restrained slabs with minor crack control,
1.4 MPa for restrained slabs with moderate crack
control and 2.4 MPa for restrained slabs with strong
crack control.
3.3.2 Walls
The minimum reinforcement ratio required for
walls in the vertical direction is 0.0015. This is also
the reinforcement ratio required for walls that are
unrestrained in the horizontal direction, although
the requirement may be reduced for walls no longer
than 2.5 m. The horizontal reinforcement required in
walls that are restrained is summarized in Table 1.
AS 3600 prescribes maximum bar spacings for both
slabs and walls.
TABLE 1
Minimum requirements for secondary reinforcement
in restrained slabs and horizontal reinforcement in
restrained walls to as 3600
Degree Ratio of shrinkage
Exposure of control and temperature steel
Classification required to gross concrete area
A1, A2 Minor 0.00175
Moderate 0.0035
Strong 0.006
B1, B2, C Any 0.006
3.4 Crack Control in the Vicinity of
Openings, Discontinuities and Restraints
Designers need to properly consider the stress
concentrations which may occur in concrete
elements at the corners of openings, at re-entrant
corners, at sudden changes in cross-section, at
construction joints and in the vicinity of points
of restraint. Additional properly anchored
reinforcement should be provided where necessary
to control cracking in these critical areas.
Care should be given to the placement of
construction joints. New concrete pours can be
restrained by previous concrete pours, which resists
the shrinkage of the younger concrete and causes
cracking.
Slabs can be restrained by the concrete beams that
are poured integrally with them. This condition
comes about because the concrete in the thinner
slab is able to dry out faster than the concrete in
the beam, causing a differential in the shrinkage
between the two elements. Restricting the beam
depth to no more than twice the slab thickness
reduces the potential for significant shrinkage
differentials to develop.
If structures are potentially restrained it is good
practice to detail joints that relieve the restraint.
Generally it is more effective to remove the source
of the restraint than to compensate for the restraint
by providing additional reinforcement or other
methods. Restraint can be relieved by providing
permanent joints in the structure. In structures
where the principal cause of cracking is shrinkage,
a compromise can be reached by providing pour
7
strips. This can allow a significant amount of the
shrinkage to take place before the structure is
restrained27,28.
It is thought that cracking resulting from shrinkage
in restrained structures may be minimised by
specifying concrete having lower AS 1012.1333
drying shrinkage characteristics. Newer data on slab
behaviour are beginning to question this27,28,34,35.
Care is also required when supplying drying
shrinkage to AS 1012.13 as values obtained can be
variable35.
Special consideration should be given to prestressed
structures, which are more susceptible to cracking
as a result of restraint. Without closely-spaced
reinforcement to distribute cracking in a controlled
manner, cracks that do occur are inclined to be fewer
in number, but larger in width, potentially exceeding
recommendations for watertight structures. Care
should also be taken at the edges of prestressed
structures, where “unstressed” zones exist between
the anchorages. Non-tensioned reinforcement may
be effective in controlling cracks at sources of
restraint, and should be detailed to compensate for
“unstressed” zones at the edges of slabs.
3.5 Crack Control in Liquid-Retaining
Structures
In Section 3 of AS 37352, minimum reinforcement
percentages are recommended to ensure an even
distribution of cracks within the concrete. The
minimum percentage varies, depending upon the
degree of restraint, the concrete tensile strength and
the reinforcing bar diameter.
In unrestrained concrete the minimum reinforcement
ratio is equal to the ratio of the principal tensile
strength of concrete at 3 days to the yield strength
of the reinforcement. In restrained concrete the
minimum reinforcement ratio varies from 0.48% for
small diameter bars (8–12 mm) to 1.28% for large
diameter bars (32 mm). A 25% reduction in these
minimum steel percentages is allowed if movement
joints are provided at maximum 15 m spacing or if
partial movement joints are provided at maximum
7.5 m spacing.
8
To ensure crack widths are kept within acceptable
limits, AS 3735 recommends limiting the tensile
stress in the reinforcing steel under service loads.
The nominal limiting steel stresses vary between
110 MPa for large-diameter bars (28–32 mm) to
150 MPa for small diameter bars (8–12 mm). A
25% increase in these stresses is permitted for load
combinations that include short-term transient loads.
A 25% increase is permitted for flexural tensile
stresses in continuously-submerged members.
Stresses allowable in plain reinforcement bars are
85% of the allowable stressed in deformed bars.
AS 3735 also contains provisions for crack control
in prestressed and partially-prestressed concrete
structures. In fully-prestressed members concrete
stresses are limited to ensure there is residual
compression under long-term loads. Under short-
term loads the compression stresses are generally
allowed to fall to zero, whilst for seismic load
combinations stresses may fall to a maximum
tensile stress of 0.5√ƒʼc. Partially-prestressed
members must be detailed such that tensile stresses
in non-tensioned reinforcement complies with the
requirements of a normally-reinforced structure,
whilst the change in stress in the prestressing
tendons must be limited to 100 MPa for long-term
load combinations and 125 MPa for short-term load
combinations.
Section 7 of AS 278320 deems crack control to
be satisfied if tensile stresses in the reinforcement
under service loads do not exceed 130 MPa in non-
aggressive water and 100 MPa in aggressive water.
Aggressive water is defined as corrosive water with
a concentration of sodium chloride greater than
10 000 mg/L (sea water). Minimum reinforcement
quantities are also specified to control shrinkage
and temperature-related cracking and depend on
the strength of the steel and whether the structure
is located in the ground, above ground or is a
cantilevered walkway.
4.0 CONSTRUCTION, SITE TECHNIQUES
AND DETAILING
Good site practice is essential to minimise risk of
serviceability failure through joint performance and
crack development. “Concrete Practice on Building
Sites”21 offers a thorough review of recognized good
work practices in the Australian context.
4.1 Compaction of Concrete
Thorough compaction is critical to achieve
sound, watertight concrete. All concrete should
be compacted thoroughly in the forms using
an immersion vibrator to eliminate voids and
honeycombing, which can lead to water penetration.
Poor compaction can also lead to a higher risk of
plastic cracking.
For maximum compaction, concrete should be
placed in uniform, shallow layers, the vibrator held
vertically and inserted at closely-spaced intervals
to depths sufficient to penetrate previously-placed
layers of concrete and held in this position until
air bubbles disappear, then slowly withdrawn.
Prolonged localised vibration should be avoided
since it can cause segregation and excessive
bleeding, leading to pockets of weak mortar at the
surface.
In large pours, retarders may be used in the mix to
avoid ʻcold-jointsʼ between consecutive layers of
concrete.
4.2 Formwork Selection and Design
The functional requirement of a dense surface
matrix dictates that formwork:
■ Has a smooth surface finish that will produce
tightly-compacted concrete against its surface;
■ Is constructed with tight joints, good surface
alignment at joints and is waterproof to
prevent leakage of slurry whilst the concrete is
in its plastic state;
■ Has taped joints where modular formwork is
used, to further minimise leaking mortar on the
construction joints, and;
■ Be coated with a surface-release agent which
will readily allow air-bubbles released during
concrete compaction to rise upwards to
the free surface of the concrete and permit
complete disengagement of the forms from the
concrete on stripping.
Controlled-permeability formwork can be used in
some cases to remove excess water and improve
surface density and impermeability.
4.3 Construction Joints
The successful provision of watertight construction
joints requires a combination of careful design,
detailing and good construction techniques.
Construction joints should be planned for positions
where the presence of a plane of weakness will
have no adverse structural effects. Refer to Current
Practice Note 2422 for further information on joints
in concrete structures.
Faulty construction joints are often the cause of
water penetration through walls, roof slabs and floor
slabs. The joint surface should be scabbled, sand-
blasted or water-blasted to remove the laitance and
expose the coarse aggregate, and the loose material
then washed or blown away. The new concrete
should then be thoroughly vibrated against the
cleaned surface.
A number of proprietary products are available to
improve the bond between new and old concrete,
and in some instances a properly-installed, profiled
waterstop may be used to improve watertightness.
4.4 Curing Techniques
Whist curing is essential to producing optimal
results in all concrete, it is even more critical in
watertight concrete. The proper curing of concrete
has an important influence on the strength and
permeability of the concrete surface, promoting the
development of a fine pore structure and reducing
the risk of cracking and crazing of the surface and
the formation of capillaries23.
Concrete should be continuously cured for at least
seven days16 by either:
■ Moist curing, such as ponding, or covering
with hessian or similar fabric kept
continuously moist, using perforated plastic
soaker hoses;
■ Covering with impermeable plastic sheeting,
lapped at all joints and securely held down, or;
■ Spraying with a liquid membrane-forming
curing compound to prevent loss of moisture
from the exposed top and side surfaces.
9
Curing compounds should have a water retention
efficiency index of not less than 90% when tested
in accordance with AS 379924 Appendix B. They
should be applied to the concrete at the coverage
rate recommended by the supplier after the sheen
of moisture brought to the surface by the finishing
operations has disappeared but while the concrete is
still damp.
Regardless of the curing method, it is vital that
they be applied immediately following the finishing
operation, before the concrete surface has a chance
to dry out. In hot weather conditions, moist curing
should be carried out for at least the first 24 hours,
and the concrete then covered by plastic sheeting or
liquid membrane-forming curing compound for a
further period. More detail on this can be found in
the literature.
4.5 Detailing
In the design and construction of watertight concrete
structures, care should be taken with detailing, both
of permanent features and temporary construction
details. Details should be well planned, being
prepared in advance of construction.
A typical source of leaks in watertight concrete
structures is service penetrations. Cast-in electrical
conduit and hydraulics often provide a link between
the internal and external faces of the concrete,
allowing water an entry point. Proprietary hydraulic
components sometimes have ribs and flanges to
assist in creating a watertight seal.
