Naest Theory

(Marine Operations)
 CONTENTS

Topic 1 Electromagnetic Propagation 3

Topic 2 Echo Sounders 6

Topic 3 Distance and Speed Measuring Devices (Ships’ Logs) 14

Topic 4 Radar 22

Topic 5 Radar Plotting and Parallel Indexing 48

Topic 6 Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) 63

Topic 7 LORAN-C 76

Topic 8 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) 88

Topic 9 Differential GPS 97

Topic 10 Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) and Long Range 103

Identification and Tracking

Topic 11 Voyage Data Recorders (VDR) 110

Bibliography 113

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Topic One – Electromagnetic Propagation

Radio Wave principles

Wavelength: the distance between successive wave crests. (Symbol λ lambda)

Cycle: the movement from one crest through the trough to the next crest.

A specific point within a cycle can be identified by its phase (0 – 360º)

Power: the amplitude of the radio wave is a measurement of its power. Once the
radio wave leaves the antenna it will lose energy to the atmosphere. Energy loss is
proportional to the square of the distance travelled.

Frequency (symbol f): the number of cycles which pass a point in a given time,
usually a second. One cycle per second is one Hertz.

1,000 hertz = 1 kilohertz (KHz); 1,000,000 hertz = 1 megahertz (MHz)

1,000,000,000 hertz = 1 gigahertz (GHz)

Wavelength and frequency are linked by the formula:

Speed of radio wave (300 metres/µ second) = f λ

wavelength (1 cycle)

amplitude

0º 90º 180º 270º 360º

360º

phase

The allocation and use of frequencies is regulated by the International

Telecommunications Union (ITU)

Generating radio signals

Applying an alternating current to an aerial creates an electromagnetic field round it.

The induction field remains ‘attached’ to the aerial. It can be detected by a receiver
only within about two wavelengths of the transmitter.

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The radiation field (at the same frequency as the alternating current that generated
it) will be propagated omni-directionally, in a specific plane, in a fixed direction, or
made to rotate, depending on the aerial/antenna design.

All transmitting aerials utilise one or more means of propagation, with one mode
predominating. A brief description of the three modes follows.

Surface (ground) waves travel around the surface of the earth and are modified by
the ground over which they travel. It is the predominant means of propagation for
frequencies up to 3 MHz (approx). The proximity of a surface creates diffraction that
causes the wave to ‘bend’ towards the surface and allow it to follow the curvature of
the earth. The surface over which the signal travels also affects attenuation and
speed of transmission, depending on the conductivity of the surface and the
wavelength of the transmission. Diffraction will occur when the wave encounters any
large object, like a building, particularly with long wave length transmissions.

These characteristics explain why Loran C requires ASF correction, and why its
reception is possible in urban canyons where GPS reception is not.

Sky waves are the predominant means of propagation in the 3 – 30 MHz range, but
also occur between 30 KHz and 3 MHz. Sky waves are refracted at the ionosphere and
may be returned to earth over a great distance. They are also subject to attenuation.

The ionosphere, extending from about 60 – 800 km above the earth, contains a
number of ionised layers, the four major ones being designated D, E, F1 and F2.
Ionisation occurs as a result of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. The level of ultraviolet
radiation, and therefore of ionisation, varies with the time of day, the season, and the
sun-spot cycle. The extent of the refraction that occurs further depends on the
density of the ionosphere, the frequency of the propagation, and the angle of
incidence of the wave with each layer.

In total, this refraction can allow for global communication as the radio waves
undergo a number of hops between earth and ionosphere. Fading of the signal can
occur, however, due to changes in attenuation at the ionosphere, reception of out-of-
phase signal that have followed different routes between earth and ionosphere, and
because of variations in attenuation of different frequencies within the transmitted
bandwidth.

Whilst fading is inconvenient, the effect on navigation systems like Loran C, that rely
for their accuracy on measuring the time difference of the received signals from two
or more transmitters, is more critical.

Space (line of sight) waves are not diffracted like ground waves, but within the
troposphere (up to 10 km from the earth’s surface) they are subject to refraction that
causes some bending towards the earth, but less then the curvature of the earth. This
is the predominant means of propagation for frequencies above 30 MHz and explains

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why VHF and radar horizons are greater than the visual horizon, but only by a
relatively small amount. To call the transmission ‘line of sight’ is not strictly correct.

Frequency bands summary

Frequency Band Wavelength Mode Example

3 – 30 KHz VLF 10 – 100 km Ground Wave Communications

Space Wave

30 – 300 KHz LF 1 – 10 km Ground Wave LORAN C

Sky Wave

300 KHz – 3 MHz MF 100 m – 1 km Ground Wave Communications

Sky Wave

3 – 30 MHz HF 10 m – 100 m Sky Wave Communications

Ground Wave (global)

30 – 300 MHz VHF 1 m – 10 m Space Wave Communications

300 MHz – 3 GHz UHF 10 cm – 1 m Space Wave Satellites

3 – 30 GHz SHF 1 – 10 cm Space Wave Marine Radar

30 – 300 GHz EHF 0.1 – 1 cm Space Wave Not for mobile

communications

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Topic Two - Echo Sounders

The principles, use and operation of echo sounding equipment

The echo ranging principle utilised by echo sounders is simple. If a short pulse of
ultra-sonic energy is transmitted directly downwards from the hull of a ship, and the
time taken for an echo to return is accurately measured, then the following
relationship applies:

Distance (depth below hull) = speed of sound in water x time

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The speed of sound in seawater (3.4% salinity) at a temperature of 16ºC is 1505
metres/sec. It increases slightly with higher salinity, temperature and/or pressure.
Echo sounders are generally calibrated for an internationally accepted speed of 1500
metres/sec. Because the speed of sound in fresh water is less than in salt water the
true depth when in fresh water will be approximately 3% less than that indicated.
Since we are unlikely to be aware of the water temperature or salinity at all depths
through which the sound pulse travels it is generally impractical to apply corrections
to the indicated depth.

Components of the echo sounder

The pulse generator creates an electrical
oscillation that is supplied to the
32.4
transmitting transducer (oscillator) and
converted into a mechanical vibration. The
vibrating surface of the transmitting
transducer is in contact with the water and
transmits sound vibrations downwards to the
sea bed in a circular or elliptical beam.

Pulse
The angular size of the beam will depend on Amplifier
Generator
the application but is generally between 12º
and 25º. The narrower the beam is the
greater the concentration of energy and
Transmitting Receiving
therefore the potential range. If the beam
transducer transducer
is too narrow it will not indicate true depth
when the ship has a large list. Again there
is a similarity to radar in that the beam
width refers to the half-power limit, and
that side lobes exist.

The receiving transducer is set vibrating by any returning pulse. It converts this
mechanical vibration back into an electrical oscillation that is amplified before being
fed to the depth indicator/recorder, where it produces a visual display or record.

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Refraction and reflection
When the sound pulses generated by the echo sounder encounter water layers of
varying temperatures, salinity or particle content there may be some reflection, with
weak echoes returned to the transducer. Refraction will also occur and effectively
increase or decrease the beamwidth. Since transition between layers is usually
gradual these effects are unlikely to be dramatic.

When the pulse strikes the seabed the

strength of the reflection will depend
on the nature of the seabed (aspect,
composition). A smooth, hard and
sloping seabed will theoretically return
no reflection in the direction of the
transducers. Such reflection is said to
be specular. To ensure that at least
some of the reflected energy returns in
the desired direction requires diffuse
reflection that is achieved by the
“normal” irregular seabed.To increase
diffuse reflection the wavelength of Specular reflection Diffuse reflection
the sound waves should be short in
comparison to the irregularities of the seabed.

As the water depth becomes greater an increasing proportion of the energy is

absorbed (the cross sectional area of the beam approximately quadruples as the depth
doubles). Absorption is decreased by increasing the wavelength so lower frequencies
are used with deepwater sounders. This does decrease diffusion.

Because of the problems with absorption, echo sounders incorporate an automatic

swept gain so that gain increases from a minimum immediately following pulse
transmission to a maximum at the extreme limit of the range (just before the next
pulse is transmitted).

Details of sound waves

The frequencies used are in the range 10 – 55 kHz. These are ultrasonic frequencies
so as to avoid interference from propeller and hull noise that falls within the audible
range. Pulse repetition frequency is typically 10 – 600 pulses per minute, depending
on depth.

Transducer types

Magnetostrictive transducers rely on a characteristic of ferromagnetic materials

called magnetostriction that causes them to change in length when subjected to a
magnetic field. Nickel is used in transducers because it reduces in length by a
relatively large amount regardless of the direction of the magnetic lines of force.

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If a nickel bar is introduced into a coil through which an alternating current is passed
it will vibrate with a frequency twice that of the electric current. Careful selection of
dimensions of a laminated nickel block and frequency of the current will cause the
block to vibrate to its maximum (at its resonant frequency). The transducer is
mounted in the hull so that the vibrations direct acoustic waves towards the seabed.

The reverse effect occurs in the receiving transducer, with returned acoustic waves
causing vibrations within a magnetised laminated nickel block which induces an
electric current in a surrounding coil. This electric pulse is amplified and fed to the
recording/indicating device.

Electrostrictive transducers utilise a property possessed by some crystals. If

alternating mechanical stresses (compression and tension) are applied to the opposite
faces of some crystals, alternating electric charges are generated between the faces.
With each change from tension to compression the negative face becomes positive,
the positive face negative. This is a reversible phenomenon so that application of an
alternating current will produce contraction and expansion. This property is known as
piezostriction.

Within an electrostrictive (or piezo-electric) transducer a crystal is sandwiched

between two steel plates so that when an alternating current is applied across the
plates the crystal (and the plates) vibrate. Again the design ensures this is at the
resonant frequency of the pack so that the vibration is maximised. The lowermost
steel plate is in contact with the water so that the resultant pulses are transmitted
downwards.

Since the process is reversible any returned pulse will set up a vibration that results in
an electric current. The same transducer may be used for transmission and reception.

Siting the transducer

Choice of position for fitting the transducer is critical. So far as possible it should be
clear of all sources of noise, such as propellers, intakes and discharges.

Equally important is the avoidance of aeration. Turbulence created as the ship

displaces water by its forward motion results in the bow wave becoming heavily
aerated. For ships without bulbous bows the bow wave falls back about one third of
the length from forward, with much of this aerated water descending below the hull.
When a ship is fitted with a bulbous bow the aerated water descends below the hull
much further forward. In either case the transducer should be fitted forward of the
relevant point. This may mean that the ideal site is within the bulbous bow, but the
requirement for maintenance access may preclude this.

SOLAS Ch V, Annex 20 states:

4.1) Siting of the transducer

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4.1.1) One of the most important considerations to be taken into account when
installing echo sounder equipment is the selection of the transducer position. The
ideal position is one in which the water is free from aeration beneath the transducer,
and where the effects of surface, engine and propeller noise are at a minimum. There
are, however, few positions in a ship which are suitable in every respect, also a
position found to be satisfactory in one design of ship may not necessarily produce
equally good results in another.

4.1.2) The principal source of aeration is the bow wave created by a moving ship
where aerated water is forced beneath the hull. The resultant bubble stream normally
starts about a quarter length of the ship from the stem, and divides about three-
quarters of the length from the bow. The bubble stream varies in form and intensity
according to the speed, draught, shape of bow and hull, and the trim of the ship as
well as the sea state. These factors should be taken into account when siting the
transducer. In particular, in the case of a ship with a bulbous bow, the only
satisfactory forward site may be within the bulb, although the possibility of physical
damage has to be recognised.

4.1.3) To avoid aeration, a position at the forepeak is desirable but it may be

unsatisfactory in a ship with a light draught forward, especially in bad weather
conditions. In addition, the hull shape may make fitting difficult. In a laden ship of
normal design a position within a quarter of the ship's length from the stem will often
be found to give satisfactory results. On small ships damage may occur due to
pounding and care should be taken when siting the transducer. An aft position may be
more suitable than one forward. Care should be taken, however, to site the receiving
transducer a sufficient distance from the propellers to avoid the effects of noise or
aeration. When separate transmitting and receiving transducers are fitted, they should
be sufficiently separated to prevent interaction between them but the separation
should be as small as possible to ensure accurate soundings in shallow water. Positions
either side of the keel are sometimes found to be satisfactory.

Visual displays and recorders

For most navigational functions a digital display at the fore end of the wheelhouse is
probably the most commonly used. This display is usually linked to a depth recorder
so that when the navigator requires a record of the under keel clearance, both display
and recorder are operated. An audio-visual alarm may be engaged to give warning
when the clearance drops below a pre-set level.

The revolving belt type recorder (see below) was for many years the most popular on
board merchant ships. The recording is made on coated paper that is fed across the
path of a moving stylus. When a voltage is applied to the stylus a current flows
through the coating, burning away the surface and revealing the colour beneath.

