Albert Einstein 1

Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921

Born 14 March 1879

Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire

Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)

Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Resting place Grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey.

Residence Germany, Italy, Switzerland, USA

Ethnicity Jewish

Citizenship • Württemberg/Germany (until 1896)

• Stateless (1896–1901)
• Switzerland (from 1901)
• Austria (1911–12)
• Germany (1914–33)
[1]
• Albania (from 1935)
[2]
• United States (from 1940)

Alma mater • ETH Zurich

• University of Zurich

Known for • General relativity

• Special relativity
• Photoelectric effect
• Brownian motion
• Mass-energy equivalence
• Einstein field equations
• Unified Field Theory
• Bose–Einstein statistics

Spouse(s) • Mileva Marić (1903–1919)

• Elsa Löwenthal, née Einstein, (1919–1936)
Albert Einstein 2

Awards • Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)

• Copley Medal (1925)
• Max Planck Medal (1929)
• Time Person of the Century

Signature

Albert Einstein (pronounced /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn]  ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April
1955) was a theoretical physicist, philosopher and author who is widely regarded as one of the most influential and
best known scientists and intellectuals of all time. A German-Swiss Nobel laureate, he is often regarded as the father
of modern physics.[3] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[4]
His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic
cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, the explanation of the perihelion precession of Mercury, the
prediction of the deflection of light by gravity (gravitational lensing), the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which
explained the Brownian motion of molecules, the photon theory and the wave-particle duality, the quantum theory of
atomic motion in solids, the zero-point energy concept, the semi-classical version of the Schrödinger equation, and
the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose–Einstein condensation.
Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 non-scientific works; he additionally wrote and
commentated prolifically on various philosophical and political subjects.[5] His great intelligence and originality has
made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6]

Biography

Early life and education

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German
Empire on 14 March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and
engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family
moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische
Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment
based on direct current.[7]

Einstein at the age of 4.

Albert Einstein 3

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic

elementary school from the age of five until ten.[8] Although Einstein had early
speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[9] [10]
His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must
be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[11]
As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to
show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max
Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics
and philosophy, including Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's
Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[12] Talmud was
a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community arranged for
Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years.
Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14).
During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular
educational interests.[13] [14]

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In
search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the
family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father
intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's
regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote
learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using
a doctor's note.[7] During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether
in Magnetic Fields".[15]
Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking the
requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in
mathematics and physics.[16] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary
school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie.
(His sister Maja later married the Winteler son, Paul.)[17] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic
theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of
Württemberg to avoid military service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching
diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.
Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six
students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein
and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which
Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma,
but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[18] There
have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers[19] [20] , but historians of
physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.[21] [22] [23] [24]
Albert Einstein 4

Marriages and children

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born
in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[25] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[26]
Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in
Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin,
while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived
apart for five years.
Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912.
She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the
United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.[27]

Patent office
Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine
and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching
for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a
job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent
office, as an assistant examiner.[28] He evaluated patent applications
for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss
Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for
promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[29]
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about
transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical
synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up
conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein
to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental
connection between space and time.[30]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion

group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met
regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included
the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which
influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

Academic career
In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw
Einstein's home in Bern
published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.[31] On 30 April 1905,
he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of
Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His
dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[32] That same year, which has been
called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric
effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the
notice of the academic world.

By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Berne. The
following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent[33] at the
University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he
returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[34] and
Albert Einstein 5

a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from
most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was
appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[35] [36]
In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent
by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir
Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world
famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read:
"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[37] (Much later, questions
were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support Einstein's theory.)
In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered somewhat
controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley
Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

Travels abroad
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas,
Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a
search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each
other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results.(Einstein 1954)[38]
In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His
travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first
lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where
thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[39] :307
Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a
feel for art.[39] :308
On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what would become his only visit to that region.
"He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes
Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir
Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him".
In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:
I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul,
and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish
people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[40] :308
Albert Einstein 6

