Physica 82C (1976) 392-408

0 North-Holland Publishing Company

THE THEORY OF THE TRANSIENT HOT-WIRE METHOD FOR MEASURING THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY

J. J. HEALY*, J. J. de GROOT** and J. KESTIN

Brown University, Providence R.I. 02912, U.S.A.

Received 13 May 1975

The paper contains a complete, modernized theory of the transient hot-wire method for measuring the thermal conduc-
tivity of fluids which can be employed in the form of an absolute instrument and which can be operated with a precision
of 0.02% and an accuracy of 0.2%. It is a companion paper for ref. 1.
The analysis demonstrates that the instrument can be designed to imitate very closely the behaviour of a finite portion
of an infinite line source of constant heat flux, q, which transfers the heat radially into an infinite fluid.
Expressions for the corrections are obtained by a general perturbation method which allows us to examine them one or
several at a time. The principal corrections discussed in the form of nine subproblems are: finite inner cylinder, composite
cylinders, Knudsen effects, radiation, outer cell circumference, compressibility and natural convection, finite cell dimen-
sions, variable fluid properties and heating over a finite length.
The last section summarizes the most important corrections for a reader who is interested in using them rather than in
following the analysis itself. The main text supplies all data required by the designer of an instrument of this type.

1. Introduction of a steady-state temperature difference in order to

In a recent paper [l] we have shown that the hot-
wire cell operating in the transient regime can be used
to make extremely precise and very accurate measure-
ments of the thermal conductivity of gases over a wide
range of pressures and temperatures. In this method,
the thermal conductivity of a gas is inferred from the
temperature history of a very thin platinum wire
(diameter in the pm range) which develops a uniform
heat flux after having had a square voltage step
applied at its ends. The principal attraction of the
instrument turns on the circumstance that in its opera-
tion it is possible practically to eliminate the effects
of natural convection and radiation. Their existence,
as made plausible elsewhere [2, 31 , raises legitimate
doubts about the accuracy and reliability of earlier
measurements, principally those based on the creation
* Present address: Dept. Industrial Chemistry, Queens
University, Belfast, N. Ireland.
** Present address: Inst. Phys. Chemie, Tech. Universitaet,
Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany.
measure the associated heat flux.
The accuracy (order +0.2%) and precision (order
0.02%) have been obtained as a result of the applica-
tion of modern electronic instruments of high quality.
The instrument mentioned before [ 1] came at the
end of a line of transient hot wire cells designed and
operated by B. Stahane and S. Pyk [4], A. Eucken
and H. Englert [.5], H. Pfriem [6], E. F. M. van der
Held and F. G. van Drunen [7], E. McLaughlin and
J. F. T. Pittman [S] , N. Mani and J. E. S. Venart [9]
and J. W. Haarman [lo]. Each of these authors dis-
cussed the theory of the method, but the present
authors “found it necessary to rethink the problem
anew and to work out several of the corrections in a
more systematic or rigorous way” [l] . In order to
preserve clarity in the earlier paper, the corresponding
derivations have been relegated to a “companion
paper”. The present paper is this “companion” and
might, usefully, be read while [l] is available for ready
reference.
It has been stated in the first paper [l] , and we
reiterate it here with emphasis, that the operation of

392
 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity 393

a well-designed hot-wire conductivity cell is remark-
ably close to the simplest mathematical model for it:
an infinite line source of constant flux, 4, per unit
length applied step-wise at t = 0. The line source loses
heat radially through conduction alone into an
infinite incompressible medium of constant density p,
thermal conductivity A, and specific heat cP, i.e. of
constant thermal diffusivity
K = A&,,
possession of a complete and reliable theory of the
instrument serves an additional purpose when a new
design is contemplated in that it allows us to optimize
its dimensions with assurance.
2. Basic solution
The basic problem is governed by the simplest
(1.1) form of the Fourier equation:

thus increasing the medium’s temperature in the aTjat= K V2T (2.1)

course of time.
For sufficiently long times subject to the boundary conditions:

t > U2/4K (1.2) at t < 0 and any r AT(r, t) = 0, (2.2)

(which are still very short on an absolute scale, being at r = 0 and any t 2 0 ,liliT(raT/&) = -q/2nh, (2.3)
of the order of 10 ms < t < 100 ms), where a is the
wire radius, the temperature history of the wire is
atr==andanytS=O limAT(r, t)=O, (2.4)
described remarkably accurately by the relationship r-m

A T(a, t) = T(a, t) - To = (4/4nX) In (4k t/a2C).* (1.3) and on the assumption that

This is a linear relationship in AT versus In t coordi- K = const, implying p = const, h = const, cP = const.
nates. This fact is utilized in practice to monitor the
reliable operation of the instrument, because the other (2.5)
modes of heat transfer (convection and radiation), as
well as the effects of a number of corrections, impose The problem is a standard one, and its solution is
a different temperature versus time relationship and
their presence can thus be easily detected. A T(r, t) = (4/4nh)E1 (4~ t/r2), (2.6)
At first glance it appears that the actual operation
of the instrument differs widely from the mathematical where
model postulated above. Even though a careful
examination of all sources of systematic errors reveals
that only a small number of them need to be taken E, (t) = r (e-“/u) du = -y - In t + .$ +0 (g2), (2.7)
into account, it is necessary to discuss them methodi- 5
cally in order to be able to assess in each individual
case which corrections may be safely neglected, apply- with 7 = In C and .$= r2/4K t. (2.7a)
ing the common-sense rule that a correction need not
be applied if its magnitude is one order (or more) The basic working formula (1.3) constitutes a
series expansion for small values of E and supposes
smaller than the accuracy quoted for the result.
The purpose of this paper is to provide our readers that the cylindrical wire of radius a assumes a uniform
and critics with complete material to make the temperature which is equal to that in the conducting
preceding judgement. medium at r = a. In more detail
It should further be emphasized that being in
A T(a, t) = (q/4nX) {In (4K t/a2C) + (a2/4K t) + . . .}

* C = 1.781 . . .;4/C= 2.246.. .. (2.8)

394 J. J. Healy et al/Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

and the truncation error is wire boundary), we solve subproblems l-4.