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An initial voltage is applied to the stylus at the same time that the pulse is
transmitted from the transducer. So long as the lowest scale has been selected this
occurs as the stylus passes the top end of the paper and a zero mark is produced.
When an echo is received from the seabed the resultant electric pulse is amplified and
again fed to the stylus via a conducting bar. By this time the stylus has moved across
the paper by a distance that is proportional to the depth of the water. A second mark
is made on the paper and the depth can be read off against a scale on the paper, or
on a plastic overlay.

With this type of recorder a change in scale is made by moving the “zero”
transmission to a point before the stylus meets the paper. The top of the paper then
represents (say) 40 metres instead of zero, and what was 20 meters becomes 60
metres. Both the paper and plastic overlay show multiple ranges, so care must be
taken to use the correct one.

Coil
Zero mark

Transmitting
transducer

Magnet

Stylus bar

Stylus attached
to moving belt Receiving
transducer

Revolving belt paper recorder

As the magnet passes the coil, the transmitting pulse and zero mark are both
generated. On reception of an echo an electric pulse is transmitted to the stylus via
the stylus bar. Further coils (not shown) trigger earlier transmission pulses when
other scales are selected.

On some recorders the moving stylus is replaced by a multiple stylus that resembles a
comb. When the echo is received at the transducer an electric current is produced in
that “tooth” of the comb representing the depth.

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Colour video sounders are popular with the professional fishing and leisure boat
industries. These produce a display rather like an echo sounder recorder, but in
colour. The echoes are video processed so that the colour presented on the screen
represents the strength and shape of the echo received. Users are therefore able to
interpret the picture to estimate the nature of the seabed and presence and type of
fish. The echo sounders may have a number of features, including the ability to zoom
in on any area of interest.

Advantages of the paper recorder are that it:

 provides a record of soundings;

 gives visual indication of rate of change in sounding;
 shows all echoes, and allows the operator to interpret them;
 is mechanically simple.

Unlike an electronic sounder, however, it does require regular servicing and possible
adjustment.

Although electronic sounders are today able to provide a record of soundings that are
written to memory and may be displayed on a visual unit (VDU), the digital type only
displays one of the many echoes received from various depths. Correlation techniques
ensure that this is most likely to be the true (seabed) echo, but the navigator has no
indication of how certain this is.

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Echo sounder controls

The operator manual for each echo sounder type should be consulted. What follows is
a description of some controls that may be present:

 Range selection – there is an overlap between ranges eg. 0-50, 40-90, 80-130.
 Gain – controls the level of amplification.
 Paper speed – feed speed can be reduced to reduce paper usage.
 Zero adjustment.
 Transducer selector (fore or aft).
 Pulse length (shorter pulse for shallow water).
 Alarm set.
 Event mark – to draw a solid line across the paper.

Limitations and errors

A steeply sloping seabed is likely to produce an indistinct and possibly inaccurate

echo.

The echo from the high side of the beam (at A) will be received first. Because it has
travelled the shortest distance absorption will be less, but it is away from the main
axis of the beam and the transmitted energy will also be less.

At B the transmitted energy is greater but

so is absorption, whilst at C energy is less
and absorption greater. The line on the
echo sounder will consequently be broad
and indistinct.

Because of the width of the beam, some

deeper areas in the seabed will not be
A apparent on the echo sounder. This is
B shown in the right hand illustration.
C

Since both of the above errors indicate depths as being shallower than those actually
existing directly beneath the hull, they provide an added margin of safety.

Cross-noise is caused by transmitted vibrations that pass through the ship’s bottom
plates and adjacent air/water to the receiver. It produces echoes very close to the
zero line and can interfere with seabed echoes in very shallow water. Swept gain
helps to reduce cross-noise echoes and can be aided by careful use of operator gain.

Second (and third) trace echoes result when an echo is received from one pulse after
the next pulse has been transmitted. Within the mechanism of the recorder the echo
is associated with the most recent transmission and the depth shown is far less than
that actually existing. Such echoes only occur when the seabed has exceptionally
good reflecting properties like rock or gravel.

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Good reflecting properties of the seabed may also lead to multiple echoes where the
pulse is returned between the seabed and the ship’s hull. As with multiple radar
echoes these will be equidistant - and the first echo the true one.

The energy returned from rock may be 50 times greater than from sand, 1000 times
greater than from soft mud. An echo from a mud bottom may therefore be relatively
inconspicuous compared with an echo from deeper underlying rock.

Air bubbles within the water may reflect the pulse energy almost entirely. When a
ship is going astern or encountering heavy weather the air that is present beneath the
hull may so weaken the pulse that echoes are not received from the seabed.

Echoes may also be received from shoals of fish, margins between water layers of
different salinity/temperature, kelp, turbulence where tidal streams meet, and from
any solids in suspension. A “deep scattering layer”, thought to consist largely of
plankton, is frequently present at depths of 300 to 450 metres during clear days, at
much shallower depths between sunset and sunrise.

If an echo sounder of the belt type consistently gives suspect readings the speed of
rotation of the belt should be checked against manufacturer’s specifications.

A final note

Despite the increasing range of sophisticated navigation aids available, the navigator
should never discount the importance of the humble echo sounder. In almost all
locations at sea the closest piece of land is that directly beneath the ship. A
watchkeeper who is not aware how far below the ship the potentially dangerous sea
bed is, could be considered negligent in his/her duties.

Echo soundings, whilst unlikely to provide an accurate position fix, may provide a
position line of sorts when a charted depth contour is passed – and may certainly be
used to increase (or question) the reliability of a position fix obtained by other means.

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Topic Three - Distance and Speed Measuring Devices (Ships’ Logs)

The terms ‘log’ and ‘knot’ have derived from the original speed measuring device that
essentially consisted of a block of wood (the log) and a knotted line (giving knots).
The distance between the knots in the line were such that when the log was cast over
the side of a moving ship and allowed to move astern, the number of knots passing
through the observer’s fingers during the time that it took a sand glass to empty
represented the ship’s speed in knots.

The streamed log. Probably the next development was the streamed log. This
consisted of a finned rotator that was streamed behind the vessel on a plaited hemp
line. As the vessel moved through the water the speed of rotation was directly
proportional to the speed of the ship. The inboard end of the hemp line was
connected to a governor to smooth the rotation – and in turn connected to a clock
mounted on the taffrail on the ship’s quarter so that it streamed clear of the wake.
The clock converted the number of rotations into distance which was recorded on a
series of dials. Typically the log was read at the end of each watch and the distance
recorded in the bridge log book.

The streamed log measured water speed only, and was inaccurate at low speeds. It’s
major function was to provide input to DR and EP during the passage, and had to be
brought inboard when entering shallow water and slowing down.

Changing needs. With the advent of accurate position-fixing aids to navigation the
need for measuring distance travelled on passage has largely disappeared. At the
same time the size of ships has increased, and in many cases their manoeuvrability,
stopping ability – and the relative weight and strength of anchors and cables - has
decreased. The need for accurate speed measurement at low speeds and in shallow
water has therefore increased, making the streamed log redundant. It has also
become more important for a log to indicate ground speed when in shallow water –
and the most popular modern logs for large ships are able to do this.

Consider the following. Kinetic energy – the energy possessed by an object because of
its movement – is proportional to the mass of the moving object and to the square of
its velocity (MV2).

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When 10,000 tonne ships were the norm, their anchors probably had a mass of about 5
tonnes. A 200,000 tonne ship today is likely to have anchors of less than 20 tonnes.
The mass of the ship (and its kinetic energy) has increased 20-fold, the mass of the
anchors only 4-fold. It is therefore increasingly important to know the ship’s ground
speed as accurately as possible because all its kinetic energy must be absorbed to
bring the ship to a stop at anchor. Similarly when berthing, the ship’s kinetic energy
must be absorbed (by its own engine or by tugs) to allow it to come gently alongside.

Failure to absorb this energy by ‘conventional’ methods means that it can only be
absorbed by damaging anchor, chain, windlass or the steel of the ship!

Modern ship’s logs are able to meet some, or all, of these needs.

Sensor inputs

In addition to speed information provided to the navigator via a digital or analogue

repeater on the bridge, ship’s speed must also be synced with other devices. For
example, IMO performance standards require that both ECDIS and Radar be connected
to speed inputs. Linking a speed source to a secondary device is often referred to as
stabilising i.e. a device is described as either sea stabilised or ground stabilised.

Ship speed is categorised in one of two ways. A vessel’s ‘Ground track speed’
represents movement relative to the seabed, were ‘Water track speed’ is
representative of movement relative to the medium in which the vessel passes i.e. the
sea. Ship’s speed over the ground therefore is the resultant of any effect of set and
drift combined with relative movement through the water.

When used in conjunction with modern navigation systems, understanding which speed
input is most suited to the given situation is extremely important and will be explored
in subsequent chapters. The OOW must have a thorough working knowledge of the
types of speed logs available on-board their ship and understand the capabilities as
well as the limitations of each device.

6 different types of speed measuring

device are explored.

1. The Pressure (Pitot) Log

2. The Impeller Log
3. The Electromagnetic (EM) Log
4. The Acoustic Correlation (AC)
Log
5. The Doppler Log
6. Satellite Log
Pressure (Pitot) log

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This type of log provides few of the requirements of a large modern ship, but may still
be found on smaller vessels.

The principles of operation are very simple. If an open tube is positioned on a ship (or
aircraft) with the opening in the direction of travel, as the ship (or aircraft) moves
through the water (or air) the pressure in the tube, according to Pitot’s law, will be
proportional to the square of the speed of movement.

On a ship the pressure in the tube will not only relate to the speed of movement, but
also to the depth of water. To adjust for the pressure due to depth, a Pitot log
incorporates a second tube that is open vertically to the water. In its simplest form
the water from the two tubes is fed to opposite sides of a diaphragm. Any distortion
of the diaphragm therefore relates to the excess pressure due purely to the ship’s
movement.

To be effective the Pitot log must extend from the hull beyond the boundary layer, so
is susceptible to damage and fouling. It must therefore be retracted in shallow water.

The advantages of pressure logs are:

 the absence of any external moving parts;
 being unaffected by temperature or salinity.

But disadvantages are:

 output is non-linear;
 cannot measure astern movement unless a further tube is fitted;
 provide water speed only;
 must be retracted when under-keel clearance is small;
 accuracy is poor at low speeds;
 susceptible to damage/silting.

Impeller log

This type of log consists of an impeller mounted on a low-friction bearing within a

tube that is open to water flow. Implanted within the impeller are one or more
permanent magnets. As the impeller (and magnet) rotates in response to the flow of
water through the tube, the changing magnetic field induces electrical pulses into a
hermetically sealed sensor coil mounted adjacent to the impeller tube. Because the
pitch of the impeller blades is known,
the number of rotations indicates
distance travelled and, by introducing
a time function, the speed.

The advantages of impeller logs are:

 remain accurate at low speeds;
 low cost.

But disadvantages make them

unsuitable for large vessels:
 high susceptibility to damage;
 provide water speed only;

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  must be retracted when under-keel clearance is small.

Electromagnetic log

Faraday’s Law states that when a

conductor cuts through lines of magnetic
force an emf (electro-magnetic force) is
induced into the conductor. This emf is
proportional to the rate at which the
magnetic field is cut.

In the electro-magnetic log a magnetic

field is created within the water close to
the ship’s hull by passing an electric
current through a solenoid. When water
(the conductor) passes through this
magnetic field an emf is induced into
water. The strength of this emf is
measured across two sensor anodes. The
result is calibrated to take into account
the emf that is induced directly into the
sensor anodes due to their proximity to
the solenoid.

Early electro-magnetic logs required a

streamlined housing (as illustrated) so
that the solenoid and sensors could
project below the hull. They may now be
fitted flush with the hull.

To avoid aeration the hull fittings for the

transducer should be installed in the forward part of a ship where the boundary layer
thickness and turbulence are minimal, in a position forward of any projections,
outflows etc. and away from any Bar and Bilge keels. Probe or projecting type sensors
may be satisfactorily installed in other parts of a ship, but should be fitted in
accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. (SOLAS Ch.5 Annex 20.)

Electro-magnetic logs have many of the advantages required by large ships:

 work both ahead and astern;
 accurate at low speeds;
 output is linear;
 no moving parts.

But suffer the major disadvantages:

 measure water speed only;
 the older type were susceptible to damage and expensive to replace.

To avoid aeration the hull fittings for the transducer should be installed in the
forward part of a ship where the boundary layer thickness and turbulence are

17
minimal, in a position forward of any projections, outflows etc. and away from any
bar and bilge keels. Probe or projecting type sensors may be satisfactorily installed
in other parts of a ship, but should be fitted in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations.

