Wind effects on structures: a probabilistic viewpoint
Ahsan Kareem
Structural Aerodynamics and Ocean System Modeling Laboratory, Cullen College of
En#ineerin#, University of Houston, TX 77004, USA
INTRODUCTION
The diversity of structural systems that are sensitive to the
effects of wind coupled with the increasing need to
improve the performance of constructed facilities has
placed a growing importance on the problem of wind
effects on structures. The wind effects range from factors
affecting the structural integrity of constructed facilities to
those factors influencing human comfort and
serviceability requirements. A full description of the
interdisciplinary area of probabilistic wind effects on
structures covers diverse scientific fields such as
micrometeorology, fluid dynamics, statistical theory of
turbulence, structural dynamics and probabilistic
methods. A cohesive treatment of the subject has been
made possible by a synthesis of knowledge from subfields
of the aforementioned disciplines. These subfields include
wind climatology, turbulent atmospheric boundary layer
theory, wind-structure interaction, unsteady wind loads
effects, probabilistic structural dynamics, aeroelasticity
and structural reliability (Fig. 1). The element of
uncertainty inherent in the parameter space, e.g., wind
speed and structural characteristics, introduces
variability in the estimates of wind effects that requires a
probabilistic framework to assess structural performance
and associated measures of structural reliability.
A great deal of effort has been directed to improve our
understanding of the subject in the past few decades. The
available literature is sizable, and it is felt that researchers
and designers working in this area will benefit from a
review article dedicated to the fundamentals of
probabilistic wind effects on structures. The objectives of
this review are to survey the significant characteristics of
the state-of-the-art in the area of probabilistic wind effects
on structures, a principle component of wind engineering,
and to describe recent advances in the field.
This review is not intended to be a complete exposition
of wind effects covering a wide spectrum of
interdisciplinary fields and which is fast becoming a
subject of a series of textbooks. In what follows, a
discussion of the genesis of winds and wind climatology
are presented. Next, the statistical structure of the
atmospheric flow field is described which is followed by a
discussion on fluid-structure interaction, aerodynamic
loads, dynamic response of structures, response of
structures with uncertain parameters. Finally, methods of
structural safety and reliability in the context of wind-
sensitive structures are discussed.
Accepted August 1987. Discussion closes February 1988.
166 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
WIND CHARACTERISTICS
Atmospheric motion is derived from pressure gradients
caused by unequal heating of the Earth's surface by the
sun. The resulting atmospheric flow system is influenced
by rotation of the Earth, topographic features, surface
roughness, reflective and thermal properties of the
Earth's surface, cloud cover, and precipitation. Nonlinear
interactions between the fluid motions of different scales
resulting from the hydrodynamic instability of flow
patterns associated with large scales lead to energy
cascades from large to small scale motion producing
winds of random characteristics 1. Accordingly, the
statistical description of atmospheric wind characteristics
is best described by probabilistic methods 2 14. The
motion of atmosphere is a complex blend of air movement
of a wide range of scales which are broadly classified into
three groups: macroscale, mesoscale, and microscale. The
macroscale motions are large scale synoptic fluctuations
and are comparable with those of weather maps. The
mesoscale motions are the next smaller group that
embodies phenomena such as squally lines, sea breeze
and mountain valley wind systems. On a still smaller
scale, microscale of motion is associated with the
turbulent part of the flow. The microscales of motion are
affected by mesoscale motion which is sensitive to
complex topography and other factors. It is the small
scale or microscale fluctuations that are of primary
significance for ascertaining wind effects on buildings,
because of their small spatial dimensions of localized
nature in the atmosphere.
The microscale regime of atmospheric motion that
occurs near the surface of the Earth is of foremost interest
in examining the effect of wind on structures. Winds in
this region are best described with reference to fluid
motion in turbulent boundary layers 7'~'~17. It is worth-
!N','[~MENT RESPONSE PERFORMANCE
• STATIC AND CHECKING
METEO OLOG- INTERACTI ON DYNAMIC PROCEDURES
['ATA STRUCTURAL STROCTUP.kL
METEOROLOGY AHRODYNAMZCS MECHANICS RELIABILITY
AERODYNAMIC
LOADS
L AERO-
ET~ASTICITY
Fig. 1. Schematics of wind effects on structures
© 1987COMPUTATIONALMECHANICSPUBLICATIONS

noting that in meteorological terms the description of
boundary layer winds has been generally applicable to
storms whose origin is associated with an extensive
pressure system. The wind field in storms characterized
by a strong vertical component of vorticity, e.g.,
hurricanes and tornadoes do not necessarily exhibit a
classical boundary layer structure, rather an organized
flow pattern in the horizontal plane is present 1"18-20.
Hurricanes or typhoons are developed over large warm
waters and obtain their energy from the latent heat
released by the condensation of water vapour. As
described earlier, their motion is characterized by a
swirling pattern with strong vertical vorticity distributed
over regions of the order of several miles. Near landfall,
because of an increase in the surface roughness, flow
instabilities often lead to hurricane-spawned tornadoes
that at least in the northeastern quadrant of the hurricane
(northern hemisphere) add to further destruction of
humankind's structures and activities. Tornadoes are a
most intense atmospheric singularity with highly
concentrated vertical vorticity that are spawned by a
breed of thunderstorms referred to as a supercells.
Tornadoes are short-lived, randomly occurring, and
localized storms. Other local winds of interest in the area
of wind effects on structures are Foehn winds, the Bora,
Jet-effect, downburst and microbursts. The wind fields
associated with the local winds have poorly defined
spatial structure.
Damage to constructed facilities due to extreme winds
currently exceeds one billion dollars annually in the
United States, and it is expected to increase every year
due to rapidly accelerating coastal development and
movement of population to these communities. In 1984,
Hurricane Alicia inflicted structural and property
damage in the Gulf Coast region worth more than $1.5
billion, representing possibly the second most destructive
hurricane on record affecting the United States
coastline2x'22. The prediction of the wind fields in severe
tropical storms is generally not possible due to a lack of a
reliable instrumentation network. Alternatively, the wind
speeds and directions in a hurricane can be generated by
means of a Monte Carlo simulation technique based on
historical data on storm history 2a. The details of the
technique are omitted here, for further information the
reader is referred to Refs 17 and 23.
Mean wind velocity fields
The vertical variation of the mean wind velocity bY(z)in
a boundary layer flow under neutral thermal conditions,
can be represented by a logarithmic or a power law:
- U* 2
U(z)=~-ln-- (1)
20
or
C(z) = (2)
where u*=surface friction velocity, k = v o n Karman
constant, Zo=surface roughness length, z0=gradient
height, Ug=mean gradient velocity, and ~t=exponent
varying with terrain roughness 1~. The power law profile is
widely used in many design codes and specifications
because of its simplicity. The values of the constants in the
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
preceding equations are widely tabulated in several texts
(e.g., Ref. 17). In the case of wind over the ocean limited
data is available from wind measurements taken over the
ocean. The published results are uncertain especially
when extrapolated to extreme winds for design
conditions. If the wind flow field and its characteristics are
not much influenced by the exact form of the surface, but
by energy loss and rate of momentum transfer due to
surface friction, the relationship established for the wind
characteristics over land will also be applicable over the
sea surface. It is advisable to provide an allowance over
the sea surface for the effects of large waves topography
on the local wind profile, since wave surface profile does
interfere with the wind profile to a level of three or four
significant heights above the mean sea level. It is
customary to express the relationship between the wide
shear stress and velocity at a point z by the wind stress
coefficient which is utilized to define the related surface
roughness for the logrithmic law. Further details of the
wind stress coefficients are available in Refs 24-28.
Fluctuating wind velocity field
In order to evaluate the total fluctuating wind loads
acting on structures, it is necessary to formulate
expressions for the single- or multiple-point statistics of
wind velocity fluctuation (Fig. 2). Parameters most
commonly of interest are temporal averages, variances of
velocity components, probabilities of exceedance, energy
spectra and space time correlations ~-3'25'29. At the
simplest level, the stochastic properties of the wind can be
described by the behaviour determined by a single sensor.
This is related to the description of fluctuation at a point.
A number of functional properties can then be described.
The turbulence intensity is the simplest measure of the
magnitude of the turbulent fluctuations; the auto-
correlation function is a measure of wind velocity at a
given time and depends on what it was an instant ago.
From the preceding functions, the power spectral density
and length scale are determined. The power spectral
density is a measure of the turbulent energy at each
frequency or wave number; whereas, the length scale is a
measure of the average size of the turbulent eddies.
The turbulent characteristics of the atmospheric wind
over a flat terrain with uniform roughness are influenced
by the wind speed, the atmospheric stability and the
terrain roughness. In strong wind conditions, mechanical
turbulence is frequently stronger than convective
turbulence resulting from ground heating so the latter can
be neglected. The variation of turbulence intensity with
height in a boundary layer is described in most of the
references dealing with wind engineering (e.g., Refs. 17
]STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF WIND FLUCTUATIONSI
I
$~NGL[- PO. . . . . . . ik~NT . ~ [TWO". . . . * . . . . . . . . . . UR~NT~
I
Fig. 2. Statistical description of wind fluctuations
167
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
1 Space-time description of wind field
~ ~ ~ Miyat a
U?l b // "'-~
c I - ~ ' / / ~ '~ ~~ .~ , . , .~ " a- ,_~~ ~
0.01
Reduced Freouency
Fig. 3. Normalized reduced spectra of longitudinal
velocity fluctuations over ocean (after Ref 43)
and 29). The recent interest to enter the era of super tall
buildings would unquestionably expose the buildings to
the upper portion of the boundary layer or in some cases
to regions above the boundary layer 3°. In these regions
the effects of mechanical turbulence become minimal, and
flow structure is viewed as laminar sometimes modified
by gravity waves. A layer of turbulence is sometimes
present at levels above the geostructure height,
additionally the buildings may experience turbulence
introduced by convective clouds.
There are several descriptions of the power spectral
density functions available in the literature over a variety
of terrains; the most widely used spectra are provided by
Davenport 31,a2, Harris 14, and Kaima133. In general, the
spectral forms tend to agree in that they approach the
Kolmogrov limit at high frequency; all differ in their
treatment of the low frequencies. The range of low
frequencies at which various spectral descriptions exhibit
large variation have not received much attention, since
they have been of no interest to designers of land based
structures. However, with the introduction of compliant
structures, interest in the energy content of the
atmospheric spectrum at low frequencies has increased.
The limited measurements made over the ocean show
apparently the same trend, i.e., they approach the
Kolmogorov limit at high frequencies, but lack a
universal description in the low frequency range due to
departure from similarity theory 24,2s'a4"-a2. The energy
content also tends to increase with an increase in wind
speed that results in a higher level of mechanical
production and the difference in air-sea temperature, in
convective conditions. In Fig. 3, plots of the several
spectral descriptions (over the ocean) are provided. For
the sake of clarity, only the envelopes of the scatter are
plotted. One of the reasons for large scatter can be
associated with the statistical uncertainty of the spectral
estimates. These estimates are approximated as chi-
squared distributed variables with two degrees of
freedom. In Ref. 43, it is proposed that a new spectral
description of the longitudinal velocity fluctuations over
the ocean be used. This description is consistent with
theoretical principles and employs information derived
from actual measurements. Further details regarding the
general features of spectral representation can be found in
Refs 44 and 45.
168 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
- - - - Kareem
..... Leavitt Ifa single point representation of the wind velocity field
is used in the wind loading model, then it is tacitly
. . . . . . P.,. . . . assumed that every point in the space of the structure is
-- -- Pond
exposed to the same fluctuations. This includes perfect
correlation being present between adjacent points
separated, either vertically or horizontally or both. Since
perfect correlation is unlikely, it is necessary to attempt to
relate the instantaneous velocity fluctuations at one point
to any other point. The cross correlation or the cross-
spectral density function are measures of the degree to
which the two velocity descriptions are correlated. The
cross-spectral function is given in terms of the coherence
function for locations (y 1, zl ) and (y 2, z2):
0.1
G(y,,zl,y2,z2; n)=~/S.,(n)S./n)coh(y,,z~,y2,z2;n)
(3)
in which G(yl, zl, Y2, z2; n)= cross-spectral function; and
coh(yl, zl, Y2, z2; n) = coherence function. Davenport 32
has given an expression for the coherence function when
(yl,zl) and (y2,z2) are located in a plane normal to the
wind:
coh(yl, z2, y2, z2; n)
=exp{ n[C2(yl-Y2)2~-C2v(21-22)2]l/2}½
(U I -b U2)
(4)
in which Ch and Cv = decay constants which are generally
assumed to vary between 10 and 16. The preceeding
expression has been widely utilized for the derivation of
the 'gust loading factor' approach for land based
structures.
In the case of compliant offshore structures, the ratio of
the wavelength to the reference height on a platform is
large, suggesting that the structure of wind field will be
influenced by the presence of sea surface. Some field
measurements have provided evidence of a systematic
increase in the decay parameter with increasing
separation between points of interest and decreasing
average height of these points. This implies that, large
separation near any boundary strongly influences the
structure of random wind field. Measurements have
illustrated that the coherence of longitudinal velocity for
vertical separation is described by
Az?l
eoh(f, Az) = e x p - a, ~ (5)
in which a= is the decay constant that depends on the
stability and Az/z (Ref. 5). For strong wind conditions,
where the stability parameter z/L (L=monin Okukow
length) is equal to zero, a= is expressed as a power of lxz/z
by Shiotani and Iwatani 46. This expression has the
limitation that for large values of z, a= approaches zero.
Panofsky et al. s have suggested the following relationship
for a, based on extensive measurements over flat open
farm land with short grass and occasional rows of shelter
belt trees:
A
a==12+ll-- (6)
Z