Another common source of leaks is temporary
construction joints. Prestress and reinforcement at
least equivalent to the remainder of the structure
should be provided so that the joint is not a
structural weakness.
Care should be taken with complex formwork at
steps and the like. The construction method should
allow thorough compaction of all concrete to take
place.
Falls in roof slabs, balconies and terraces should
be sufficient to exceed the countering effects of
the deflection in the structure and construction
tolerance. Falls should be an absolute minimum of
1:100. Ideally, drainage outlets should be placed
in the location of theoretical maximum downward
deflection.
10
5.0 POST-CONSTRUCTION SURFACE
TREATMENTS TO PRODUCE
WATERTIGHT CONCRETE STRUCTURES
In many situations, the finished concrete surfaces are
treated with sealants or membranes to improve their
watertightness. These treatments may be applied
as part of the original design intent, or to repair
structures that have failed to be watertight. There
are numerous examples of such work, including the
Sydney Harbour Tunnel immersed-tube sections
and the recladding of numerous buildings exhibiting
various forms of carbonation attack and concrete
spalling.
Lining membranes also are used for reasons of
hygiene and low toxicity in structures for storage of
drinking water and foodstuffs.
5.1 Waterproofing Membranes and
Crystalline Sealers
5.1.1 Waterproofing Membranes
Most common waterproofing membranes are used
on the external surfaces of roof and balcony slabs,
below-ground structures, and as internal linings in
water-retaining tanks and pools.
Waterproofing membranes are often used in
situations where it is not feasible or economic to
avoid post-construction cracking of the concrete.
This situation may arise in structures with large
amounts of inherent restraint.
The types of membranes employed include:
■ Cement-based render with or without
chemical admixtures that may enhance the
water-repelling properties and/or reduce
permeability;
■ Resin-based render for chemical resistance,
and;
■ Continuous vapour-proof membranes (which
include pre-moulded or insitu membranes of
rubber, asphalt or plastic composition and
liquid membranes applied by roller-coating).
5.1.2 Crystalline Sealers
These materials prevent water penetration by filling
the capillary pores of the concrete with crystalline
growth. Crystalline growth rates vary with humidity
and temperature and hence higher temperature and
humidity are consistent with faster growth rates. The
materials are effective in reducing water penetration
through cracks only when crack widths have been
limited by good design and construction.
5.2 Surface Coatings
These coatings provide protection to the concrete
by forming a relatively thick film on the surface.
They usually consist of a polymer binder with
added pigments and fillers. Types of polymer used
in coatings include epoxies, urethanes and acrylics.
Toxicity of the coating should be considered for
internal surfaces of structures for storage of drinking
water and foodstuffs.
■ Epoxies are tough and have excellent water
resistance; however, they have poor UV
stability and limited flexibility and do not
allow much water vapour to escape from the
concrete.
■ Polyurethane paints can be formulated to
produce flexible waterproof coatings with
good UV resistance. They have limited
capacity to allow water vapour to escape from
the concrete and thus cannot be used on damp
concrete.
■ Acrylic and methacrylate coatings, when
pigmented, have good water and carbon
dioxide resistance, are resistant to UV light
and do not retain dirt. These polymers
generally have low flexibility, however, some
flexible acrylic formulations also are available.
5.3 Waterproofing of Joints
In the selection of sealant material, careful
consideration should be given to the joint width and
depth, service conditions, durability requirements,
and the likely movements to be tolerated.
Most importantly, spalling of the concrete due to
incompatible joint movements and sealant types
should be avoided.
Methods of waterproofing joints may include:
■ Mastics;
■ Silicones and urethanes;
■ Thermoplastic compounds including asphalts
and rubbers;
■ Thermosetting compounds of the polysulphide
type;
■ Preformed seals of PVC, neoprene or
polyurethane;
■ Hydrophilic (water-swelling) waterstops;
■ PVC waterstops, and;
■ Metal cover strips.
It may be appropriate to use two of these joint
sealants in combination to form a primary and
secondary joint seal.
Additional considerations when selecting a joint
sealant are the sealant toxicity for structures for
storage of drinking water and foodstuffs, and the
chemical and ultraviolet stability of the sealant in
aggressive environments.
Further information on joints can be found in
Current Practice Note 2422.
11
6.0 CRACK REPAIR TREATMENTS
6.1 General
Frequently a structure fails to be watertight because
the crack widths are excessive. Cracking in concrete
can occur for a variety of reasons, as described
previously in Section 3 Crack Control Measures.
Before a crack is repaired it is necessary to
determine and address its cause.
If a crack was caused by some non-recurring
event (eg shrinkage) and it is not active, it can be
successfully repaired by epoxy injection. However,
where the forces that caused the cracking are likely
to recur, they must be dealt with before a successful
repair can be achieved.
If the cracking is due to corrosion of reinforcement,
the corroded reinforcement must first be treated; if
cracking is due to excessive structural movement
structural rectification will be required; or if
cracking is due to thermal movements, a control
joint may be required at an appropriate position
adjacent to the crack.
A decision must be made on the type of repair
required, whether just to seal against ingress of
contaminants or to reinstate structural integrity.
6.2 Sealing of Cracks
6.2.1 Epoxy Grouts
Cracks that are not active and require sealing can
be repaired by injection with a low-viscosity, low-
modulus epoxy grout under gravity or by trowelling
on a paste-grade epoxy grout.
6.2.2 Chemical Treatment
Non-active cracks can be sealed by using a
penetrating sealant containing silicate hydrate or
proprietary compounds. If calcium ions are present
within the concrete this triggers the precipitation of
calcium silicate hydrates within the pores and cracks
in the concrete, effectively sealing it against water
penetration. Other chemically active treatments are
also available which seal cracks without relying on
the presence of free calcium hydroxide.
12
6.2.3 Latex Injection
Latex rubber can be used to reinstate leaking
concrete water-retaining structures. The success of
this process is dependent upon the salinity, pH, and
temperature of the water present. After setting, the
rubber is soft and flexible and will accommodate
limited movement. This treatment will prevent the
passage of water through the cracked concrete once
the latex displaces the water in the crack.
6.2.4 Hydrophilic Injection Resins
This method can be used for the repair of
cracked concrete exhibiting slow leaks through
the crack. Cracks already containing moisture
may be effectively sealed using a water-reactive
polyurethane grout that gels to form foam which
bonds to the wet surfaces. After injection, the grout
expands as it cures and effectively seals the crack.
6.3 Structural repairs
If structural integrity is required, the crack should
always be injected under pressure with low-viscosity
epoxy grout.
Pressure injection offers several advantages, viz:
■ The flexural strength of repaired slabs or
beams is at least that of the original slab or
beam;
■ The repaired cracks will not re-open, even
when repaired slabs or beams are tested to
failure, and;
■ Microscopic hairline cracks can be sealed.
In general, fine cracks (down to 0.2 mm) may be
successfully injected to depths of 1 m or more.
The grout is injected under pressure into holes
drilled along the crack. Epoxy grouts used to inject
cracks should have a low viscosity, be insensitive
to moisture during curing, have working times
of at least 30 minutes, and cure at temperatures
down to 5°C. Mechanical strengths are not usually
an important consideration as they almost always
exceed the strength of the parent concrete.
Equipment for injection can range from simple
hand-operated pressure guns through to dual-
component cartridge systems, and to highly
specialised multiple-component pumps that measure,
mix and inject the epoxy into several ports at a pre-
determined pressure. The type of equipment chosen
will depend on the size and cost limitations of the
particular job.
6.4 Crack Injection Procedure 6.4.4 Removal of Ports
6.4.1 Fixing Injection Ports Once the injected sealant has cured, the ports should
be removed and ground off to leave a clean, smooth
Injection ports should be fixed at regular intervals
surface.
along the surface of the crack. For narrow cracks,
holes should be drilled under each port, using a drill 6.4.5 Crack Repairs Using Gravity Feed
fitted with a vacuum or flushing system to prevent Some cracks do not require pressure injection
drillings and dust blocking the crack. and adequate penetration can be achieved by
6.4.2 Sealing the Crack using gravity-fed epoxies with viscosities of
approximately 0.3–0.4 Pa.s. All surfaces and cracks
In order to ensure that the sealant travels the
to be epoxy repaired should be free of laitance,
complete length of the crack during injection, it is
curing compounds, oils, etc.
essential to completely seal the exposed surface
of the crack between injection ports. The surface The cracks can be filled individually on small areas
on each side of the crack should be cleaned of all or the epoxy can be spread by rollers to completely
contaminants (curing compound, coatings, etc) and coat larger areas. For large cracks (up to 6 mm) a
wire brushed to ensure a good bond with the sealer. dam can be formed on each side of the crack with
wax or sealant and then filled with epoxy. This dam
Care must be taken not to leave any air pockets
should be topped up as the epoxy penetrates the
under the sealer, and to ensure that the sealer has
crack. After curing, excess epoxy should be ground
reached its full strength prior to injection.
off.
6.4.3 Pressure Injection
The sealing of vertical cracks should start at the
lowest point so that the sealant will exclude air
from the crack as it rises. Injection is continued
until sealant starts to run from the port immediately
above, then the lower port is sealed and injection
continued at the next port above. For wide cracks it
may be possible to move past several ports before
needing to move to the next injection point.
Horizontal cracks are injected in a similar manner
to vertical ones, but since there is only a low head
of pressure on the sealant, a greater distance can be
pumped from a single port. However, ports should
be placed at regular intervals (150–300 mm) to
monitor the flow.
To seal vertical and horizontal cracks that do not
extend through the full thickness of concrete, a
sample section should be injected and cored to
ascertain the effectiveness of the system prior to
proceeding with the complete job. If one face of the
crack is inaccessible, a thixotropic epoxy should
be used to prevent excessive loss of epoxy during
injection.
When injecting the sealant, it is essentia1 that only
the minimum of pressure is used. Pressures up to
1000 kPa should be more than adequate for most
work.