Here we take into account only the finite radius, a,
&T/AT= a2/(4Kt In (4Kt/a2C)). (2.9) of the wire, changing condition (2.3) to

aTI& = -q/2rrha at r = a and any t > 0. (4.1)

3. Adopted method of derivation of corrections
This is a standard problem (page 338 of [ 1 I] ) whose
As already stated, at least at first glance, it appears
solution is:
that the actual conditions during an experiment differ
widely from those postulated by the very simple
mathematical model. The most serious departure
A T(r, t) = -n& i (1 _ e-KU2t)
stems from the finite length of the wire. However, at
0
the present time it is not possible to account for such
end effects analytically. Instead, the design is so
64
arranged as to imitate very closely the behaviour of a
cell of infinite length. The methods for doing this and
x

(JoWYl(ua) - Y0WJl
u2 [Jf (ua) + Yf (ua)] I
du

’
(4.2)

for verifying the degree of success achieved will be

It is remarkable that for large values of 4~ t/r2 we
discussed in section 7.
recover the basic solution
Even with an infinite, cylindrically symmetric
geometry it is not possible to attempt to solve the
complete problem. As soon as a variable density is A T(r, t) = (q/47rh) In (4K t/Cr2) + 6 (a2/K t), (4.3)
admitted and as soon as it is realized that the presence
of a gravitational field gives rise to motion in the gas, which is identical with eq. (2.6) at r = a. As long as
it becomes necessary to resort to the full set of the rate of energy supply per unit length remains the
Navier-Stokes equations (of which the Fourier equa- same, the temperature history AT(a, t) at a given
tion is merely a special case) thus introducing value of r is independent of the radius of the line
obvious, and practically insurmountable, analytic source. For this reason it is not necessary to expend
difficulties. Apart from such difficulties, however, it much effort to secure accurate cylindricity of the hot
wire.
is necessary to realize that a complete solution of this
kind is not required because, as we emphasized before,
4.2. Subproblem 2. Composite cylinders
the departures from the basic solution (1.3) are small.
For this reason it is sufficient systematically to
Here we take into account the finite radius, a, of
examine the statements in eqs. (2.1)-(2.5) and to
the wire, its finite conductivity, A,, and its proper
derive corrections by suitably varying the conditions,
heat capacity Cpcp&, per unit volume. This forces us
noting that condition (2.2) remains unchanged for all
to solve two coupled Fourier equations, one for the
sub-problems. To preserve clarity, we shall perform
wire (0 < r < a) and one for the fluid (a < r < -),
this analysis under three main headings:
bearing in mind that the temperature and heat flux
(a) conditions at the platinum wire;
must be continuous between the two regions at r = a.
(b) conditions at the outer cell circumference;
In particular, for the metallic wire we solve the
(c) effect of compressibility and of the temperature
equation
dependence of the fluid properties.

(pc,),aT,iat=~Q2T,-ql~a2; O<r<a,
4. Phenomena at inner boundary
(4.4)
4.1. Subproblem 1
whereas for the gas we have
In order more realistically to account for the
phenomena at the inner boundary for the fluid (outer pcP aTlat=hV2T; r>a,
(4.5)
 J. J. Healy et al/Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity 395

with the continuity conditions f (q/4niiw) (1 - r2/a2) (1 - a2&,/4Kwht), (4.11)

T,(a, t) = T(a, t) and hw (aT,/ar),,, = h(aT/ar),,,. there being no interest in deriving the analog for AT
(r, t). We can see that the principal value of AT, (a, t)
(4.6) is identical with that given in eq. (1.3).
The resistance of the wire which is taken as a
This is a standard problem (p. 347 of [ 1 l] ) with measure of its temperature corresponds to an integral
solutions average of AT, (r, t), so that the actual temperature
measured is
O<r<a;
AT,(t) = / 2AT,(r, t) &/a2
ATw _ $,1: [ (1 - e-Kw”2f)J0WJd4 du;
0

u4[G2(u>
+ J/2(u)l
@p>w
- PCp)
1
6
(4.7)
=_ 4
41Th l[ 1 _ ,2

(2 At)

a<r<y
(4.12)

AT= -$ f (I - e-KwU2t)Jl(ua) where c = C/e. In most applications the factor

0
1 - {a2 [(Qw - PC,1/TAtIt

constitutes the major correction and is due to the

finite heat capacity of the wire. The very small term
h/2X, merely shifts the AT versus In t diagram
without changing the slope from which the thermal
conductivity, X, itself is calculated.
@‘(u)= A,& (a& (a au) For infinite wire conductivity, hw = 00, (4.12)
yields eq. (5.2) in [l] .
- Xf&Jo(au) .I1 (&Ji au) (4.9)
4.3. Subproblem 3. Knudsen effects
and
Since very thin wires are employed to reduce the
9 (u) = A, K;J~ (au) Y. (&$i au) correction due to their finite heat capacity, it must
be expected that Knudsen effects may be important
- A&Jo(au) Y1(mau). (4.10) at the lower densities where the mean free path in the
gas becomes of the same order of magnitude as the
Approximate solutions of (4.7) and (4.8) for large wire diameter. The temperature jump at the wire is
values of 4Kt/r2 can be obtained, using the expansion described by the Smoluchowski equation [ 12, 131:
method outlined on page 339 in [ 1 l] , to yield
a
A i”‘, (r, t) T,(a, t>- T(a,0=-g
(3
z r=a,

where T, is the wire temperature, T is the temperature

=4+h 111 -a2(@cP)w - pcp)l(2ht)lln(4Kt/r2C)
of the adjacent gas, and g is an empirical factor pro-
portional to the mean free path, A. No reliable
+ (a2/2Kt) - (a2/8Kwt)} measurements of this factor are available.
396 J. J. Healy et al/Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