Acoustic correlation log

Although in many ways similar to echo-sounders that utilise piezo-electric transducers,

this type of log incorporates two piezoceramic elements arranged in a fore and aft
line within one transducer. These effectively each produce an echo-sounder trace of
either the sea bed in shallow water, or of a water mass at an intermediate level in
deeper water. When moving ahead the after element will achieve an identical trace
to that of the forward element, but at a later time (and vice-versa when moving
astern). Knowing the distance between the two elements, and measuring the time
delay, it is possible to calculate the ship’s speed.

Time delay

Returns from forward element

Returns from after element

The drawing shows two very distinctive seabed profiles, but this is for illustrative
purposes only. In practice the correlation can involve apparently featureless returns
from a very flat seabed or water mass and still remain accurate. Data processing and
correlation is completed by a microprocessor. The ability to match the returns has
been likened to matching fingerprints.

Incorporation of further transducers with piezoceramic elements arranged in an

athwartships configuration allows transverse movement to be measured at bow and
stern to provide a full docking system.

The advantages of acoustic correlation logs include:

 provides ground speed in shallower water (usually up to 200 metres);
 works when moving ahead and astern;
 can provide transverse speed;
 flush hull mounting to protect from damage;
 can incorporate depth indication.

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It may, however, be:
 unreliable at underkeel clearances of less than 3 metres;
 difficult to access.

Doppler log

First explained by Christian Doppler in 1842, the Doppler effect refers to the apparent
shift (the Doppler shift)in frequency and wavelength of any wave form which results
when a receiver of the wave form moves in relation to its source.

An easily understood example is illustrated by a ship steaming towards the source of a

swell, then away from it. The pitching motion when steaming into the swell will be
more rapid than when steaming down swell. Even though the actual
frequency/wavelength of the swell remains the same, the wavelength will appear to
be shorter (the frequency higher) when steaming into the swell.

The Doppler effect may be used

to provide an accurate speed
log. In its simplest form a
transducer in the ship’s hull
transmits an ultrasonic wave of
precisely known frequency in a
forward (and downwards)
direction, then measures the
frequency of the echo which
returns from the seabed (or
water layer). The difference in
(Sperry Marine, 2012) frequency between the
transmitted and received signals is a function of the ship’s fore and aft speed. An
apparent increase in frequency indicates an ahead speed, a decrease in frequency a
movement astern. Transmitting similar signals in an athwartships direction will give
movement to port or starboard.
In practice a Doppler log transmits its ultrasonic waves at an angle of approximately
60º to the horizontal. To reduce errors caused by excessive trim or pitching a “Janus”
configuration is used in which waves are transmitted both fore and aft. An
athwartships “Janus” configuration will similarly reduce errors in indicated transverse
movement.

Combination of a twin axis (fore & aft

and athwartships) Janus configuration
forward, and a single (athwartships)
configuration aft can provide a full Fore and Aft Janus
docking system. configuration -
seabed returns

60 Seabed
º
19
Doppler logs are able to indicate both ground and sea speed. In shallow water the
transmission will normally be returned from the seabed (to give ground speed), in
deeper water from some intermediate water layer (to give water speed).

Sperry Marine claim the following degree of accuracy

for their SRD 500 Dual-Axis Doppler Speed Log:

Bottom speed (below 2 knots) ± .01 knots

(above 2 knots) ± .05 knots 0.2
Water speed (below 10 knots) ± .01 knots
(10 – 25 knots) ± .025 knots
(25 – 50 Knots) ± .1 knots
1.1
and a distance accuracy of better than 0.5%

SOLAS Ch V, Annex 20 states: 0.3

“The guidance in Section 4.1 may be used for the

siting of underwater transducers for Doppler logs.” Docking system indicating
fore & aft speed and
This is the same advice given for the siting of echo transverse movement at
sounder transducers reproduced in the previous bow and stern
chapter.

The site chosen for additional transducers fitted in a twin axis docking system will be
governed by different criteria because when in use the vessel will not normally be
steaming at speed, nor operating in heavy weather. Possible aeration from docking
tugs’ engines, and the release of gases caused by the proximity to the seabed may be
added factors.

Doppler logs may be continuous wave mode, in which a second element is required in
each direction (one to transmit, the other to receive); or pulse mode, with a single
element that switches to receive mode after each pulse is transmitted.

The advantages of Doppler logs include:

 provides ground speed in water of suitable depth;

 can provide speed in both axes;
 accurate in shallow water;
 no moving parts.

Disadvantages may be:

 air bubbles from pounding, astern movements and tug propellers may interrupt
signals;
 methane gas stirred up from the bottom of docks can attenuate signals;
 access may be difficult.

20
Satellite Log

GNSS devices have long been a source of highly accuracy speed over the ground data.
The drawback however is that the common run of the mill ‘GPS’

(Sperry Marine, 2012)

21
Topic Four – Radar
RADAR

Since the advent of radar a large number of accidents have occurred as a result of
poor understanding by its users. We therefore begin with a few basic facts about
radar that will be reinforced throughout this topic:

• Radar may not show on the screen everything you would expect to see visually.
Because of their shape or material some objects may give poor echoes. Others
may return no echo at all.

• Radar may show on the screen things you cannot see visually. This may be
because objects are out of visual range but within radar range. It could be
that the radar is producing echoes of “targets” that do not exist, or that are
located at a position other than the one indicated. These are known as false
echoes.

• The movement of echoes or tracks on the screen may be vastly different to the
movement of the ships producing them. This is primarily due to the effect of
relative motion.

• Measurement of range by radar is more accurate than measurement of bearing.

Positions obtained by bearings alone can be quite inaccurate.

THE PRINCIPLES OF RADAR

The echo principle

The idea of echo ranging was well known before radar was invented. Vikings
navigated through the Fjords in fog by measuring the time it took echoes to return
from the steep cliffs.

The principle the Vikings relied on is extremely simple.

Distance (range) = speed of sound x time

2

It is necessary to divide by two because the sound has to travel the distance twice.

For example: A ship fires a gun and starts a stopwatch. In 10 seconds, the echo is
heard. How far is the ship from the cliffs? (Sound travels at 335.3 metres/sec at sea
level)

Range = 335.3 x 10
2

= 1676.5 metres (note that one nautical mile = 1852 metres)

The method of echo ranging with sound is of limited use. Few objects will return an
echo which can be heard, no reliable bearing of the object will be indicated and the
maximum range is low.

22
Echo Ranging by Radar

Radar is a device that can measure the bearing and distance of objects at quite long
ranges. Radar uses radio waves rather than sound waves. Instead of making a noise
that produces a vibration in the air, the radar transmission causes an electro-magnetic
vibration which also travels through the air, but almost a million times faster than
sound (300,000,000 metres per second or 300 metres per micro(µ) second). The speed
of a radio wave is equal to the speed of light.

The echo from a similar range to the example used above for sound waves would be
received after a little over 10 µsec (1/100,000 sec). Conventional timing devices are
obviously unsuitable for the measurement of such small time intervals.

Although radars in use today bear little resemblance to the

earliest models, a brief look at some forerunners to the
modern radar may help understanding of the principles
involved.
Transmission blip Received echo blip
Early “A” scan displays solved the timing
problem using an oscilloscope. An electron gun
emits a stream of electrons that focuses on the
internal surface of a cathode ray tube (crt), causing
its fluorescent coating to glow. The electron beam is
deflected across the surface of the tube at the Range
measurement
required rate by producing a magnetic field around the
neck of the crt. At the moment of transmission a vertical
deflection of the electron stream produces a blip on the screen.
Another blip is produced on reception of the returned echo. The linear distance
between blips is converted to time (and therefore range) by comparison with a
suitably calibrated scale. Such a display provided an indication of range only. The
bearing of the target was approximated by reference to the direction the radar
scanner was pointing at the time (early radar scanners were rotated by hand).

The next development led to a more sophisticated crt that provided a map-like
presentation from which both range and bearing could be measured. This was known
as the plan position indicator (PPI).

The PPI

At the inner end of the crt

an electron beam is
Electron
generated by an electron beam
Focus
gun in which the cathode is Control anodes
heated to approximately grid Fluorescent
1000°K. The electron screen
beam is directed towards
the screen through a grid.
The potential difference Electron
gun
between the grid and the Deflection
cathode controls the coils
intensity of the beam.

23
After passing through the grid the beam is focussed by a series of anodes so that the
focal point occurs at the screen.

The inner surface of the screen is coated with a fluorescent material that glows under
the influence of the electron beam. The more intense the beam, the brighter the
glow. Between the focus anodes and the screen the beam passes through the
deflector coils which generate a magnetic field to deflect the focus of the beam from
the centre of the screen to its edge. This deflection is controlled by the time base.

Assume the radar range is set at 12 miles and there is a target at 6 miles. The radar
pulse travels out towards the target at 300 m/µsec. Immediately the pulse leaves the
antenna the timebase deflects the spot from the centre of the screen towards the
edge. This deflection is at such a rate that by the time the radar pulse has travelled
to the target the focal point of the electron beam has moved ¼ the distance towards
the edge of the screen. When the reflected echo is received back at the antenna the
electron beam is half the distance towards the edge of the screen. The returned echo
triggers a change in potential at the grid and the electron beam intensifies long
enough to cause a brightening of the spot on the screen - at 6 miles range.

Bearing measurement

In addition to deflecting the electron beam from the centre of the screen to its edge,
the deflector coils also cause it to rotate in time with the scanner. This produces the
trace or sweep that is characteristic of this type of radar display. The position of the
echo on the screen can thus be made to indicate bearing as well as range.

Simple radar block diagram

The fundamental component parts of a radar are:

 Transmitter. A device for generating radio waves.

 Transmit/Receive (T/R) cell. The antenna is

Antenna
used for both transmitting high energy radio Rotation
waves and receiving low energy echoes. The
Heading marker
T/R cell is a gas operated valve which
isolates the receiver circuits during the T/R cell
Echoes
transmission pulse, then isolates the transmit
Pulses
side whilst the receiver circuits “listen” for
echoes. Transmitter Receiver
Trigger
 Waveguide. The metal tubing for carrying
high frequency radio waves.
Trigger
 Antenna. A device for directing the radio
wave towards the objects and receiving any Power
sources Display
echoes. It also makes possible the indication
of a target’s bearing.

 Receiver. A device that detects the presence of any echoes and amplifies them
ready for display.

 Timebase or Trigger Generator. The means of measuring the travel time of pulse

24
 and echo.

 Display. The means of showing the echoes in plan form. It is sometimes referred
to as the Plan Position Indicator (PPI).

The synthetic raster scan display

The scope radar system is now outdated. The development of microprocessors has
made it possible to store the echoes in a computer memory, rather than displaying
them in their raw form. Echoes are read into the memory in real time but written
out to the display after being processed. This video processed or delayed video
results in a clearer display. It has also allowed the development of ARPA. Despite
this radical progress, the changes only take effect after reception of the raw video
signal, so much that has been described above in the section on the older style
“scope” radar remains valid for raster scan displays.

A scope radar requires a special type of cathode ray tube which is difficult to
observe by day without shading. Video processed signals are capable of being shown
in daylight on a computer screen (raster scan) by converting the bearing and the
range into an x,y format using simple trigonometry. The screen can be designated
as a series of x,y co-ordinates. Bearing and range data is converted into digital
format representing each element in a computer memory cell. A "1" means there is
a target in the cell and a "0" means the cell is empty - and each cell has its unique
screen co-ordinate. Radar echoes are written into the memory cells in real time as
the scanner rotates. The picture is drawn by reading from those memory cells
containing targets (ships, land etc) and displaying them on the screen. It is
generated from left to right and top to bottom instead of radially.

The Antenna System

The radio wave needs to be focussed into a narrow horizontal beam to allow
accurate bearing measurement. Marine radar has a wide vertical beamwidth to
ensure detection of objects on the sea surface and to allow for movement in a
seaway. Most marine radar antennas are of the slotted waveguide type.

The beamwidths for shipboard marine radars are typically 0.5°-2° in the horizontal
plane and 20°-30° in the vertical.

Radar transmission

To produce a good echo a radar pulse must:

 have very high energy;

 be of a short wavelength to enable the echo to be timed accurately;
 be generated for only very short periods of time (fractions of a µ second) to
ensure echoes of nearby objects will be detected.

Components of the radar – scope to raster scan

Although there is a vast difference between the appearance and capability of the old
scope type radar and that of the raster scan sets that were first introduced in the
1980s, both utilise similar components and processes up until the stage where raw

25
video data is received. It is only after that the difference between the two types
becomes notable.

The method of creating a real-time display on the scope type radar was covered
briefly earlier in this chapter and will not be discussed further. The final section of
these notes therefore concentrates on a basic understanding of re-timed video and
how the raster scan display is created.

Power source

The external power source for the radar delivers a relatively modest but continuous
300-400 volts dc to the modulator. The modulator acts like a capacitor in that it
“stores” received energy over the comparatively long period between pulse
transmissions (maybe 1000 µsec), then discharges it to the magnetron in a very short
burst (1 µsec or less) of very high (eht) power. This may be in the region of 10,000
volts and 30 kilowatts.