13
7.0 SUMMARY
Watertight concrete structures can only be achieved
if proper attention is given to all of the following
aspects:
■ Material selection and mix design;
■ Structural design and detailing;
■ Construction techniques and practices;
■ Joint detailing, and;
■ Selection of appropriate post-construction
surface treatments, where necessary.
Typically, when concrete structures fail to be
watertight it is the result of the formation of cracks
that exceed the allowable crack widths. Cracked
structures can be repaired using post-construction
surface treatments or by injecting the cracks to seal
them.
14
8.0 REFERENCES
1. ACI 116R-00 Cement and Concrete
Terminology, American Concrete Institute,
2000.
2. AS 3735 Concrete structures for retaining
liquids, Standards Australia, 2001.
3. Durable Concrete Structures, Recommended
Practice Z 07, Concrete Institute of Australia,
2001.
4. Permeability Testing of Site Concrete: A
Review of Methods and Experience, Technical
Report No. 31, The Concrete Society, August
1988.
5. Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine
Environments, Recommended Practice Z 13,
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2001.
6. AS 2758.1 Aggregates and rock for
engineering purposes Part 1: Concrete
aggregates, Standards Australia, 1998.
7. AS 1478.1 Chemical admixtures for concrete,
mortar and grout Part 1: Admixtures for
concrete, Standards Australia, 2000.
8. AS 3972 Portland and blended cements,
Standards Australia, 1997.
9. AS 3582 Supplementary cementitious
materials for use with portland and blended
cement, Standards Australia, Part 1: Fly ash,
1998; Part 2: Slag – ground Granulated iron
blast-furnace, 1999; Part 3: Amorphous silica,
2001.
10. Fly Ash and its Use in Concrete, Current
Practice Note 25, Concrete Institute of
Australia, 2003.
11. Ground Granulated Iron Blast Furnace Slag
and Its Use in Concrete, Current Practice Note
26, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2003.
12. Rixoin M R and Malivaganam M P,
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, New York,
Routledge, 1999.
13. Munn R L, Kao G, Chang Z T, Resistance to
Sulphate and Chloride Attach of Concretes
Modified with Permeability Reducing
Admixture, Concrete in the Third Millennium,
Proc 21st Biennial Conference of Concrete
Institute of Australia, Vol 1, p221-231,
Brisbane, July 2003.
14. Munn R L, Chang Z T, Kao G, Performance 28. Rebibou S J, Dux P F, Nooru-Mohamed M B,
of Australian Commercial Concretes Modified Shrinkage in Concrete Pavements, Concrete
with a Permeability Reducing Admixture, Institute of Australia 2003, Australian Journal
'Concrete Function and Form', Proc NZ of Civil Engineering, Vol 1, No 1.
Concrete Society Conference, Wairakei, Sept 29. Hover Kenneth C, Concrete Design and
2003. Construction from inside out, Concrete
15. Munn R L, Kao G, Chang Z T, Performance Institute of Australia 2003, Australian Journal
and Compatibility of Permeability Reducing of Civil Engineering Vol 1, No 1.
and Other Chemical Admixtures in Australian 30. Butler Andrew, Capillary Absorption by
Concretes, 'Superplasticisers and Other Concrete, Transport Research Laboratory
Chemical Admixtures in Concrete', Proc 7th (TRL) UK, 1997.
CANMET/ACI International Conference,
31. ACI 305R-99 Hot Weather Concreting,
Berlin, Oct 2003.
American Concrete Institute, 1999.
16. Guide to Concrete Construction, C&CAA
32. SP-139 Durable Concrete in Hot Climates,
T41 and SAA HB64, Cement and Concrete
American Concrete Institute, 1993.
Association of Australia and Standards
Australia, 2002. 33. AS 1012.13 Methods of testing concrete,
Method 13: Determination of the drying
17. AS 3600 Concrete structures, Standards
shrinkage of concrete for samples prepared
Australia, 2001.
in the field or in the laboratory, Standards
18. The Use of Polypropylene Fibres in Slabs on Australia, 1992.
Grade, Current Practice Note 23, Concrete
34. Gashi, Z, Baweja D, Mathews S, The Influence
Institute of Australia, 1988.
of Drying Shrinkage on Joint Movement of
19. Non-structural Cracks in Concrete, Technical Slabs Within a Multi-Level Car Park Structure,
Report No. 22, The Concrete Society, 1992. Concrete 2003, Concrete Institute of Australia
20. AS 2783 Use of reinforced concrete for small Biennial Conference, Brisbane, 2003.
swimming pools, Standards Australia, 1992. 35. Sirivivatnanon V, Baweja D, Compliance
21. Concrete Practice on Building Sites, C&CAA Acceptance of Concrete Drying Shrinkage,
T43 and SAA HB67, Cement and Concrete Australian Journal of Structural Engineering,
Association of Australia and Standards Vol. 3, No 3, The Institution of Engineers,
Australia, 1995. Australia, ISSN 1328 1982, 2002, pp 211-220.
22. Design of Joints in Concrete Structures,
Current Practice Note 24, Concrete Institute of
Australia, 2005.
23. Curing of Concrete, Recommended Practice
Z 09, Concrete Institute of Australia, 1999.
24. AS 3799 Liquid membrane-forming curing
compounds for concrete, Standards Australia,
1998.
25. AS 1379 Specification and supply of concrete,
Standards Australia, 1997.
26. Uno Paul J, Plastic Shrinkage Cracking and
Evaporation Formulas, ACI Materials Journal,
July-August 1998.
27. Morris Peter, & Dux Peter, Cracking of Plastic
Concrete, Concrete Institute of Australia 2003,
Australian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol 1,
No 1.