The presence of the temperature jump modifies the As we shah see in the next paragraph, there is no
inner boundary condition (2.3) to require that need to account for this term, because it is compen-
sated by a change in the slope of AT versus In [ due
- 2nah (a T/ar)r =a = q at r = a, (4.14) to the variation in & with temperature of the
Knudsen jump, T,.*
so that the temperature jump becomes Referring to fig. 1, we denote by AT, the values
along line a which corresponds to the original
(4.15) uncorrected measurements. The slope of line a would
determine the “measured” value h,. If every point
To a very good first approximation the temperature were corrected by subtracting from it the variable
jump is independent of time. ST,, we would obtain line b with
The presence of the temperature jump causes us
merely to rewrite solution (2.6) with an added AT” = AT, - 6TK, (4.19)
temperature difference. Thus eq. (2.8) becomes modi-
fied, and to first order we obtain whose slope is inversely proportional to h” = h(A T,
- 6 TK). Assuming that g is kept constant (because its
AT, (a, t) = AT@, t) + [T,(a, t) - T(u, t)] effect will be accounted for separately), we can see
that
=&[($) + In ($$)I. (4.16)*
d(ATw) _ Wf’) ; di;nT;f. (4.20)
d In E d In i
This result demonstrates that the principal effect
of the Knudsen temperature jump is to shift all points By the chain rule, we obtain
on the AT versus In t diagram by the constant amount
d(AT,)_
____-___ d(AT”)+ a(sT~)
~ 3 d(AT”)
(4.2 1)
6 TK = (q/4flX)(&/a) (4.17) dln $ dln[ 13x aT _’

without changing its slope, i.e. the reported value of h.

For this reason there is no need to calculate the
correction of 6TK and a knowledge of g is not really * This is distinct and different from the direct effect of the
variation of h with temperature discussed in section 6.
required at this stage.
For work at the lower densities it is necessary to
estimate the second-order corrections which result
from the Knudsen effect.
First we must account for the existence of the
jump, 6 TK, by noting that the value of h to be
reported (calculated from the slope and denoted by
h,) must be associated with the fluid temperature
T, - 6TK rather than the measured wire temperature
T,. Since we do not know the value of g in eq. (4.17),
we may represent this effect by the series expansion.

X(T, - 6TK) = X(T,) - (dX/dTPTK

= h, - (dXldT)GTK. (4,18)

* Note the typographical error in eq. (6.3) of [ 11 in which Fig. 1. Change in slope due to Knudsen effect. a - Points
(2q/a) in the square bracket should be replaced by (2g/u). referred to A Tw(a, r); b - Points referred to AT, - 6 TK.
 J. J. Healy et al/Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity 391

In writing this equation we substitute d(A T”) for dT Fortunately, owing to the very small circumferen-
in d(AT’)/d In l, and make no distinction between tial area of the hot wire and of the very small temp-
ho and h, in eq. (4.17). Employing eq. (4.21) together erature difference, AT,, between the wire and the
with eq. (4.17) we can easily show that enclosure at r = b (essentially at r + m), there is no
need to perform a detailed analysis of this process.
4= 1 _T g)4*, Assuming that the fluid is transparent, as is the
(4.22)
4rrx, ( case in gases but not necessarily in liquids,* and that
the surface is that of a black body, we can estimate
or the amount of energy radiated per unit length as

(4.23) qrad = 2?WU(Tw4- T$) ‘v 8naoTJ AT,, (4.26)

Reference to eq. (4.18) proves that the value X, where u is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The radia-
obtained from the uncorrected graph corresponds tion loss modifies 4 in eq. (2.6) and is equivalent to a
exactly to the temperature of the wire, T,, as already reduction in AT@, t) by the amount
stated.
The last higher-order correction, that due to the 6 Trad = &d/4) AT@, 0 = @~a0 T&I) [A T(Q, 01 2.
temperature-dependence of g in eq. (4.17), can be
estimated by recalling [ 14, 151 that g - A, where (4.27)
A = (&rn .2)-I* is the mean free path. Using a
simple expansion we can show that the value to be 5. Condition at the outer cell circumference
reported, ho, arises from that measured directly
through the relation It is quite clear intuitively that during the initial
phase of the process, the assumption in (2.4) which
x0 = h, (1 + Kn), (4.24) replaces the finite outer radius r = b by r = 00 is
approximated with a very high degree of accuracy.
where This is mainly due to the fact that b/a % 1 (approx.
2000 in [l] ). Nevertheless as time goes on, the heat
Kn = qA/(4nX, Toa). (4.25) flux at r = b will increase to a non-negligible value
and this must modify the temperature history A T(u, t).
is the Knudsen number. At P = 1 atm and room
temperature in helium, the Knudsen number is of the 5.1. Subproblem 5
order of 0.003 for a = 2.5 pm.
Thus we are led to re-examine the principal problem
4.3. Subproblem 4. Radiation with the condition