The magnetron

This is the device that converts the bursts of eht energy into microwave radio
pulses. The magnetron consists of a block of beryllium copper into which a number
of cavities have been accurately machined. The whole is enclosed within a vacuum
chamber that in turn is secured between the poles of a powerful permanent
magnet. A heater is incorporated into the magnetron to keep it at the optimum
operating temperature to produce the required frequency. The main block of the
magnetron acts as the anode,
with a cathode being
positioned through the centre
of the main cavity.
Application of eht energy
causes a flow of electrons
within the cavities. This
electron flow interacts with
the permanent magnetic
field, resulting in high
frequency oscillations. These
oscillations create the rf
energy. It is extracted from
within one of the
magnetron’s cavities via an
inductive loop that extends
into the start of the waveguide.

Although merchant ship marine radars still commonly rely on a magnetron to

produce high power pulses because the alternative solid state power amplifiers has,
until recently, been prohibitively expensive, the situation is changing. Kelvin
Hughes now produces their “SharpEye” radar that incorporate such an amplifier to
produce ‘cleaner’ pulses with a peak output of just 170W, compared with 30kW from
a magnetron. Because of greater efficiency in turning power into useable energy,
and new technology which allows the use of compressible longer pulses, detection
performance and range resolution is not compromised.

The waveguide

26
The waveguide is a hollow rectangular-section tube, commonly made of brass or
copper. Use of a waveguide reduces energy losses that may be experienced if cable
is used. Although it is quite normal today to use high quality coaxial cable to
connect the transmitter to the scanner, miniaturisation has allowed the transmitter
to be positioned directly under the scanner (rather than in the wheelhouse), so it is
not uncommon to find radars that utilise a short length of waveguide to connect to
the slotted wave guide in the scanner (more of that later).

The inductive loop that leaves the magnetron cavity is extended through the longer
wall of the waveguide at a critical distance from the closed end of the guide. It acts
like an aerial to transmit the rf energy into the space within the waveguide. This
energy is reflected from the internal walls of the waveguide and travels along its
length. A rotating joint is incorporated into the waveguide below the scanner.

The duplexer (T-R cell)

The waveguide feeds rf energy into the scanner. Since marine radars use a single
scanner, returned rf energy is also collected by the scanner and directed to the
receiver. A very high level of rf energy is generated by the magnetron (less from its
alternative). Only very low energy is returned from most targets. The receiver is
therefore a very sensitive device – and if it were to receive pulses directly from the
magnetron it would suffer considerable damage. During transmission the waveguide
to the receiver must therefore be blocked off to the transmitted pulse. Because this
blocking may have to take place up to 4000 times per second, a mechanical switch is
not a practical solution.

The switching device that is inserted into the waveguide consists of a gas filled cell
blocked off at each end by windows that are transparent to the rf energy. Within
this cell are located two pairs of cones with their apexes separated by a gap. Under
the influence of the high-power microwave energy from the magnetron this cell
ionises and a spark is generated across the gap between the cones, effectively
blocking the passage of the microwaves. The cell rapidly de-ionises at the end of
the transmission pulse because the lower level power of received echoes is
insufficient to cause ionisation. Returned pulses are therefore able to pass freely to
the receiver.

The scanner

Non-military scanners are almost exclusively of the slotted waveguide type. The
scanner is simply an extension of the wave guide from the T/R cell, joined to it by a
rotating joint. A detailed discussion of the electromagnetic fields created within the
scanner is beyond the scope of this topic, but the following is a simplified
explanation of the process.

27
Because of the form of the electromagnetic fields, a vertical slot cut into the short
face of the waveguide will allow very
little energy to “escape” as a radar
pulse. A horizontal slot will allow
maximum escape of energy. Since high
energy levels enter at the open end of
the scanner waveguide the first slot is cut
at only a small angle of skew to the
vertical.

The angle of skew is progressively

increased so that a larger proportion of
the remaining level of radiation is
allowed to escape. Thus if the total
energy supplied is 1 kW and there are
twenty slots, the angle of the first slot is
such that one twentieth (50 watts) is
radiated outwards. The angle of the next
allows one nineteenth of the remainder
to radiate. The angle of the tenth slot
allows one tenth of the remainder, and so
on until the final slot allows all of the
remaining energy to be radiated. Each
slot therefore radiates 50 watts.

In practice a proportion of the total energy will continue to the closed end of the
waveguide where it must be prevented from being reflected back and interfering
with the main wave-form. This requires either a device at the end to ensure the
reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave (as in a “resonant scanner”), or
fitting of an attenuator that absorbs any residual energy and dissipates it as heat.

If the angle of skew of the slots were always in the same direction they would have
the effect of rotating the electromagnetic fields within the scanner away from the
horizontal. Slots are therefore cut alternately. The spacing of the slots is critical
(wavelength/2) if a narrow horizontal beam is to be produced. S-band and X-band
radars therefore require different scanners.

The mixer

The frequency of the transmitted pulse of a 10cm radar is typically about 3000 MHz,
that of a 3cm radar about 9400 MHz. Any echo will be received at the same
frequency. Since echoes are relatively weak they require amplification before
processing. Amplification of such high frequencies is difficult, so the simplest
solution is to reduce the frequency before any further processing. A standard
frequency used by many radar receivers is 60 MHz. This can be produced by mixing
the incoming signal at, say, 9400 MHz, with another generated within the mixer at
9340 MHz. These two frequencies are only in phase at a frequency of 60 MHz (their
difference). This becomes the output of the mixer and is known as the intermediate
frequency. Mixing used to take place by running a second waveguide alongside that
carrying the incoming signal. This second waveguide carried input from a local
oscillator at the required mixing frequency. Apertures cut into the common walls
created the mixing process. The output from the local oscillator could be varied (LO
tuner on some older sets, automatic frequency control (afc) on later sets). Tuning
ensures that the intermediate frequency is exactly as required by the receiver.

28
On modern sets a solid state alternative for mixing is used. This has the advantage
that it reduces the noise that was a by-product of the local oscillator.
The amplifier

Microwave signals are unaffected by atmospheric noise, but susceptible to noise

generated within the equipment, or by unsuppressed electrical machinery. One
means of controlling noise is to reduce amplifier bandwidth, but since radar pulses
comprise an infinite number of sine waves spread over a relatively broad band about
the nominated frequency, there is a real limit on how far the bandwidth can be
reduced. This spread of sine waves is greatest when short pulses are used and pulse
shape is critical (ie at short range) where the optimum amplifier bandwidth is
typically 8 MHz. It is fortunate that at short range less amplification is required so
noise levels are not greatly increased by amplification. At longer range, where
longer pulses are used, the optimum amplifier bandwidth may be as little as 0.5
MHz, so the higher levels of amplification used will not produce excessive noise.

Because of the great variation in levels of amplification needed they take a

logarithmic form. This ensures that weak (distant) signals receive maximum
amplification but that the gain progressively decreases as signals become stronger.
Older sets incorporated a series of amplifiers that became progressively saturated as
signal strength increased. On modern sets they take the form of integrated circuits.

Digital video and raster scan displays

The move from real time display to the retimed video concept has allowed a number
of refinements. Raw video signals are fed to a comparator for comparison with a
reference threshold. So long as the threshold is exceeded it is recorded as a logic
level “1” (otherwise as logic “0”), to be stored in dynamic RAM at an address that is
decided by input from the clock pulse. The clock pulse is enabled by a “range gate”
that is initiated at the moment the pulse is transmitted.

A simple system as described above would result in all echoes being displayed with
similar intensity. Utilising two or more comparators with increasingly high
thresholds allows those signals that exceed the first threshold to be displayed at a
base intensity. For any that also exceed the second (and subsequent) thresholds the
intensity of the displayed echo is increased. This has the obvious advantage that
stronger echoes like ships can be differentiated from weaker echoes like those
produced by small boats, rain or sea returns. Threshold levels can be varied by
settings of the video gain and sea clutter controls.

Because the phosphor material coating a raster scan screen has low persistency the
display will rapidly fade. It can be “refreshed” by rereading the stored video data a
number of times during the dead time between pulses.

The result of the above techniques produces a very bright display that, like
television, can be viewed in daylight.

By storing data from consecutive scans in separate memories, their contents can be
correlated during the read cycle. Only echoes that appear in the same cell on
consecutive scans are displayed. Thus “real” echoes (logic 1,1) are displayed, but
the random echoes (logic 1,0 or 0,1) that result from interference are not.

29
Video data is initially produced in polar form (range and bearing coordinates). This
is converted by a digital scan process into cartesian (X and Y) coordinates before it
can be used on a raster display.

This introduces the major difference between the way scope and raster displays are
created. The scope (analog) display was generated by deflecting an electron stream
from the centre of the screen to its edge, then blanking it off for the fly-back to the
centre of the screen where it awaited the next transmission. This deflection rotated
around the screen in synchronisation with the scanner.

Retimed video, in which the data is stored and processed before display, has allowed
conversion of the video elements into cartesian coordinates so they may be
displayed on a television-type screen.

As with a television picture, an interlaced scanning process is used on raster

displays. The picture is generated by near horizontal, left to right, deflection of the
electron beam. The process starts at the top left-hand corner of the screen. At the
end of each left to right scan the spot is blanked off for fly-back to the left edge. On
the first pass only the odd number lines are scanned. When the bottom of the screen
is reached it again blanks off for fly-back to the top left before the process is
repeated for the even number lines (hence the interlacing).

The standard UK television picture comprises 625 lines. Raster radar screens offer
greater resolution with almost twice the number of lines (1024). Each line in turn is
divided into 1024 pixels, so the screen comprises a 1024 x 1024 mosaic, with each
pixel having a unique X,Y address in RAM.

“Synthetic” video can readily be displayed. This includes such things as range rings
and bearing lines, range in use, GPS position etc. Such static RAM contents are
usually displayed on the periphery of the screen.

Colour displays can be produced using a shadow mask that permits any combination
of red, blue and green screen phosphor dots to be activated by a triple electron
beam. This allows different colours to be selected for background, echoes, trails etc
to match conditions and the requirements of the navigator.

Other enhancements include true motion, created by “scrolling” of dynamic RAM,

control of the length of afterglows by operator rather than screen phosphor
characteristics, the use of different colours for correlated and uncorrelated targets,
and the ability to superimpose other information such as mapping lines on the
screen. It was the introduction of raster scan that allowed the full development of
ARPA.

30
31
Inter-switching

The majority of ships are

fitted with two radars. In
many cases this will
comprise one X-band and
one S-band set so that the
advantages of each may be
gained. In brief this means
the high resolution of X-band
countered by its
susceptibility to clutter,
compared with the absence
of clutter but poor target
resolution of S-band.

Where both installations are

of the same type it is
possible to inter-switch all
of the components for added
flexibility and availability in
the event of failure of any
element. When sets are of
different types the
transceivers, waveguides (coaxial cables) and scanners are not interchangeable. In
this case the integration is limited to using displays in a master/slave relationship.

DISPLAY ORIENTATION

There are three ways that radar information can be displayed on a screen. The
orientation is indicated on the display by the position of the heading marker that
corresponds to the fore/aft line of the ship.

North up. Heading marker is aligned with the true course of the ship. Own ship is
fixed at (or offset from) the centre of the display. Because the course is obtained
from the gyrocompass the display is said to be gyro stabilised. As the ship changes
course the heading marker (rather than radar echoes) rotate about the screen.
North direction is always at the top of the screen. Radar bearings will always be
True.

Course up. The heading marker is aligned with the top of the display but moves as
the ship’s head changes, thus preventing radial movement of targets on the display.
This display is also gyro stabilised. Own ship is again at (or offset from) the centre of
the screen. Substantial alterations of course will move the heading marker off the
000º position. Reorientation can be manual or automatic. During reorientation
radar echoes will rotate about the display. Radar bearings will always be True.

Ship’s head up. The heading marker is always aligned with the top of the display.
As the ship changes course the heading marker remains fixed and the display
rotates. The ship or antenna position is shown in the centre of the screen. There is
no compass input and the display is said to be unstabilised. Radar bearings will all
be relative to the ship’s heading. As the ship yaws, radar echoes will rotate in arcs
around the display.

32
The principle advantages of this presentation are:

 it doesn’t require compass input;

 the radar picture correlates with what is viewed outside the wheelhouse
windows.

It may be the only presentation available on small craft.

North up gyro stabilised is the orientation most commonly used on merchant ships.
Ship’s head up is normally only used when gyro input is unavailable. Few mariners
use course up. ARPA functions only work on gyro stabilised North up or course up.

MOTION OF THE DISPLAY

There are basically two available motions for radar display on ships.

Relative motion. Own ship’s position stays fixed at a point on the screen and radar
target echoes move with a relative motion across the screen. The relative motion of
a target is the sum of own ship’s true motion through the water and the radar target
ship’s true motion through the water. This is the most common motion used by
mariners.