15
APPENDIX A
Appendix F of AS 1478.1 Chemical admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout, Part 1: Admixtures for
concrete, 2000.
© Standards Australia. Reproduced with permission from Standards Australia.

APPENDIX F
INFORMATION ON PERMEABILITY-REDUCING ADMIXTURES FOR USE IN
CONCRETE, MORTAR AND GROUT
(Informative)
F1 SCOPE
This Appendix outlines the existing state of knowledge concerning permeability-reducing
admixtures for use in portland and blended cement concretes. No recommendations for tests
or test limits are made.
F2 USE OF TERMS
A survey of overseas investigations into the effectiveness of admixtures in reducing the
permeability of concrete has shown that there is no admixture yet available that will make
concrete either ʻwaterproofʼ or ʻdamp-proofʼ. The use of the terms ʻwaterproofingʼ or
ʻdamp-proofingʼ in connection with concrete admixtures is, therefore, misleading and has
been replaced in this Appendix by the term ʻpermeability-reducingʼ.
F3 DESCRIPTION
F3.1 Permeability-reducing admixture
An admixture that reduces the rate of transmission of moisture either in a liquid or vapour
form through concrete.
F4 CLASSES
Permeability-reducing admixtures may be classed in accordance with their chemical and
physical characteristics as follows:
(a) Inert pore fillers—consisting of finely divided solids such as fullerʼs earth, talc, some
stone powders and bentonite.
(b) Chemically reactive pore fillers—include some silicates, finely ground granulated
blast-furnace slag and some pozzolana including fly ash, silica fume and
diatomaceous earth.
(c) Water-repelling substances—some water-repelling substances are derived from soaps
and fatty acids and include calcium or ammonium stearate or oleate and butyl stearate.
Other substances in this category are derived from petroleum and include heavy
mineral oils, paraffin wax emulsion, bitumen emulsions and certain cutback bitumens.
Combinations of bituminous materials and a stearate have also been used.
(d) Water-reducing and air-entraining admixtures—as specified in this Standard.
(e) Special purpose chemical admixtures—complying with this Standard. They
commonly contain silicates, fluorosilicates, silanes, siloxanes, and other chemically
reactive components.
(f) Other.
© Standards Australia