The principal solution of section 2 assumes that all AT(r, t)=Oatr=bandanyt>O (5.1)
electric energy is conducted into the fluid from the
wire. In reality, some of it is radiated thus reducing replacing (2.4). At the same time it is useful to
the amount conducted. The radiated energy is partly replace (2.3) by (4.1), i.e. by
absorbed by the gas, whose absorptivity is strongly
selective with respect to wavelength, and, further, aTI& = - q/(2n&) at r = a and t > 0 (5.2)
partly absorbed and re-emitted from the outer cylinder
at r = b. As a result the temperature history (2.8) in order to avoid a divergent ratio b/a.
becomes modified.
* The influence of radiative heat transfer in absorbent liquids
on the determination of the heat conductivity coefficient
* n is the number density and o2 is an average collision cross with a parallel plate apparatus is treated in ref. 26 and for a
section. transient hot wire apparatus in ref. 9.
398 J. J. Healy et al.fHot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

Ihis is a standard problem (p. 332 of [ 1 l] ), but,

AT(0.t)
as already mentioned in [l] , we only require its
I
asymptotic form derived by J. Fischer [ 161 for
overlap
b/a S 1 and 4Kt/a2 3 1, which reads b
ATal

e-g~db2 [77Yg(g,)] )

= -& (2 In b/a - (2.566277 e-5.783063Ktlb2

+ 1.133556 e-3o.4715 7/b2 + . , .}, (5.3)

L

where Int
Fig. 2. Transient and steady asymptotic regimes, eqs. (1.3)
r= Kt. and (5.3).

Here gV denote the consecutive roots of Jo(g,) = 0,

two of them appearing in the exponentials in the In (4Kt/b2C) + 2 e-gzKf/b2
approximations.* v=l
As t -+ *, the solution tends to a steady state
described by x [nT&J1 2 1 (5.6)

AT, = A T(a, 00) = (q/4nh) 2 In (b/a). (5.4) which added to the measured value A T(a, t),

I’he diagram in fig. 2 represents A T(a, t) in the ATid(a, t) = AT(a, t) + 6T 2 (5.7)

transient regime, line a given by eq. (1.3), and in the
asymptotic regime, line b given by eq. (5.4). When must shift the respective point onto the basic straight
Kt/b2 -+ 0 the exact expression in eq. (5.3) tends to line.
the line-source solution, curve a in fig. 2, but a direct For design purposes it is useful to establish a
analytic proof of this fact is difficult to indicate. criterion for a rational choice of the outer cell dimen-
Similarly, it is difficult to transform eq. (5.3) so as to sion. Ideally we would like to eliminate the fairing
represent it as a perturbation on the line-source solu- curve c and choose a.value of b for which AT, itself
tion. For this reason, as already indicated in [l] , we falls on the basic line a at the first instant when it
have made extensive numerical calculations to obtain appears, i.e. when
the fairing curve c in fig. 2 for a variety of conditions.
In each case we uncovered, as expected, an overlap ATidGAT rn? (5.8)
region over which AT(a, t) from eq. (5.3) did not
differ from that given by eq. (1.3). giving
Writing the line-source solution in the form
(q/4nX) In (4K t/a2C) < (q/2nh) In (b/a) (5.9)
ATid(a, t) = (q/4n)l) (2 In (b/a) + In (4Kt/b2c)}
or
(5.5)
we can discern an outer-boundary correction b2 > 4KtfC (b2 > 2Kt approx.). (5.10)

*gs = 8.6537;g4 = 11.7315;& = 14.9309. We verify from eqs. (5.7) and (5.6) that the error is then
 J. J. Healy et al/Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity 399

6T,/AT=(ATid - AT)/AT~(l0lnb/~)-~. (5.11) but continue to stipulate constant transport properties

q and h, and a constant specific heat, cP. We, further,
Typically 6 T2 is a few percent. assume axial symmetry. Hence we have two indepen-
It is also useful to establish a rough rule to deter- dent variables: t and r, and we must consider two
mine the condition under which the 6 T2 correction velocity components, v, and vz, as shown in fig. 3.
can be neglected altogether. This is easily done by
noting that for 6.1.2. Governing equations
The dynamic process is governed by the following
b2/Kt > 5.183 . . . (5.12) equations (see p. 322 in [ 171 or [ 181):

we have eq. of state

sT,/AT< lop3 (21n b/a)-l; (= 0(10e4)). (5.13) P= pRT; (6.1)

In summary, we see that the outer boundary continuity

correction, 6 T2, is needed in the order-of-magnitude
range 2 +i g (prv,) = 0; (6.2)
2.3 < b2/Kt < 5.8. (5.14)
momen turn in r direction

6. Effect of variable fluid properties

Even though the temperature rise in the instrument (6.3)

is small, and even though the properties: density, p,
viscosity, r), and thermal conductivity, h, are mild momentum in z direction
functions of temperature:
3+v g; (6.4)
p N T-1, ,j N Tt, X N T+, at

it is necessary to verify the effect of their temperature

LINE SOURCE
dependence on the measurement and to establish
conditions under which these effects are negligible.

L
Considering the properties enumerated under (2.5) it
is clear that the variation in the specific heat, cP, is “2
negligible, and that by far the most important effects
must be expected from variable density, i.e. from
compressibility which in a gravitational field produces “r
buoyancy forces and is potentially conducive to the
appearance of a velocity field of natural convection.
We shall examine these influences in two groups.