True motion. With normal gyro stabilised display, own ship’s position moves along
the heading marker until it arrives within one quarter of the screen diameter from
the edge, at which point it will reset itself. Radar target echoes will move across
the screen with their own true motion through the water. A target’s trail or track
will thus give an indication of its course and speed through the water. If ground
stabilised, then own ship’s position moves at an angle to the heading marker that
will depend on the set and drift being experienced. Target echoes will move across
the screen with their true ground speed and track. Fixed targets are therefore
stationary on the display.

One of the many bonuses offered by the video processing capability of rasterscan
radars is that some of the features of both available motions can be combined on
one screen. This has resulted in the most popular motion today being that called
relative motion, true trails. The navigator can immediately see which targets
comprise a danger by observing the direction of the relative vector, whilst at the
same time gaining an indication of the target’s true motion from its true trail.

Pulse length and pulse repetition frequency

The length of time the radio wave is transmitted for is the pulse length and is
usually expressed in µ seconds. Typical pulse lengths are:

Short 0.05 µ second 15 metres

Medium 0.25 µ second 75 metres
Long 1.00 µ second 300 metres

but remember that the new generation of radars that entered the market in 2006/7
may use longer pulses.

33
A large number of these pulses are generated every second. This is known as the
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF). The interval of time between successive pulses is
the Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI). Because of the high speed of the pulses, echoes
from targets at long range will be returned before the next pulse is transmitted
(except in very exceptional conditions). The PRF and PRI vary with range scale in
use. Typical examples are:

PRF PRI Range Scale

1200 Hertz 833 µ seconds 0.125 to 12
650 Hertz 1538 µ seconds 24 to 96

The theoretical maximum range of a radar is a function of the PRI. If, for example,
the PRI was 1000 µ seconds, a pulse could travel 300,000 metres in that time.
However, the pulse must go out and travel back in this PRI so maximum range is half
i.e. 150,000 metres. Since one nautical mile = 1852 metres the theoretical
maximum range is approximately 81 nms.

RADAR’S LIMITATIONS

The radar horizon

Because of the curvature of the earth, there is a finite limit to how far we can see
with the naked eye (the visible horizon). Its distance depends on our height of eye.

TT VV
R
R

In the figure above there are three horizons represented. The shortest is the
theoretical horizon (T). It is a straight line tangential to the earth’s curvature.
Light, however, may be refracted by the medium it passes through. Under normal
atmospheric conditions light waves are bent around the curvature of the earth,
making the visible horizon (V) about 6% further than the theoretical horizon.

Radar waves are also refracted, but because they are at a lower frequency than light
waves they are bent even further around the earth’s curvature. The radar horizon
(R) is consequently about 15% further than the theoretical horizon.

The approximate radar horizon is given by:

Range in nautical miles = 2.2√H + 2.2√h

where H is the height of the scanner in metres and h is the height of the target in
metres. This assumes that standard atmospheric conditions prevail, radar pulses are

34
sufficiently powerful, the target will return detectable echoes, and weather
conditions (eg rain) will not attenuate the signal.

Standard conditions are:

Temperature 15ºC Decreasing 2ºC every 1000 feet of altitude

Air Pressure 1013hpa Decreasing 36hpa every 1000 feet of altitude
Humidity 60% Constant with height

When non-standard conditions prevail the radar horizon may decrease or increase.
These effects are known as sub-refraction or super-refraction and are discussed in
more detail later.

Discrimination

The ability of radar to differentiate, or separate, targets depends on three factors:

 spot or pixel size;

 pulse length;
 horizontal beamwidth.

Spot size

The electron beam in the CRT is focussed as finely as possible. The degree of focus
governs screen spot size. The actual area depends on the range scale in use.

The very smallest mark capable of being displayed on the screen is equal to the
thickness of the light beam hitting the surface of the CRT. It is called a pixel. A
raster screen is typically divided into 1024 pixels each way (the number of bits in 1K
of RAM). If there is no “blank” pixel between targets they will appear as one.

Pulse length

A detected echo produces an intensification of the electron beam. The duration of

the bright spot on the screen is therefore a function of the duration of the received
echo. The duration of an echo is the pulse length.

A pulse that strikes a post will produce an echo that is elongated away from the
antenna by the pulse length.

If the pulse length is 1 microsecond, its length as it travels through space is 300
metres. Therefore a single post will return an echo throughout the period the pulse
is moving over it and the echo returned will also be 300 metres long.

Remember that typical pulse lengths are :

Short 0.06 µ second 18 metres

Medium 0.3 µ second 90 metres
Long 1 µ second 300 metres

Targets that are on the same bearing and closer together than half the pulse length
(in metres) will appear as one.

Range discrimination is therefore dependent on pulse length and spot size.

35
Horizontal beamwidth

If the beamwidth is 2º, a small pole (as illustrated) will send back echoes as soon as
the leading edge of the beam strikes it (when the centre of the beam is still 1º away
from it). The echo will also start to paint on the display as soon as the edge of the
beam strikes it, and it will continue to paint until the trailing edge of the beam
leaves it. Therefore the painted echo can never be less than the beamwidth. If the
beamwidth is 2º then this represents widths of 320, 640 and 1280 metres at ranges
of 5, 10 and 20 miles respectively.

Bearing 089°
Small pole

Bearing 090° Correct bearing

through centre
of echo
Bearing 091°

The beamwidth draws out the edges of all targets in azimuth and causes a serious
distortion, in contrast to a smaller distortion in range due to pulse length that is only
really noticeable on short ranges. For small targets the size of an echo on screen is
no indication of target size.

Because targets are displayed at greater than their true size, the radar may be
unable to show as separate echoes those targets that are close together. Bearing
discrimination depends on horizontal beamwidth. Targets at the same range with an
angular distance between their adjacent extremities of less than one beamwidth will
appear as a single target.

The effect of echo distortion on range and bearing measurement

From the above discussion it is apparent that ranges should be measured to the near
edge of the echo. For small objects such as buoys the bearing should be taken to
the centre of the echo to reduce the magnitude of the maximum possible error.
When taking bearings of the edge of a large object the bearing cursor should be
placed half the beamwidth inside the edge of the echo.

Accuracy of bearing and range measurement is included in the IMO Performance

Standards.

Most modern radars will give performance better than the minimum standards but
operators should always reduce the range scale to the lowest possible when taking
ranges and bearings.

TARGET CHARACTERISTICS AND ECHO STRENGTH

The ability of radar to detect a target will depend on:

 optimal adjustment of the radar controls;

 peak power of the transmitted pulse;
 characteristics of the target itself.

36
The first two factors are self-explanatory, but the third requires further discussion.

The characteristics of a target that will determine echo strength are:

size shape aspect material texture

Size

The chances of any single pulse being returned are no greater for a target that is
many beamwidths in expanse than for one that completely fills a single beamwidth.
However, the greater the number of pulses striking a target the greater the
probability of at least some of them producing discernible echoes. A small object
that lies within the beam will not return as strong an echo as one that fills the
beam. There are, of course, few targets that will completely fill the vertical
beamwidth.

Shape

A target’s shape will affect the strength of the returning echo by determining the
amount of energy that is reflected in the direction of the antenna. The reflected
echo must travel in the reciprocal direction to that of the pulse if the echo is to be
detected by the radar. If the pulse is perpendicular to a reflecting surface it will
bounce directly back. At any other angle a large part of the energy will be directed
away from the antenna.

Many targets will be a combination of the following shapes:

A Sphere

This will only return an echo from that small area

that is perpendicular to the beam. The remainder of
the pulse is reflected outwards and away.

A Cylinder

If we assume that the longitudinal axis of the

cylinder is perpendicular to the beam then the area
that reflects in the right direction resembles a
narrow strip.

A Cone

With its base horizontal a cone will present no

surface perpendicular to the beam. It reflects all
the radar energy upwards and away.

37
Aspect

This is the most important factor. The shape that

is potentially the best reflector of radar pulse
energy is a flat surface. This will only be the case
when it lies perpendicular to the direction of the
beam. At any other angle it becomes the worst of
reflectors. The angle at which a target presents
itself to a radar beam is termed its aspect. Good aspect Poor aspect

If two flat surfaces are positioned at right angles

to each other they produce a corner reflector. No
matter at what angle the pulse strikes a corner
reflector all the energy is reflected in the
reciprocal direction. To be strictly correct a
corner reflector requires three surfaces mutually
at right angles to account for movement in all
planes. This design is used for many radar Corner reflector
reflectors.

Surface texture

The surface texture of a target affects its ability in two ways. A surface that has
facets of similar size to the radar wavelength (3 or 10cm) will be a poor reflector.

The reflecting characteristics of a surface with a poor general aspect will be

improved if the texture is rough because of the formation of localised areas with
good aspect. Conversely a surface with good aspect will be improved if the surface
is smooth.

Material

The material that a target is constructed of will have an important effect on echo
strength. As a general rule, materials that are good conductors of electricity are
good reflectors - insulators are poor reflectors.

Metals are very good reflectors. Water, particularly salt water, is a good reflector -
hence the production of clutter. Note that water reflects 3cm radar pulses more
strongly than 10cm. Organic materials like wood are not good reflectors, but plants
like mangroves will provide moderately good echoes because of the amount of
mineralised water they contain. Good insulators like Perspex and fibreglass are
completely transparent to radar - the fibreglass cover of the radar antenna is
evidence of this.

38
TARGET STRENGTH: SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

From the above discussion it can be seen that radar’s ability to detect a given object
will vary considerably. The most important factor is the aspect. A 100,000 tonne
tanker at a poor angle may not give as strong an echo as a much smaller vessel
beam-on to the radar pulse. Fortunately ships are usually constructed of metal (that
is frequently pitted and rough) and their superstructures often include 90° corners.

From a fibreglass yacht you should only expect weak echoes from the mast, wet
sails, engine and pots and pans in the galley. Conical navigation buoys are likely to
give weak and intermittent echoes. Mountains and coastlines will vary in their echo
strength depending on aspect, shape and material as well as height. Cliffs will
present a far better aspect than a gently shelving beach.

It is also possible to confuse a beach with an offshore line of breakers. Certain areas
of land will give stronger reflections than others, so care must be taken with target
identification.

CLUTTER

Weather conditions can not only reduce the strength of returning echoes, they can
also interfere with the clarity of the radar display. The most persistent problem is
from clutter.

SEA CLUTTER

In absolutely calm conditions the sea surface will act as a mirror and all radar energy
that strikes it will tend to be reflected away from the antenna. As wind and sea
increases, a mass of unwanted echoes will extend around the antenna position.
Sloping wavefronts near the antenna present a more favourable aspect for the
reflection of the radar energy than those at a distance (see illustration).

The extent of clutter echoes will depend on the following factors:

 Wind speed and direction. Clutter will increase in strength and range as wave

Wind

height increases. The windward side will provide steeper slopes so clutter will
extend further to windward. It is often possible to recognise the line of an
approaching swell on radar.

 Antenna Height. The higher the antenna the further out the clutter will extend.

39
 Radar Wavelength. 10cm radar will show fewer clutter echoes than 3cm.

 Radar Pulse Length. Selection of a longer pulse will increase the effect of sea
clutter on the screen. Although short pulse selection will reduce sea clutter it
will also reduce the response from other targets over the entire screen.

Control of sea clutter

The Sensitivity Time Control (STC) or swept gain is a suppression control that
affects the amplification of echoes inside a certain range. The control may be
manual or automatic.

Manual STC must be used with great care as over-suppression will also remove “real”
targets. It must be varied as weather conditions change. The presence of targets
within the clutter makes adjustment easier. Without them the operator must make
systematic searches with various levels of STC.

Adaptive gain constantly adjusts the amplification of raw video to adapt it to the
level of clutter being experienced, effectively averaging the strength of returns and
suppressing gain so that only those echoes that exceed the average are displayed:

“real” target

Dashed line Result of application of

shows the adaptive gain where average
average clutter
clutter signal is suppressed
signal

Elapsed time 

IMO performance standards require that “It shall be possible to switch off those
signal processing facilities which might prevent a radar beacon from being shown on
the radar display”. Since adaptive gain could have this effect there must be a
facility for switching it off and reverting to manual clutter control.

Scan to scan correlation. An observer may be able to identify a “real” target by the
regularity of its response compared to random sea clutter returns. Scan to scan
correlation does this task automatically by comparing contents of a memory cells on
successive antenna rotations. It is less likely that a wave will occupy the same range
cell for two successive rotations than a target will. Scan to scan correlation is
restricted to two scans to avoid deleting the echoes of high-speed craft.

Summary of sea clutter problem

Targets with echo strength weaker than clutter strength in their immediate area
cannot be detected using any suppression technique because target echoes will also
be suppressed. Targets with stronger echo strength than the clutter are capable of
detection. They may not be discernible against the background clutter until the STC
control is correctly adjusted or the adaptive gain operated.

Scan to scan correlation techniques will improve target detection in either case.