and
coh(n; A z ) : e x p - (n)(bAz + c(Az)2)
\U,2 ) \ z~2
in which b = 12 and c = 11.
Similarly, the coherence for longitudinal velocity
fluctuations with lateral separation is given by
z,:
and e = 1 2 and f = l l (Ref. 5).
In the case where separation can no longer be assumed
small compared to the length scale of turbulence, it is
essential that the expression for coherence must contain
the parameter A/L. Therefore, coherence is a function of
both nA/U and A/L. It can be illustrated that the
coherence should be expressed as
xp( to=v)
to include the influence of the length scale. Similar
expressions have been suggested in Refs 47 and 48. The
expressions for the lateral and vertical separations are
modified accordingly to incorporate length scale in the
relationship
coh(n; Ay)=exp ( - { ( d - ~ ) 2
+(~,2)(eAz+f'Az)2~21'12
n 2
~ (11)
zz2 / J / characteristics of both the approach flow and the
A relationship for separation in both vertical and lateral
directions can be expressed as
tbr+ ,) ,)
for b = e, c = f and r = 4(Ay) 2 + (Az)2 . Alternatively
coh(n; Az, Ay)=exp(- {(aT)2+ (dA--~) 2
n 2
+(-U-~2)[ bAz+eAy+ c(Az)2
zx2 "q-f(my)2Tll/2~
z12 A) /
These representations are based on the correlation
structure of a space-time process being separable. Their
accuracy in representing the random wind field depends
on a number of characteristics of the space-time process,
e.g., quadrant symmetry, and homogeneous and isotropic
turbulence. Furthermore, the coherence values obtained
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
from measured data with limited observations have a
high variance and, hence, tends to be erratic. A
comparison of the above equations evaluated for a typical
(7) two-dimensional space for a range of frequencies suggests
that the estimated alongwind load effects based on
equation (4) would be conservative. However, for the
torsional loads, this representation would provide
unconservative results because higher levels of
correlation lead to relatively lower degrees of imbalance
that are responsible for torsional load effects. Recent
,8, experimental investigations in simulated boundary layers
have corroborated the description of coherence by the
preceding expressions. Further studies to better describe
the multiple-point characteristics of wind fields over the
ocean are in progress.
AERODYNAMIC LOADS
Contrary to the static idealization of wind induced
loading, the wind induces unsteady loads in addition to
the steady loads that fluctuate with significant energy.
(9) The fluctuations in the approach flow field are
transformed to unsteady pressures on the envelope of a
structure that are functions of both position and time.
Instantaneous pressure at a point may be decomposed
into mean and randomly fluctuating components that
may be superimposed by a periodic contribution from
aerodynamic instabilities. The pressure fluctuations over
the surface of a structure introduce intense localized load
fluctuations and collectively imposed overall aero-
dynamic loads on the structure. A wind sensitive
structure, therefore, admits fluctuating energy present in
the loading around its characteristic eigen frequencies
(io) and is set to vibrate in rectilinear modes or torsional
modes or both. The design of structural cladding is
strongly influenced by local pressures, whereas the
structural response is dependent on the integrated effect
of pressures over the surface. Experimental studies
reported in the literature suggest that the space-time
distribution of surface pressure depends upon the
structural geometry. These features are mean wind speed
and velocity profile, mean direction of approach flow,
turbulence scales and intensities, structural geometry,
surface texture and dynamic characteristics, e.g., natural
frequencies and damping.
Before addressing the quantification of aerodynamic
loads, a brief review of the rudiments of fluid-structure
(12) interactions is presented to appreciate the mechanisms
responsible for aerodynamic loads.
As the wind encounters a structure, it exerts positive
pressure on the windward face. The wind is then deflected
around the structure and accelerated such that the
velocity passing the upwind corners is greater than the
velocity approaching the structure. The high-velocity
fluid cannot negotiate the sharp corners and thus
(13) separates from the building, leaving a region of high
negative pressure. The separated flow forms a shear layer
on each side and subsequent interaction between the
layers results in their rolling up into discrete vortices
which are shed alternately. This region is generally known
as the wake region. In this mar, her, the pressure
fluctuations on the surface of a structure exposed to the
atmospheric boundary layer result from the turbulence
present in the approach flow, from flow separation and
ProbabilisticEnoineerin9Mechanics, 1987, Vol.2, No. 4 169
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
reattachment, from wake effects, and from possible
impingement of vortices shed by upstream objects. The
structural motion may induce additional aerodynamic
forces (these are addressed later). These mechanisms do
not always take place in isolation. Rather more than one
may collectively contribute to the pressure fluctuations
and hence loads on a structure. Therefore, the
aerodynamic loading may be categorized as due to the
far-field which is the undisturbed flow pattern and the
near-field which results from the fluid-structure
interaction and the wake fluctuations. The scales
associated with the far-field, near-field and wake
fluctuations are quite different. The dominant far-field
scale is determined by the scale of atmospheric turbulence
in the boundary layer, whereas the scales associated with
the wake and near-field fluctuations may be expressed in
terms of a characteristic structural dimension and shear
layer thickness, respectively.
The aerodynamic loads may be expressed as
Aerodynamic loading = FT(t) + Fw(t) + F~(t)+ F(x, ~, ~)
(14)
in which Fr(t)=forces induced by incident turbulence,
Fw(t)=forces induced by wake fluctuations, Fl(t)=
aerodynamic forces due to interference of upstream and
adjacent structures, and F ( x , ~ , J ) = m o t i o n induced
loading expressed directly as stiffness, damping and
inertia forces which are expressed in terms of the
structural displacement, velocity and acceleration and
corresponding aerodynamic derivatives. In the following
sections, a brief discussion of these loading components
that are responsible for wind load effects on structures is
provided.
Information on the spatial and temporal distributions
of random pressure fields around structures is central to
the development of analytical procedures for estimating
local and/or integral aerodynamic loading effects on
structures. A random pressure field manifests different
levels of load effects on structures, or structural
components, that vary with the size of the exposed
structure. For example, a small plane may bump up and
down while encountering turbulence, but a wide-body jet
may hardly respond to the presence of turbulence. The
wide-body jet 'averages out' the effect of all the gusts
whose size are less than the linear dimensions of the plane.
In a similar manner, the random pressure field interacts
with a land based, offshore or aerospace structure. In the
case of a building exposed to atmospheric turbulence, the
wind load effects are treated differently for the cladding
and the overall structural system. Information on the
local point-to-point variation of pressure are necessary
for the design of cladding or facade components, since
extreme excursions of point pressure are, in general,
correlated over small areas 49-51. A detailed discussion
concerning the scales of pressure fluctuations and their
sensitivity to approach flow conditions is given in Refs 49
and 50. Moving to larger tributary areas such as a large
cladding panel or a large expanse of glass on a building
exterior, the localized point-to-point pressures are less
useful. In this situation, the statistics of the local spatial
averages of the random pressure field become more
relevant. In most design applications, extreme values of
the load effects are generally required. An averaged value
of the peak pressures, based on the point peaks observed
170 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
at several locations on the tributary area, will
overestimate the peak structural load because the lack of
spatial and/or temporal correlation does not permit
simultaneous occurrence of the maxima at several
locations. The spatial, or temporal local average of the
random pressure field gives an instantaneous sum of the
pressures at a number of point locations that explicitly
includes correlation over the tributary area. The statistics
of the averaged process provides information on the
threshold-crossing statistics and extremes. For the design
of a structural system, the effects of turbulence on the
entire structure are needed. In this case once again the
point-to-point variations in pressure over the building
surface are of little importance due to their limited spatial
correlation. Therefore, the overall load effects are
synthesized through space-time local averaging of the
random pressure field by taking into account the lack of
spatial and temporal correlation.
For better understanding of the relationship between
the previously indicated scale of fluctuations and the
structural load effects, it is customary to visualize the
parameter space in terms of wave lengths rather than
frequencies (2 = U/n). The gust size in relation to the size
or a typical dimension D of a structure is an important
parameter regarding the effectiveness of the gust in terms
of producing loads on a structure. Small size gusts
()~/D ,~ 1) resulting from the high frequency components of
atmospheric turbulence or near-field effects are correlated
over small areas of the structure. Therefore, the resulting
loads induced by the gusts of this size are small. The low
frequency components of a gust are associated with a
value of 2/D > 1, and in this case their influence is felt
simultaneously over the whole, or at least a large area of
the structure.
Notwithstanding the improved knowledge of wind
effects on structures over the past few decades, our
understanding of the mechanisms that relate the random
wind field to the various wind induced effects on
structures has not developed sufficiently for functional
relationships to be formulated. Not only is the approach
wind field very complex, by the flow pattern generated
around a structure is complicated by the distortion of the
wind field, the flow separation, the vortex formation, and
the wake development. These effects cause large pressure
fluctuations on the surface of a structure which in turn
impose large overall aerodynamic loads upon the
structural system and lead to intense localized fluctuating
forces over the envelope of structure. Under the collective
influence of these fluctuating forces, a structure may
vibrate in rectilinear modes or torsional modes or both.
The alongwind motion primarily results from pressure
fluctuations in the approach flow, at least in the low
frequency range. The acrosswind motion that is
perpendicular to the direction of motion is introduced by
pressure fluctuations on the side faces which are primarily
induced by the fluctuations in the separated shear layers,
vortex shedding and wake flow fields. Bluff bodies of all
cross-sections exposed to fluid motion for a broad range
of Reynolds numbers shed vortices, usually alternating
from each side of the body. The vortex shedding induces
alternating forces on bodies in both crossflow and in the
direction of flow. The fluctuations in the crossflow
direction are predominantly periodic and characterized
by the Strouhal number than is equal to NsD/U, in which
Ns=frequency of vortex shedding, D=structural

dimension, and U=wind speed. The phenomenon is
more pronounced when flow around a body has tWo-
dimensional features; whereas, in the case of three-
dimensional situations the severity of the shedding
process is vitiated due to a lack of correlation. Unlike
vortex shedding from sharp cornered sections, the
shedding is strongly dependent on the Reynolds number
for bodies of circular cross-section.
The wind induced torsional effects result from the
unbalance in the instantaneous pressure distribution on
the building surface. The wind load effects are further
amplified on asymmetric buildings as a consequence of
inertial coupling. Modern trends toward unconventional
shaped buildings with innovative structural systems
setbacks and other complex exterior geometries have lead
to buildings dynamically more sensitive to torsion
induced loads resulting from asymmetric wind pressures,
and static, or dynamic, coupling. The ratio of the
displacements, and accelerations near the building
corners at the top floors, to that at the centre, can
significantly increase due to torsional effects. This results
in higher stresses in the exterior columns and human
discomfort, respectively. Similarly, other wind sensitive
structures, e.g., long-span bridges, tall chimneys and
flexible roofs are susceptible to the dynamic effects of
wind.
As pointed out earlier, the alongwind motion primarily
results from the fluctuations in the approach flow.
Therefore, the alongwind loading is formulated on the
basis of strip and quasi-steady theories which permit a
linear relationship between the fluctuations in the
pressure and velocity fields 32'52-5a. Consequently, the
spectral description of the pressure field assumes the same
form as that of the velocity fluctuations for which a
functional relationship exists 32'56-5s. Furthermore, the
wind loading may be treated as a single-point process if
2/1) ~>1, which implies that the wind velocity field is fully
correlated over the entirety of the structure. This
assumption is true for structures with small spatial
dimensions or low natural frequencies or both. One may
classify structures that meet the above stated conditions
as point-like structures such as small billboards, stadium
lights and small floating installations in the ocean. The
aerodynamic forces on such structures may be expressed
in terms of velocity fluctuations as
F(t) = 1/2pACn(U + u(t)) 2 (15)
in which p = a i r density, A=projected area of the
structure, Co = drag coefficient, U = mean wind velocity
at the centroid of the structure and u(t)=longitudinal
velocity fluctuations. The preceding equation may be
expanded to
F(t) = 1/2pACoU 2 + 1/2pCA A U 2 I2u~ ) " u2(t) -]
(16)
This first term in the above equation corresponds to the
mean wind load, whereas, the last two terms represent the
fluctuating forces. The last term containing the square of
the fluctuating velocity component is small to the extent
that it is generally ignored. Kareem s9 has evaluated the
contribution of the nonlinear velocity term in the
formulation of fluctuating wind loading on the dynamic
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
esponse of a structure in both time and frequency
omains. In the time domain, the contribution of the
nonlinear velocity term to the total fluctuating force is
evaluated in the terms of the mean square values utilizing
the mathematical expectations of varous products of
random variables given by Isserlis 6°. On the other hand,
in the frequency domain, the spectral density function of
the square of the wind velocity term is evaluated using
spectral convolution. The results suggest that ignoring of
the nonlinear velocity term in the formulation of wind
loads results in an acceptable approximation. By ignoring
the nonlinear velocity term, the spectral description of
wind force is given by
2
4/~Su(n)
SF(n)= ~ (17)
in which fro = 1/2pCo A Uz, Su(n)= spectral description of
wind velocity fluctuations. This equation is valid over the
range of frequencies of S,(n) for which the velocity
fluctuations are perfectly correlated over the surface as
assumed above. For large size structures the effect of
departure from perfect correlation of the wind velocity
field is introduced conveniently through an aerodynamic
admittance function. The aerodynamic admittance
function may be derived on the basis of the rapid
distortion theory of turbulence 61'62 or theoretical
estimates using simplified models of the turbulent flow
past bluff structures. The former approach is based on
rapid distortion of turbulent flow past bluff bodies. The
theory has been developed and validated experimentally
for the stagnation face. The findings may have useful
practical applications in the near future. The latter
approach has shown a good agreement with experimental
data and as such provides a satisfactory treatment for
practical problems.
For a majority of civil engineering structures, the
assumption of the foregoing point-like structure may
yield conservative estimates due to their large spatial
dimensions. As a result, the concept of multiple-point
statistics is used to implement the effects of partial
correlation over the structure (Fig. 2). The multiple-point
representation may be simplified for line-like structures in
which the spatial variation of wind fluctuations are only
implemented for one spatial dimension. In this case, the
spatial structure of loading along the width is tacitly
assumed to be perfect; therefore, the smallest scale 2 likely
to be significant, must be greater than the structural
dimensions perpendicular to the flow. Tower-like
structures and chimneys may be adequately represented.
by this idealization. For the multi-point representation of
the wind velocity field U(y, z, t) = U(z) + u(y, z, t) in which
tf(z)=mean wind variation along the height; and
u ( y , z , t ) = t w o dimensional spatiotemporal fluctuating
wind velocity. The spectral description of the loading is
given by
Y2, z2; n)
× dyl dy2 dzl dzz (18)
G(yl,zl,Y2,Z2; n)=x/Su(yl,zl; n)Su(y2,z2; n)
x c o h ( y l , z l , y2,z2; n) (19)
171
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
I integration. It is given by
I 1
TIME DOMAIN FREQUENCY DOMAIN
j GUST SPECTRUM
[VELOCITY
~ "" r
AERODYNAMIC
ADMITTANCE
FORCE
MECHANICAL
ADMITTANCE
LA A A]
LVVVv
RESPONSE
Fig. 4. Wind induced dynamic response analysis of
structures (after Ref 32)
in which G( )= cross spectrum of the wind velocity field
and coh( )=coherence function. These functions have
been discussed earlier in the section on the description of
wind field. A Monte Carlo integration scheme has been
used to evaluate these integrals numerically63.
Alternatively, the preceding equation may be simplified
based on the assumption that S~(n)~-S,(y~,z~; n).
Accordingly, the previous equation may be modifed as
SF(n ) = (pCo)2S~(njJv(n) (20)
in which Jr(n) implements the correlation of velocity
fluctuations and are often referred to as the aerodynamic
admittance functions and are expressed as
4 pressure co-spectra may be described by an exponentially
Jr(n)=-2--_-f_
2 (e-~,+ ey- 1)(e-~:+ez - 1) (21)
in which er = nOChW/tf; e: = nOCvD/lf; 0 = x/1 + r2/1 + r ;
r= ChW/CvD; W and D = building width and height, and
C, and Co=decay constants in the velocity coherence
functions. The transformation of wind velocity
fluctuation to wind force fluctuation is illustrated in both
time and frequency domain in Fig. 4.
The preceding formulation is applicable to structures
with large spatial dimensions represented by a single
lumped-mass system, e.g., floating offshore structures and
large billboards. Alternatively, multiple discrete-mass
and distributed structural systems are often analysed by
means of a modal superposition technique in which mode
generalized loads are required for the dynamic analysis.
The generalized alongwind force spectrum in the ith mode
may be obtained by the synthesis of pressure fluctuations
172 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
on the windward and leeward faces utilizing covariance
Sr,(n)=k~, t~=~f~ ~ x/Sp,(Yk, zk; n)Sp,(YJ,z~; n)
x Copk,(yk, zk, Yl, zt; n)c~i(zk)q~(zt) dAk dAt (22)
in which the subscripts k and l represent windward and
leeward faces, respectively, and a double subscript, e.g.,
Copk,(), represents co-spectrum of pressure fluctuations.
Following the strip and quasi-steady theories, the
fluctuating pressure field is linearly related to the
fluctuating velocity field at any level on the building.
Therefore, spectra and co-spectra of pressure fluctuations
are of the same form as those of the velocity fluctuations.
This reduces equation (22) to
SF,(n)=k~=l / = 1 P CPk('~k'2k)Cp'(Yl'Zl)
k I
x u(zk)u(z,)cki(z~)~(z,)x/S~(zk, n)S~,tz~, n)
x Co~,(yk, zk, Yt, zt; n) dA~ dAz (23)
Different versions of equation (23) are used in the
literature. Expressions for the description of wind spectra
and co-spectra are fairly standard for land based
structures. Some formulations assume full correlation of
the pressure fluctuations between the windward and
leeward faces, while some use an arbitrary reduction
factor 17. The implications of the quasi-steady and strip
theories have been analysed by Kareem 56 in the light of
experimental data. Some of the findings are summarized
here. The power spectral density of pressure fluctuations
on the windward force is proportional to the far field
velocity fluctuations except in the high-frequency range
where the decay is faster, suggesting that pressure
fluctuations on the windward face could be replaced by a
linear transformation of the upstream velocity
fluctuations. At higher reduced frequencies, this trend
may gradually diminish. The spectra of pressure
fluctuations on the leeward faces generally follows a
relationship similar to the far field velocity fluctuations
except at locations near the corners, where peaks in
pressure spectra exist at the Strouhal frequency. The
amplitude and band width of these peaks are sensitive to
the level of turbulence intensity in the approach flow. The
decaying function similar to the one used to describe the
co-spectra of velocity fluctuations. However, it is knowrt
to exhibit a higher correlation than the corresponding
velocity fluctuations. It appears that various assumptions
made in the development of the alongwind loading may
have some individual shortcomings; however, the overall
load description may be quite satisfactory. For example,
the underestimation of the alongwind load spectra due to
a lower spatial correlation on the windward and leeward
faces as a consequence of replacing pressure co-spectra by
velocity may, in fact, compensate for the decrease in
correlation between windward and leeward faces, which
is implicitly implied in some formulations to be fully
correlated.
The discussion in the preceding sections indicates that
the aerodynamic loading in the alongwind direction may
be adequately represented on the basis of strip and quasi-