6.1. Subproblem 6. Compressibility and natural

convection

6.1.1. Formulation of the subproblem

In this subproblem we admit that the density, p, is I-r
variable and assume that it satisfies the perfect-gas law, Fig. 3. The dynamic problem.
400 J. J. Healy et al/Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

energy where the superscripts (0) and (1) denote the zeroth
(equilibrium), and first iteration, respectively.
The solution of (6.9) is the line source solution
(2.6) for an incompressible fluid which we now re-
write as

(T(1) - T(O))/T(u) = ~5 {ln & + (GC-1)

(6.5)
-ifln(Y;((Y$ l), (6.10)
The initial and boundary conditions are:
where
T(C t) = T (‘I; ~(r, z, t) = p(O)(z); P(r, z, t) = p(O)@@;
cu = 4K t/Cr2; (6.11)
at any t < 0, (6.6)
?j = q/4nhT(O). (6.12)
aT= -2&;ur(r, t)=uz(r, t)=O
ar
According to the equation of state, the change in
atr=aandanyt>O; temperature gives rise to a change in p and P. The
in pressure first be neglected. First
ur (r, t) = uz(r, t) = 0 and T (r, t) = T co) bound-
ary layer, P(r, t) = P(t). Secondly, due to the
at r = m and any t > 0. (6.8) infinite radial extent of the gas, we may put P(t) = P(O),
giving
This is a set of five coupled nonlinear differential
equations for the five unknown functions: T(r, t), P(r, t) = P(O). (6.13)
p(r, t), P(r, t), ur(r, t), and IJ, (r, t). As explained
earlier, we merely seek a first-order approximation As a result the equation of state (6.1) yields
and propose to base it on a heuristic, physical under-
standing of the nature of the problem. ,#)=p(u)/RT=ptu)[l -qln&] (6.14)

for
61.3. Method of solution. Principal term
The driving force which gives rise to the velocity
4 In5 Q 1.
field is, clearly, the heat dissipation in the wire, which
induces a temperature gradient in the vicinity of the
The radial velocity u$l) can now be found from the
wire as soon as the dissipation begins. The temperature
continuity equation (6.2):
gradient induces gradients in density and pressure in
an expanding boundary layer region close to the wire.
These gradients in turn generate a local unsteady
-L- rr-ap(l)
velocity field, which has a feedback effect on the
temperature distribution, Based on this model, a first-
,p =-
p(l)r I
a
at
dr

order estimate of the temperature field can be

obtained by ignoring the convective, dissipative and (6.15)
reversible work terms in the energy equation (6.5) to
yield
Finally the radial momentum equation (6.3) can be
aT(l) solved and yields a radial pressure gradient, required
at (6.9) to balance the momentum flux induced by u,:
 .I. J. Healy et al. JHot-wire method for measun’ng thermal conductivity 401

61.4. Second iterate for temperature increase

$4; (1 -($\{$dPr+O(h)-l}, (6.16) The next approximation to the temperature distri-
bution is given by the solution to the equation
where
aT(2) (0)

Pr = V/K (6.17)

is the Prandtl number of the fluid.

In view of the assumption (6.13) we must show
that

$1) a@ + 2 aup 2
in order to justify it. In fact, eqs. (6.14) and (6.16) r3T 4 (-1ar I
demonstrate that
_ 1 -aP(1) + @) ““‘) ) (6.21)
+ p(o),p ( at ar
(6.18)

where the density expansion (6.14) is used in the

for any realistic experimental arrangement. thermal diffusivity:
The vertical velocity due to gravity can be found
from (6.4) by making use of the standard approxima- K(l) = K(O)(1 + 4 ln 6). (6.22)
tion that the variable density is only important in the
buoyancy term (Boussinesq approximation): The terms on the right are, respectively, the correc-
tions due to variation in thermal diffusivity caused by
(6.19) a change in density, radial convection, viscous dissipa-
tion and reversible work of compression. The relative
importance of each of these terms can be obtained by
The solution of (6.19), subject to the appropriate substituting equations (6. lo), (6.15) (6.20), and
boundary condition, has been dealt with by Goldstein (6.18) in the energy equation (6.5):
and Briggs [ 191. Retaining only the first term which
is the main contribution as far as about r = 103a, uz density variation term
can be written:
(5 2 T(o)
$1 = 4 gt In (r/a)2/ln (4Kt/C2a2). (6.20) =t [ln iG] ;

We note that for times t > 10 ms (as used in practice), radial convection
we have uz S ur. Thus from eqs. (6.20) and (6.15) it
can be readily shown that
=-T [(l-(4)‘)][1 +(?ln&];

uaUZ<au,
r ar at radial dissipation

as is required for consistency, since the convection

term was neglected in eq. (6.19).
402 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

vertical dissipation Correction due to viscous dissipation: The correction

due to viscous dissipation is more difficult to obtain,
since a similarity solution does not exist. The equation
to be solved is

compressible work
__ ___
(;ay+a2T(2)
_aT(2) _K(o)
at 1 at-2

2
=$ -$ [T (I -(:)‘)‘I [l +@ln&]*.

It is easily seen that of the two types of terms, i.e.

terms with ij2Tco)/t and q2 q/t2pcp, the density
E_I__
q2PrK(O)
cP 1 2gt
[ r In (4Kt/C2a2) ’
(6.27)

variation and the vertical viscous dissipation are by

which follows from eqs. (6.5) and (6.21). The initial
far the largest. It can, therefore, be concluded that in
and boundary conditions are:
the line-source solution for a compressible fluid
compared to that for an incompressible fluid the
aT(2)
major corrections arise from the change in density
and the vertical dissipation. We propose to determine
T(2)ll<0 = T(o); 7-(2)1,,_ = T(o); ar
Ii-=Q
= - -
4
2lr)la

these two corrections individually, and since both

turn out to be small perturbations, the combined Taking the Laplace transform with respect to time,
effects can be taken to be additive. we find that

Correction due to variation in density: Let Tc2) =

T(l) + 4, where $ is the desired correction. Equation
(6.5) then becomes:

w 21 4Q2 Prg2 26
(0) La@+*\ _G2T(o)lnol.
--K (6.23)
at r5 W \ t r2cp e2s3 [In s/C,] 2

Introducing the similarity variable (2.7a) we find that [8] X (1 + C [l/in (s/C2)] } - T(O)/K(O), (6.28)