Emigration to the United States

In 1933, Einstein was compelled to emigrate to the United States due
to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor,
Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American universities in April, 1933,
he learned that the new German government passed a law barring Jews
from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.
A month later, notes Einstein biographer, Walter Isaacson, "a parade of
swastica-wearing students and beer-hall thugs carrying torches tossed
books into a huge bonfire. Ordinary citizens poured forth carrying
volumes looted from libraries and private homes. 'Jewish
intellectualism is dead', propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, his face
fiery, yelled from the podium."[40] Einstein also learned that his name
was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his
head". One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the Being protected in England after escaping Nazi
German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".[40] Germany in 1933

In 1935, Einstein traveled to the United States via Albania. He stayed in Durrës for three days as a guest of the
Albanian royal mansion. Equipped with an Albanian passport, he continued his journey to the United States.[1] The
gesture of the Albanian royalty of King Zog is said to be part of the traditional Albanian besa (honor), according to
which many Jews (including Einstein) were saved from Nazi forces prior to and during World War II.[42]
Among other German scientists forced to flee were fourteen Nobel laureates and twenty-six of the sixty professors of
theoretical physics in the country. Among the other scientists who left Germany, or the other countries it came to
dominate, were Edward Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise
Meitner, many of whom made certain that the Allies would develop nuclear weapons first, before the Nazis.[40] With
so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein
wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a
civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish
as now."[40]
He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton,
New Jersey, an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he
tried unsuccessfully to develop a unified field theory and to refute the
accepted interpretation of quantum physics. He and Kurt Gödel,
another Institute member, became close friends. They would take long
walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria
Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist.

Just prior to the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was

persuaded to lend his enormous prestige by writing a letter to President
Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 2, 1939, alerting him to the
possibility that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb.
According to weapons historians, the letter was "arguably the key
stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear
Taking oath of allegiance for U.S. citizenship,
(1940)
weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". As a result of
Einstein's letter, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb first,
drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources". It became the only country to develop an
atomic bomb during World War II.[43]
Albert Einstein 7

He became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at Princeton, he expressed his
appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he
recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the
individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes:
What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles
himself before another person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook
troubled by outworn traditions.[40] :432
As a member of the NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein
corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst
disease".[44] He later stated, "the only remedies are enlightenment and education".[45]
After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in
November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein
the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.[46] The
offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban,
who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the
Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[39] :522 However, Einstein
declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and
"at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both
the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with
people and to exercise official function. I am the more more
distressed over these circumstances because my relationship
Einstein with David Ben Gurion, 1951
with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I
achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among
the nations of the world.[39] :522 [46] [47]

Death
On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic
aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[48] He took the draft of a
speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with
him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[49] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go
when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[50]
He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.
Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered around the grounds of the Institute for Advanced
Study.[51] [52] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's
brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able
to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[53]
Albert Einstein 8

Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.
Most were about physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions
about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5] [7] In addition to the work he
did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional
projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator
and others.[54]

Physics in 1900
Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that
atoms exist and have a finite nonzero size. At the time of his first paper
in 1902, it was not yet completely accepted by physicists that atoms
were real, even though chemists had good evidence ever since Antoine
Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The reason physicists were skeptical
was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties
of matter from the properties of atoms. Albert Einstein in 1904.

Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who

had struggled for years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of
thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann's way of thinking, the
entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up
is only because it is more likely for a system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal
configurations to a more generic state with many. While Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is
universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position.

The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another leading
atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity
of a gas should be independent of density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density
goes to zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low densities. A subsequent
experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum,
using a rotating slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell's
distribution law.
In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold temperatures, atomic
theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical statistical mechanics, every spring-like motion has
thermal energy kBT on average at temperature T, so that the specific heat of every spring is Boltzmann's constant kB.
A monatomic solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls representing N atoms attached to each other in a
box grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid is 3NkB, a result which became known as the
Dulong–Petit law. This law is true at room temperature, but not for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero,
the specific heat goes to zero.
Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring has
energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at temperatures of
about 1000 degrees, but at lower temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero temperature, all other
contributions to the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This behavior was inconsistent with
classical physics.
The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. Continuous waves in a box can be thought of as
infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible standing wave. Each standing wave has a specific heat of
kB, so the total specific heat of a continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. This is
Albert Einstein 9