40
PRECIPITATION CLUTTER

Precipitation is the aggregation of a large number of randomly distributed individual

water particles. It has two effects on radar:

 unwanted precipitation echoes on the screen can hide targets;

 radar pulses are attenuated making detection of targets beyond the precipitation
less likely.

The effect of particle size

Radar response is proportional to the square of the particle diameter. Hence a

doubling of particle size will produce a fourfold increase in radar response.

Radar response for a given particle size is also inversely proportional to the square of
the transmitted wavelength.

Hence, under given precipitation conditions, S Band (10cm) radar will reduce rain
clutter responses to approximately 10% of that experienced by an X Band (3cm)
radar (1/102 compared with 1/32)

Not all precipitation has the same effect on radar performance:

Rain Produces more echoes and greater attenuation than other

precipitation.
Snow and sleet Contain less water so effect not as bad as rain.
Hail Similar to snow and sleet.
Fog Doesn’t generate any echoes and attenuation effect is slight.
Clouds Echoes only if there is rain in the clouds.
Sand, dust & smoke Little or no effect on the radar.

Suppression of rain clutter

Suppression of rain clutter is a difficult problem, particularly with X Band radar. S

Band radar will show fewer echoes and experience less attenuation.

The following techniques may be partially effective:

Pulse length: Change to a short pulse to reduce precipitation echoes but return to
long pulse when searching for targets beyond rain.

STC: Use a higher suppression when searching for targets in the precipitation. Only
effective if the rain is in the area of the antenna.

Adaptive gain: Works as for sea clutter.

Rain Clutter Control (Fast Time Constant - FTC): Used for searching rain showers
by differentiation technique that responds only to increasing strength of returning
echoes (see over page). This effectively suppresses all but the leading edges of
targets. It is most effective if gain is progressively reduced to drop the rain echoes
below video cut-off level. Return to normal for viewing outside of rain areas.

41
 Return Only leading Return from
from ship Precipitation edge of rain ship target
target returns displayed

Without FTC ship echo is hidden With FTC echoes are clearly
within rain returns differentiated

NON STANDARD PROPAGATION CONDITIONS

Earlier it was seen that the Earth’s atmosphere refracts the radar beam to produce a
radar horizon that is further than the visual horizon. Weather conditions that effect
the atmosphere will also effect the radar horizon.

Super-refraction

Super-refraction causes an effective increase in the radar horizon because the radar
beam is bent further downwards. A 40% increase is not uncommon.

Atmospheric conditions associated with super-refraction:

 a decrease in relative humidity with height;

 temperature fall with height less than the standard lapse rate.

These conditions are found with fine settled weather in high pressure systems where
warm air flows over cooler sea. Particularly common in areas like the Red Sea, and
off the Australian South coast with a Northerly wind in summer.

Ducting or extra super-refraction

When the radar beam is trapped in a duct formed by the earth’s surface and a highly
reflective layer (associated with temperature inversion) there is a concentration of
energy which would otherwise be lost into space. The beam is thus constrained to

Normal refraction - target below radar horizon

Super refraction - target visible to radar

42
follow the earth’s surface and cause a dramatic increase in the radar horizon.

Ducting can cause the presence of a false (second trace) echo on the display (See
below).

Sub-refraction

Sub-refraction causes an effective decrease in the radar horizon. The radar beam is
bent downwards less than normal, and a 20% decrease in detection range is not
uncommon.

The atmospheric conditions that cause sub-refraction are essentially opposite to

those responsible for super-refraction:

 an increase in relative humidity with height;

 temperature falling more rapidly with height than the normal lapse rate;

and are associated with bad weather and low pressure systems with cold air flowing
over a relatively warm sea.

FALSE ECHOES

On many occasions echoes will appear on the screen where no real target exists.
These are generally referred to as false echoes, even though the echoes may be
real, and only the position in which they are displayed is false. They can be
summarised into six distinct types:

 Indirect
 Side Lobe
 Multiple
 Interference
 Second Trace Returns
 Ghost.

Indirect echoes

Indirect echoes are caused by

obstructions in the path of the
radar beam. In the area directly
behind an obstruction the radar
can see nothing. This is known as
a blind sector or arc. Either side Direct echo
of the blind arc there are sectors
where only a portion of the radar
energy will get through. These
are known as shadow sectors and
poor targets will probably not be
detected within them. Indirect echo - received
via the funnel and appears
A sufficiently reflective in a blind sector
obstruction may reflect enough
energy to travel out to a target,
be reflected a second time and travel back to the scanner via the obstruction (and a

43
third reflection). So far as the radar is concerned the target is in the direction in
which the scanner was directed. An echo will appear in the blind sector.

Blind and shadow sectors are most commonly associated with parts of the ship’s
structure like masts and funnels. On installation of the radar it is very important
that blind and shadow sectors are identified so that operators are aware of them.

Multiple echoes

These are caused by a radar pulse

being reflected backwards and
forwards between two reflecting
surfaces before reception at the
scanner. They occur most commonly
when passing a large target on a good
aspect at close range. True echo

The result is a series of equally

spaced echoes on the same bearing.
The closest echo is the strongest and False echoes
the true one.

Side lobe echoes

Scanner design is a compromise between efficiency and economy. Slotted wave

guide scanners fitted on merchant ships are affordable, but much less efficient than
parabolic ones. They produce a number of weaker beams on either side of the main
beam. These are called side lobes. The transmitted energy in side lobes is very low
and usually insufficient to result in returned echoes.

When very good targets are present

at close range there may be 4 Side lobes 1 to 4
3
sufficient energy returned from these Main lobe 090°
side lobes to generate echoes on the 2
1
screen. Target

These side lobe echoes may appear in

an arc on either side of the true echo
(and therefore at the correct range) - First side lobe echo
paints when scanner
with the strongest echo in the centre directed 090°
being the true one. On rare 1
occasions they may appear as a full 2

circle somewhat resembling a range 4

3
True echo
ring. The side lobes may be removed
using the sea clutter control.

Radar interference

This is caused by one radar picking up transmissions from other radars operating in
the vicinity. It only occurs if the other radars are using identical (or very similar)
transmission frequencies and pulse repetition frequencies. It normally causes a
spiralling pattern of echoes on the display that can interfere with the detection of
targets.

44
Second trace echoes

We have seen that ducting can result in echoes returning from considerable
distances. In extreme conditions the return from one pulse may be received at the
scanner after the next pulse has been transmitted. The radar processes this echo as
if it was returned from the second pulse. The time base will relate it to the second
pulse and an echo will appear on the screen at a falsely close range.

A PRF of 1000 Hertz gives a maximum theoretical range of about 81nms. An echo
returning from 100nms away will have a travel time of 1235 microseconds. It will
therefore arrive 235 µsec after the next pulse is transmitted, and appear to have
travelled 235 x 300/1852, or 38 nm. An echo will be painted on the screen at 19
nm.

A second trace echoes will appear at the correct bearing but at much lower range
than the true one. The shape of second trace echoes will be distorted.

Ghost echoes

This is the name often given to echoes produced by the reaction between electro-
magnetic radar pulses and the electro-magnetic fields surrounding power cables.
For a vessel approaching power cables that span the channel, the appearance on the
radar screen is that of a target vessel on a steady bearing - and therefore a collision
course.

Unlike a real target, the ghost echo will remain on a collision course despite evasive
action taken by the observing vessel (see below). This phenomenon occurs because
the echoes are only generated where the pulse meets the cables perpendicularly.

Power cable

Power cable

Apparent movement of “target”

45
RADAR REFLECTORS AND TRANSPONDERS

Poor radar response, particularly from navigational marks and small craft, can be
improved by fitting them with a radar reflector or a transponder device that will
provide an identification signal.

Radar reflectors

Most reflectors are improvements on the corner

reflector principle discussed earlier. The basis of
the radar reflector is three plates at right angles.
This gives it the ability to reflect a strong signal
over a wide angle, both horizontally and
vertically.
Incorrect orientation
In order to cover all possible angles, radar
reflectors are usually arranged in clusters such as
the octahedral array illustrated. This type is
commonly used on small craft and navigation
marks. The orientation of the cluster is most
important, and this type should be mounted in the
‘catch water’ position, not point upwards.
Correct “catch water”
Such reflectors are unpopular with yachtsmen, so orientation
a type that resembles crumpled metal foil encased
in a smooth fibreglass shell is also available.

Transponders

The word transponder refers to a wide variety of devices that are triggered by radar
pulses to transmit an identification signal. The most common type of transponder is
the racon.

Racons

When triggered by a radar pulse a racon transmits

its own pulse that is both longer and more
powerful than the radar pulse. It is typically
coded with a Morse identification signal.

Racons may be designated 3cm, 10cm, or both.

They search through the bandwidth(s) using a Racon beacon painting
slow sweep pattern that takes about two morse code “N”
minutes. The racon will thus respond to a
particular radar signal for only a short period of
time (about 20 seconds) every two minutes.
Since the coded signal will show on the radar
screen even when the equipment is not correctly
tuned it cannot be used as a tuning indicator.

46
SARTS

With the implementation of GMDSS, Search and Rescue Radar Transponders are now
mandatory requirements for certain classes of craft. The principle of operation is
similar to that of the racon, but SARTS are portable and powered by batteries. They
operate on the 3cm waveband. A feature of SART beacons is an audible or visual
signal to allow the survivors to know there is an operational radar in the area. The
increasing strength of the signal indicates the search radar (and vessel) is coming
closer.

The SART generates an identification signal on the search radar comprising a series
of twelve blips originating at the SART and radiating towards the edge of the screen.

RADAR TARGET ENHANCERS

Unlike radar reflectors, that are passive devices designed to increase the proportion
of received energy that is actually returned towards the source, radar target
enhancers are active, powered devices that amplify the received radar signal and
retransmit it. They seek to produce stronger, more consistent returns without
creating an identification code. Enhancers are of particular benefit to small craft
and navigation marks. Tests indicate that radar detection range may be increased
from 2.5 to 10 miles, for example, when an enhancer replaces a conventional
reflector.

47
Topic Five – Radar Plotting and Parallel Indexing

Basic Radar Plotting

Modern radars offer a number of options for displaying echo information. The most
popular option for use at sea is the relative display. For navigators this is likely to
be oriented with north at the top of the display and the ship’s heading marker in the
same direction that it would appear on a chart. Because this requires input from a
compass (usually a gyro) it is commonly called a gyro stabilised display.

The alternative relative display is to have the ship’s head directed towards the top
of the screen. This is favoured by some when in pilotage waters because the radar
display matches the view forward from the bridge windows (instead of matching the
chart orientation). On small vessels where input from a compass is not available,
ship’s head up may be the only option.

No matter which relative motion display is in use, own ship will remain at some fixed
point on the display. This is commonly in the centre of the screen, but may be
offset by the operator. If own ship appears stationary on the display, but in reality
is in motion, all stationary fixed points on the display will appear to be moving at
the same speed as the ship but in the reciprocal direction. Thus, if a ship is
steaming 045°at 12 knots (but appears stationary on a relative motion display) a
fixed navigation mark will appear to moving in a direction of 225° at 12 knots (its
relative motion) on that display. The relative motion of any moving object on the
display will therefore be a combination of its own real movement and the movement
of the observing ship.

To find the real course and speed of a target therefore necessitates the “removal”
of the observing ship’s contribution to its relative motion. Whilst this is achieved
automatically by an ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid), all qualified navigators
must be able to complete the necessary plot manually.

48
Plotting sheet 1 shows how a basic plot can be completed manually. In this case
own vessel is steering 045° at 15 knots. The following bearings and ranges of a radar
echo are obtained:

At 1000 bearing 105° range 10.3 nm

1006 103° 8.6 nm
1012 099° 6.8 nm

To enable the watchkeeper on the observing vessel to make an informed decision

about any action to be taken it is necessary to find:
 how close the other vessel will pass to the observing vessel (assuming no
action is taken) – this is known as the closest point of approach (CPA);
 the time when this will occur (TCPA);
 the other vessel’s course and speed;
 the bearing of the observing vessel relative to the other vessel (aspect).

Procedure:

Plot the three ranges and bearings – label the first as point O and the final one as
point A. Extend this line past the centre of the plotting sheet and drop a
perpendicular to the centre. This is the point of nearest approach (N) to the
observing vessel and may be measured (2.2 nm in this case) using the same scale as
used for the rest of the plot.

The time of nearest approach may be estimated by stepping off the distance OA
(representing 12 minutes) from A to N, then checked more accurately using
AN/OA x 12 minutes from A. In this case the time of nearest approach is
approximately 1044.

From the first point plotted (O) lay off a vector representing the apparent
movement of a stationary body during the period of the plot. As discussed above,
this will be in the reciprocal direction to the course of the observing ship and the
same length as the movement of the observing ship during the plotting time – in this
case that is 12 minutes at 15 knots, or 3 nm. Label the end of this vector W.