16
F5 USE OF ADMIXTURES
Permeability-reducing admixtures have been used in roof slabs, slabs on the ground,
basements, water-retaining structures and concrete blocks, although their use does not
always produce significant reduction in moisture transmission (see Clause 6.1).
Admixtures in Paragraphs F4(a) and F4(b) have been used to improve aggregate grading,
particularly where mixes are deficient in fines. Admixtures in Paragraph F4(b) have been
used in mixes where it is necessary to have a low cement content. The admixtures in
Paragraph F4(c) may reduce the transmission of moisture through concrete where the paste
would otherwise have a high porosity because of a low cement content and a high
water/cement ratio and/or where the concrete has not been well cured. The ACI
Committee 212 on Admixtures (Ref. 1) reported that this group of admixtures is unlikely to
produce any appreciable reduction in permeability where the concrete has been well cured
and the water/cement ratio is not more than 0.6 by weight. The permeability of concrete
will be influenced by the water content of the mix and, in some instances, the use of a
water-reducing or high range water-reducing admixture may improve workability and at the
same time enable the unit water content and water/cement ratio to be reduced.
The use of an air-entraining admixture may also help to reduce permeability in that
workability may be improved permitting better compaction, bleeding may be reduced and
the presence of small air bubbles may help to block the capillary passages in the paste
thereby reducing the permeability of the concrete.
Current practice to achieve concrete of very low permeability often involves the use of a
combination of supplementary cementitious materials with a high range water-reducing
admixture (HWR) in the concrete. Silica fume is widely favoured, in conjunction with
HWR and often with fly ash or ground granulated slag addition as well. The low
permeability is ascribed to the use of silica fume but similar low results in the rapid
chloride permeability test have been reported using fly ash and HWR without silica fume.
Another approach to reducing the permeability of concrete is the inclusion of a synthetic
latex or redispersible powder based on styrene-butadiene or acrylic resin. Polyvinyl acetate
is not recommended for this purpose because it may hydrolyse, and lose its effectiveness in
a damp environment.
Addition rates, based on resin solids, are commonly in the range 10% to 20% by weight of
cement, usually in conjunction with up to 1% of an anti-foaming agent, to prevent the
entrainment of excessive amounts of air. Latex addition commonly reduces water
requirement and creates a co-matrix of resinous material coating aggregate particles and
lining voids within the mixture.
In addition to reducing the permeability of mortar and concrete, the latex usually enhances
bond strength, impact strength, abrasion resistance and tensile strength. Latex modified
mixtures require air storage after the first day or two to allow the resin component to form a
film (coalesce) within the cement matrix.