obviously wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked up into light
waves, and everything would slow down and stop.
These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but mathematical. Notable among the
skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist philosophy led him to demand that if atoms are real, it should be possible
to see them directly.[55] Mach believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality they could be assumed to be
infinitesimally small, that Avogadro's number was infinite, or so large that it might as well be infinite, and kB was
infinitesimally small. Certain experiments could then be explained by atomic theory, but other experiments could
not, and this is the way it will always be.
Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. He believed that a single consistent theory
should explain all observations, and that this theory would be a description of what was really going on, underneath
it all. So he set out to show that the atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to
statistical physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids.
In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics journal Annalen der Physik
published four of Einstein's papers. The four papers eventually were recognized as revolutionary, and 1905 became
known as Einstein's "Miracle Year", and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.

Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Einstein's earliest papers were concerned with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper establishing a thermodynamic
identity in 1902, and a few other papers which attempted to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of
view.
His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.
As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed. This research, and the
thermodynamic identity, were well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the
content of his PhD thesis.[56]
His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a system has a
maximum entropy and, according to the statistical interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit. Einstein pointed out that
the statistical fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be completely
determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of the mirror.
Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations, he realized,
would have a visible effect for an object which could move around freely. Such an object would have a velocity
which is random, and would move around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the
object would be , and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the law of friction.
The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by George Stokes. He showed that
for small velocities, the friction force would be proportional to the velocity, and to the radius of the particle (see
Stokes' law). This relation could be used to calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due to its random
thermal motion, and Einstein noted that such a ball, of size about a micron, would travel about a few microns per
second. This motion could be easily detected with a microscope and indeed, as Brownian motion, had actually been
observed by the botanist Robert Brown. Einstein was able to identify this motion with that predicted by his theory.
Since the fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just the same as the fluctuations of the velocities of
atoms, measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion using Einstein's theory would show that Boltzmann's
constant is non-zero and would measure Avogadro's number.
These experiments were carried out a few years later by Jean Baptiste Perrin, and gave a rough estimate of
Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to Max Planck's theory of blackbody light and
Robert Millikan's measurement of the charge of the electron.[57] Unlike the other methods, Einstein's required very
few theoretical assumptions or new physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion on visible grains.
Albert Einstein 10

Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics. It established that
thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation. This was shown by Einstein to be true for time-independent
fluctuations, but in the Brownian motion paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates calculated from classical
mechanics could be used as statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion laws. These relations are known
as Einstein relations.
The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers, but it is the most
frequently cited, and had an important role in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.

Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles

Einstein's thinking underwent a transformation in 1905. He had come to understand that quantum properties of light
mean that Maxwell's equations were only an approximation. He knew that new laws would have to replace these, but
he did not know how to go about finding those laws. He felt that guessing formal relations would not go anywhere.
So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead, which are statements about physical laws which can be
understood to hold in a very broad sense even in domains where they have not yet been shown to apply. A well
accepted example of an a-priori principle is rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in physics, it is
assumed to be rotationally invariant almost automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new principles of this
sort, to guide the production of physical ideas. Once enough principles are found, then the new physics will be the
simplest theory consistent with the principles and with previously known laws.
The first general a-priori principle he found was the principle of relativity, that uniform motion is indistinguishable
from rest. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to
space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the
principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein's general principles, Mach's principle,
is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not is still not definitively established.
The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique signature of Einstein's early work, and has become a standard
tool in modern theoretical physics.

Special relativity
His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced his theory of special relativity, which showed
that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes
to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down
and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea
of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[58] In his
paper on mass–energy equivalence, which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced
from his equations of special relativity what has been called the twentieth century's best-known equation:
E = mc2.[59] [60] This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy
and presaged the development of nuclear power.[61] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for
many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[62] [63]
Albert Einstein 11

