Define Group, and Differentiate Between Different Types of Groups?

 A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and

interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular
objectives.
 Formal groups – those defined by the organization’s structure.
 Informal groups – alliances that are neither formally structured
nor organizationally determined.

Why do people form groups?

Our tendency to take personal pride or offense for the accomplishments of a group is the
territory of social identity theory.

Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or
success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the
group.

- Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with other
people, but they can have a negative side as well. Probably the biggest downside is
that social identities encourage.

ingroup favoritism, which occurs when we see members of our ingroup as better than
other people and people not in our group as all the same. This obviously paves the way
for stereotyping.

When do people develop a social identity?

Several characteristics make a social identity important to a person:

• Similarity, people who have the same values or characteristics as other

members of their organization have higher levels of group identification.
• Distinctiveness suggests that people are more likely to notice identities
that show how they are different from other groups. Respondents in one
study identified more strongly with those in their work group with whom
they shared uncommon or rare demographic characteristics.
• Status is important because people use identities to define themselves
and increase self-esteem, so it makes sense that they are most interested
in linking themselves to high-status groups. Graduates of prestigious
universities will go out of their way to emphasize their links to their alma
maters and are also more likely to make donations.
• Uncertainty reduction is important because membership in a group helps
some people understand who they are and how they fit into the world.
The five-stage group-development model :comprises five stages or categories of activity.

1. forming stage. It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s

purpose, structure, and leadership. Members try to determine what types of
behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to
think of themselves as part of a group.
2. storming stage. This is a period of intragroup conflict. Members accept the
existence of the group, but there is resistance to constraints on individuality.
Conflict arises over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there
will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.
3. norming stage. It is one in which close relationships develop and the group
demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and
camaraderie. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the
group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct
member behavior.
4. performing stage. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group
energy has moved from getting to know and understanding each other to
performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their
development.
5. For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that have a
limited task to perform, there is an adjourning stage.

the group prepares for its disbandment. Attention is directed toward wrapping up activities.
Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking in the group’s
accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and friendships.

Group Effectiveness

 Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates.

 Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve

high performance and improve over time.

 Similarly, groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to

achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly.

 Groups don’t always proceed clearly from one stage to the next.

 Role – a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone

occupying a given position in a social unit.
 Role perception – one’s perception of how to act in a given
situation.
 Role expectations – how others believe one should act in a given
situation.
 Psychological contract: is an unwritten agreement that
exists between employees and their employer. It sets out
mutual expectations—what management expects from
workers, and vice versa. It defines the behavioral
 expectations that go with every role. If role expectations
as implied are not met, expect negative repercussions
from the offended party.

 Role conflict – situation in which an individual faces divergent
role expectations.

 Norms – acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared

by the group’s members.
 Performance norms: provide explicit cues about how hard
members should work, what the level of output should be, how
to get the job done, what level of tardiness is appropriate, and
the like. These norms are extremely powerful and are capable of
significantly modifying a performance prediction based solely on
ability and level of personal motivation.
 Appearance norms: dress codes, unspoken rules about when to
look busy and the like.
 Social arrangement norms: focus on whom to eat lunch with or
whether to form friendships on and off the job.
 Resource allocation norms: include the assignment of difficult
jobs, and the distribution of resources, like pay or equipment.

Conformity: The adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group.

Deviant workplace behavior – also known as antisocial behavior refers to voluntary

behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the
well being of the organization or its members.

 Status – a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by

others.
 Status characteristics theory – differences in status characteristics create
status hierarchies within groups.
 Status is derived from one of three sources:

 The power a person wields over others.

 A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.

 An individual’s personal characteristics.

 Status and Norms: High status individuals often have more freedom to
deviate from norms.
  Status and Group Interaction: High status people are often more assertive.

 Status Inequity: Perceived inequity creates disequilibrium and can lead to

resentment and corrective behavior.

 Status and Stigmatization: Stigma by association.

 Group size affects the group’s overall behavior.: Large groups are good for
gaining diverse input. Smaller groups are better doing something with input.

Social loafing – the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working
collectively than alone.

cohesiveness, or the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are
motivated to stay in the group.

Encourage group cohesiveness by:

• Making the group smaller

• Encouraging agreement with group goals

• Increasing the time members spend together

• Increasing the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining
membership in the group

• Stimulating competition with other groups

• Giving rewards to the group rather than to individual members

• Physically isolating the group

 Diversity – the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or
different from, one another.
  Increases group conflict especially in the short term.

 Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time.

 Over time, diversity may help them be more open-minded and creative.

 Fault lines: divisions that split the group into two or more subgroups
based on individual differences like sex, age, race, etc…

 Strengths of group decision making:

 More complete information and knowledge

 Increased diversity of views

 Increased acceptance of solutions

 Weaknesses of group decision making:

 Time consuming

 Conformity pressures

 Dominance of a few members

 Ambiguous responsibility

Groupthink – situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from
critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.

 Brainstorming can overcome pressures for conformity.

 In a brainstorming session:

 The group leader states the problem clearly.

 Members then “free-wheel” as many alternatives as they can.

 No criticism is allowed.

 One idea stimulates others, and group members are encouraged to

“think the unusual.”
Groups and teams are not the same thing.

- a work group interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help
members perform within his or her area of responsibility.
- a work team generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Individual
efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those
individual inputs.