© Standards Australia

17
F6 MOISTURE TRANSMISSION
F6.1 General
A large number of studies relating to the development of standard methods of tests for
assessing the effectiveness of permeability-reducing admixtures have been carried out.
Details of some of the above studies are listed under References.
The conditions under which moisture transmission through concrete is possible are as
follows:
(a) Where there is a difference in vapour pressure on opposite sides of a member but the
concrete is not in contact with liquid water.
(b) Where a surface of the concrete member is in contact with liquid water not under
pressure.
(c) Where a surface of the concrete member is in contact with liquid water under
hydrostatic pressure.
Moisture transmission can take place under these conditions by vapour diffusion, or by
movement of liquid water through the capillaries in the concrete, or by both processes.
No single test has yet been devised which enables the performance of a permeabilityreducing
admixture to be assessed under all three conditions. Some admixtures have been
tested in unsaturated concrete which when compared with similar untreated concrete
showed a reduction in permeability. When tested in saturated concrete, the admixtures were
found to be ineffective.
In tests to study the effects of conditions stated in Paragraph F4(a) and F4(b) on concrete
containing permeability-reducing admixtures, small specimens of concrete were placed in
sealed containers with one face of the concrete in contact with water vapour or liquid water
and the other face exposed to air maintained at a constant temperature and relative
humidity. The rate of moisture transmission was determined either from the inflow or the
outflow of water through the specimens. Both tests had serious limitations. Freshly placed
concrete dries out very slowly and in the early stages of the tests it was necessary to
distinguish between the loss of mixing water from the specimens and the moisture
transmission through the concrete. It may take more than a year for the moisture
transmission through the specimens to reach equilibrium.
There are also difficulties associated with measurement of the permeability of the concrete
in contact with water under pressure. It has been reported that it is difficult to get the water
to pass through good quality concrete regardless of the pressure. When moisture
transmission occurs, it may take a long time before a steady flow is obtained.
An absorption test on a dry specimen will not provide a satisfactory indication of the likely
performance of an admixture in concrete under the three conditions described above.
F6.2 Moisture transmission through slabs
In an investigation carried out for the Federal Housing Administration, U.S.A., (Ref. 3) on
moisture transmission through unsaturated concrete slabs, the committee concerned
reported that they did not find any adequate data to demonstrate the effectiveness of any
admixture in reducing the transmission of moisture through concrete slabs on the ground in
a manner sufficient to replace either a vapour barrier or a granular base, or both, under
conditions where such protection would be needed.