Photons
In a 1905 paper,[64] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta
were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became
universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the
measurement of Compton scattering.
Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations. He was not at
all motivated by the detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen
years later. Einstein considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency part and
a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by Wien's law, has an entropy which
looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles.
Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of states of
short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of localizable
particles in the same box. Since (unlike others) he was comfortable with the statistical interpretation, he confidently
postulates that the light itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only reasonable interpretation of the
entropy.
This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf
each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to
the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric
effect.[65]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids. This
was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical system. Since Planck's distribution for light oscillators
had no problem with infinite specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem
there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is quantized explains why the specific
heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature.
Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to each other,
which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached
to a fixed point in space by a spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB,
since the number of independent oscillations stays the same.
Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each
independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation.
With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann's statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The
result was the same as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller than hf,
the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero.
So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific heat
anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this formulation are now called phonons. Because all of Einstein's
springs have the same stiffness, they all freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a prediction that the
specific heat should go to zero exponentially fast when the temperature is low. The solution to this problem is to
solve for the independent normal modes individually, and to quantize those. Then each normal mode has a different
frequency, and long wavelength vibration modes freeze out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones. This
was done by Peter Debye, and after this modification Einstein's quantization method reproduced quantitatively the
behavior of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures.
This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.
Albert Einstein 12

Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest
Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that
the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete
motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien
had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves
at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the
same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic
invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The
law that the action variable is quantized was the basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900
and 1925.

Wave-particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on
academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[66] In "über die Entwicklung unserer
Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the
Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed
that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent,
point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by
Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a
fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy
with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of
density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates
this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and
which explains why the sky is blue.[67]
Albert Einstein 13

Zero-point energy
Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator
energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis
by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to
half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made
in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the
thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two
free atoms.

Principle of equivalence
In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he
would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of
relativity could be extended to gravitational fields. He thought about the
case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and
noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an
unchanging gravitational field.[68] He used special relativity to see that
the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be
faster than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates
of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational field, and that the
Einstein at the Solvay conference in 1911.
difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first
approximation.

Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that it
is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordström was incorrect.
But the actual value for the deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation
he used doesn't work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein finished the full theory of
general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light deflection by the sun.
From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift
and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar
eclipse.[69] German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the
world.[70]
Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 1909–1912, studying its properties by means
of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making
experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical
constant pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle would be
measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer
because the ruler would be contracted.
Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that
spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general relativity in
this language.
Albert Einstein 14

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He
formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up
looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under
general linear transformations only.
In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a
sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously
less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein
abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[71]

General relativity
In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. Once back in Zurich,
he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced
him to Riemannian geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry. On the recommendation of Italian
mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use
of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but
he later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is used
today.[72] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial
motion of other matter. During World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was available only to Central
Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the
United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902
Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein
maintained his relationship with Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten
years, from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.[73]
In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson Observatory in
California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational redshift.[74] In 1918, the Lick
Observatory, also in California, announced that it too had disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were
not published.[75]
However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur
Stanley Eddington claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of
gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a
solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern Brazil, and
Príncipe, a west African island.[70] Nobel laureate Max Born praised
general relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about
nature";[76] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was
"probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[77] The
international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown.

Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse, which
confirmed Einstein's theory that light "bends".
There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken
on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be
comparable to the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to
have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition concluded that
the method was inherently unreliable.[37] The deflection of light during
a solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[78]
Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably among some German
Albert Einstein 15

physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[79] [80]

Cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He
wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix
this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive
cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[81]
Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He
had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by
gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe,
he believed that Mach's principle would hold.
Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.

Modern quantum theory

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an
article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of
stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the
maser and the laser.[82] This article showed that the statistics of
absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with
Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n
photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of
light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the
later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper
to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.
Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas,
which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from
this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which
Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics.
This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin.

Bose–Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a
counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted
that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of
Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its
implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very
low temperatures.[83] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin
Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of
Colorado at Boulder.[84] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons.
Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[]
Albert Einstein 16

Energy momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and
momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation
invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy
and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this
reason.
Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a
choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best
description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev
Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.
The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.

Unified field theory

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric
theory of gravitation, which would allow the explanation of electromagnetism. In 1950, he described his "unified
field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". [85] Although he
continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were
ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream
developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until
many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification.
Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything
and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

Wormholes
Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary
particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do
Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut
and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.
If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led
Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.