steady theories. The fluctuating pressure field acting over
the side and leeward faces is greatly influenced by the
wake dynamics, e.g., vortex shedding which renders the
applicability of the foregoing theories doubtful.
Therefore, a lack of a convenient transfer function,
between the velocity fluctuations in the incident
turbulence and the pressure fluctuations on the side faces
of a building with separated flow, has prohibited any
acceptable formulation, to date, of the acrosswind and
torsional loads on structures. Hence, physical modelling
of fluid-structure interaction provides the only viable
means of obtaining information on the aforementioned
loads. Coordinated efforts in the field of computational
fluid dynamics are in progress 64 to numerically generate
flow fields around bluff bodies exposed to turbulent flows.
As such, the problems are formidable in computational
fluid dynamics since the flow around bluff bodies exceeds
the complexity of classical fluid dynamics problems
related to flow about streamlined bodies. Therefore,
physical modelling will remain the only source of
information for the foreseeable future. Several aspects of
the use of digital computers to generate solutions of
equations of interest to fluid mechanics are addressed in
Ref. 64.
The aerodynamic loads on structures may be obtained
by mapping and synthesizing the random pressure fields
acting on structures. The structure of random pressure
fields through simultaneously monitored multiple-point
realizations of pressure fluctuations, and measurement of
local averages of the space-time random pressure fields by
means of spatial and temporal averaging techniques. The
spatial averaging procedure may employ local averaging
of the random pressure field utilizing an electronic
summation circuitry, a pneumatic manifolding device, or
a pressure-sensitive surface element like PVDF 65.
Details of load distribution over parts of a structure
and over its entirety may be accomplished through multi-
point measurements of the pressure field in time and
space, or continually at specific locations. A lack of
spatial and temporal coherence in the random pressure
field requires simultaneous monitoring of a large number
of pressure taps on a building surface which may either
become prohibitively expensive or may impose a difficult
data acquisition, management and reduction problem.
Off-line computation of simultaneous multi-channel
sampling permits statistical averaging as well as
conditional sampling to examine the spatiotemporal
distribution of pressure peaks. Practical means have been
introduced for overcoming the difficulties that have
resulted in prohibiting a wider use of the direct pressure
measurements for the space-time averaging of random
pressure fields. Kareem 66 employed a number of pressure
transducers in a large number of test configurations on
which the transducers were moved to different locations
to map the pressure field. The spatially averaged loads
and their covariances were obtained. The statistical
information ofthe local averages was assimilated through
statistical integration or covariance integration
procedure to obtain estimates of the integral aerodynamic
loading function on the building as well as the desired
mode-generalized loading. The synthesis of homogeneous
pressure fields may also be accomplished by utilizing
frequency-dependent spatial scales of the pressure field
obtained from second-order information about point-to-
point variations contained in the covariance function 67.
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 173
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
This procedure provides a computational procedure
involving simple algebraic operations such as sums and
products instead of multiple integrations. This format
also provides an amenable adaptation to a finite element
discretization of a random field into which the local
averages are expressed over a finite element and the inter-
element covariance is obtained from the covariance of the
local averages 67-7°.
The aerodynamic loads may be synthesized by analog
circuits from simultaneously monitored multi-point
measurements 71. Alternatively, space-time averaging
may be accomplished by a pneumatic averaging
technique which, through a pneumatic manifolding
procedure, determines time varying local area averages of
aerodynamic loads. In its simplest application, it makes
use of a manifolding device (multiple-input single-output
manifold), which interconnects a labyrinth of tubing
leading from several pressure taps that are distributed
uniformly over an area 72'73. A detailed treatment of the
mapping and synthesis of random pressure fields that
highlights the concept of point, spatially and/or
temporally averaged random pressure fluctuations in the
context of local or integral aerodynamic loads is
presented in Ref. 65.
The generalized aerodynamic loading on a structure in
the ith mode may be obtained by synthesizing the
spatially averaged random pressure field by means of
covariance integration
2 2
Sr,(f) = ~ ~ ~ ~ x/Sp,(AAk, f)Sp,(AAI, f)
k = l 1=1 Ak AI
x Copk,(AAk,AAI; f)~i(Zk)~Pi(21)AA k AA I (24)
in which subscripts k and l denote different faces and
Sa,(AAk, f) and COp,,(AAk,AAg n) represent the spectrum
and co-spectrum of spatially averaged pressure
fluctuation areas AA k and AAz that represent the
differential areas over which the random pressure field is
spatially averaged and cki(Zk) is the ith mode shape
evaluated at the centroid of the area AAk. The preceding
equation can be conveniently expressed in a discrete
matrix form so that it is compatible with experimental
measurements TM. Based on experimental data, Kareem 75
has developed closed-form expressions for auto- and co-
spectra of the random pressure field responsible for the
acrosswind force on isolated square cross-section
buildings for any desired approach flow condition, i.e.,
open country, suburban, or urban. The model provides
flexibility in the selection of appropriate input
parameters, thus broadening the scope of its application "
and serving as a useful tool for tailoring the preliminary
design of tall buildings. Following the foregoing
procedure for synthesizing spatio-temporal pressure
fluctuations, mode-generalized spectra of the torsional
moment are given by
4 4
Sr,(f)= ~. L E ~ x/Sp,(AAm, f)S,.(AA, f)
m = l n = l A= A~
x C%.(AAm, AA.; f) Atmal, c~i(zm)c~i(z.)AA mAA.
(25)
in which the variables are defined previously, and AImand
Al, are distance between the centroid of areas AAm and
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
AA, from the building centre. More details regarding the
matrix representation of the preceding equation may be
found in Ref. 66. The previous covariance integration
approach used to quantify mode-generalized loads may
be simplified by utilizing a weighted pneumatic averaging
technique. In this approach, the building at the
instrumented levels is divided into tributary areas or
segments, which are assigned a cluster of pressure taps to
attain the appropriate weighting function proportional to
the moment arm for each top location 65. Alternatively,
distributed and continuous weighted averaging may be
obtained utilizing a porous polyethylene or piezopolymer
triangular surface that includes appropriate weighting
functions 65.
More recenty, high-frequency force balance techniques
for determining the dynamic wind induced structural
loads from scale models of buildings and structures have
been implemented at various boundary layer wind tunnel
laboratories 76'77. These techniques have dramatically
reduced both the time and cost required to obtain
estimates of wind loads and structural response levels.
The force balance provides dynamic load information for
a specific building geometry and setting which may be
used to calculate loads and response levels for a wide
range of structural characteristics, damping values, and
building masses. The basis of the technique is the
measurement of power spectral densities of mode-
generalized wind loads on the building model as a whole.
This requires that the balance has sufficient sensitivity to
measure small fluctuations in the modal loads while either
having extremely well-defined and stable dynamic
properties or a high enough natural frequency to insure
that the mechanical admittance function is nearly unity
throughout the frequency range of interest. The force
balance technique has some shortcomings, e.g., only
approximate estimates of the mode-generalized torsional
moments are obtained and the lateral loads may be
inaccurate if the sway mode shapes of the structure differ
significantly from a linear mode shape 77"v8. Therefore,
the mode-generalized spectra obtained from a force-
balance study requires adjustments if the building mode
shapes depart from those implied in the derivation of the
force balance theory. This is especially true for the
torsional loads. These adjustments may require invoking
either the quasi-steady or strip theories, and the spatial
averaging technique may facilitate a precise basis for
establishing reliable mode correction factors for any
arbitrary mode shape 65'7~'~8. A second generation of
force balances may also permit overcoming the
aforementioned limitations 7~. A typical configuration
may include several torsional flexures mounted on a stiff
spine. The mode-generalized torsional moments may be
obtained by weighting the torques measured with each
torsional flexure according to the mode shape and adding
the torques either digitally or by means of a simple analog
summing circuit. The spine should be instrumented so
that lateral forces may be measured for each segment.
This force may in turn be combined to produce mode-
generalized lateral loads which more closely correspond
to the expected mode shape of the prototype building or
structure.
The covariance integration and high-frequency force
balance techniques do not include motion-induced
aerodynamic loads. These motion-induced loads may be
conveniently expressed in terms of aerodynamic damping
174 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
and be effectively implemented in the estimation of
structural response through the modification of the
building transfer function utilizing appropriate values of
aerodynamic damping 73'vS-s°. It is a general consensus
that in most of the tall buildings the influence of motion-
induced loading is insignificant for typical design wind
speeds al . However, for exceptionally slender, flexible and
lightly damped structures, the motion-induced effects
may reach a significant level 17"73'79'82. In such cases,
aeroelastic models provide the most recognized type of
model for use in determining wind induced motion of a
building and in determining resultant fluctuating loads
acting on the building as a whole 83'84. While aeroelastic
models provide all the necessary information a designer
may require, they are not instrumented to provide
information on the space-time distributions of forces over
the surface of a building.
The verification or validation of experimental
procedures or theoretical methods lies in the comparison
with the observed full-scale response. Notwithstanding
the uncertainties associated with the full-scale response
measurements, they offer at present the only possible
means of demonstrating the validation of the laboratory
simulation or theoretical predictions. At the same time,
full-scale measurements may help to guide both
numerical and experimental studies. Davenport as has
summarized the full-scale measurements from a historical
perspective and outlined many of the difficulties
encountered, particularly in pressure measurements.
There are a number of structures currently being
monitored all over the globe for wind loads and
associated response. Further details may be found in Ref.
17.
The discussion of aerodynamic loads will remain
incomplete without commenting briefly on some of the
flow induced instabilities and their effects on structures.
Besides buffeting due to turbulence and vortex excitation
resulting from instability of separated flow around bluff
bodies, other flow induced phenomena worthy of
attention here are wake buffeting, lock-in, galloping,
wake galloping, classical flutter, ovalling oscillations,
stall hysterisis flutter and interference between bodies.
Details of all these phenomena will be omitted here except
lock-in and galloping, the interested reader is referred to
Ref. 17 and the bibliography cited in the relevant chapters
addressing the foregoing topics. In the case of vortex
shedding, once the shedding frequency approaches a
natural frequency of an elastic body, the body motion
causes the shedding frequency to 'lock-in' to the body
frequency over a range of the approach flow speeds. This
is well-known aerodynamic instability which has bee'r~
modelled by several empirical prediction procedures. The
experimental observations of the phenomenon have
suggested that an oscillatory cylinder/wake combination
possesses the characteristics of a nonlinear oscillator.
This has prompted the use of a Van der Pol oscillator-
type equation to represent the phenomenon. The
nonlinear wake-oscillator models successfully provide a
phenomenological description of the observed motion of
elastic bodies of circular cross-section 86. Recent interest
in the areas of bifurcation theory, and the emerging
discipline of chaos and strange attractors may facilitate a
better model to represent the 'lock-in' motion of circular
cylinders 87-a9.
The bodies of noncircular cross-section upon deflection

across the flow experience a change in the incident flow
direction that introduces another flow instability: The
change in flow direction results in additional side force on
the body. If this coincides with the direction of the body
motion, the body will oscillate severely in the cross-flow
direction. This is generally known as galloping instability
and, as stated earlier, it is initiated by body motion and
does not necessarily require unsteadiness in the approch
flow. Typical examples of galloping are often catastrophic
oscillations of iced transmission line conductors and tall
flexible prismatic towers.
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
Lumped-mass systems
The equations of motion of a structure represented by a
discretized lumped-mass system are given by
{M]{ Y} + [C]{ I:'} + [K]{ r} = {F(t)} (26)
in which M, C, and K are assembled mass, damping and
stiffness matrices of the diseretized system, respectively.
In general, the assembly process involves transformation
and condensation that reduces the system degree-of-
freedom to the global coordinate system consisting of two
translations and one rotation per story level. The
preceding equations of motion may be solved by means of
modal superposition, direct frequency and time domains,
and recursive z-transform techniques. In the following, a
brief outline of these techniques is presented.
The normal mode approach may be utilized wherein
the undamped eigenvectors facilitate decoupling of
coupled systems of equations. Employing the standard
transformation of coordinates involving undamped
eigenvectors of the system offers the following uncoupled
system of equations.
~.~+ 2 ~ ~i~+ o)2zi = P~(t) (27)
in which Pi(t)= { dPti~}r{f(t)} and ~i is the critical damping
ratio in the ith mode. The transformation used herein
leads to a mode displacement method in which the
problem coordinates are related to modal coordinate by
{y} =[¢]{z} (28)
in which [4,] is the modal matrix. In an alternate format
generally known as the mode-acceleration approach, the
displacement is given by
{y}=EK]-~{F}-[¢][e)2]-'{z} (29)
The first term in the above equation is the pseudo-static
response, while the second term gives the method its
name 9°. The presence of ~02 term in the denomonator
improves the convergence of the superposition technique.
Therefore, this approach may be useful in reducing errors
in calculated responses introduced by conventional
modal truncation in a mode-displacement method.
By the properties of the Fourier transforms and the
orthogonality of random Fourier components, the mean
square value of response components due to wind loads at
the ith node is given by
[¢][;Gz(f)df][¢] (30)
[G,(r)(f)] = [H~r'(i2xf)]*[Gr(f)][H")(i2xf)] (31)
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
{Gv(f)] = [¢]rESF(f)][O] (32)
(2xf ) r
{H~')(i2xf)] - (2n)2 [(f2 _ f 2 ) + 2iCff.] (33)
in which [H(i2xf)] = a diagonal matrix of frequency
response function or mechanical admittance function;
[St(f)] = the cross-power spectral density matrix of the
forcing function; and [q~]=the modal matrix that is
normalized with respect to the mass matrix. The
superscript, r, represents the derivative of response, i.e.,
r = l , 2, 3 denotes velocity, acceleration and jerk,
respectively 73'91'92. The acceleration and jerk responses
are required for occupancy comfort 93-98.
The integration involved in the preceding equations for
lightly damped structures may be performed by
separating the resonant and background response
components. The resonant component is evaluated by
means of the residue theorem in which the excitation is
idealized as white noise 99' 10o. The implicit assumption in
this simplification is that the forcing function is replaced
by a white noise with a constant spectral density function
at the structural natural frequency. The response due to
background effects may be evaluated on the basis of a
quasi-static assumption
N
o},,=,,=~
E 4(2xf,,)'* ~,,m~
+ (--. q52(SYo"GF.(f)df (2rcf.) a" (34)
./'=, (2xf.) 4
For nonclassically damped systems, commonly used
modal superposition techniques are not directly
applicable. The stochastic dynamic equations of the
system may be expressed in terms of a state-vector which
provides a convenient solution ~°t. The equations of
motion are recast as a system of 2N state coordinates
{A]{)((t)} + [B]{X(t)} = {F(t)} (35)
{A]=[[IM]
[0] [M]] [B]= [-[M] [o]]
[c] j L [o] [k] J
x t ;lit v(t)={Z} (36)
The 2N eigenvector corresponding to the previous
equations permit decoupling of equations by utilizing the
expansion theorem. The uncoupled system of equations is
given by
{A*]{Z:(t)} + [B*]{Z(t)} = [¢p]r{F(t)} (37)
in which X(t)= q~z(t) and X(t)= q~(t), q~= modal matrix
(2N x 2N) consisting of eigenvectors of equation (35). The
response cross-spectral density matrix may be derived
{ s x ( f ) ] = [flIi2 fl][s (fl][fl*(i2,¢l] T I38)
[o] ]
k[o] [sI(f)] ]
in which [/t(i2rcf)] = [tp][i2nf[M*] + [K*]] -1[ tp]r. The
(39)
response cross-spectral density matrix contains
information on the spectral and cross-spectral densities of
175
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
the system displacements and velocities. By partitioning
[Sx(f)] such that
[-[Si/(f)]
{Sx(f)]= L[Sy;(t) ]
[Siy(f)]~
[Syy(f)].J
(40)
The response cross-spectral density matrix may also be
obtained directly in the frequency domain without
resorting to the normal mode approach
{Sx,,,(f)] = [H~')(i2rcf)][SF(n)][H~"*(i2rcf)] r (41)
{n~')(i27rf)] = (2rtf)'[ - (2nf)2 [M] + i2nf[C] + [K]] - '
(42)
in which [Sx(t)] is an N x N response spectral density of
the rth derivative of displacement response consisting of
diagonal elements representing the spectral density and
off-diagonal elements representing the cross-spectral
relationship; [H(i2rcf)] = matrix of frequency response
function with * and superscript 'T' denoting the complex
conjugate and transpose respectively; and r=higher
derivatives, i.e., r equal to 1, 2, 3 represents velocity,
acceleration, and jerk components, respectively. The
evaluation of the preceding equation involves matrix
manipulation including inversion over all frequencies of
interest. If a system has a large number of degrees of
freedom or if the frequencies of interest are large in
number, the matrix operations and hence the computer
time for their evaluations becomes large. However, this
direct approach does not require the evaluation of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors and the assumption of a
classical damping matrix is not a prerequisite for the
implementation of this procedure.
In the time domain the equations of motion may be
integrated directly using a numerical step-by-step
procedure ~°2. Like the previous section, the term 'direct'
implies that the equations of motion are not transformed
into a different coordinate system prior to the numerical
integration. The step-by-step integration is based on the
equilibrium of forces acting on a dynamic system at
discrete time points, separated by small time intervals,
within the interval of the solution. The variation of the
response components, e.g., displacement, velocity and
acceleration within each small time interval is assumed to
follow a given form which determines the accuracy,
stability and cost of the solution procedure. Some of the
few commonly used effective direct integration methods
are the central difference method (explicit integration
scheme), the Houbolt method, Wilson 0 method, the
Newmark method (implicit integration schemes). Details
of these methods may be found in Refs 102 and 103. The
step-by-step integration may be carried out after
transforming the system equation in normal coordinates
which considerably reduces computational effort.
For the implementation of integration schemes the
time histories of loading function are required as opposed
to the description of the spectral density function. This
introduces an additional effort to efficiently simulate
sample functions of multi-variate and/or multi-
dimensional random processes. These sample functions
may be generated by utilizing FFT-based techniques, or
alternatively, by means of parametric time series
approach, e.g., ARMA (auto-regressive moving average).
The ARMA representation entails weighted recursive
relations that connect the random quantity being
176 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
simulated at successive increments. This procedure
utilizes a recursive relationship in which the coefficients
are ascertained from the given covariance of the random
field. The desired sample functions are generated using
the recursive relationship I°4-117. Unlike FFT-based
techniques this approach does not require storage of large
amounts of data, rather only limited information, e.g.,
coefficient matrices are stored and long time histories may
be simulated through recursive relationships 11a-12°
Further details are discussed in a later section focusing on
numerical simulation of wind effects.
The time histories of response components and their
covariance may be effectively obtained in a recursive form
for a multi-degree-of-freedom system subjected to
random wind loading utilizing a z-transform ~21. The
input to the system may be described at discrete time
intervals or be represented by an ARMA model. The
associated response is expressed in terms of either an
ARMA model or time histories which may be utilized to
derive the response covariance. The recursive techniques
reduce the computational effort required for the analysis,
thus offers an efficient procedure for response analysis. It
is noteworthy that this approach, like other direct
methods, does not require the damping matrix to be
classical.
The response of a multi-degree of freedom system to
multi-correlated random wind loads may be carried out
by employing a theory of stochastic differential
equations 122-126. By applying Ito's stochastic differential
equations, the multi-correlated stochastic process is
represented by a white noise filtered by a set of first order
linear differential equations. The calculation of response
variances may be simplified and computational time
reduced compared to methods using power spectral
densities ~22. The description of wind velocity vector by
stochastic differential equation makes it possible to also
simulate these random processes numerically.
Distributed systems
The dynamic behaviours of distributed systems, e.g.,
strings, membranes, beams, shells, are given by respective
partial differential equations. Of primary interest here are
structures, such as transmission cables, long span bridges,
chimneys and cooling towers. The distributed system
response may be evaluated by a finite element
discretization or the partial differential equations may be
recast to an ordinary differential equation using the
Galerkin or Rayleigh Ritz approach for the desired
number of modes. In this manner, the problem is reducec~
to a discrete-parameter space in which only a limited
number of modes are used to describe the response. For
example, the vibration of a simply supported beam in the
vertical plane under the action of a distributed
aerodynamic load is given by
72 (E 82y'~+ 8y 02y
,3x2 I~x2 ] C - ~ + A p ~ = p ( x , t ) (43)
where El=flexural rigidity, c=external damping, A =
area of the beam cross-section, p=density of'beam
material and p(x, t)= spatio-temporally varying external
load. For constant value of flexural rigidity, the geometric
displacement coordinates may be expressed by the