We now have two sides of a vector triangle. OA represents the apparent motion of
the target ship resulting from its own movement and the movement of the observing
ship. WO represents the movement of the observing ship. It is therefore apparent
that WA must represent the actual movement of the target ship. In this case its
course is 346° and its speed is approximately 20 knots (WA/0.2)

The aspect is how the observing vessel appears to the target. In this case it is 67°
on the port bow (red 67°). This is the difference between the target’s course (346°)
and the reciprocal of the final bearing (279°).

Once this basic plot is mastered and understood it is a relatively simple matter to
apply the same principles to more complex problems.

Course/speed change by target

If the target vessel makes an alteration in either course or speed during the plotting
period the positions plotted to produce the relative motion vector OA will no longer
form a straight line. The plot must then be continued until such time as the vector
becomes steady before an indication of the target’s course and speed can be gained
by completing a new plot using the steady OA.

49
50
Course/speed change by observing vessel (instantaneous)

The effect of a change in course or speed by the observing vessel can be found by
making the appropriate changes to the vector WO to produce WO1 . The plot to the
right of plotting sheet 2 shows the effect of reducing to half speed. It assumes the
speed reduction is effective immediately.

The plot on the left illustrates the effect of the observing vessel altering course 60°
to starboard (note that the rotation takes place about point W).

51
52
Course/speed change by observing vessel (delayed)

In reality neither an alteration of course nor speed can be made precisely at the
time the final range and bearing is taken. On plotting sheet 3 it is assumed that
each is effective after 6 minutes (ie from point P).

53
54
Course/speed change by observing vessel to achieve desired CPA

In this case the new CPA is drawn from the centre of the plot (C) and the relative
vector drawn back to the point representing the time at which it is to take effect
(P). A line parallel to this is then transferred to the original vector triangle back
from point A to the new O1, indicating the change in course or speed required. (See
plotting sheet 4)

55
56
Measuring set and drift

If a target that is known to be fixed is plotted and found to be moving in a direction

and at a speed other that the reciprocal of the observing vessel, the difference
represents set and drift. In this case it should be measured in direction AW rather
that WA. (See plotting sheet 5)

57
58
A True Radar Plot

Whilst the foregoing relative plots are the ones most likely to be used in the absence
of an operational ARPA, an alternative method of plotting is the true plot. The
major advantage of the relative plot is that it quickly provides the watchkeeper with
the CPA and TCPA of a target, and thus whether (and when) risk of collision exists
(and if the plot needs to be continued further). By contrast, this vital information is
not available until a later stage of the true plot.

To demonstrate the true plot the problem solved on plotting sheet 1 will be
repeated as a true plot on Plotting sheet 6:

Own vessel is steering 045° at 15 knots. The following bearings and ranges of a
radar echo are obtained:

At 1000 bearing 105° range 10.3 nm

1006 103° 8.6 nm
1012 099° 6.8 nm

Procedure:

Plot own ship’s movement across the plotting sheet during the plotting period,
marking three points (C1, C2, C3) to represent own ship’s position at the times of
observations*. From each of these points lay off the ranges and bearings of the
target and join them to produce the WA vector - which immediately provides the
target course, speed and aspect.

To obtain the OA vector, the CPA and TCPA, it is necessary to apply the WO vector
from W, then join OA and extend it past the final position of own vessel at 1012 to
point N – the CPA. Work out the TCPA using the same method as with a relative
plot.

*It is normal practice to draw own ship’s course line through the centre of the
plotting sheet, but this is not absolutely necessary.

59
60
Parallel Indexing

Basic Principles:

As already discussed, on a relative motion radar display with own ship steaming on a
steady course, any fixed object appears to move in the reciprocal direction at the
same speed.

This phenomenon allows the navigator to use Parallel Indexing to provide real-time
information on the ship’s lateral position relative to the planned track. On the
appropriate chart a line is drawn through a radar conspicuous object parallel to the
planned track. The perpendicular distance (Cross–Index Range) from the object to
the track is then measured. The range strobe on the radar is then set to this range
and an electronic line is drawn on the display parallel to the planned course.

5
4
3
2
1
2M
1
1
2
3

4
5

CHART RADAR DISPLAY

(range strobe at 2 miles)

Positions 1, 2 & 3 on the chart and radar display show the ship on track at various
instances up to the time that the island is abeam to starboard. Positions 4 & 5 show
the ship off track to port (crosses on the chart do not represent fixes and are only
included to illustrate the example). The exact distance off track is represented by
the distance between the echo of the island and the parallel index line.

If, for example, a ship is proceeding down channel at 12 knots with a course set to
pass 5 miles south of Lizard Point, charted position at 30 minute intervals might
appear as shown in chart 1. On a relative motion radar display Lizard Point would
appear to move in the opposite direction as shown in figure (i). On chart 1 this
movement is represented by the pecked line. Any deviation from the required track
would result in the echo of Lizard Point deviating from the parallel index line.

Parallel index lines can be produced by a variety of methods on radar displays. On

modern sets they are created electronically.

Additional (clearing) lines can be produced on the radar display to indicate the
maximum safe divergence from the desired track. The limits of the relevant traffic
lane on chart 2 are represented by the pecked lines on figure (ii).

When approaching the wheel-over point for a new course, parallel index lines can be
set on the display using a suitable radar-conspicuous object. A solid line should be
used to represent the new track, and a pecked line to indicate when the wheel-over
point has been reached. By commencing the turn as the pecked line meets the echo

61
of the selected object, the vessel should have steadied on the new course as the
solid line meets the same radar object (see below).

WO

2 nm 3
nm

Chart Radar

Variations on the above parallel indexing technique may be used to assist in a

number of passage planning procedures.

Use of the radar to continuously monitor the passage does not relieve officers of
their responsibility to fix the ship’s position at intervals specified in the passage
plan. It does supplement normal fixes and provide a quick and reliable indication
that the ship is safe during the intervals between fixes (so long as the radar’s
performance is frequently checked and the targets are correctly identified).

62
Topic Six – Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA)

An ARPA is simply a micro-processor incorporated into a radar which can

automatically measure the ranges and bearings of selected targets or of targets
within specified areas. From a series of ranges and bearings a track history can be
formed which enables the calculation of true track and speed, CPA and TCPA - the
same operation that was completed on a radar plotting sheet in the previous topic.

An ARPA provides both manual and automatic target acquisition facilities.

Performance standards covering the functions and accuracy of ARPA are laid down
by the IMO. New performance standards entered into force for all new radar
equipment installed on or after 1st July 2008. The most significant of the new
standards relates to the designated accuracy of CPA and TCPA. The new standard
now requires that after three minutes, the CPA should be accurate to 0.3M, not 0.7M
as in the old standard. The TCPA must now be accurate to with in 30 seconds, also
after 3 minutes. However, it is still critical to remember that the performance of
equipment installed prior to 1st July 2008 is based on the old standards. For this
reason both the sets of standards are included below.

It is important to remember that ARPA is an historical device. It presents

information and shows what the target has done, not what it is doing now. The neat
and precise way that ARPA presents its information may trap the unwary!

Performance standards (Adopted 4th December 1996)

 Minimum screen diameter 340mm.

 Raster scan display only.
 Manually acquire at least 10 targets (20 targets if auto acquire fitted).
 True and relative vector presentation. Vector length operator adjustable.
 North up or course up presentation.
 Provide course, speed, CPA, TCPA, range and bearing on any tracked target.
 Full accuracy of tracked target data available after three minutes for a target at
eight miles. Preliminary data available after one minute.
 Full range of operator alarms and alerts must be fitted. Includes collision threat,
lost target and zone or minimum range.
 Trial manoeuvre facility must be fitted.
 Past track history must be available on all tracked targets.

Performance standards (Adopted 6th December 2004) Installed after 1st July
2008) (Below delineates specifications for all ships over 10.000gt)

 Minimum screen diameter 340mm x 340mm.

 Raster scan display only.
 Manually acquire at least 40 targets.
 True and relative vector presentation. Vector length operator adjustable.
 North up or course up presentation mode.
 Provide course, speed, CPA, TCPA, range and bearing on any tracked target.
 Full accuracy of tracked target data available after three minutes for a target to
a minimum of twelve miles. Preliminary data available after one minute.

63
 After 1 minute of tracking:
- CPA accuracy within 1.0M
 After 3 minutes of tracking:
- CPA accuracy within 0.3M
- TCPA accuracy within 30 seconds
 Full range of operator alarms and alerts must be fitted. Includes collision threat,
lost target and zone or minimum range.
 Past track history must be available on all tracked targets.
 Minimum activated AIS target capacity (40)
 Minimum sleeping target capacity (200)
 Trail manoeuvre fitted only vessels over 10,000gt
 Selection of true or relative trails from a reset condition for all true motion
display modes
 Trails should be available for presentation within 2 scans following:
- the reduction or increase in one range scale
- the offset and set of radar picture
- a change from true to relative trails

Acquisition and storage

Targets are tracked by searching within a range bearing matrix. Once found, their
range and bearing are automatically extracted. From a series of range and bearings
a track history is built up and the course, speed, CPA and TCPA data calculated.
Range and bearing information is always the first data available on any tracked
target.

For a target to appear in the range bearing cells it must pass detection threshold
limits. Pulse to pulse comparison is also used to ensure that only consistent targets
will be placed in the switch registers. A normal target can be hit by 15 pulses each
antenna rotation. An ARPA will typically use a ratio of 5 returns to 10 pulses before
writing a target into the final switch register (called the hit register or hit matrix).

. ..
Part smoothing period
. .
.

............
38 seconds. Full
smoothing
3 mins

Operator selected vector Ranges and bearings

extracted at 2.5 sec
length. Vector intervals
appears after
smoothing
period

When acquiring a target an acquisition window is placed around the target’s position
in the range and bearing memory cells (switch register). Targets are detected
automatically by using a scan to scan plot position correlation based on consecutive
antenna rotations. Typically if a target appears in the same window of range
bearing cells for five out of ten antenna rotations, a track is generated. After 15
rotations the track is confirmed and a target vector is generated. With an antenna
rotation rate of 24 rpm a scan is completed every 2.5 seconds so it will take about
38 seconds to generate the confirmed track. The accuracy of the track will improve
as the tracking period increases (up to smoothing period limit).

64
Range and bearing information is extracted every scan and hence updated at 2.5
second intervals. The smoothing period will depend on the range of the target but is
usually between one and three minutes.

Track history can be either relative or true. The most popular technique is to use a
true track storage system. Both storage systems are illustrated in the diagrams over
the page.

Relative track storage

 Smoothed relative track is stored and used for display of relative vector.
 True vector is calculated from stored relative track and unsmoothed course and
speed input.
 Any log error will cause error in true vector only.
 Relative vector is unaffected by log error.

True track storage

 Smoothed true track is stored and used for display of true vector. Heading and
speed input to all range and bearings to obtain true track.
 Relative vector is calculated from stored true track and unsmoothed course and
speed input. Hence heading and speed input is applied twice.
 A log error can cause error in true vector and the relative vector.
 Relative vector is affected by fluctuating log errors but will indicate correct
value (after one full smoothing period) if the log error is constant.

65
COMPARISONS OF STORAGE SYSTEMS

..
.

. ..
Part smoothing period

...........
38 seconds. Full
smoothing
3 mins

Ranges and bearings

Relative vector extracted at 2.5 sec
calculated from intervals
smoothed
relative
track O

Calculated
true vector
A

W
Relative track storage

Input own course

A and speed a
Relative vector second time
calculated
W

...... .. True track data is

stored and smoothed

True track
storage
With input of own
. .....
course and speed
gives true data

. .... .

........... Relative track data

66
Manual acquisition

The operator positions the cursor marker over the target using a joystick or
trackerball and uses the manual acquisition function.

Manual acquisition places a

tracking window over the cells
where the target is. This Tracking
Window reduces
in size as more
window gets progressively window information is
extracted
smaller as more range and
bearing information is extracted
and the ARPA builds up a history Target Vector steadies
as more track
of the target movement. information is
processed
If two targets are close together
it may be necessary to acquire
one target first and wait for the
window to reduce in size before attempting to acquire the second target.

Advantages of manual acquisition:

 operator can control number of targets;

 operator can distinguish between land, rain etc and the ship targets.

Automatic acquisition

It is possible for the operator to select areas around the ship where the ARPA will
automatically detect and acquire targets. Guard zones or areas are drawn on the
PPI and the auto-acquisition facility is switched on. Any target entering these zones
or areas will be detected and automatically tracked, an alarm will sound to indicate
detection. Targets outside the areas will not be acquired.

Global area

Uses a footprint area around the ship which can be defined by range ahead, range to
starboard and port, and a minimum acquisition range. The minimum acquisition
range reduces the possibility of the ARPA acquiring sea clutter.

Zonal area

Uses two guard rings set at different ranges. The defined zone is the whole enclosed
area or segments of it. The zones will normally rotate with the heading marker.