Einstein–Cartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized
to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion
The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law  – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves,
the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.
Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a
black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law.
So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic
from general relativity itself.
This was established by Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy
Kerr for spinning objects.
Albert Einstein 17

Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as controversial:
• In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word "force" (a
definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the
equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at as the expression for the transverse mass of
a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to
Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of
energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave
the now familiar expression for the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the
transverse mass predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905 paper that
"With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally obtain other expressions for the masses.
This shows that in comparing different theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [86]
• Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared
in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current
theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of
modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative
theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors.
• After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts about
whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of
geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in
on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a
concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in
their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later.
• Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper that argues that a star
collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point
where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well
understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning
objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood
today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way
Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity
correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity implicit
in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still
not been successful, and most scientists acknowledge that no such proof is even possible.
• Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities might restrict
the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no
such theory has ever been found.
• In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not valid, but by
1927 he had become convinced that it was valid.
• In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local representation
of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is
that Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive.
• Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a
"blunder".[87] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted
a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four
dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way.
He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be
expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant
Albert Einstein 18

is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero
value today.
• Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special
relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.
• Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He changed his mind
when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on
Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.

Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had
some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.

Einstein-de Haas experiment

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the
spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They
confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization
changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small,
but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by
considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic
oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number
of particles in it.
This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger
applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add
his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[88]

Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator.
This Absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[89]
On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1781541 [90] was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator.
Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were
quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[91]
Albert Einstein 19

Bohr versus Einstein

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory.
Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory
developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its
instrumentalist methodology, Einstein being a scientific realist. In this
interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite
states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate
between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years
(including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought
experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by
Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced
that He [God] does not throw dice." [92]

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's

intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the Einstein and Niels Bohr

issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the
theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[93] The EPR experiment has since
been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[94] Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr
debate have found their way into philosophical discourse.

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two
entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different
measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner
could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.
He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already
determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or
momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values
of position or momentum.
This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since
been shown to be incompatible with experiments.

Religious views
The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism,
and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein "I believe in
Spinoza's God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who concerns Himself with
the fate and the doings of mankind."[95] In a 1954 letter, he wrote, "I do not believe in a personal God and I have
never denied this but have expressed it clearly."[96] In a letter to philosopher Erik Gutkind, Einstein remarked, "The
word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weakness, the Bible a collection of
honorable, but still purely primitive, legends which are nevertheless pretty childish."[97]
Repeated attempts by the press to present Albert Einstein as a religious man provoked the following statement:
It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically
repeated. I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If
something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the
world so far as our science can reveal it.
Albert Einstein 20

—Albert Einstein[98]
Einstein had previously explored this belief, that man could not understand the nature of God, when he gave an
interview to Time Magazine explaining:
I'm not an atheist and I don't think I can call myself a pantheist. We are in the position of a little child entering
a huge library filled with books in many different languages. The child knows someone must have written
those books. It does not know how. The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the arrangement of the
books but doesn't know what it is. That, it seems to me, is the attitude of even the most intelligent human being
toward God.
—Albert Einstein[99]

Political views
Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an
appeal for the foundation of a nationwide liberal and democratic
party,[100] [101] which was published in the Berliner Tageblatt on 16
November 1918,[102] and became a member of the German Democratic
Party.[103]
Einstein was a socialist. He flouted the ascendant Nazi movement and
later tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of
the State of Israel, which he supported.[104] He braved anti-communist
politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United
Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa
States. He participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future
Imperialism in Brussels.[105] President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr.
Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and
In his article Why Socialism?,[106] published in 1949 in the Monthly Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City
Review, Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil in 1921.
to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development". He
came to the following conclusion:
I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils [capitalism], namely through the
establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented
toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are
utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the
community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a
livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his
own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in
place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.[107]

On the floor of the US Congress, Einstein was accused by John E. Rankin of Mississippi of being a "foreign-born
agitator" who sought "to further the spread of Communism throughout the world".[108]
After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein wrote, "I do not know how
the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth – rocks!"[109] (Einstein 1949)
With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before
his death, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and
World Affairs.[110]
Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When the aged
W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case
was dismissed shortly afterward. Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair
Albert Einstein 21

of the American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[111]

Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for the eternity",[112] stating that physics was more important in
his life. He declined the presidency of Israel in 1952.[113]

Non-scientific legacy
While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were
included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be
made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[114]
). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500
pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[115]
Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to
The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[116]
[117]

In popular culture
In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by
people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told
his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[118]
Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[119] He is a favorite
model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle
have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's
dream come true".[120]

Awards and honors

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[121] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric
effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well
supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of
relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical
implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923)
It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with
their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[122] shows that he invested
much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression.
In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin, for
extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.
In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on relativity and the
photo-electric effect.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration
of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[123]
The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known
building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an
astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[124]
The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein seated
with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest
Albert Einstein 22

corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.