© Standards Australia

18
F7 EFFECTS ON OTHER PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
F7.1 User to determine
Prospective users of permeability-reducing admixtures should satisfy themselves, by
enquiry and observation of previous use, that the proposed material is free from any
undesirable side effects on concrete.
F7.2 Results of side effect
Some permeability-reducing admixtures have detrimental effects on the compressive
strength, shrinkage and workability of concrete. Some may act as set-retarders. Many
admixtures derived from soaps entrain air and may cause a marked loss in the compressive
strength of the concrete. Some pore fillers require more water to be added to the mix to
obtain adequate workability with detrimental effects on the strength and shrinkage
properties of the concrete. It has been reported that some admixtures with water-repellent
properties may have an adverse effect on the hydration of the cement because they impede
the absorption of water by the cement particles.
Where water repellents are used in concrete, water-repellency can sometimes be lost within
a relatively short time.

F8 PRODUCTION OF LOW-PERMEABILITY CONCRETE

F8.1 Permeability-reducing admixtures
There are situations where the use of a permeability-reducing admixture will reduce the
transmission of moisture through concrete; however, there is no evidence to suggest that
poor quality concrete can be made watertight by using permeability-reducing admixtures. It
is possible to produce low-permeability concrete without a permeability-reducing
admixture, provided the concrete is properly designed, placed, compacted and cured. The
aim of the designer of the mix should be to produce a cohesive concrete with the minimum
practicable slump and negligible bleeding.
F8.2 Cementitious materials
Provided the concrete can be satisfactorily placed and compacted, a low water/cement ratio
together with adequate curing will help to reduce the permeability of the concrete.
Permeability requirements may need a higher cement content in the mix than would be
otherwise needed from strength considerations. In some instances, an increased cement
content may be more effective in reducing permeability than the use of a permeabilityreducing
admixture. However it should be borne in mind that an excessive increase in the
cement content could be harmful in that increased shrinkage may result.
F8.3 Aggregate
The grading and shape of the aggregate used have an important influence on the
permeability of concrete. Rounded and well-graded aggregates give the lowest
permeability. Poorly shaped aggregates should be avoided. The mix properties should be
chosen to minimize bleeding and segregation. This document does not deal with the grading
and shape of aggregates in detail.

© Standards Australia

19
F8.4 Shrinkage and temperature movements
Cracking caused by shrinkage and temperature movements can seriously reduce the
resistance of concrete to the passage of moisture. The use of permeability-reducing
admixtures will not prevent the movement of moisture through shrinkage and temperature
cracks or through construction joints, and other means of protection should be employed.
Cracking can be controlled by the use of properly designed joints and suitable
reinforcement as well as by choosing a mix design that will minimize shrinkage.
F8.5 Placement of concrete
The manner of placement of the concrete will have a considerable effect on the degree of
permeability. The concrete should be compacted by thorough vibration at the time of
placement, and re-vibration later to give the maximum density and smooth surfaces free of
cavities. As long as a running vibrator will sink into the concrete under its own weight, it is
not too late for the concrete to benefit from re-vibration. The concrete should be placed in
such a way that segregation does not occur.
F8.6 Curing
More thorough curing is required than is normally given to structural concrete. Permeability
is reduced with improvement in curing methods and with prolongation of curing time.
Recommended methods of curing in order of decreasing efficiency are ponding, covering
with wet sand and covering with an impermeable membrane that is placed over the concrete
immediately after it has been moistened with a fine spray of water. Continuous moist curing
gives the best results and should be carried out for 14 days for concrete containing GP, HE
or SR portland and blended cements, and for 28 days for Type LH cement. Low strength,
increased shrinkage and permeability, and readily abradable surfaces will result if concrete
containing ʻsoapyʼ admixtures of Class C is allowed to become surface dry before the
specified period of moist curing has expired. The use of curing compounds, while better
than no curing at all, is not as efficient as the methods previously mentioned. Curing
compounds should be in accordance with AS 3799. Thorough curing will also help to
improve strength properties of concrete. Early development of tensile strength will tend to
reduce shrinkage cracking.