$+~[d!!+~$$]=‘~ln(C~). (6.24)
where C, = 4K(0)/C2a2. In eq. (6.28) we have
developed an asymptotic expansion for the transform
The solution to eq. (6.24) may be written as: of the right-hand side of eq. (6.27) which is valid for
small values of s/c2, corresponding to large values of
K t/a2. The homogenous solution to eq. (6.2 1) may be
written as:

(6.25) Y?#) = A IO (fi r) + B K, (fi r) + T(O)/s. (6.29)

The boundary condition @+ 0 as t -+ 00 gives BE = 0

while a#/&(, =a = 0 gives B1 = 1. The second boundary
condition follows because aT/arl, =a = -q/‘LrraX,
T = T(l) + $, and we already have aT(l)/arlr,, =
- q/2naah. The temperature profile, including the
variation in density, is, therefore:
From the solution of the homogeneous problem, the
inhomogeneous solution may be constructed by the
method of variation of parameters. Proceeding in this
way and applying the boundary conditions, we find
that

~(2)=T(o) + q &I Cm)

(6.26)
S 2rraK sfi K, (m)
 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity 403

(Y~land~lnol~l;r/a<103. (6.35)

The analysis shows that convection and compressible

The last term in eq. (6.30) is the transform of the
desired correction. After some manipulation,
correction may be written as:
work are always negligible by comparison with
(6.30) density-induced variations in thermal diffusivity.
Viscous dissipation becomes increasingly important
as time progresses but may be neglected in most
transient hot-wire experiments.
the
The final solution for the temperature increase of
the gas is given by:

T(2) - T(1) = JI(r, t) N Q2 Pr g2 4 Prg2t2

$$=,lnC l+ql”f+
cP ln (31 2c,T(O) In (11
[
X (1 t2 - 4 [In (r/a)1 2@1(a, t) + 0 [@2(a, 011.
x (1-4[ls)]2}]. (6.36)
(6.3 1)

The function $1 is an inverse transform defined by: Both compressibility effects give rise to small increases
in the rate of temperature increase, as compared with
o+ the incompressible case. Physically this can be under-
9&r,O-C;2& 1 ecatz z3 [lnz] -N dz . (6 .32) stood by noting that the drop in gas density causes
the heat capacity per unit volume to decrease, and for
a fixed rate of heat transfer at the wire, the tempera-
We require asymptotic evaluations of the @N for ture rise of the gas is correspondingly higher. Viscous
C2t + 00. This type of inversion has been considered dissipation increases the temperature since it acts as
by Ritchie and Sakakura [20]. Using their result we an additional source of heat generation in the gas. It
obtain: should be noted that the vertical convection itself
does not contribute to the heat transfer due to the
G2p;ft2 (1 _4[lm;.$rj)7. (6.33) fact that the wire is infinitely long.
+W,0-i
Residual errors in the final analytical expression
for the rise in gas temperature arise primarily from
Finally we can write for the temperature profile two sources. Due to the iterative nature of the solu-
corrected for the viscous dissipation: tion we necessarily have an error of the order of the
next neglected iterate. Secondly, in obtaining the
T(2) - T(O)
= 4 In (&) second iterate Tc2), we have made extensive use of
T(O)
asymptotic expansions, frequently retaining only the
leading term.
x 1+2sn; 1 -4fz)‘)]. (6.34) As far as the higher order term is concerned, it can
[ P 0 be shown that each higher-order term is a factor 4
smaller than the foregoing. Since cf is assumed to be
much smaller than unity, the significance of higher-
61.5. Summary order terms rapidly decreases. If cf becomes too large,
The gas-dynamic eff :ts on the temoerature rise of the basic assumption regarding the iteration perturba-
a transient heated wire immersed in an infinite com- tion solution will break down, and for sufficiently
pressible medium has been calculated by solving the large 4 the problem would involve the dynamics of a
equations of change with an iteration perturbation cylindrical shock wave [21]. The errors resulting
technique. The obtained asymptotic solutions converge from truncation of the asymptotic expansion are
rapidly and are applicable when more difficult to estimate. However, the nature of
404 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

these truncations allow to state that these errors

decrease as r + a, and are almost zero at the wire ! 2b -I
surface, which is the experimentally significant region.

6.2. Subproblem 7. Finite cell dimensions

In the preceding problem we have assumed that

the outer radius, b, as well as the axial length, L, of
the cell were infinite. This allowed us to put P(r, t)
=P(O) = const. in eq. (6.13). In actual fact the hot
wire is accommodated in a cylinder of finite dimen-
sions (constant volume V = nb*L and constant mass
m), and the fact that heat is fed into it causes even
P(O) to change with time. If the temperature in the
cell stayed uniform at all times, the pressure would
increase at a rate

p(t) = (ml v) R T(r), (6.37)

with T(t) satisfying the energy-balance equation

mc,T(t) = qLt. (6.38)

As it is, the zone of higher temperatures is concentra-

ted in an expanding thermal layer which spreads
radially outwards from the wire, the gas in the thermal
layer performing expansion work on the remainder. In
order to see this more clearly, we refer to fig. 4 in
Fig. 4. Origin of compression work.
which the inner layer of radius r’ has been imagined
heated to a higher temperature at constant volume.
As a result the pressure would increase in the ratio of ar
-=KV*T+_!-!t!? (6.39)
absolute temperatures to P= P(O) (T’/T) and the inner at PC, at ’
cylinder of radius r’ would expand. The expansion
creates a radial convective field which, as we know
from eq. (6.22) is negligible.
In actual fact the process is somewhat more com-
I pd
V
V=p(O) V,