The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[125]
[126]
2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[127]
In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[120] [128] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin
Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein
is synonymous with genius".[129] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of leading physicists ranked Einstein the
"greatest physicist ever".[130] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in
the U.S.[131]
In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",[132] which is located
east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[133]
The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 8¢ postage
stamp.

Awards named after him

The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold
medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was
endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first
awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $ 15,000,[134] [135] which was later reduced to $ 5,000.[136] [137] The
winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and
Weyl[138] ) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[135]
The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First given in
1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[139]
The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize
Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[140]

See also
• German inventors and discoverers
• Heinrich Burkhardt
• Hermann Einstein
• Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein museum)
• History of gravitational theory
• Introduction to special relativity
• List of coupled cousins
• List of Nobel laureates in Physics
• Relativity priority dispute
• Science Odyssey People And Discoveries [141]
• Sticky bead argument
• Summation convention
• The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)
Albert Einstein 23

Publications
The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his
publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.
• Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the
Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4: 513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306
• Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light"
[142]
, Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148 . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by
Annalen der Physik 18th March.
• Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was completed 30th
April and submitted 20th July.
• Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat – of Small
Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17: 549–560. This annus mirabilis paper on
Brownian motion was received 11th May.
• Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17: 891–921. This
annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30th June.
• Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18:
639–641. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27th September.
• Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Königlich
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847
• Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological
Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
• Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)",
Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128
• Einstein, Albert (11th July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity" [143], Nobel
Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, retrieved 25 March 2007
• Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal
gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse:
261–267. First of a series of papers on this topic.
• Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen
Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223–224, doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's law and meanders in the
courses of rivers.
• Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of
Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777
• Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic) 146: 605,
doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN 0707304539
• Einstein, Albert et al. (4th December 1948), "To the editors" [144], New York Times (Melville, NY: AIP, American
Inst. of Physics), ISBN 0735403597
• Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?" [145], Monthly Review, retrieved 16 January 2006
• Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American CLXXXII (4): 13–17
• Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
• Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955, Munich:
Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, ISBN 388682005X
• Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court,
ISBN 0-875-48352-6. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
• Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos
Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006), The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1–10 [146], Princeton
University Press Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the
Albert Einstein 24

Einstein Papers Project [147] and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page [148]

Further reading
• Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein [149] ( 1st ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN:
Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803
• Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press.
The definitive biography to date.
• Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press.
• Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein's career and
accomplishments, written for the lay public.
• Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0674028289.

External links
• "Albert Einstein" [150]. Find a Grave. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
• Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)
• The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive [151], School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St
Andrews, Scotland, April 1997, retrieved 14 June 2009
• Why Socialism? [152] by Albert Einstein, Monthly Review, May 1949
• Nobelprize.org Biography:Albert Einstein [153]
• The Einstein You Never Knew [154] - slideshow by Life magazine
Authority control: PND: 118529579 [155] | LCCN: n79022889 [156] | VIAF: 75121530 [157]

References
[1] Marzouk, Lawrence (2010-07-07). "Rescue in Albania: How Thousands of Jews Were Saved From the Holocaust" (http:/ / www.
balkaninsight. com/ en/ main/ features/ 18790/ ?tpl=299& ST1=Text& ST_T1=Article& ST_AS1=1& ST_max=1). BalkanInsight.com. .
[2] Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000), Various things about Albert Einstein (http:/ / www. einstein-website. de/ z_information/ variousthings. html),
einstein-website.de, , retrieved 18 July 2009
[3] Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to Phenomenology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC),
Carus Publishing Company, p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X, , Chapter 2, p. 41 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC&
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[4] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5bLXMl1V0), Nobel Foundation, archived from the original (http:/ /
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[5] Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper
Torchbook edition), pp. 730–746 His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein
(1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on
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[6] WordNet for Einstein (http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn?s=Einstein)
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[9] Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2005), Albert Einstein – Derrière l'image, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, p. 29, ISBN 3-03823-182-7
[10] Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late, Basic Books, pp. 89–150, ISBN 0-465-08140-1
[11] Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing Company, pp. 8–9
[12] Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student", Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA,
page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF (http:/ / www. chem. harvard. edu/ herschbach/ Einstein_Student. pdf): Max Talmud visited on
Thursdays for six years.
Albert Einstein 25