normal coordinates in the following form
y(x, t)= ,,~= ~ Ym(t) sin mrtx
l (44)
The mean and correlation function of the space-time
variations of the displacement are given by
y(x,t)= ~o ;_ ~ h(x,u,t-z)E[P(u,z)]dudz (45)
(46)
h(x 2, u2, t2 -z2)Rp(Ul, u2, tl, z2) dul du2 dr1 dz 2 (47)
in which h(x, u, t) is the Green's function and represents
system response to 6(~-u)6(z)
2 ~ nnx nzru
h(x, u, t) =-;-L.~1-- G,(t) Sin T Sin (48)
T
in which
1 The extensions to two- and three-dimensional structures,
G.(t) = pAogo e -~"~''Sin coo(t)H(t)
= c/(2mo~.) and H(t) = heaviside function,
Rp(Ul, u2, "c1,T2) = space-time correlation of loading, and
the operator E[ ] = expected value of the function. The
corresponding frequency domain expressions are
obtained by the Weiner-Khinchine relationship
Sy(x,,x2,~o)=~offooH(Xl,Ul,og)Sp(u,,u2,og)
x H(x2, U2, (D) du 1 du 2 (49)
in which H(xl,u~,oJ)=Green's function in frequency
domain which represents the system response to
6(~-u)e i~'t, and Sp(ul,u2,0~)=cross-spectral density
function of aerodynamic loading.
In the framework of a finite element discretization, the
representation of loading has been treated with different
levels of sophistication that vary from fully correlated
loads associated with area around a nodal point to
consistent generalized nodal loads based on randomly
distributed pressure fields 127-13°. The element size in a
finite element discretization has an important bearing on
the suitable representation of the pressure fields that are
not fully correlated along the spatial dimensions of the
structure. The smaller the correlation of the fluctuating
pressure field, the element size needs to be smaller as well
to adequately describe the loading function. The concept
of local averages of random fields provides an amenable
adaptation to a finite element discretization of a random
pressure field into which the local averages are expressed
over a finite element and the inter-element covariance is
obtained from the covariance of the local averages.
Vanmarcke 67 has introduced operational quantities such
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 177
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
as the scale of fluctuation and variance function to
describe the second-order statistics of locally averaged
random fields. This representation permits efficient
evaluation of the covariance matrix between local
averages associated with pairs of finite elements involving
simple algebraic operations such as sums and products
instead of multiple integrations.
A finite element formulation involving a numerical
integration procedure has been presented in Ref. 130 for
predicting the stationary random response of cooling
tower type shells to distributed random wind loads. The
shape functions are used to form the matrix of cross-
spectral densities of the generalized nodal forces for the
wind loads. In Ref. 69, the dynamic response of a shear
beam is evaluated utilizing a Galerkin weak form. The
random pressure loading is described by a random field of
locally averaged values. The influence of correlation on
the dynamic response of the beam is demonstrated.
The stationary response of one-dimensional combined
linear viscously damped dynamic systems to stationary
random excitation has been determined in a closed form
using Green's function and a classical normal mode
approach TM. The resulting computations are exact for
the case of proportionally damped systems and
approximate, though convergent to the exact solution as
N gets large, for nonproportionally damped systems TM.
and examples of particular interest to wind excited
structures such as structures with heavily damped
vibration absorbers, are immediate and the latter is being
presently pursued. The treatment for discrete lumped
mass systems with secondary systems is available among
others, for example, in Ref. 132.
The influence of fluid-containing appendages on the
dynamic response of multi-degree-of-freedom systems
subjected to environmental loads, e.g., earthquakes,
waves, or winds, has been investigated la3. The modal
properties of a system comprising of a fluid-containing
appendage attached to a multi-degree-of-freedom system
are expressed in terms of the individual dynamic
properties of the primary and secondary systems. The
primary system is modelled as a lumped mass multi-
degree-of-freedom system. An equivalent lumped mass
model of the sloshing fluid is used to represent the
secondary system. The covariance matrix of the response
components of the combined system are computed
utilizing the modal impulse-response function. An
important feature of the combined system is that the
sloshing modes of the secondary fluid appendage are
tuned to the fundamental mode of the primary system. A
building with a water tank situated at any floor, excited
by wind is used to illustrate the modal impulse-response
function. The presence of a water tank dampens the wind
induced oscillations through water sloshing.
Design load
In any design application, it is usually necessary to
have a probabilistic description of peak response of a
building subjected to random wind excitation. This can
be obtained from theoretical consideration of the
probability density of extreme values of a normal
stationary random signal 152,1s 3. The expected values of
largest peak response experienced in the time interval, T,
are given by
y~a~x= kt'ltrr,,, (50)
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
in which k('}=the peak factor, and superscript, r
represents the response derivatives, i.e., r=0, for
displacement, and r = 3 would represent the jerk
component. The peak factor ~52 is, approximately
0.557
k~'}= x/(2 In v~')T) + (51)
(x/~ v(')T)
•(r)= ~(~~o f2{r+l)Sy(f ) df ~1/2
(52)
The preceding formulation provides satisfactory
estimates for wide banded excitation, whereas, for
narrow banded excitation it yields conservative estimates.
Alternative descriptions for those cases are available in
the literaturC 54.
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF WIND EFFECTS
The dynamic response analysis of structures is often
performed in the frequency domain for the sake of
computational expedience. However, there are cases,
such as system nonlinearity, in which the frequency
domain analysis is computationally prohibitive, and the
time domain solution provides a convenient alternative.
The input to the numerical time domain solution requires
corresponding time histories of the space-time variations
in the load effects - for example, wind pressure. This is
accomplished by generating sample functions or a
random field with the desired statistical and spectral
characteristics. One of the traditional approaches for
simulation is to utilize a superposition of trigonometric
functions, e.g., cosine function, with statistically
independent phase angles 11s'12°. Through a large
number of terms in the summation, the continuous energy
spectra of the desired random variable is approximated
by its discrete form. The Gaussinity of the simulated
numbers is established by virtue of the central limit
theorem. The simulated numbers can be conveniently
incorporated in a Monte Carlo simulation of the response
of a system utilizing a numerical integration scheme. The
procedure in principle is applicable not only to scalar
processes, but may be applied to multivariate and/or
multidimensional fields lIsA2°. Although the summation
of large sets of trigonometric terms involved in the
simulation procedure renders this approach com-
putationally inefficient. In this context, it has been noted
that the summation of cosine terms may be carried out by
utilizing a fast Fourier transform (FFT). This approach
makes the simulation procedure computationally quite
efficient 11s'~2°. The time series of random wind
fluctuations at ten locations on a TLP were simulated to
generate time histories of the surge, pitch and yaw
direction. The statistics of the simulated response
estimates were used to validate an iterative frequency
domain response technique 43. A further discussion of this
study is provided in the section on offshore structures.
The use of an FFT technique though improves the
computational efficiency, but not without the expense of
increased demand on computer storage. The difficulty
increases manifold in the event the simulated data is
required over a long period or the problem in hand
encompasses multivariate and/or multi-dimensional
processes. Furthermore, the simulation is often carried
178 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
out in a batch mode which precludes a real time
application, e.g., driving a wave maker in an ocean wave
simulation basin 119.
The parametric time series modelling, as popularized
by Box and Jenkins 116,~16 for time series forecasting,
have been found to provide good simulation of random
processes. Many stochastic discrete time processes may
be approximated by a rational function model. These
models have been extensively used in statistical signal
processing for estimating spectral density functions of
given time series. Their application in engineering
mechanics is rather recent. A number of studies have
addressed ARMA methods related to engineering
mechanics ~°4~7 In this model, an input driving
sequence e(n) and the output sequence x(n) that is to
model the data are related by the linear recursive operator
q P
{X(n)}= ~ B , e ( n - r ) - ~, A,X(n-r) (53)
r=0 r=l
The time series {X(n)} is said to be an ARMA
(autoregressive moving average) random process of order
(p, q). The excitation sequence is composed of zero mean,
unit varance, uncorrelated random variable (i.e., white
noise), A, and B, are autoregressive and moving average
matrices that may be obtained through exact knowledge
of the correlation of the time series. The system transfer
between the input and output in terms of z-transform for
the ARMA process is a rational function
vq_ b z-"
Hlz)=- /_,~_~o2"- (54)
1 + L~ = 1 a,.z- '~
The power spectral density of the output process of
ARMA filter driven by a white noise process is given by
the square of the modulus of the preceding transfer
function. The autoregressive parameters are readily
obtained through use of Jule Walker equations that may
be utilized to obtain efficient autoregressive moving
average models 1°9. Finding an optimal ARMA model
with lowest orders is the desired objective. The details are
omitted here, since the subject matter can be the topic of
an entire review article. In Refs 104 and l l0, the
simulation of random fluctuations in wind field and ocean
wave height fluctuations are discussed together with the
errors associated with the particular orders of the ARMA
model for a desired spectral description.
In sum, the ARMA models facilitate digital simulation
of random fields through a simple recursive numerical"
relationship once the corresponding weighting matrices
in the model have been determined. The simulated
process conforms to the prescribed correlation structure
of the random field. In this manner, the simulation
process involves determination and storage of the filter
coefficient matrices, generation of white noise vector and
utilization of the recursive relationship for generation of
the desired time series. As such, this technique both from
computation and from computer storage points of view is
very efficient and is suitable for real time operations and
offers differing advantages. It should be noted that
ARMA models are not only used for simulation of time
series, but also provide a high resolution spectral
estimation from limited observations.
 Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem

,t<[
.01!
.oo~! ,' \
cross-section building. Fig. 6 shows the mode-generalized
spectra in the alongwind, acrosswind and torsional
direction for a square cross-section building in urban flow
.0001L
.000011 ~ !
t __i \ •
conditions. In a recent study, a high-frequency force
balance has been utilized to quantify aerodynamic loads
in the alongwind, acrosswind and torsional directions 1'.4.
\< Scale model of a variety of basic and complex building
configurations with a range of different aspect ratios were
/x exposed to simulated urban and suburban boundary
°~ \ // '1
conditions 144. The results were analysed to provide
mode-generalized loads and their correlations.
o
0~ / Based on aeroelastic model tests of buildings, several
a. expressions for the acrosswind loads are available in
literature and are summarized in Ref. 17. Isyumov (see
Ref. 17) has formulated an empirical model derived from
~3 aeroelastic studies of a variety of buildings for estimating
.-'2
dynamic torque on buildings. These relationships can be
o
E Reduced Frequency, N B / V h conveniently introduced in codes and specifications for
Z o~ practicing engineers.
.001 .01 .1 1 The lateral-torsional motion of tall buildings to wind
loads has been reported in Refs 146 and 147. In Ref. 146 a
Fig. 5. Cross power spectral density of acrosswind simplified formulation has been used to represent the
forcing function at five levels on a tall square cross-section dynamic behaviour of torsionally coupled buildings by
building (after Ref. 74) considering a class of buildings in which all floors have the
same geometry in plan, the eccentricities between the
elastic and mass centre are the same for all stories, and the
APPLICATIONS ratio of the story stiffness in lateral directions is about the
Land based structures same for all stories. For a complex structural system with
Buildings, towers, chimneys, bridges, power lines and unconventional configuration, the preceding simplifi-
tension structures are typical examples of land based cation may not be true and a comprehensive building
structures that are sensitive to the effects of wind. The model is necessary. Methods of random vibration theory
research in the wind engineering field has in the past been were used to estimate the rms and peak values of various
primarily concentrated in the area of land based components of response. The results indicate that the
structures. Due to the complexity of the fluid structure torsional response contributes significantly towards the
interactions involved, with the exception of the overall dynamic response of a symmetric building.
alongwind response, the quantification of aerodynamic Inclusion of coupling between the lateral and torsional
loads is possible only through physical modelling of degree-of-freedom further increases the building
structures in simulated wind conditions in boundary layer response. A typical plot ofrms response in the alongwind,
wind tunnels 13s The alongwind response has been shown
to be satisfactorily treated by a 'Gust Factor Approach'.
Random-vibration-based gust factors translate the
dynamic loading caused by atmospheric turbulence into 10 .3 10 -1

an equivalent static loading 32"52-55"136. However, these ll--x

procedures may not always provide accurate response
estimates for the structures that are located in a complex \. / ~ ~
terrain, or surrounded by other structures due to 10 - 4 ~;I t', 10 - 2
significant modification of the approach flow and ,, V \ ',
i III \%'~1
aerodynamic interference effects ~3v.
The acrosswind response and torsional response
///// I
cannot be treated in terms of gust factors inasmuch as 10 . 5 J/ /I II 10-3 ~
they are induced by the unsteady wake fluctuations which
cannot be conveniently expressed in terms of the incident ==
turbulence. Current research is addressing the possibility
of utilizing higher order spectral descriptions, e.g.,
biospectra and bicoherence, and nonlinear transfer
10 - e ..... To,=o. \\ O\ 10 - 4

functions to describe the relationship between the

incident turbulent field and the pressure distribution over \
the separated flow regions laa-~4L~44. In the meantime, \
experimentally derived loading functions have been i i
10 . 3 10 . 2 10 10 o
introduced in lieu of the solution of equations of motion
around a building 7i'73-75'i42-147. The acrosswind and nb

torsional load spectra obtained by synthesizing the Vh

surface pressure field on scale models of typical building Fig. 6. Normalized reduced model aspectra of torsional,
shapes are available in literature 71'~a-75.14~146. Fig. 5 acrosswind and alongwind forces in urban environment on a
describes multi-level acrosswind load spectra on a square tall square cross-section building (after Ref. 146)

Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 179

Wind effects on structures: ,4. Kareem

20.0 the noise variances R=4. The probability density

0 Alongwind function of response in low turbulence approach flow
(BL1, open country condition) at a reduced velocity of 8.5
10.0 A Acrosswind
is best represented by this function. Simultaneously
[]
[] T o r s i o n - i n d u c e d monitored incident velocity fluctuations, alongwind
A
0
response and acrosswind response reveal that the
A
acrosswind response at low reduced velocities is more of
ol
[3 an intermittent nature; whereas, for higher reduced
o
A
0 velocities, well-defined periodic modulations are
E 0 exhibited. The joint probability histogram matrices
(D O between the alongwind and acrosswind motion at low
0 A O
t, reduced velocities are found to be symmetrical about the
[] wind axes, and, as such, tend to indicate the independence
I A
t- of the acrosswind and alongwind motions, and,
o 1.0 0
consequently, the independence of the respective
t'O
excitation mechanisms. This trend of symmetrical joint
z~ 0
0
probability tends to diminish with higher reduced
o velocities. Similar conclusions were derived from the
o
<c normalized deviation between the product of individual
u) A probability distributions (PDF) and the joint probability
distribution (JPDF) TM.
tr
Other structures, for example suspension or cable-
[] 0 stayed bridges, tension structures and power line may be
analysed essentially within the general framework of
0.1 discussion in the preceding sections. However, most of
these structure are very susceptible to aeroelastic effects,
0 which can only be examined on the basis of information
0.06 l ~ , ~ , I , , , , I
provided by wind tunnel tests. The readers may find in
50 100 200
Ref. 7, basic discussion and further references concerning
Vh - ft/sec. such structures, e.g., suspension and cable-stayed bridges,
cable roofs, fabric structures, and powerlines.
Fig. 7. Acrosswind, alongwind and torsional response of Slender towers and stacks of circular cross-section are
a building (after Ref. 146) sensitive to alongwind and acrosswind vibrations. The
alongwind response can be determined by following a
acrosswind and torsional directions is presented in Fig. 7 gust factor approach discussed previously. The
for typical wind speeds. This figure corresponds to an acrosswind force, which is recognized as a significant
uncoupled case and the torsional response is represented source of wind-excited motion of structures of circular
as a translational response at the corner. cross-section, can only be estimated on the basis of semi-
Aeroelastic models of structures provide directly the empirical models derived from experimental
dynamic response of structures that includes the effect of observations. A summary of several procedures for
aerodynamic loads as well as those induced due to estimating acrosswind response of chimneys is given in
structural motion. The time histories of aeroelastic Refs 17 and 79. A comparison of the acrosswind response
response may be utilized to statistically analyse data based on different approaches have been made to the
which helps to bring out several important response observed full-scale response of a number of chimneys in
features. In Ref. 74, an aeroelastic model of a square cross Refs 73, 79 and 93. In the case of cooling towers the
section building was employed to study the dynamic
behaviour and also to validate the response predictions ,40 ' ] i F i ! i i i ]

made on the basis of a random-vibration-based Boundory Loyer I 3 ~ I-'l I ~ l ~ ~

.36
Reduced V e l o c i t y 2 I o "v / x x \
procedures in conjunction with aerodynamic load spectra
32 .... 85-,~,~ ~'~X
derived from statistical integration of surface pressure >-
~- 2 8 Gaussiofl -- - - / P "-~" - \ \
measurements. The predicted and measured response
agree within the limits of the expected experimental ~ .24
errors. The addition of motion induced loads at higher ~ .20
,'~I \:\
reduced velocities produced still closer agreement ..J

between the predicted and measured response.