plex because there exists no stage during which heat

is added to the gas at constant volume. Rather, we P=pRT. (6.4 1)
must imagine elementary cylindrical expansion waves
spreading outwards at the speed of sound and thus To a first approximation we ignore the density varia-
maintaining a pressure P which is constant in its spatial tion in eq. (6.39). This allows us to interpret the last
distribution but which varies with time. term as the time-derivative of an additive temperature-
In order to account for the expansion process just correction term
described, we solve the energy equation (6.5) in
which all terms except that due to expansion work, &T,(t) = P(t)/pc, withV*T, = 0. (6.42)
p-l @P/at), have been omitted, we replace the con-
tinuity eq. (6.2) by an integral condition of constant In this manner, eq. (6.39) is transformed to
mass, and retain the perfect-gas assumption. Thus we
obtain the system a(?‘- sT,)/at= KV*(T- 6T,), (6.43)
 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity 405

whose solution, subject to the boundary
conditions, is, obviously
AT@, t) = (q/47rX) E, (t) + 6T,.
From eqs. (6.36) and (6.37) we find that
p(O) v= j fv)
v R (T(O) + AT@, t)} dv’
and initial in the last section. Since the temperature difference
imposed between the fluid and the line source is so
small, a linear temperature dependence is adequate.
(6.44) The present problem has been extensively treated by
E. McLaughlin and J. F. T. Pitman [8] whose general
approach has been adopted here too.*
The problem now is to solve the Fourier equation
in the form
(6.45)
PC/_, aTI& = V * (hV7’) (6.48)

Substituting eq. (6.44) and integrating, we obtain the with the boundary conditions
correction
T(=, t) = 0 and IiIi; (r aT/&)
&T,=_-
AP(r) _ ___
qL Rt
(6.46)
pocp PCPC” v
= -q/[2nh0(1 + xAZ+)]. (6.48a)
Except for the outer boundary condition A T(b, t) = 0
the preceding solution satisfies all other conditions. In addition we put
The temperature function 6 T,_(t) represents an
increasing background temperature correction which pep = P,c~(~ + @AT)

is uniform spatially and which modifies the equilibrium

temperature T(O), so that at any instant and

T(r, t) = T(O) + A Tid (r, t) + 6 T,(t), (6.47) X(T, p) = ho (1 -+-x’AT+ TAP)

where ATid (r, t) is given by eq. (1.3). The correction = Ao(l + x’AT+ -ypo$‘AT)
6 T,.(t) has been obtained disregarding all heat losses
from the cell. One might attempt to repeat the calcu- or
lation assuming that the temperature at r = b remains
constant and equal to T(O), but even such a condition A(T, P> = ho (1 + xoAT) (6.49)
is realized only approximately. When an instrument
is being designed the correction 6 T,(t) must be made with
as small as possible, and for this purpose the form in
eq. (6.46) is adequate. In an actual design we can x=x’+ 7PoG’.

verify whether this correction is negligible either by

an estimate, eq. (6.46) or by connecting to the cell Introducing eqs. (6.49) into (6.48) we find that
an additional cylinder and comparing the two AT
versus In t curves. Since 6 T, is inversely proportional
to p, such a test should be performed at the low-
pressure end of the measuring range.
aAT 2
6.3. Subproblem 8. Variable ji’uid properties +xa,t-1 .
(6.50)

In view of the boundary conditions it is clear that we

In this section we shall examine the effect of the
are dealing with a self-similar problem which allows us
temperature-variation of the properties pep and X on
the operation of the line source neglecting the * Note that eq. (3.32) in [ 81 differs from our equation
appearance of a flow field whose effect was studied which accounts for the difference in the final result.
406 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

to introduce the similarity parameter The last term in the preceding eq. (6.57) is indepen-
dent of time* and does not, therefore, influence the
$ = pocp r2/h,t. (6.51) slope of the AT versus In f diagram; for this reason it
may be ignored.
Following the method of the preceding section, we The second term in eq. (6.57) causes a hardly
seek a solution by iteration, putting perceptible curvature to appear in the A T versus In t
diagram. The average slope is
A T(2) = A T(1) + 6 T. (6.52)
4 In t2Itl
AT(t,) - AT(Q) =
‘Ihe first-order solution is, evidently, 4nh, (1 + t x [AT($) + A T(t,)l >’
(6.58)
AT(l) = Cob’, (k), where Co = q/4nho (6.53)

The form of this expression is identical with that for a

is the first integration constant. The correction 6 T
first-order line source solution with the properties
then satisfies the ordinary differential equation [8]
evaluated at

d26T , 1 d6T +z
T, = f {AT(tl) + AT(t2)} + To and

(6.59)

1
d2A Tc2) + A Tc2) dA T(l) Pr = P(T~, PO).
Afil)-----
dt2 ----a$-
r; Hence it follows that the slope of the measured line
of AT versus In t determines a value of thermal con-
_@AT@)F. (6.54) ductivity h at temperature T, and density pr, but at
the original (essentially constant) pressure PO. With
The solution* now is this interpretation, the temperature dependence of p
and h does not affect the thermal conductivity
6T= -x(jAT2 + C,AT) directly; it is reflected as a correction on the reference
state of the fluid (“bath-temperature correction”),
+ (x - G)C$ {(e-E + C2) El (f) - wl(2E)] + C3, as already explained in ref. 1.

(6.55)
7. Finite length of hot wire
where the integration constants must be given the
values It has been stated in section 3 that it is not possible
to account for the finite length, L, of the hot wire
co = q/4r&J; c, = 0; C, = 1 and C, = 0, (6.56) analytically and that it is preferable to compensate
for this effect experimentally. There exist two such
in view of (6.48a). Hence possibilities: (a) the potential lead method [22] and
(b) the short-and-long cell method [23] . In each case
A T(2) =
&ln(ps) it is necessary to make sure that the central portion of
the hot wire [the only one in method (a) and the
shorter one of length L in method (b)] operates very
closely in accordance with eq. (1.3). In method (b)
- (W)X@~?~
+ (x- @)ln4. (6.57)
this will ensure that the end effects in both cells are
very close if they are sufficiently alike so that the

* In eq. (3.32) of ref. 8 the integration constant has been * We have erroneously stated in ref. 1 that this term must be
mistakenly omitted. made small compared with the correction term - O.Sx(An*.
 J. J. Healy et aLlHot-wiremethod for measuring thermal conductivity 401

difference between them is of a very high order of An alternative heuristic analysis of the problem
smallness. was given by J. W. Haarman [25].