[13] www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf Albert's intellectual growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented
pianist, ensured the children's musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family. Uncle Jakob challenged
Albert with mathematical problems, which he solved with "a deep feeling of happiness". Most remarkable was Max Talmud, a poor Jewish
medical student from Poland, "for whom the Jewish community had obtained free meals with the Einstein family". Talmud came on Thursday
nights for about six years, and "invested his whole person in examining everything that engaged [Albert's] interest". Talmud had Albert read
and discuss many books with him. These included a series of twenty popular science books that convinced Albert "a lot in the Bible stories
could not be true", and a textbook of plane geometry that launched Albert on avid self-study of mathematics, years ahead of the school
curriculum. Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a result Einstein began preaching to his schoolmates about Kant, with "forcefulness"
[14] Einstein's greatest intellectual stimulation came from a poor student who dined with his family once a week. It was an old Jewish custom to
take in a needy religious scholar to share the Sabbath meal; the Einsteins modified the tradition by hosting instead a medical student on
Thursdays. His name was Max Talmud, and he began his weekly visits when he was 21 and Einstein was 10. (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/
magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1607298-1,00. html)
[15] Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper" (http:/ / www. worldscibooks. com/ phy_etextbook/ 4454/ 4454_chap1. pdf) (PDF),
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[16] Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993), The Private Lives of Albert Einstein, London: Faber and Faber, p. 21, ISBN 0-571-17170-2
[17] Highfield & Carter (1993, pp. 21,31,56–57)
[18] Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1, 1987, doc. 67.
[19] Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's Mathematics", Women's Studies Int. Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp.
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[20] E. H. Walker, E. H., "Did Einstein Espouse his Spouse's Ideas?", Physics Today, Feb. 1989. http:/ / philoscience. unibe. ch/ lehre/ winter99/
einstein/ Walker_Stachel. pdf
[21] Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 1-29.
[22] Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other Passions, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 177-193.
[23] Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z, Birkhäuser, 2002, pp. 26-38; 39-55. http:/ / philoscience. unibe. ch/ lehre/ winter99/ einstein/ Stachel1966.
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[24] Martinez, A. A., “Handling evidence in history: the case of Einstein’s Wife.” School Science Review, 86 (316), March 2005, pp. 49-56. http:/
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[25] This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was staying
with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).
[26] Albrecht Fölsing (1998). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN 0140237194; see section I, II,
[27] Highfield & Carter 1993, p. 216
[28] Now the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property (http:/ / www. ipi. ch/ E/ institut/ i1. shtm), , retrieved 16 October 2006. See also
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[29] Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.
[30] Gallison, Question of Time.
[31] Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN 0393020010
[32] (Einstein 1905b)
[33] Universität Zürich: Geschichte (http:/ / www. uzh. ch/ about/ portrait/ history. html)
[34] Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin". in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein – Chief Engineer of
the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747
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[39] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007)
[40] Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007) pp. 407-410
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[42] Dunn, Jean (2010-07-07). "Albanian Muslims Who Sheltered Jews Honored at Program" (http:/ / www. raoulwallenberg. net/ ?en/ press/
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[48] The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass (http:/ / www. medscape. com/ viewarticle/ 436253), 14 June 2002, , retrieved 11 June 2007
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[55] This did not become possible until the development of alpha particle scintillation detectors early in the twentieth century. Rutherford invited
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[56] an account may be found here (http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~jdnorton/ Goodies/ Einstein_stat_1905/ index. html)
[57] The charge of a mole of electrons was known and measured as Faraday's constant. Dividing by the charge of a single electron, measured by
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[58] (Einstein 1905d)
[59] Hawking, S. W. (2001), The Universe in short, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-55-380202-X
[60] Schwartz, J.; McGuinness, M. (1979), Einstein for Beginners, Pantheon Books, ISBN 0-39-450588-3
[61] (Einstein 1905e)
[62] For a discussion of the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in
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[63] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, pp. 382–386,
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[66] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, p. 522, ISBN 019853907X
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[68] Einstein, A., "Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn
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[69] Einstein, Albert (1911), "On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light", Annalen der Physik 35: 898–908,
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[70] Crelinsten, Jeffrey. " Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity (http:/ / www. pupress. princeton. edu/ titles/ 8165. html)". Princeton
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[71] van Dongen, Jeroen (2010) Einstein's Unification Cambridge University Press, p.23.
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Albert Einstein 27