Some of the features of experimentally measured
acrosswind response characteristics are summarized here.
At low reduced velocities, the acrosswind response
~
~ .08
.12
/
O4
follows a Gaussian distribution. However, as the reduced .oo I l I I I ~, -
velocity increases beyond 6, the probability density "40-3.2 -24 -I.6 -0.8 -0.0 08 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0
function exhibits departure from the normal distribution Y- Ymeon
REDUCED VARIATE - -
and tends to approach the distribution of the sine wave Yrrns

embedded in Gaussian noise (Fig. 8). Standardized Fig. 8. Probability density function of acrosswind
probability density function of a sine wave in Gaussian displacement response of a building at different reduced
noise is also plotted in Fig. 8, for the ratio of sine wave and velocities (after Ref. 74)

180 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4


stresses, meridional, circumferential, and normal
displacements of the tower shell may be obtained based
on a frequency or a time domain approach in the
framework of finite element discretization utilizing
methods fundamentally similar to those used in the
preceding sections. A description of the random pressure
field on the tower surface is essential, whereas, motion
induced loads are insignificant. This information provides
input models of spectra and co-spectra of pressure
fluctuations in the frequency domain and facilitates
simulation of the time histories of fluctuating pressures
consistent with the statistical description of the pressure
field. The time domain approach, though costly helps to
accommodate nonlinearities and other changes that may
take place during the loading process.
Attempts are being initiated to utilize elements of fuzzy
set theory and artificial intelligence to construct expert
systems capable of analysing performance and safety of
structures~ 4a-15o. Wind Engineering problems as stated
previously cover a wide spectrum of interdisciplinary
subjects, thus are well suited for the utilization of expert
systems. A hybrid knowledge-based expert system,
WISER, is being developed for the design modification of
high-rise buildings in the commercial hybrid environment
KEE, marketed by INTELLICORP T M . The current
capabilities of WISER are limited to making design
modifications based on a small number of rules and a
limited data base of experimental measurements.
Continuing efforts hope to achieve a delivery system
available to researchers and practitioners alike.
Offshore structures
As the search for offshore oil and gas supplies moves
into deeper water, the size of conventional fixed-leg
platforms is approaching the economic limit. Several new
structural systems have been proposed for enhancing the
water depth capability of offshore structures. Some of the
promising concepts are guyed or buoyant towers and
tension leg platforms (TLP) 42'4a'47'59'155-1~7 These
structural systems are known as compliant systems,
inasmuch as they are designed to move with the
environmental loads rather than resisting them rigidly. As
a semi-submersible-type buoyant floating platform
moored by several groups of tethers the TLP is expected
to be more profitable in deep water due to its superiority
over conventional platforms in terms of cost, mobility
and operational capability. However, to ensure structural
safety it is essential that a better understanding of the
environmental load effects and associated structural
response be obtained.
Tension leg platforms, because of their compliance, are
much more susceptible to the dynamic effects of wind
loading than are conventional fixed-leg platforms. Thus,
a procedure for estimating the dynamic response ofa TLP
should include both wind and wave load effects. Although
the overall dynamic response is known to contain both
relatively low and high frequency components (induced
by the wind and wave fields, respectively), a simple linear
superposition of the response due to these individual
excitation phenomena may result in an unrealistic picture
of the TLP motion. Indeed, it is recognized that wind
gusts are typically broad-banded and have energy in the
low frequency range which would excite the compliant
surge mode of the TLP at the natural period (Fig. 9). This
motion is controlled by hydrodynamic surge damping. In
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
recent years, several investigators have discussed these
wind-induced oscillations utilizing either the assumption
of a proportional damping 4a,4s.59 or damping induced by
linear chromatic waves 42'156. In a recent study, both time
and frequency domain simulations of the nonlinear
dynamic response of a TLP subjected to random
fluctuating wind field in the presence of depth-varying
currents and random ocean waves are addressed 157-159.
In this study, computationally efficient procedures for the
dynamic response analyses have been developed to
include system nonlinearities of hydrodynamic origin as
well as those due to the geometric displacement. In the
frequency domain a perturbation-based approach
utilizing spectral decomposition and convolution
techniques has been employed for the analysis. The
results of this computationally efficient scheme have been
verified using a time domain approach. The multi-
dimensional correlated random wind and wave fields
were simulated by employing the parametric time series
approach (ARMA) instead of the customary FFT-based
techniques. In the following, a summary of the dynamic
wind effects on offshore structures is presented.
A simplified model of a TLP may be viewed as a rigid
body with six degrees of freedom. In the horizontal
direction, surge, sway and yaw, and in the vertical
direction, heave, pitch and roll represent the respective
degrees of motion. The natural periods of motion in the
horizontal plane are high, whereas in the vertical plane
the values are low. Generally, the surge motion is
predominantly high due to the combined action of wind,
waves and currents. However, due to coupling among
various degrees of freedom and relatively low damping of
hydrodynamic origin in the vertical modes of vibration a
complete analysis of six degree-of-freedom system
subjected to wind, waves, and currents is desirable. A
detailed description of a study that encompasses the
Towers and I
Chimneys
~ong-Spa~
Bridges
L. Buildings _]
L. Jacket & Gravity ~1
Platforms
Surge, S w a y Heave,Pitch EarthQuake
& Yaw Periods/~ & Roll Periods /-~ Spectrum
O
0.
-O
O Spectrum ~ ~=-- Wave / \
"O
tr
, J ,/ , ~ ~ \
0.001 0.01 0.1 10
Frecluency,Hz
A I I I I
1000 100 10 1 0.1
Period, sec.
Fig. 9. Spectral representation of wind, waves, and
earthquake loads (after Ref. 43)
181
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
foregoing concepts conducted by Li and Kareem~ s 7,: s 9 is
beyond the scope of the intended discussion here.
However, following a simplified analysis of surge motion,
a summary of the combined wind, wave and currents
action is presented to make this review self-contained.
At its simplest level the load effects due to wind and
waves may be separated 4a and the influence of
hydrodynamic damping may be included in the analysis
by way of a proportional damping approach. The basis of
this approach is that the surge motion represents a linear
system with an equivalent viscous damping term
characterized by a nominal damping ratio. The effect of
the nominal damping is postulated to be equivalent to the
hydrodynamic viscous damping force. The determination
of this damping term is given in Refs 42, 156 and 159 for
deterministic nonchromatic and random waves,
respectively. The estimated values of the equivalent
hydrodynamic damping have been generally found to be
large which tend to suppress high levels of wind-induced
dynamic amplification effects. The magnitude of the
hydrodynamic damping is dependent on the drag
coefficient used in the Morrison's equation to express the
hydrodynamic forces. It is important to point out that the
estimates of the drag coefficient corresponding to the high
Reynolds numbers and low Keulegan-Carpenter
numbers of interest in the analysis of TLPs with large
circular legs are not available in the literature. Some data
from laboratory experiments at low Keulegan-Carpenter
numbers is available, but these are limited to relatively
small Reynolds number 160,161.
Wind induced response
The single point formulation of wind loads on a TLP is
similar to equation (15). The multi-point representation
in the surge, pitch, and yaw directions are accordingly
described by
F(t)=pCoffAU(z)u(y,z,t)dydz (55)
T(t)=pCoffAtf(z)u(y,z,t)ydydz (56)
M(t)=pcoffU(z)u(y,z,t)zdydz (57)
In order to evaluate the preceding equations the wind
velocity field needs to be simulated at n locations on the
TLP. The projected area of the TLP is divided into n
segmental area and the velocity fluctuations are simulated
at the centroid of these areas. The simulated records
match the required power spectral density at each
location and also satisfy the desired coherence for their
respective spatial separation. The preceding equations
may be discretized
F(t)=p ~, Co,Aitfui(t) (58)
i=1
T(t)=p ~ Cn,A~Uiui(t) (59)
i=1
M(t) = p ~ Co,Aiz-lfiui(t) (60)
i=1
182 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
in which A~ and Co, are the segmental area and drag
coefficient, i represents the ith segement and u~(t) is the
simulated velocity at the ith segment.
In the frequency domain the previous equations are
given as
S.,
X G(yyl,zl,y2,22; n)dy 1 d y 2 d z 2 d z 2 (61)
x G(yyl, zl, Y2, z2; n) dy 1 dy2 dzl dz2 (62)
x G(yl,zl,y2,z:,; n)dy 1 dy 2 dz I dz, (63)
in which G( )=cross spectrum of wind velocity
fluctuations.
These equations require a digital computer for
evaluating the four-fold integrals for a range of
frequencies. A Monte Carlo integration scheme can help
to evaluate these integrals expeditiously 63. Alternatively,
the preceding equation may be simplified on the
assumption that S,(n) ~- S,(y 1, z I ; n). Accordingly,
equations (61), (62) and (63) may be modifed as
SrF(n) = ( pCo)2 S.(n)J F~(n) (64)
Srr(n) = (pCo)2Su(n)JTT(n) (65)
SMM(n) = (pCo)2S.(n)JMu(n) (66)
in which Jvr(n), Jrr(n) nad Juu(n)=functions which
incorporate the correlation of velocity fluctuations. These
are sometimes referred to as the aerodynamic admittance
functions and are expressed as 43
4
JFF(n) =-2-2T_2(e-':,+ er - 1)(e'EZ+ez- 1)
8zEy
(67)
JTr(n)=~-~2
8y/;z
2
/~y
-~2r2 l+ey+
+ 1] (681
2 [-h'-3e2+122 - ~ l+e,+~-
+ 1] + J.In)
in which le = distance between the centroid of the section
from the level at which pitching moment is computed;
er=nOChW/lf; ez=nOCvD/U; O = x / l + r 2 / ( l + r ) ; and
r = Ch W/CvD.
A simplified example is presented to illustrate the
concepts represented here regarding the quantification of
the wind loading and associated structural response,
using single-point and multiple-point representation of
the fluctuating wind field in the time domain and
frequency domains. For the single-point represerrtation,
the drag coefficient is synthesized from the component
drag coefficients, in which the drag coefficient of each
major component is specified from established

aerodynamic data. The influence of interaction due to
surrounding components, i.e., shielding and interference
effects, is taken into account. The synthesis approach
presented here should not be considered as a substitute
for a wind tunnel test. This provides only a good starting
value for the preliminary design of the TLP, and it is
recommended that a wind tunnel test be conducted for
the final design 162'163. The components drag is used in
the multiple-point representation to synthesize the
overall loading. The nonlinear stiffness characteristics
were computed from a finite element program utilizing
both tether geometry and platform hydrostatics. With
increasing displacement the TLP becomes stiffer and the
natural periods are reduced. A proportional damping
model was used and an assumption was made that the
TLP would oscillate linearly about the static equilibrium
position. Accordingly, the mean structural response to
wind was computed using a nonlinear static analysis
program based on a Newton-Raphson approach. Both
single- and multiple-point representation of the wind field
were employed utilizing different descriptions of the wind
spectra. The results in time domain are described in Fig.
10. The results for surge response are summarized in
Table 1. The numbers in parentheses and brackets are
based on the Davenport and the expression proposed by
the author for offshore applications 43, whereas, the rest of
the values are obtained utilizing Harris spectrum 14. The
white noise idealization of the load spectra at the
structural natural frequency provides expedient response
estimates and the results exhibit fair comparison with the
full-spectral method. The results suggest a good
agreement between the time and frequency domain
analysis in view of the assumption made in the frequency
domain that the structure vibrates linearly about its static
equilibrium position. The multiple-point loading includes
partial spatial correlation over the entire structure which
results in response estimates lower than the single-point
formulation where it is tacitly assumed that the wind
fluctuations are fully correlated. The results for yaw and
pitch response are not reported here for brevity, their
comparison for different cases was very similar to that of
the surge response.
Wind waves and currents induced response
The governing equations of motion of a TLP subjected
to random wind and waves, and currents are given here to
implement their combined action.
(M + A)X'+ Ca)( + R(x)=FA(U~,uA,)()
+Fl(ti)+Fo(U,u,X) (70)
in which M = mass of the structure, A = added mass, x is
the structural response, Ca=added damping, R(X)=
restoring force, FA(UA,UA, X) = aerodynamic force,
Fl(d)=inertial force and Fo(U,u,X)=drag force. The
restoring force consists of mechanical and hydrodynamic
sources. A precise description of the restoring force may
be assembled from a finite element discretization of both
the structural system and the surrounding fluid.
The loads are defined as
NA
FA= ~, 0.5pAAACA,(UA + u ~ - - X ) 2 (71)
i=1
in which PA= air density; AA, area of the ith section; and-
= of a TLP subjected to wind, waves and currents are
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
U4, u~ =mean and fluctuating wind at the ith section.
The inertial force is given by
N ~3U~
F, = ~ C, p Vi - - (72)
i= 1 c~t
in which N = t o t a l number of elements below water,
p = water density, Vi = volume of the ith element and ui =
wave particle velocity at the ith element. The drag force is
expressed as
N
Fd= ~ 0.SCnpA,(U,+u,-X)lU,+u,-X [ (73)
i=1
in which Co = drag coefficient and Ui = current velocity.
The preceding equations have nonlinearity of both
hydrodynamic and geometric origin which precludes a
straightforward frequency domain analysis. Therefore,
the time domain analysis remains the only convenient
alternative means of solving the preceding equations. The
time domain analysis requires simulation of random wind
and wave fields that is followed by a numerical evaluation
of the response. This procedure involves considerable
computational effort which is further increased if the TLP
is modelled as a six-degree-of-freedom system. The
expedience of a frequency domain analysis has lent
impetus to develop new approaches for solving the
foregoing problem by means of a frequency domain
analysis. Therefore, a frequency domain analysis utilizing
a perturbation-based approach involving a spectral
decomposition and convolution has been developed159.
In this approach, the loading and restoring forces were
decomposed into various orders of perturbation terms.
For example, the aerodynamic loading term was
decomposed into the mean, first-, and second-order
components, and the velocity dependent terms. Similarly,
the wave induced loading was expressed in terms of
Hermitian Polynomials and then decomposed into the
mean, first-, and second- and third-order wave forces. The
restoring force was expanded in terms of Taylor Series.
An iterative scheme was employed to solve various
components of response. The spectral convolution
technique was used to express higher-order spectral
descriptions. The decomposition of loading into several
uncorrelated components facilitated a computationally
efficient means of evaluating spectral density function of
various response components. Further details of the
formulation are given in Ref. 159.
In order to validate the preceding frequency domain
approach, the results are compared to the time domain
solution. First, the fluctuations in wind and wave fields
are simulated by means of an ARMA (Autoregressive
Moving averages) algorithm. Next, a discrete
convolution model is utilized to generate time series of
wave particle velocities and diffraction forces from
simulated wave height fluctuations. The time histories of
wave particle acceleration are obtained from the
associated velocity by means of discrete differentiation
schemes. Finally, a time marching scheme is used to
estimate the dynamic response of TLP. Discrete
interpolation techniques are employed to interpolate
between simulated data points in the parameter space.
Typical estimates of nominal equivalent damping values
183
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem

LOADING RESPONSE

SURGE

IL i~ ,
I I I'
~o ' :! f ii ,I
r l
I i i
'J'

1 ' l
io.~o ~o.oc )~ ¢c ~co sc:o GO : 3 '~:9 eo,oo ~o oo 1~o.,,o
D~VENPOP r MOLT-PT, ~:MoLC'ION *IME D~MnIU ISEC:I¥1C I ~

PITCH
-f,g

~8
z~;

]0,~0

~VENPORT MULT-PT. SIMULRTION TIME OOMQIN 15EC] ( X I O I I

YAW

9-
:xg

I
10.O0 ~ .
L~,~O 2¢O¢ ~.~, :G 4:,:0
C~EikPOGZT F ' j L ° - ~ T . ~J'I.L~'BCt] "IV[ O~I'I~IN IS;~CI { I ) 0 I )