7.1. Subproblem 9. Heating over a finite length

8. Summary
The solution of the preceding practical problem
can be based on an analysis given by J. H. Blackwell The thermal conductivity, h, to be reported as the
[24] who considered the temperature field in an result of a measurement should be calculated from the
infinite fluid bounded internally by a cylinder of slope of the AT versus In t diagram according to the
radius a, in the same way as was done earlier in equation
subproblem 1. Neglecting the nonuniformity in the
temperature distribution in the wire (r < a), he (4~/P$p)f \
assumed that a heat flux existed only over a length
AT=4
4nXr
In
a2C j
u*>
L of the wire and imposed the boundary condition
and associated with a temperature T. Here

-AZ =$ {U(z + 1L) - U(z - &L)}

AT= AT,(t) + C6Ti, (2*)

(7.1) where AT, (t) is obtained from the wire resistance

and the 6 Ti’S are listed below together with their
atr=aandanyt>O. appropriate signs.
Here U(g) denotes the unit step function with U(t) The associated reference temperature T, is obtained
= 0 for E G 0 and U(t) = 1 for [ > 0. This boundary from the expression
condition replaces the condition in (2.3) and takes
into account the axial heat conduction through the T,= To + C6Ti’, (3*)
hot wire. i
The solution for the temperature slope in the
where the corrections 6 Ti*, together with their
middle section at z = 0 is
appropriate signs, are also listed below. The associated
reference density, pr, is that which corresponds to
a AT(a, t) =4 (1 _ s), temperature T, and the original (essentially constant)
a In (4K t/a2C) 4xX
(7.2)
pressure PO.
The values h, and p. should be taken at the
where
original bath temperature To, as no iteration on them
is required.

6 Ti values:

x In (4K t/a2C)
(7.3) 1) 6T, = +a
2 [(PC,>,-wpl AT_4 *,2
(4K t/a2)3/2 1. 2ht 4nX 4Kt

The first term in eq. (7.3) represents the effect of x [2 - K/Kwl,

axial conduction at r > a and the second term repre-
sents the same effect in the wire at r < a. Even wire properties, subproblem 2.
though the present analysis is only suggestive, it is
contended that making 6 of the order of 10m4 (it is
low6 in [l] ) for the short wire is sufficient for our
purposes.
 J. J. Healy et al./Hot-wire method for measuring thermal conductivity

Institute of Physical Chemistry during the final work

on the manuscript.
It is our pleasant duty to express our thanks to
finite outer cell diameter, subproblem 5, apply in the
Dr. J. W. Haarman who patiently discussed with us
range 4/C < b2/K t < 5.78.
his earlier work on the same subject. Our former
colleagues, Dr. W. A. Wakeham and Professor M.
3)6T3=---- qLR t Sokolov also helped us with discussions during the
PC,C,V ’ early stages of the project.

compressible work, subproblem 7.

2 Pr g%2
2 T&, ’ References

[l] J. J. de Groot, J. Kestin and H. Sookiazian, Physica 75

viscous dissipation, subproblem 6.1, approximate (1974) 454.
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165.
[3] H. Poltz and R. Jugel, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 10
5)6T5=+8naoT3AT2/q,
(1967) 1075.
[4] B. St%lhane and S. Pyk, Teknisk Tidskrift 61 (1931) 38.
radiation, subproblem 4, upper limit. [5] A. Eucken and H. Englert, Z. f. ges. K%lte Industrie 6
(1938) 109.
[6] H. Pfriem, V.D.I. 82 (1938) 71.
[7] E. F. M. van der Held and F. G. van Drunen, Physica 15
(1949) 861.
[8] E. McLaughlin and J. F. T. Pittman, Phil. Trans. Roy.
Knudsen effects, subproblem 3. Sot. London A. 270 (1971) 557.
[9] N. Mani, Thesis, University of Calgary, Canada, 1971.
6 Ti* values: [lo] J. W. Haarman, Thesis, Technische Hogeschool, Delft,
the Netherlands, 1969.
[ 111 H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in
Solids, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, London, 1959).
7)6T1*=-&
W [ 121 M. Smoluchowski, Ann. Phys. Chem. 35 (1911) 983.
[ 131 M. Smoluchowski, Phil. Mag. 21 (1911) 11.
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New York, 1938) pp. 291-335.
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variable fluid properties, subproblem 8. Kestin, (McGraw Hill, New York, 1968).
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ASME series C 86 (1964) 490.
[20] R. H. Ritchie and A. Y. Sakakura, J. Appl. Phys. 27
Acknowledgements (1956) 1453.
[21] S. C. Lin, J. Appl. Physics 25 (1954) 54.
Most of the work described in this paper was [22] S. Weber, Ann. Physik 54 (1917) 437.
[23] R. Goldschmidt, Zeitschrift fiir Physik 12 (1911) 418.
performed under NSF Grants GK 2 133X and
[24] J. H. Blackwell, Can. J. Phys. 34 (1956) 412.
GK 3707 to Brown University. Two of us (J. J. de [25] J. W. Haarman, Physica 52 (1971) 605.
Groot and J. Kestin) wish to thank Professor E. U. [ 261 H. Poltz and R. Jugel, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 10
Franck of Karlsruhe for his hospitality in the (1967) 1975.