© Standards Australia

20
REFERENCES
General
1 Chemical admixtures for concrete, ACI 212.3R, ACI. Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1.
2 Admixtures for concrete, Cem. Concr. Ass. Libr. Transl. No 131. Lond., 1968.
3 Effectiveness of concrete admixtures in controlling transmission of moisture through slabs-on-
ground. Natn. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. Counc. Publ. 596. Wash., 1958.
4 SCHACKE, H. Penetration of damp in building materials and parts of buildings by diffusion
and its numerical evaluation. Bldg Res. Stn Libr. Commun. No 591. Garston, 1954.
5 EDENHOLM, H. Moisture movement and moisture distribution in the walls of buildings,
N.R.C. Div. Bldg Res. Tech. Transl. TT-361. Ottawa, 1952.
6 WATSON, A. Measurement and control of moisture content by micro-wave absorption. Bldg
Res. Stn Curr. Rap. Res. Ser. 3. Garston, 1963.
7 WATERS, E. H. Measurement of moisture in concrete and masonry with special reference
to neutron scattering techniques, CSIRO Div. Bldg Res. Repr. No 340. Melb., 1965. (Nucl.
Struct. Engng. 2 1965, 494-500).
8 Concrete Institute of Australia, Durable Concrete Structures.
9 The Concrete Society, Permeability of Concrete and its Control, Papers from a one day
conferenece, London, 12 December 1985.
10 HO, D.W.S. & CHIRGWIN, G.J.A., Performance for Durable Concrete, Construction and
Building Materials, Vol 10, No 5, 1996, 375-379.
11 ACI Committee 315, Guide to Use of Waterproofing, Damp-proofing, Protective and
Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete, ACI Manual, Part 5.
Testing
12 KOCATASKIN, G. and SWENSON, E. G. Methods for rating concrete waterproofing
materials. ASTM Bull. (229) 1958, 67-76.
13 BREWER, H.W. Moisture migration—concrete slab-on-ground construction. Portld Cem.
Ass. Res. Dep. Bull. D89, Skokie, 1965. (Portld Cem. Ass. Res. Dev. Labs J. 7 (2) 1965, 2-
17.)
14 TYLER, I. L. and ERLIN, B. Proposed simple test method for determining the permeability
of concrete. Portld Cem. Ass. Res. Dep. Bull. 133. Skokie, 1961. (Portld Cem. Ass. Res. Dev.
Labs J. 3 (3) 1961, 2-7.)

© Standards Australia

21
15 Ellis, W.E. Jr., Riggs, E. H. and Butler, W. B., Comparative Results of Utilisation of Fly Ash,
Silica Fume and G.G.B.F.S. in Reducing the Chloride Permeability of Concrete, ACI SP 126-
23, Editor V.M. Malhotra 1991, Vol. 1, pp. 443-458.
16 BRUE RE, G. M. and McGOWAN, J. K. Synthetic polyelectrolytes as concrete admixtures.
Aust.J.Appl.Sci. 9, 1958, 127-140.
17 FLETCHER, K. E. and ROBERTS, M. H. Effect of a polyethylene oxide admixture on the
strength of concrete. Concrete 5, 1971, 321-322.
18 GREMINGER, G. K. Discussion on methyl cellulose. RILEM—BEM Int. Symp. on
Admixtures for Mortar and Concrete, Brussels, 1967, Final Tome, 160-162.
19 HANSEN, W. C. Oil-well cements. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on the Chemistry of Cement,
London, 1952, 598-627.
20 KEMPSTER, E. Pumpable concrete. Bldg Res. Stn, London. Current Paper 29/69.
21 MEISSNER, H. S. Mineral admixtures. Spec. Tech. Publs, Am. Soc. Test. Mater. No 169,
1955, 375-387.
22 Guide to concrete pumping. B.R.E. Dept of Environment, London, 1972, 29.
23 HO, D.W.S. & LEWIS, R.K., Concrete Quality as Measured by Water Sorpitivity, Civil
Engineering Transactions, I.E.Aust., Vol. CE26, No. 4, November 1985,
375-379.

© Standards Australia

22
 f New South Wales
The Concrete Institute of Australia is a
non-profit organisation which was formed to provide
a forum for exchange of information between
its members and others. Since the information
contained in its publications is intended for general
guidance only and in no way replaces the services
of professional consultants on particular projects,
no legal liability for negligence or otherwise can
be accepted by the Institute for the information
contained in this publication.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in
whole or in part, or stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without written permission of the publisher. This
book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not
be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated
without the publisher's prior consent in any form
of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published. This condition being imposed on any
subsequent purchasers.
For information regarding permission, write to:
The Chief Executive Officer
Concrete Institute of Australia
PO Box 848
Crows Nest NSW 1585 Australia
Email: exec@coninst.com.au
Website: www.coninst.com.au
23
PO Box 848 Crows Nest NSW 1585
Tel [02] 9903 7771 Fax [02] 9437 9703
Queensland
Level 14, 348 Edward Street Brisbane QLD 4000
Tel [07] 3227 5204 Fax [07] 3839 6005
South Australia
PO Box 148 Kent Town SA 5071
Tel [08] 8300 0300 Fax [08] 8341 1591
Tasmania
2 Davey Street Hobart TAS 7000
Tel [03] 6221 3715 Fax [03] 6224 2325
Victoria
2nd Floor, 1 Hobson Street South Yarra VIC 3141
Tel [03] 9804 7834 Fax [03] 9827 6346
Western Australia
45 Ventnor Avenue West Perth WA 6005
Tel [08] 9389 4447 Fax [08] 9389 4451
National Office
PO Box 848 Crows Nest NSW 1585
Level 6, 504 Pacific Highway St Leonards NSW 2065
Tel [02] 9903 7770 Fax [02] 9437 9703