Fig. 10. Time histories of aerodynamic forces on a T L P and surge, pitch and yaw responses (after Ref. 59)

provided in Fig. 11. The results indicate a good increasingly critical for the design of constructed facilities.
comparison of the frequency domain approach with the Intrinsic variability associated with both spectral
results computed from the time domain analysis thus resistance and wind load effects can seriously affect the
validating the computationally efficient frequency performance of structures in hostile environment. Recent
domain approach. As noted earlier, the hydrodynamic developments in the area of probabilistic methods and
damping in the surge motion ofa TLP is quite significant. statistical inference offer a mathematical framework that
will enable designers to implement uncertainties arising
from a variety of sources more effectively into their design
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF UNCERTAIN process (Fig. 12). Some of these developments are
SYSTEMS discussed here.
The significance of risk analysis and need to go beyond Uncertainty in the system parameters such as mass,
traditional deterministic design approaches is becoming stiffness and damping may arise either from spatial

184 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4

 Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem

Table 1. SurgeRMS response (metres)

Time domain Frequency domain

Wind speed at White noise

10 metres Static displacement Single-point Multiple-point Single-point Multiple-point idealization
10 4.73 1.69 1.63 1.44 1.44 1.26
(1.67) (1.62) (1.41) (1.43) (1.24)
[1.25]
15 10.64 3.62 3.47 3.25 (3.27) 3.01
(3.49) (3.31) (3.15) (3.11) (2.86)
[3.11]
20 17.68 4.56 4.25 4.63 4.66 4.32
(4.I 1) (3.91) (4.36) (4.25) (3.93)
[-4.94]
25 24.29 5.67 5.21 6.21 6.25 5.84
(4.94) (4.88) (5.62) (5.48) (5.12)
[7.31]

0.24 []
xtP " \ --Frequency domain
0.22 - in

N
0.20 -

<
= 0.18 -
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
Z 0.16

0.14
OF UNCERTAIN
<
C
0.12 . , ~ 0
1.36e-20 1.00e-1 2.00e-1
SYSTEMS
PEAK WAVE FREQUENCY (JONSWAP)
Fig. 11. Equivalent hydrodynamic damping

random variations in the material, its fabrication, or its

mathematical idealization. For example, the contribution
STRUCTURAL
of partition walls and some cladding components of high-
rise buildings introduces uncertainty in the overall system
stiffness estimates. Once the spatial randomness in the RELIABILITY AND
structural properties becomes sizeable, it becomes
essential to incorporate these characteristics in the
analysis as random variables. The level of uncertainty RISK ASSESSMENT
associated with damping is significant, which introduces
marked variability in the wind-excited response. In the
following section, uncertainty associated with the loading
and response parameters are discussed. Next, the
propagation of uncertainty and the influence of
parametric uncertainties on the loading and structural
l
response are analysed. Finally, an example is presented to
illustrate the influence of parametric uncertainties on the
dynamic response of a tall reinforced concrete chimney. IMPROVED
Uncertainty analysis
Uncertainty in the quantification of the wind loads, DECISION-MAKING
compounded by the variability in the structural
parameters is reflected in the dynamic response. These PROCESSES
uncertainties are examined here systematically under
three categories: (a) wind environment and meteoro-
logical data, (b) parameters reflecting wind-structure
interactions, and (c) structural properties. Fig. 12. Dynamics of uncertain systems

Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 1115

Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
Wind environment and meteorological data
In any design application, the expected maximum
response of a wind sensitive structure is estimated based
on the extreme wind speed over the lifetime of the
structure. For the serviceability limit state the period
over, which satisfactory structural performance is
expected, may be expressed in terms of some alternative
interval. The estimation of the lifetime extreme wind
speed involves a selection of a model for predicting the
maximum yearly wind using the best fitting cumulative
distribution function of annual maximum mean hourly
wind speed, which is further converted to a probabilistic
description of the maximum lifetime wind speed. This is
accomplished following the assumptions that the extreme
yearly wind speeds are statistically independent and the
maximum lifetime wind speed is at least as large as the
extreme yearly wind speed in the first, second, and
subsequent years. Past research in this area has shown
that the asymptotic probability distributions of the
largest values are appropriate models for the extreme
annual wind speed distribution 164-166'169. Analysis of
data at various locations with well-behaved wind climates
has suggested that the extreme value Type I distribution
in general provides a good fit to the extreme yearly wind
speed data. It is possible that the set of data for a
particular location can be best fitted by other
distributions, e.g., Type II, and Rayleigh distribution
(Weibull distribution with tail parameter equal to 2) 167.
The selection of distribution has possible implications
from a structural reliability viewpoint 168"169.
The estimation of design wind speed has inherent
modelling, sampling, and observation errors 166.168,169
Modelling errors are introduced due to the choice of wind
distribution. The selection of the extreme value
distribution may be made based on Gumbel's classical
method, or statistical inference utilizing extreme order
statistics. Sampling error results from limited data from
which the parameters in the distribution are estimated.
Accurate predictions are generally impaired by a lack of
sufficient data base. The sampling errors tend to diminish
with increasing sample size. The choice of a method used
to estimate parameters of a distribution, e.g., method of
moments or method of maximum likelihood may further
introduce variability in the estimation of the wind speed.
Observational errors are introduced in the wind data,
mainly due to human error or malfunction of the
instruments which are used to collect the data. Additional
uncertainty is introduced as a result of adjustment in the
averaging period of wind from the fastest-mile wind speed
to the mean hourly wind speed, the effect of local
topography at the anemometer site and the
transformation of wind speed from one terrain to another.
The parameters of the mean wind flow field, e.g., the
power law exponent, which represent the variation of
wind speed along the height and the surface drag
coefficient used to represent the terrain roughness in the
logarithmic variation of mean wind exhibit variability
that influences the description of the mean wind field. The
single-point description of wind velocity fluctuations is
given by the turbulence intensity and the power spectral
density function. There are several descriptions of the
power spectral density functions over a variety of terrains
available in the literature 1~. In general, the spectral forms
tend to agree in that they approach the Kolmogorov limit
at high frequencies; all differ in their treatment of low
186 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
frequencies 2s'34'4a. Therefore, for the land-based
structures generally characterized by a relatively high
fundamental natural frequency the variability introduced
by the choice of spectral description is relatively small as
compared with the compliant structures with intrinsically
low natural frequencies. The effects are further enhanced
for compliant offshore platforms that are exposed to
turbulent wind over the ocean 43. The length scale of
turbulence that bears functional relationship with the
spectral description has important influence on the
sensitivity of a structural system to wind. It also exhibits
variability in magnitude, and sensitivity to the method of
estimation. Regarding the multi-point representation of
random wind field the description of spatial coherence is
essential for any functional description. The decay model
which is most generally utilized is described in terms of
exponential functions and the decay constants used in
these formulations are sensitive to the terrain features,
height above the ground, or the sea surface and the
relative distance between the points of interest.
Wind-structure interaction
The wind-structure interaction parameters may be
classified as those related to the random pressure field
around the structure and the ones that describe the
overall integral load effects. In the former category, the
multiple-point random pressure field is represented by the
local pressure fluctuations that are described by a spectral
relationship and the correlation or a lack of it between
various locations given by a coherence function. The
functional relationships utilized to describe these
functions and their parameters exhibit variability. The
drag and lift force coefficients, and Strouhal number each
depend upon the cross-section of a member, its aspect
ratio, surface roughness, turbulence length scale and
intensity, and shear in the approach flow. For a
curvilinear cross-section, the dependence of drag and lift
force coefficients and Strouhal number upon Reynolds
number add additional variability in their estimate
values. The loads induced by the structural motion under
the action of external loads are generally described as
aerodynamic damping which is expressed in terms of
aerodynamic derivatives. These loads also exhibit
variability.
Structural properties
Structural properties, for example mass, stiffness and
damping, may exhibit uncertainty in their description
arising either from spatial random variation in the
material, its fabrication, lack of knowledge, or its
mathematical idealization. For example, although the
estimation of mass appears to be very straightforward, it
is often difficult to make a good estimate due to imprecise
construction practice and variability of occupancy loads.
These structural properties influence the dynamic
characteristics of structures, i.e., the natural periods and
mode shapes. A related problem is experienced when a
structure undergoes a series of modifications in the design
phase. Each step in this process requires the analysis of a
modified structure which has lent impetus for the
development of structural dynamics modification
techniques. The dynamic effect of a modification is
incorporated by a direct solution to the modified
structure using the known dynamic characteristics of the
original structure, thus avoiding lengthy reanalysis 170.

Many previous studies, have assumed that structural
systems have deterministic mechanical characterstics or
have implied that the variations in these properties were
considerably smaller than those associated with the
loading. Recently, the dynamic response analysis of
systems with material uncertainties has received
considerable interest. These efforts are focused on the
development of procedures for the dynamic analysis
based on probabilistic methods to implement
uncertainties in the parameter space.
In a simplistic approach for building systems, the
stiffness and mass matrices may be expressed as
[K] = k*[/(] and [M] = M*[2Q]
in which [/(] and [~,1] are deterministic matrices
consisting of mean values of the stiffness and mass
matrices, respectively, K* and M* are random variables
with mean values equal to unity and coefficients of
variation f~r. and taM. equal to tar,, and f~M,,
respectively. This formulation implies that the mass and
stiffness at two adjacent levels are perfectly correlated
with equal coefficients of variation. The quality of
material utilized in fabrication of structural members in
buildings is generally the same that permits equal COVs
and perfect correlation between the stiffness of members
used at different levels. This representation has been
utilized by Portillo and Ang 171, Rojiani and Wen 172, and
Kareem and Hsieh 169. For distribution systems in which
the material variability exhibits spatial dependence,
alternate description of uncertain stiffness and mass based
on the make-up of the medium becomes essential.
Following equation (74), the natural frequencies of the
system may be expressed as
f~ = f * f
in which f * = random variable with mean value equal to
unit, its coefficient of variation, f~I,, is expressed in terms
of f~K, and f~M, following Rayleigh's method and
f = m e a n value of the ith natural frequency. The
simplistic approach considered here results in
deterministic eigenvectors. A prediction error may be
introduced to account for the effect of this formulation.
Alternatively, the random stiffness and mass may be
expressed as sum of unperturbed mean, or a base value
and a small random fluctuation
K=K(1 + ~ ) = / ¢ + ~ ~ o:qDijK
i=lj=l
M=h4t(1 +fl)=h4t+ ~ ~ flijDijM
i=1 j=l
in which/( and .~t are deterministic stiffness and mass
matrices, a, %, fl and flo are normalized random variables
and represent random variation in the stiffness and mass,
respectively, and D o is a matrix with ijth element equal to
unity while the others are zero. The uncertainty in the
preceding variables introduces variability in the
associated eigenvalues and eigenvectors, which may be
expressed as
/=1 *=1 /=1 m=l
Oi=~i'4- ~ ~ (oKmtal.)'}- ~ ~ (0lMm/fll.)
1=1 * = 1 I=1 *=1
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
in which superscript M and K represent contribution of
Uncertain mass and stiffness of the system. Following a
M M
perturbation approach, w~.i, co~=i,~bl,.i, and ~b~mimay be
determined by substituting the preceding equations in the
associated eigenproblem and neglecting the higher order
terms. By equating the coefficients of cq,. and fit. and
carrying out algebraic manipulation
03i~DtmMOi
o~,~,= - 26T-~/6, (80)
wr*i= ~ i (81)
(74)
0,~, = 03,(/( - 032h4)- 1(03,O,,A4r+ 2A4~o~,,)q~, (82)
Or,,= (/( - ¢32A4)- ' (2&,og~m,Al- O,,/()~, (83)
The expected value of the eigenproperties are determined
solving the classical eigenvalue problem. The variability
in these quantities is obtained by solving the preceding
equations. However, in the case of variability in the
eigenvectors, the preceding equations may not be
evaluated as such due to the singularity. Possible
simplifications to overcome numerical difficulties for
determining the variability in eigenvectors have been
proposed by Nelson 1~3 utilizing a modification,
uncertainty in eigenvectors which may be found in the
following few sample references 17°-184. The procedures
that include the second-order terms in the Taylor Series
expansion of the eigenvalues about their unperturbed
values and extension of the differential sensitivity
methods to nonclassically damped systems are presented
(75) for example in Refs 173 and 176.
Quantification of damping is by far the most vexing
problem in structural dynamics. Unlike inertial and
stiffness properties of a structural system, damping does
not refer to a unique physical phenomenon that is often
acquired than engineered. Increasingly, damping is being
recognized as an important factor in the design of
structures that are sensitive to wind excitation. The
ability to estimate damping values accurately at the
design stage would certainly alleviate a major source of
uncertainty from the design of wind sensitive structures.
These are as many damping mechanisms as there are
modes of converting mechanical energy into thermal
(76) energy. A structure vibrating in a fluid is subjected to fluid
dynamic forces which tend to dampen the vibration
resulting from the viscous action of the surrounding fluid.
(77) The damping contribution is generally small in
aerodynamic applications in relation to the mechanical
damping; whereas, in hydrodynamic situations, e.g., a
tension leg platform may experience large hydrodynamic
damping forces. It is however, likely that for some
structures with certain particular shapes the induced fluid
dynamic forces may tend to enhance the oscillations or in
other words result in a negative damping. The effects of
negative aerodynamic damping are often significant and
the system nonlinearities tend to limit amplitude of
oscillations which otherwise may cause severe structural
damage. The negative aerodynamic damping is gene.rally
experienced by vortex excited and galloping bluff bodies.
An element in the damping matrix is generally defined
(79) as a force developed at coordinate i due to unit velocity at
j. In practice, generally the direct evaluation of damping
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 187
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
coefficients for components of a structural system is
impractical. This has led to the customary practice of
expressing damping in terms of measured ratios. The
explicit description of the damping matrix from the
damping ratios may be obtained by several methods
available in the literature (e.g., Ref. 102). The assumption
of proportional damping often invoked to utilize modal
superposition technique permits decoupling of equations
of motion with the aid of modal matrix associated with
the undamped system. In the case of combined dynamical
systems, where generally the proportional damping is not
possible, decoupling may be accomplished utilizing a
state-vector approach ~0L 131.
The selection of an appropriate damping value is a
subject of discussion and controversy. Although it is a
general consensus that damping values change with
amplitude, their functional descriptions are rather
limited 185. The methods employed to ascertain damping
of full-scale structures, and the analysis and
interpretation of data introduce additional uncertainty.
Information available from full-scale measurements for
analysing the variability of damping has been assembled
by Haviland ls6, Jeary ls7, and Davenport and Hill-
Carroll ~s6. Haviland~S6 reported estimates of the means
and coefficients of variation of damping values of a wide
class of structural systems, e.g., steel and concrete
buildings of several heights for different levels of response
amplitudes. The log-normal and Gamma distributions
were shown to provide the best fit to the data.
The uncertainty associated with damping introduces
variability in the response of a system. The damping
uncertainty may be expressed in terms of the coefficients
that appear in the modelling of damping, e.g., Rayleigh's
damping. Alternatively, uncertainty may be assigned to
the critical damping ratios. In view of the impracticality of
determining damping coefficients and the general
engineering practice of expressing structural damping in
terms of critical damping ratios, it is often convenient to
assign uncertainty in damping to the critical damping
ratios. For example, the uncertain damping ratio
associated with the ith mode may be expressed in terms of
the mean and perturbed values
~i = ~(1 + ~i) (84)
in which ~ = m e a n value of damping ratio, and cq=zero
mean Gaussian fluctuation.
The uncertainty in structural properties is propagated
to ascertain its influence on the overall system response.
Propagation of uncertainty
The probabilistic dynamic response of a wind excited
structure is expressed in terms of uncertain parameters
associated with structural properties and aerodynamic
loading. The uncertainty in the foregoing parameters has
been identified in the previous section and it is
customarily expressed in terms of the coefficient of
variation. The influence of uncertainty in these
parameters is propagated in accordance with the
functional relationships that relate them to the structural
response. The propagation of uncertainty may be
accomplished by response. The propagation of
uncertainty may be accomplished by employing one or a
combination of the following approaches: perturbation
techniques; probabilistic finite element methods:
Galerkin-based weak form discretization; Monte Carlo
188 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
simulation; and Second-Moment approaches 68 70.174.
189-199 The perturbation and Second-Moment
techniques enable analytically the implementation of
uncertain properties of the system parameter space in a
finite element framework. In this review the propagation
of uncertainty is illustrated in the context of finite element
discretization by means of a Second-Moment and a
Monte Carlo simulation approach.
Second-Moment analysis
The Second-Moment techniques have provided
practical and efficient means of analysing probabilistic
engineering mechanics problems 2°°-2°5. The attractive-
ness of these approaches stems from the limited statistical
information needed to analyse a problem, e.g., only the
first two statistical moments of a random variable are
sufficient for the analysis. The expression for response is
expanded in terms of the Taylor Series; and only up to the
first- or second-order terms are retained. In the event that
only the first-order terms are retained, the approximation
is referred to as the First-order Second-moment (FOSM)
approach. The coefficient of variation of structural
response R = g(X ~, X 2, X3 . . . . . X.) which is a function of
a number of variables, X~, in the First-order Second-
moment format is given by
~g=R
1 (~ 1
i
'I~xily-22 , ,..i
Z
(85)
in which pq is the correlation between x~ and xj, f2xj is the
COV of variable x~, and Og/Oxi[xi is the derivative of g(')
evaluated at the mean value of x~.
Following a random vibration-based modal super-
position technique, the mean value of the structural
response with uncertain mass and stiffness under
spatiotemporally varying wind field is given by
a-,,,,,= i~ _ fiq~.)
~2 \1/2 (86)
db.= ~ (2rcf)2qH ,(2rcf)[2Sv,(f) df
(87)
in which qS.i=normalized mode shape with respect to_
mass matrix, and ]H~(2,f)12=transfer function. The
integration in the preceding equation for lightly damped
system may be carried out by means of residue
theorem 99'1°° if the excitation is idealized as white noise
near the resonant frequency. Alternatively, symbolic
manipulation code MACSYMA may be used for filtered
white noise processes such as wind loads 2°6. For the sake
of illustration the mean value of the RMS response to the
idealized case is given by the following expression
O'qlr~ (88)
' \ 4~i ,]
The variance of the response estimate expressed in the
preceding equation utilizing the white noise idealization
 Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
is given by given by
M 1- F f2r- 8(2~)2r-6
* \ n=X,
Var(a~:,)=~ L - 'L-' - 256~ i