[78] See the table in MathPages Bending Light (http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s6-03/ 6-03. htm)
[79] Hentschel, Klaus and Ann M. (1996), Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources, Birkhaeuser Verlag, xxi,
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[80] For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test
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[81] (Einstein 1917a)
[82] (Einstein 1917b)
[83] (Einstein 1924)
[84] Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics (http:/ / www. nist. gov/ public_affairs/ releases/ n01-04. htm), 9 October 2001, ,
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[86] Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911), Reading:
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[90] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=1781541
[91] In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust
appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted
as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.Alok, Jha (21
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scienceofclimatechange. climatechange), London: The Guardian,
[92] (Einstein 1969). A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, ISBN 388682005X
[93] (Einstein 1935)
[94] Aspect, Alain; Dalibard, Jean; Roger, Gérard (1982), "Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time-varying analyzers", Physical
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[95] Brian, Dennis (1996), Einstein: A Life, New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 127, ISBN 0471114596
[96] "Belief in God a 'product of human weaknesses': Einstein letter" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2008/ 05/ 13/ einstein-religion. html),
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[98] From Wikiquote; letter to an atheist (1954) as quoted in Albert Einstein: The Human Side (1981) edited by Helen Dukas and Banesh
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[99] [refspace.com/quotes/s%253A0 "refpace Popular quotes"], Refspace. Retrieved December 20, 2009.
[100] Pulzer, Peter G.J. (2003), Jews and the German state: the political history of a minority, 1848–1933 (http:/ / books. google. com/
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Article Sources and Contributors 30

Article Sources and Contributors

Albert Einstein  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381346426  Contributors: (aeropagitica), -Paradox-, -jmac-, 01ianeo1, 100110100, 10FingerJoe, 1337u83r, 152.163.195.xxx,
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Article Sources and Contributors 31

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein1921_by_F_Schmutzer_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ferdinand
Schmutzer (1870-1928)
File:Albert Einstein signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Epson291, User:Pbroks13
File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits
File:Einst 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einst_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown; Credit Apic/Getty Images, Hulton Archive (see )
File:Albert Einstein as a child.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_as_a_child.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Kenosis
at en.wikipedia
File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein-with-habicht-and-solovine.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Adnghiem501, Bcrowell, Fadookie, Fschoenm, Infrogmation, Rimshot, 3 anonymous edits
File:einsteinhaus4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinhaus4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Doctorpete
File:Einstein in UK.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_in_UK.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 84user, Wikiwatcher1
File:Einstein citizen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_citizen.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Wikiwatcher1
File:Einstein and ben gurion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_and_ben_gurion.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Life magazine
File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Lucien Chavan
UNIQ-ref-0-3e1a9c6239807e9a-QINU (1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein's when he was living in Berne.
File:Einstein 1911 Solvay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_1911_Solvay.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 84user, Fadookie, Fastfission, Frank C.
Müller, JdH, Juiced lemon, Verdlanco
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 32

File:1919 eclipse positive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1919_eclipse_positive.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ComputerHotline, EugeneZelenko,
Fastfission, Infrogmation, Quasipalm, Quibik, 3 anonymous edits
File:Albert Einstein photo 1920.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albert_Einstein_photo_1920.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown photographer.
Scientific Monthly doesn't give photographer credit; the caption reads just "Professor Albert Einstein, University of Berlin"
File:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niels_Bohr_Albert_Einstein_by_Ehrenfest.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Paul Ehrenfest Original uploader was Graf at de.wikipedia
File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsteinwiezmann.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Epson291

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