((r-- 3)Sv(f) + fS'F(f))2a', ] ] / (~ cF2.,dq'",)

i#j OXi , OXj
(89) (96)

in which the paramters have been defined previously, and

~(x(nr))max 1 {
dXi 2ax,,, (A(Xi)-A'(Xi)) +A'(Xi) a2`:'
the variance of the uncertain eigenproperties is given by
the following expressions 3Xi
(97)
n

(~0~,.i)2 Var(al..) + (o~..i) 2 Vary,m)]

m=l
A(X i)= (x(vtd) + ~ ~ (98)
(90) \ X~Vtd)/

A'(Xi)=(Z(Vtd) za~td) ) (99)

o'~,.,= ( ~ , ) 2 Var(a,..) + (~m3 2 Var(fl,m)
l m=l
The variance of mass and stoffness may be given in terms
of the variance of the parameter such as, density, volume
of material, and modulus of elasticity. An expression for
the variance of the response utilizing complete spectral
approach, rather than the white noise idealization, has
been omitted here. Details may be found in Ref. 63.
Similarly, the second moment statistics of the RMS
response components of a system with uncertain damping
under wind loads are given by
- (~i =f"Sr-(f")(2=f')"~l/2
2
trx~,.= . dPni 4~i(2~zfn)4 ]
rye
Var(tr~,,,)= 1/2d~,,, -~'
in which ~ = mean value of the critical damping ratio in
the ith mode and a~,= RMS value of the variability in
damping, and the other parameters have been defined
earlier.
The mean and variance of the peak response based on
equation (50) in the Second-Moment format may be
obtained by the following equation
\ Z(vtd)/ "
7C 2
Var((X:))~ax)= ( _ a~,:, ~
x/6 z(vt ) }
in which v=Euller's constant; z(vt~)=X/21n(vtd); and
v= 1/2~(gx,,,/~x,O,).The coefficient of variation of Xt,~ is
(91)
in which the derivatives of the RMS response components
with respect to the problem variables are given in Ref. 63.
Monte Carlo simulation
This approach may be viewed as a synthetic, or
computer generated experiment in which a problem is
analysed numerically through sampling experiment. The
simulation procedure is generally described in three steps:
(i) simulation of sufficiently representative samples of
random variables, (ii) solution of the problem for a large
number or realizations aimed at obtaining samples of the
output process, e.g., the moment capacity, and (iii)
statistical analysis of results. The first item requires
(92) generating a sequence of sample values of a stochastic
variable with a prescribed distribution. Most of the
computer facilities have software packages to generate
independent uniformly and normally distributed random
numbers. The uniformly distributed numbers may be
(93)
conveniently transformed to construct sequence of values
of a variable with prescribed distribution. The simulated
numbers are often referred to as pseudo-random numbers
since they are not strictly random. However, they are
uniformly distributed, statistically independent, and
reproducible. The most commonly used pseudo-random
number generators involve some recursive formulation
based among others congruential or multiplicative
methods 2°7.
Once all the random variables are generated, then each
experiment consists of choosing a set of input values
performing numerical evaluation of the desired function
and thus obtaining a set of output quantity, e.g., the
(94) structural response. The numerical experiment is
repeated n times, and the statistics of the output quantity
are calculated from the generated sample output. Like
other experiments, the foregoing simulation technique
unfortunately shares the problems of sampling errors.
(95) These errors are minimized by making the number of
trials large which in turn significantly influences
computational effort. The sampling error introduced by
limited sample size may be reduced by means of variance
reduction techniques, e.g., importance sampling,
antithetic variates and stratified sampling 2°7-2°9.

Probabilistic Enfineerin9 Mechanics, 1987, l,bl. 2, No. 4 189

Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
Example
A 598 ft tall reinforced concrete chimney was employed to
demonstrate the preceding procedures for the dynamic
analysis of uncertain systems. The details of structural
dimensions and other related information are given in
Ref. 63. The chimney was divided into 13 segments along
the height, with a translational and a rotational degree-
of-freedom at each node. The system stiffness matrix in
global coordinates was assembled from the element
stiffness matrices of the system. The mass matrix was
formulated utilizing a consistent mass description. Only
the first three modes were included in the dynamic
analysis. The mean value of the natural frequencies in the
first three modes were computed to be 0.48, 1.86 and
4.71 hz. The mean value of the structural damping was
assumed to vary from 1 ~o of the critical to 4 ~o with an
increment of 1 ~o. The damping values in the higher
modes were estimated by the following equation
,100,
in which ~1, ~ and f l , fi are the damping ratios and the
natural frequencies in the fundamental and ith mode,
respectively2 ~o.
The uncertainty in the design wind speed that
corresponds to the lifetime extreme wind speed was
evaluated from data pertaining to an arbitrarily selected
industrial site. The extreme value Type I, Type II, and
Rayleigh distributions were used to model the annual
maximum wind speed distribution. The data provided the
best fit to the Type I extreme value distribution based
upon a maximum probability plot correlation coefficient
(MPPCC) criterion 21i.
The estimates of the mean value and the COV for
various flow related parameters were made from the
experimental and field study data 63'2~2. Analysis of the
data base suggested values of 0.7 and 0.15 for the mean
values, and 0.14 and 0.27 for the COVs of the drag and
rms lift coefficients, respectively. The mean value and the
COV of the Strouhal number were estimated to be 0.2 and
0.11, respectively. The computed values of the mean and
COV of the acrosswind spectral bandwidth were 0.25 and
0.3, respectively. The aerodynamic damping, derived on
the basis of equivalent amplitude dependent damping, is a
function of a number of variables. Thus, the uncertainty
in aerodynamic damping value was obtained based on the
First-Order Second-Moment approach, the computed
value of the COV was 0.3 (Ref. 63).
The uncertainty in the stiffness matrix was estimated on
the basis of uncertainty in the flexural rigidity, EI, of the
tubular concrete section. The uncertainty of El expressed
in terms of the COV of steel ratio, radius of chimney,
thickness of shell, modulus of elasticity of concrete and
steel, respectively, and area of steel, was computed to be
equal to 0.18. Therefore, the variability of stiffness of an
element which is proportional to E1 was set equal to 0.18.
Additional uncertainty of 0.2, arising from idealization,
neglecting shear deformation and formulation of the
stiffness matrix was included that resulted in a COV of
0.27 for the overall stiffness matrix. The uncertainty in the
mass matrix was estimated to be 0.09. Utilizing the COVs
190 Probabilistic Enffineerinff Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
of the stiffness and mass matrices and including an
additional uncertainty of 0.1 to include the influence of
possible soil-structure interaction, the COV of the natural
frequency was computed to be 0.17. Based on the analysis
of structural damping data related to the reinforced
concrete chimneys the COV was found to be 0.35. Due to
a lack of data the same coefficient of variation was
assumed for the damping in the higher modes.
Initially, a total of twenty-five basic variables
associated with parameters reflecting the wind
environment and meteorological data, wind-structure
interactions and structural properties were considered. A
sensitivity analysis of the contribution of the uncertainty
of various variables to the overall uncertainty suggested
that the number of variables could be reduced to those
which significantly influence the overall uncertainty in the
response. The details of the mean values of the parameters
and their COVs and probability distributions are
available in Refs 63 and 169.
The probabilistic response analysis of the peak
alongwind and acrosswind chimney displacements at the
top and associated base bending moments were simulated
utilizing a Monte Carlo simulation technique 63. The
computer generated response estimates were statistically
analysed to obtain the means and COVs. The complexity
associated with the aerodynamic loading involving a
double integration for each sample value and the
subsequent estimation of the response including the first
three modes in each orthogonal direction involved
significant computational effort. On an AS9000
computer, six hours of CPU time were required to
generate 14000 samples of data. The results were not
influenced by the sample size, one the number of
simulated values reached 10000. The sampling error
introduced by limited sample size may be improved
without increasing the sample size by utilizing variance
reduction techniques, e.g., importance sampling,
antithetic variates, conditional expectations and stratified
sampling207-209 The variance reduction techniques help
to reduce the variance of a simulated process and
therefore, lead to a reduction in the number of samples
required for a simulation 2°7-2°9. However, these
techniques are very dependent on the type of model under
study and do not provide an a priori estimate of the
variance reduction.
The mean and COV of the base moment, derived from
the FOSM and Monte Carlo simulation techniques, are
presented in Table 2. The numbers in parenthesis are
generated by the Monte Carlo simulation scheme. The
results exhibit a good agreement. These estimates of
uncertainty in the response may provide a useful input to
establish a limit state design procedure, or reliability
analysis of structures to ensure their safety and
serviceability.
The results of a sensitivity analysis suggest that the
uncertainty of the alongwind fluctuating moment at the
node 8 is very sensitive to the uncertainties in the natural
frequency, damping value and the wind velocity. The
uncertainty of the acrosswind fluctuating moment at the
node 8 is sensitive to the lift force coefficient, Strouhal
number, wind velocity, natural frequency and structural
damping. These results suggest that significantly" more
information is needed to reduce part of the uncertainty
associated with both aerodynamic loads and structural
characteristics.
 Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem

Table 2. Basebendingmoment
Alongwind moment Acrosswind moment
Mean values of damping
in the first mode Mean value Mean value
(percent) (lb-ft) COV (lb-ft) COV
1 0.1011906 X 10 9 0.774 0.2051884x 109 1.073
(0.9946820x 10s) (0.749) (0.18122762x 109) (0.823)
2 0.7255618x 10s 0.695 0.1182936 x 109 0.8038
(0.6619817x 10s) (0.744) (0.1103972 x 10 9) (0.823)
3 0.5977762x l0s 0.716 0.9188896x l0 s 0.761
(0.5588672x 10s) (0.744) (0.864999 x 10a) (0.823)
4 0.5215667x 10s 0.728 0.7761918x 10a 0.773
(0.4973306x 10s) (0.745) (0.73471448x l0s) (0.823)

S T R U C T U R A L RELIABILITY U N D E R W I N D S M = R/S,, the Pf = P[M < 0]. If the distributions of the

random variables R and S, are known and are
Traditionally, wind excited structures have been designed independent, then the probability of failure can be
based on the equivalent static aerodynamic forces.
expressed by:
Uncertainties associated with various parameters due to
insufficient data or lack of knowledge are including in the
design procedure by implementing safety factors to Pr = fo°~ FR(x)f~,(x) dx (102)
acknowledge these shortcomings in the information.
Assurance of structural safety and serviceability requires
assessment of various uncertainties in the design in which FR(r) is the cumulative distribution of strength
procedures and associated probability of failure. As and fs is the probability density function (PDF) of S,.
• (n) . . . . . . .

stated previously, first, there are uncertainties inherent to
the wind environment and can be adequately defined only
by means of statistics. Second, there are assumptions,
approximations, and idealizations involved in the
formulation of mathematical models of the physical
environment, wind structure interactions, and the
structural response to wind. There is, inevitably, some
degree of uncertainty regarding parameters related to
wind load effects as well as in the structural resistance and
the quality of construction. These uncertainties are a
measure of risk of failure or degree of unreliability. This
section reviews procedures for the systematic analysis of
uncertainties in the parameter-space and associated
probabilities of failure of wind excited structures with
examples.
Theoretical background
Component reliability
The structural reliability analysis is accomplished by
examining the limit state equation that describes the
condition that renders a structure unfit for one of the
intended roles due to one or a combination of load effect.
The limit state equation is generally expressed in terms of
the structural resistance and load effects. These two basic
variables are further functions of a number of other
variables. An increase in the number of variables in the
limit state equation and their departure from normal
distribution, along with any nonlinear effects introduce
complexity to the problem.
The failure of a single component of a structure with a
random resistance, R, subjected to a lifetime load, S,,
occurs when R ~<S,. The probability of failure is given by
the following equation if R and S, are statistically
independent.
PI = P[R <~S.] (101)
This problem can be alternatively viewed in terms of
safety margin (R-Sn) or the safety factor (R/S.). For
example, a safety margin or a failure mode can be
expressed in terms of R and S. as follows: if M = R - S. or
This formulaUon is that of a classmal reliablhty analysis.
The above convolution integral can only be integrated in
a closed form for a few special cases. The most well known
is when both R and S, have Gaussian distributions 2°°-
205,213-216. As mentioned earlier, the resistance and load
effects are generally functions of a number of other
variables. In this case, the safety margin or limit state,
M = 0, is a hyper surface in n-dimensional space, and it
separates the failure and safety regions. The probability of
failure is equal to the volume integral over the failure
region.
P f = fMtx)<ofx(X) dx (103)
in which fx(X) is the joint probability density function for
the n-dimensional vector x. The evaluation of the above
integral involving a multiple numerical quadrature is
formidable, and the description of the joint probability
density of the system variables is generally not available.
This has led to alternative algebraic techniques involving
linearization of the limit state or safety margin equation,
or a Monte Carlo analysis. The simulation approach,
using a Monte Carlo technique, requires information on
the probability distribution functions of the variables
involved• Furthermore, the simulation for a problem with
a large number of variables generally becomes
computationally prohibitive unless variance reduction
techniques are introduced e.g., antithetic variates and
conditional expectations 2°7. The reliability analysis
procedures involving linearization, and simulation
including variance reduction techniques are briefly
discussed in this review•
In the first- and second-order reliability analysis the
limit state surface is expanded in terms of the T~ylor
Series. By retaining only the first-order terms the failure
surface is replaced with a hyperplane at the point on the
surface closest to the origin, i.e., the point with the highest
probability density. This point is generally referred to as

Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 191

Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
the checking point or design point. This level of analysis is
referred to as a first-order reliability analysis 2x 3-218. The
accuracy may be improved through approximating the
limit state surface by a quadratic or a polynomial surface
such that the limit state and the approximated surfaces
have the same derivatives: 16-218
Generally the information available regarding
resistance and load effects is only sufficient to estimate the
first- and second-moments, i.e., the mean and variance of
the random variables. Therefore, the analysis procedures
are limited to the second-moment formulation i.e., the
total uncertainty in each random variable is characterized
by its mean and variance. This formulation leads to
generally known First-Order Second-Moment (FOSM)
or Second-Order Reliability analysis (SOR).
The FOSM approach in its simplest form involves
linearization of the limit state surface at the mean values
of the variables. Subsequently, the probability of failure
can be expressed in terms of the uncertainties associated
with the resistance and load effects. The safety index or
reliability index is expressed in terms of the means, mR and
ms, and variances a, and as. of the resistance and load
effects. If R and S, are normal, it can be shown that the
probability of failure, P f, is given by:
Pf=l-(6.--~-) (104)
in which (I)(.) is cumulative probability of the standard
normal variate. This approximation includes error when
the limit state equations become nonlinear. In such a case,
the reliability index corresponding to the ratio M/aM
evaluated at the mean values of the variables may not be
equal to the shortest distance to the failure surface from
the origin of the reduced variates. Furthermore, the
tinearization at the mean values fails to be invariant from
equivalent limit states derived from different algebraic
formulations.
Alternatively, using an advance FOSM approach the
limit state equation is linearized at the checking or design
point on the failure surface. This procedure involves
transformation of the variables in the limit state equation
to reduced normal variables which yields a reduced space
limit state equation. The probability of failure is then
derived from the reliability index, which is defined as the
shortest distance from the origin to the reduced failure
surface. This involves an iterative solution of a set of
equations 2°l-2°5":a4-21s. For independent nonnormal
variables in the limit state equation one possible choice of
transformation is
X*=~-I(Fi(XI) ), i = 1 , 2 . . . . . n (105)
and (I)() is the cumulative probability distribution
function of the standard normal variate and Fi( ) is the
distribution function for Xi. For correlated nonnormai
variates, the Rosenblatt transformation is required 2~9.
X*=O-l(Fi(Xi[X, . . . . . Xi-a[ ), i=1 . . . . . r
(106)
in which F;( I . . . . ) is the conditional distribution
function.
The probability of failure is approximated by
Pf = ~ ( - f l ) (107)
in which fl, reliability index, represents the distance from
192 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
the origin to the approximating tangent hyperplane in the
reduced space.
The probability of a failure asymptotically is
represented not only by the distance from the origin to the
design point but also depends as well on the principal
curvature of the failure surface at the design points 217.
The first-order reliability methods can be improved by the
second-order reliability methods, in which the failure
surface at the design points is approximated by a
quadratic surface instead of a hyperplane. This
approximation requires that the quadratic and the failure
surfaces at the design point have the same tangent
hyperplane and second-order derivatives. In Ref. 216, an
extension of the first-order reliability analysis to a second-
order analysis is presented. It is demonstrated to be
conceptually as simple as the first-order method but
requires more computational effort. On one hand, the
second-order formulation can replace the first-order
analysis in special cases, but on the other hand, in view of
the other uncertainties in the analysis, the first-order
reliability method is sufficient for practical analysis.
Simulation techniques
Simulation techniques can be used as a viable alternative
to the first- and second-order methods in estimating the
reliability of structures. However, the influence of the
statistical uncertainties resulting from the use of only
limited quantities of data to determine statistical models
and their parameters for simulating basic variables are
inherent in the Monte Carlo simulation. For structures
with very low probabilities of failure, a direct or a
straightforward Monte Carlo simulation procedure may
become computationally prohibitive for a large scale
problem. The direct Monte Carlo simulation technique
can be made computationally more efficient by
incorporating variance reduction techniques (VRT) e.g.,
conditional expectations, antithetic variates, stratified
sampling, importance sampling and combination of
VRT 63'207-209'224"225'229. The variance reduction
techniques help to reduce the variance of a simulated
process and therefore, lead to a reduction in the number of
samples required for a simulation. These techniques are
very dependent on the type of model under study and do
not provide an a priori estimate of the variance reduction.
The simulation time can be reduced by limiting the
simulated values to situations for which the safety margin
does not take on obviously 'safe' values. This leads to a
dramatic reduction in the number of samples required
and the associated VRT is known as 'importance
sampling'. -.
A study involving conditional expectations, antithetic
variates and a combination of these to improve the
computational efficiency of the direct Monte Carlo
simulation is reported here 2°9. The conditional
expectations technique reduces the variance of a
simulated quantity by conditioning on one or more of the
limit state variables with the least variance. The resulting
conditional expectation is evaluated by a known
theoretical expression. In this manner only the variables
with the least variance are simulated and the major source
of random fluctuation is removed by not d.irectly
generating the associated variables. The antithetic
variates approach induces a negative correlation between
different simulation runs that leads to a reduction in the
variance of the estimated quantity. Making use of

complementary random numbers for two cycles in a pair
induces the desired negative correlation. This followed by
a sample-mean of the simulated pair provides an explicit
mathematical rationale for variance reduction.
Alternative approximate methods
Alternative methods of reliability analysis exists that
approximate the probability density function of the safety
margin 226. The reliability index can be estimated from the
PDF. The simplest approach involves application of the
Edgeworth's Series or Gram-Charlier Series
expansions 63. However, one has to be cautious in the
region where the cumulative density function obtained by
these expansions gives negative values. A combination of
the numerical integration and curve fitting, using Pearson
family of frequency curves can be used for an approximate
evaluation of the reliability. Higher order moments in
conjunction with multivariate Hermite Series have been
shown to accurately reflect a wide range of nonnormal
behaviour that typifies distribution tails that govern
reliability22T-228. Directional simulation, together with
the representation of vector-valued stochastic processes
by random trigonometric polynomials has been shown to
have a wide range of applicability in the determination of
failure probability of structures 229. The method works
best for those situations in which approximate methods,
e.g., FORM, SORM and outcrossings, are the least
reliable and as such serves as a valuable check of their
validity229.
Syste m reliability
The treatment of a structural system requires analysis of
various possible failure modes in which a system
experiences loss of performance level either through its
primary load carrying role or deterioration resulting from
excessive sway. The behaviour of a structural system can
be expressed in terms of two classical configurations, i.e.,
a series and a parallel system. A series system fails to
perform when any of its modes fails and survives only if all
modes survive. A statically determinate structure
performs like a series system. A parallel system fails only if
all modes fail. The alternative load paths provide reserve
resistance to the system against failure after the initial
failure of any component. The behaviour of a statically
indeterminate structure is similar to a parallel system.
The exact evaluation of the re.liability of a series system
in terms of the failure probabilties in any mode, which are
generally correlated, is not straightforward.
Approximations are always necessary. Several bounds on
the system probability of failure in terms of the individual
failure modes and joint probabilities of failure in various
modes have been suggested in the literature 2°4"2°5'22°-
224. Closer bounds are obtained if the joint probabilities
of failure in various modes are introduced. The analysis of
parallel systems is more complicated and not as well
developed as series systems. The reader is referred to the
literature for further details223"224. If the failure of a
system is defined by first failure of a component or loss of
serviceability at any location, the system is analysed as a
series system. The examples considered in this review are
restricted to series systems.
Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
The following are a few examples to illustrate the
foregoing methodologies.
Examples
Reliability of tall reinforced concrete chimneys
The exceedance of the ultimate moment capacity of the
tall reinforced concrete chimney considered in the
previous example is used to evaluate the probability of
failure. The maximum capacity of the chimney cross-
section at various heights is computed using the ultimate
stress method and a second-order stress-strain
relationship for concrete169.230. The COV of the ultimate
moment capacity depends on the uncertainties associated
with the individual parameters, i.e., chimney dead load,
radius and thickness of chimney shell, concrete, steel, and
the yield strength of concrete 63.
The wind speed records for the site were analysed to
estimate the parameters of the annual extreme wind
distributions. The selection of the extreme value
distribution may be made based on Gumbel's classical
method, or statistical inference utilizing extreme order
statistics 13,231,232. For this study the extreme value Type
I, Type II and Rayleigh distributions were fitted to the
data using the method of moments and maximum
likelihood. The choice of the distribution had a significant
effect on the lifetime probability of failure. According to
the (MPPCC) criterion at the chimney site, the Type I
distribution was the most representative model of the
wind records 63"21i.
The uncertainty associated with the variability in the
design wind speed estimation can be incorporated into
the overall system uncertainty for reliability analysis
using different approaches. One such approach is to use a
FOSM format in which the load effects are computed on
the basis of the mean lifetime extreme wind speed.
Alternatively, a conditional probability of failure for
various wind velocities is computed and the lifetime
probability of failure is obtained through the convolution
of the conditional PDF with the PDF of the lifetime
extreme wind speed. In Fig. 13, a flow chart for
computing the lifetime probability of failure is given. A
further improvement is obtained by considering a
predictive model166,169,209. In this method, the
parameters of the lifetime extreme winds are treated as
random variables. The predictive distribution model
provides a useful alternative to the conventional
confidence interval method for incorporating sampling
and estimation errors. All three approaches were
investigated.
A total of twenty-five basic random variables were
studied using the mean value FOSM approach. From
sensitivity analysis the number of variables were reduced
to thirteen for subsequent advanced FOSM and
simulation techniques 233. In Table 3, a summary of the
results is given for the exceedance of the ultimate moment
capacity at the base of the chimney. The results are based
on the mean vale FOSM, advanced FOSM, direct Monte
Carlo simulation and using conditional expectations as a
variance reduction technique. For the low damping
values except for the MVFOSM (mean value FOSM)
method the remaining approaches have a good
agreement. For very low probabilities of failure
associated with the higher damping values the AFOSM
and the VRTs have a good agreement. The difference
between various approaches used to incorporate
uncertainties due to wind speeds are insignificant.
193
Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem

Wind loading on tension leg platforms
The environmental loading has a significant role in the
design of offshore structures for serviceability and
survivability. In this study, uncertainties associated with
meteorological data, spectral description of random wind
and wave fields, wind-structure and wave-structure
interactions and dynamic characteristics of platforms
were systematically analysed using a second-moment
formulation. A Gust Loading Factor approach was used
in this analysis to establish the uncertainty in the lifetime
maximum loading in terms of the uncertainties associated
with the parameters involved. A Monte Carlo simulation
procedure was utilized for the propagation of uncertainty,
further details of the uncertainty analysis are available in
Ref. 234.
A hypothetical TLP, located in the North Sea with the
following features was considered for the example:
natural frequency in surge = 0.01 hz; mass = 0.7 x 108 kg,
structural damping= 0.05. The annual maximum wind
data from the North Sea was fitted to the Type I extreme
wind distribution. The mean value of the maximum
design load and its COV are 4.261mN and 0.3,
respectively. In Fig. 14, the probability density function of
20 year maximum design load and the probability of
exceeding typical load levels are identified. This
information would help to design a platform to resist
wind loads for a target value of probability of exceedance.
The coefficient of variation in the design wind loads can
be used to establish adequate load factors for a given
reliability index using the LRFD approach TM. This
exercise can be extended further to include uncertainty in
structural resistance. However, in view of the complexity
of the structural system, only the reliability of the wind
loads has been addressed.

Serviceability of tall buildings

A
g. Load The first two examples have addressed the survivability
Effects f ' ~ A Resistance limit states. The serviceability limit state, that renders
structural performance unsatisfactory from human
O3
V comfort considerations, has not received as much
attention as the survivability in the development of
probability-based limit states design procedures. Based
--" s , r on random vibration principles and reliability analysis,
convenient design procedures for ensuring serviceability
of structures can be established.
>
The limit state for serviceability of tall buildings can be
expressed in terms of structural motion and acceptable
thresholds of motion. Most of the studies related to
human perception of motion suggest aaceptable levels of
acceleration. Therefore, the limit state equation can be
expressed as:
~V

a- ~2 ~ ]=0 (108)

in which ni=natural frequency in ith mode, SF(ni)=

t- fluctuating aerodynamic load at the nith frequency, (i=
damping in the ith mode, Mi = ith mode-generalized mass
and a = rms threshold acceleration. The above limit state
utilizes an approximate expression for the rms response
~V
acceleration based on the assumption that the spectra of
the aerodynamic loading can be idealized by a white noise
A
near the structural frequency. The aforementioned limit
> state analysis is extended further to incorporate
V

t-.- uncertainty associated with variables in the limit state

> equation to establish performance level in terms of
= Lifetime
a b i l i t y of
probability of exceedance.
> A building 100ft square in plan and 600ft tall with
m
ire
n fundamental period of 5 seconds was analysed for
serviceability limit state. The alongwind loading was
~V
derived utilizing quasi-steady and strip theories in
Fig. 13. Schematic outline of reliability analysis (after conjunction with a covariance integration formulation.
Ref. 169)

Table 3. Probability of failure of a tall reinforced concrete chimney

Damping MVFOSM AFOSM Monte Carlo VRT

1% 0 . 8 4 2 x 10 - 2 0.457 x 10-' 0.508 x 10 - l 0.422 x'10 -1

2% 0.585 x 10 - 4 0.424 × 10 -2 0.727 x 10 -2 0.475 x 1 0 - z
3% 0 . 5 5 3 x 10 -S 0.155 × 10 -2 0.315 x 10 -2 0 . 1 9 7 x 10 -2
4% 0.1408 x 10- ~ 0.901 x I0- a 0.256 x 10 -2 0.136 x 10-2

194 Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4

 Wind effects on structures." A. Kareem

mean of 20 year maximum

/ wind force (4.261 mN)

0.4 V The value of 20 year

maximum wind force
that corresponds to
the mean plus one
standard deviation
~0.3 I and 14% POE
v
(5.535 mN)
r~

o 0.2
r~
r~
The value of the 20 year
maximum wind force that
i / corresponds to 7% POE
(6.293 mN)

0.1
I 7%

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DESIGN WINDFORCEF (mN)
Fig. 14. Probability density function of 20-year maximum wind load on a T L P (after Ref. 234)

Table 4. Probability of serviceability failure of a tall buildino C O N C L U D I N G REMARKS

Monte Carlo method
Advance FOSM Direct method VRT
No. of modes No. of modes No. of modes
1 3 1 3 1 3
0.215 0.230 0 0 0.195 0.210
The mean wind speed at the reference height,
aerodynamic input and structural parameters were
assumed as random variables and the probability of
failure, i.e., exceedance of the motion level were computed
using an advanced FOSM, direct Monte Carlo and VRT
techniques. The influence of the higher modes was also
investigated. In Table 4 the results are summarized for
threshold rms acceleration of 10mg. Due to a small
number of simulation points the direct Monte Carlo
simulation did not provide any meaningful results,
however, inclusion of the VRT helped to provide results
that shows good agreement with the advance FOSM
procedure. This illustrates the computational efficiency of
the VRTs.
The design procedure is being expanded to include
coupled lateral-torsional response of buildings and better
definition of the acceleration thresholds and the design
wind speeds for the serviceability analysis 237.
The interested reader may find other applications of
reliability analysis related to the area of wind engineering
in the following Refs 238-245.
This review has focused on the effects of wind on structures
from a probabilistic point of view. This discussion
encompasses diverse scientific fields such as micro-
meteorology, fluid dynamics, statistical theory of
turbulence, structural dynamics and probabilistic
methods. The problem of wind-structure interaction is
complicated not only by the lack of streamlined structural
geometry and complex flow around them, but by the
complexity and uncertainty of flow in the atmospheric
boundary layer. A review of recent developments suggests
that the definition and means of quantifying wind load
effects has come significantly closer to reality through
realization of dynamic nature of wind effects and
implementation of probabilistic techniques. However,
intractability of wind-structure interaction problems
amidst complex urban topography has precluded
analytical treatment from first principles which has
caused physcial modelling to serve as not only the
catalyst, but the driving force in quentifying these
complex flow fields. This remains a major shortcoming of
wind engineering at the present juncture and may lend
impetus for future advances through computational
techniques. Numerical simulation of three-dimensional
turbulent flow field about a group of blunt bluff bodies of
different geometries and orientations at present
represents formidable task in computational fluid
dynamics, nevertheless, with the availability of
supercomputers the solution appears to be a step closer.
In the meantime physical modelling of wind-structure

Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 1987, Vol. 2, No. 4 195

Wind effects on structures: A. Kareem
interaction will be the m a j o r source of i n f o r m a t i o n
r e g a r d i n g wind effects. T h e p o t e n t i a l of wind tunnel
testing is fully realized when test results are i n t e g r a t e d
with m e t e o r o l o g i c a l statistics of local climate. In this
m a n n e r the wind effects on structures c o u c h e d in the
p r o b a b i l i s t i c f r a m e w o r k p r o v i d e a m e a s u r e of s t r u c t u r a l
safety a n d reliability a s s o c i a t e d with selected levels of
risk.
The significance of risk analysis a n d need to go b e y o n d
t r a d i t i o n a l deterministic design a p p r o a c h e s is b e c o m i n g
increasingly critical for the design of c o n s t r u c t e d facilities.
Intrinsic v a r i a b i l i t y a s s o c i a t e d with b o t h s t r u c t u r a l
resistance a n d wind l o a d effects can seriously affect the
p e r f o r m a n c e of structures in hostile e n v i r o n m e n t , Recent
d e v e l o p m e n t s in the a r e a of p r o b a b i l i s t i c m e t h o d s a n d
statistical inference offer a m a t h e m a t i c a l f r a m e w o r k that
will enable designers to i m p l e m e n t uncertainties arising
from a variety of sources m o r e effectively into their design
process. S o m e of these d e v e l o p m e n t s have been a d d r e s s e d
in this review. It is h o p e d that this review article facilitates
t e c h n o l o g y transfer t h r o u g h i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the
research findings into d a y - t o - d a y design practice a n d
p r o m o t e better u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d c o l l a b o r a t i o n between
the a e r o d y n a m i c i s t s a n d the s t r u c t u r a l engineer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
T h e s u p p o r t for this research was p r o v i d e d by the N S F -
PYI-84 a w a r d to the a u t h o r by the N a t i o n a l Science
F o u n d a t i o n u n d e r G r a n t N o . E C E 8352223 a n d
m a t c h i n g funds p r o v i d e d by the Shell O i l C o m p a n y ,
C o n o c o Inc., C h e v r o n , U S A , Brown a n d R o o t
I n t e r n a t i o n a l , Inc., A.S. Veritas Research, H a l l i b u r t o n
F o u n d a t i o n , A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e of Steel C o n s t r u c t i o n .
Their s u p p o r t is gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e d . A n y o p i n i o n ,
findings, conclusions, or r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s expressed in
this p a p e r are those o f the a u t h o r a n d d o not necessarily
reflect the views of the sponsors. T h e a u t h o r is grateful to
his students for their c o n t r i b u t i o n s in e x p l o r i n g the ideas
g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g the last few years. The a u t h o r is
i n d e b t e d to his professional colleagues a n d in p a r t i c u l a r
to D r J. E. C e r m a k for their a s s o c i a t i o n which has
c o n t r i b u t e d greatly to the a u t h o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
subject. The a u t h o r w o u l d like to t h a n k D r R o b e r t Allen
for his c o m m e n t s on the m a n u s c r i p t . F i n a l l y , I w o u l d like
to t h a n k D r P. D. S p a n o s for originally suggesting the
writing of this article a n d his c o n s t a n t e n c o u r a g e m e n t
t h a t has been responsible for the c o m p l e t i o n of this p a p e r .
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