All targets in the acquisition zone that pass the threshold detection and scan to scan
correlation tests will be acquired and tracked. Careful use of the STC and rain
clutter controls is required to prevent the acquisition of unwanted targets.

TRIAL MANOEUVRE

An ARPA must be capable of simulating the effect on all the tracked targets of a
proposed manoeuvre by own ship. This must not interfere with the updating of
actual target information. There must be some indication on the display whilst in
trial manoeuvre - usually a T written on the PPI.

67
The standards for trial manoeuvres are not
very detailed, so manufacturers have TTM
developed different functions.

For example the Bridgemaster allows for a Trial

time to manoeuvre (TTM). Others may CPA

allow the operator to make allowance for

ship’s manoeuvring characteristics and to
trial a second manoeuvre (such as a
course/speed resumption).

TRACK HISTORY

The ARPA must display on demand at

least four equally time-spaced past
Target has reduced speed
positions of a target. On some radars
these are true past positions when in
true motions presentation and relative
past positions in relative motion.
Others will only give true past positions.
The track history is designed to assist
the operator in detecting recent
manoeuvres of targets. Spacing
Target has
between the history dots may be a turned to
function of the scale in use or selected port Target has turned
by the operator. to starboard and
reduced speed
Target trails also allow the operator to
view past positions of the target. It is
not as precise as track history. The
operator can select the length of the
trail (in minutes). It is displayed in a different screen colour to that of the target
track. Track history is probably the more useful for detecting target manoeuvres.

Alarms and warnings

An ARPA must have the capability of warning the operator with a visual and/or
audible signal when any distinguishable target closes to a range or transits a zone
chosen by the operator. The target causing the warning must be clearly indicated
on the display.

It must also have the capability of warning the operator with a visual and/or audible
signal of any tracked target which is predicted to close to within a minimum range
and time chosen by the operator (CPA and TCPA limits). The target causing the
warning must be clearly indicated on the display.

An ARPA must clearly indicate if a target is lost (other than by moving out of range)
and the target’s last tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display.

It must be possible to activate or deactivate the above operational warnings.

68
ARPA – sea or ground stabilisation?

When a radar/ARPA display is ground stabilised, usually based on input of ground

speed and track supplied by the GPS, the movement of a target ship derived from a
manual or ARPA plot will also be ground stabilised. This means the observing vessel
will not know the water speed or water track of a ship target.

Since action to be taken under the collision regulations often depends on the aspect
of the target vessel, ground stabilised course and speed will give a false calculation
of aspect when the ground and water tracks are different. This occurs whenever the
ships involved are subject to set and drift.

Conventional wisdom is therefore that, when being used for anti-collision work, the
radar/ARPA should be sea stabilised.

Despite this apparent shortcoming, whether the ARPA is sea or ground stabilised will
have no effect on CPA or TCPA. When there is very little set or drift, any error in
aspect will also be minimal. Because the collision regulations make it quite clear
that if there is any doubt about the aspect, the observing vessel should take the
appropriate action anyway, it is only in conditions of strong tide/current that the
difference becomes critical.

In strong tidal conditions, will selecting a sea stabilised display necessarily provide
accurate water speed and track of an observed target vessel – and therefore
accurate aspect?

The answer is no. The assumption is that the tidal (and wind) conditions are
affecting the target vessel in precisely the same way they are affecting the
observing vessel. This may not be so for a number of reasons:

 the direction of tidal flow may vary over a relatively short distance,
particularly in coastal waters;
 the direction and rate of flow varies with depth. A deep draught vessel may
experience quite different direction of set and rate of drift from that of a
shallow draught vessel;
 wind will exert a greater force on vessels with a high freeboard, than those
with little freeboard, affecting their water tracks differently;
 input to the radar from a Doppler log may give ground returns.

One only has to picture an encounter between a heavily laden tanker and a car
carrier in a strong wind, around a curved section of coastline, subject to tides
flowing in different directions, to understand that the calculated water track and
aspect of the target vessel (based as it is on the water track of the observing vessel)
may be grossly in error.

Whichever stabilisation the navigator selects he/she should be aware of its

limitations. So far as achieving a good idea of the aspect is concerned the solution is
probably to look out of the bridge window! This will not be effective in poor
visibility, but there would appear to be only one circumstance where aspect is likely
to affect a manoeuvring decision under Rule 19 (a vessel on the starboard bow that
is being overtaken).

69
Navigation maps and lines

Although not required under the performance standards, many modern radars and
ARPAs, have a navigation map and lines facility. The principal advantages of this
facility are:

 Lines can show the positions of shallow water, track boundaries and separation
schemes on the screen.

 Symbols can be placed on the positions of beacons or buoys to help the operator
to find their echoes in heavy clutter or with small craft in the vicinity.

The display should be placed in a ground-stabilised mode when using the maps to
ensure that they stay fixed relative to the ground. Ground stabilisation can be
achieved by the following:

- Input of GPS or DGPS positioning.

- Manual input of set and drift.

- Echo reference on fixed marks (requires periodic updating during a

pilotage).

- Input of bottom tracking Doppler logs.

The map is drawn by inputting the co-ordinates of the required lines and symbols
from the chart. Positioning of the map is achieved by inputting into the ARPA the
own ship’s position by GPS or echo reference. Given this data the radar can draw
the map on the screen and keep it updated from course and speed information fed
from log and gyro.

A major problem when using a navigation map is misalignment with the radar echoes
it is supposed to represent, particularly during turns. It is absolutely vital that
alignment is checked against known radar marks and that the operator is familiar
with the facility for realignment.

There are many possible causes of misalignment:

 offset ARPA and GPS antenna positions are not allowed for in software;
 differences in accuracy of GPS and radar;
 updating of course and speed water rather than ground based;
 inaccuracy of input coordinates.

Tracking accuracy and limitations

Marine ARPAs are required to perform to the tracking accuracy figures quoted in the
IMO Performance Standard Resolutions. As mentioned at the beginning of this
chapter, new performance standards for radar were adopted in December 2004 for
implementation after 1st July 2008. The following table relates to four operational
scenarios which define the tracking accuracy. Whilst the table relates to the
previous performance standards (Dec. 1996) the information is still relevant as older
equipment may still perform to this standard.

70
SCENARIO 1
Own ship course 000°
Own ship speed 10 knots
Target range 8 nautical miles
Bearing of target 000°
Relative course of target 180°
Relative speed of target 20 knots

SCENARIO 2
Own ship course 000°
Own ship speed 10 knots
Target range 1 nautical mile
Bearing of target 000°
Relative course of target 090°
Relative speed of target 10 knots

SCENARIO 3
Own ship course 000°
Own ship speed 5 knots
Target range 8 nautical miles
Bearing of target 045°
Relative course of target 225°
Relative speed of target 20 knots

SCENARIO 4
Own ship course 000°
Own ship speed 25 knots
Target range 8 nautical miles
Bearing of target 045°
Relative course of target 225°
Relative speed of target 20 knots

and: “An ARPA shall present within three minutes of steady state tracking the
motion of a target with the following accuracy values (95 per cent probability).”

Relative Relative C.P.A. True True

Data TCPA
Course Speed (Nautical) Course Speed
Scenario (mins)
(degrees) (knots) miles) (degrees) (knots)
1 3.0 0.8 0.5 1.0 7.4 1.2
2 2.3 0.3 2.8 0.8
3 4.4 0.9 0.7 1.0 3.3 1.0
4 4.6 0.8 0.7 1.0 2.6 1.2

Although a modern ARPA may perform above these standards it is apparent that an
ARPA indicated CPA of 0.5 or 0.7 nautical miles does not indicate that the target will
pass safely!

71
The ability of any ARPA to accurately track targets is a function of the following
parameters:

 Range of the target.

 Tracking period.
 Echo characteristics of the target.
 Manoeuvring of the target.

These parameters are considered individually below, but in general the accuracy of
the range and bearing information together with that of the course and speed inputs
of observing ship will largely determine the track accuracy.

For a standard ARPA typical track accuracy figures are:

Position/range ± 25 metres
Course over ground ± 2 degrees
Speed over ground ± 0.8 knots

under the following conditions:

 small vessel with one echo centre;

 target range is 5nms;
 target speed is 12 knots;
 target is steaming a steady course and not manoeuvring;
 the target is showing good echo strength in relation to the clutter.

Range of target

As the range increases the accuracy of bearing and range information and hence
tracking accuracy will decrease.

Radar range accuracy under IMO Performance Standards is ± 1.5% of the range scale
in use or 70 metres, whichever is the greater.

The lowest practicable range scale should be selected as illustrated by the range cell
resolution of a typical ARPA:

6 nm 12 nm 24 nm 48 nm
3 metres 6 metres 12 metres 24metres

Tracking period

The longer the tracking period the more accurate will be the tracked target
information.

Operators are advised to allow approximately three minutes of steady tracking

before using the track data (course, speed, CPA, TCPA). Targets will be acquired
after 37.5 seconds as a confirmed track but the additional time should be allowed to
ensure that the track is settled. An indication of the reliability of the track
information is gained by observing the target’s vector to see if it is steady.
Remember:

 targets with higher speeds will need less tracking time to give the same CPA
accuracy as a low speed target;

72
 targets at greater range will require a longer tracking period to give the same
accuracy of CPA information as a target at close range.

Performance accuracy of equipment fitted onboard post 1st July 2008

In the new standard the format for describing tracking accuracy has been simplified,
and is no longer based on operational scenarios. See below. Indicated CPA should
now be accurate to 0.3 nautical miles and TCPA to with in 30 seconds, after 3
minutes of steady state tracking.

Relative Relative C.P.A. True True

TCPA
Time of steady
Course Speed (Nautical) Course Speed
state (minutes)
(mins)
(degrees) (knots) miles) (degrees) (knots)
1.5 or 10%
1 min: Trend 11 (whichever is 1.0 - - -
greater)
0.8 or 1% 0.5 or 1%
3 min: Motion 3 (whichever is 0.3 0.5 5 (whichever
greater) is greater)

Target characteristics

All range and bearing information is dependent

on the strength and consistency of the radar
echo returned.
Measured range
Ideal
Echo echo
Causes of error in range and bearing strength Detection threshold shape

Pulse amplitude is a range error caused by the True range

uneven shape of the returned echo and may be
the major cause of range error.

The position of the target in the echo shape is Measured range

Normal
along the centreline of the echo at the leading Echo
strength Detection threshold echo
edge. shape

True range
The operator can choose leading edge or
centre of echo tracking with some ARPAs.

Centre of echo will give a steadier vector Measured range

display but it is not as accurate as leading Echo
strength
Weak
Detection threshold echo
edge particularly for large targets. shape

True range
If using centre of target then using a longer
pulse length will increase the error in the
track information.

73
Some large targets will show two echo centres particularly when the target changes
its aspect with respect to the antenna.

Target glint is caused by movement of the target vessel in a seaway and successive
radar pulses striking different parts of it. With a large target ship this can cause
range errors of ± 30 metres and random bearing errors.

Antenna backlash is caused by wind resistance of the antenna and could result in a
bearing error of about ± 0.2 degree. Antennas are rated to operate in wind speeds
of up to 100 knots but backlash effects may occur at lower speeds.

Unstable platform. When own ship is rolling the antenna moves out from the centre
line of the ship causing a quadrantal bearing error.

Squint is the result of the horizontal radar beam not being perpendicular to the face
of the antenna and is caused by variations in the transmitted magnetron frequency.
Bearing errors are likely to be < 0.7 degrees.

Alignment error is the result of the scanner not indicating true North when actually
facing North.

Quantisation error is caused by the rounding off of stored range data. The error
increases as range increases.

Target manoeuvring. Accuracy of tracked target information is critically reliant on

the target following a steady track. If the target starts to manoeuvre then it will
take some time for the ARPA to register that a change has taken place. By waiting
three minutes after a manoeuvre the operator should be confident that the ARPA is
now providing track accuracy up to the limitations of the system.

Note that the accuracy figures quoted in the ARPA manuals and the ARPA
Performance Standard are for a target that is not manoeuvring.

If a target manoeuvres too violently then it is possible for the target track to be lost.
A manual acquisition can be used to reacquire if necessary.

Target swap

This is caused by having two targets within the one tracking window. It may be the
result of:

 tracked target entering a clutter area;

 two tracked targets passing close to one another;

 a tracked target passing a beacon or buoy.

The effect of target swap is often unpredictable. The tracked target may lose its
vector or more commonly show an incorrect vector. Two tracked targets may swap
vectors.

74
Interpretation errors

PPI data presentation

The operator should always be aware of:

 Presentation being used True/Relative Motion

 Vector type displayed True/Relative
 Past history movement True/Relative
 Target trail presentation True/Relative

Course and speed input

Because of the emphasis on aspect in the collision regulations it may be considered

better practice to use course and speed through the water for collision avoidance
evaluation. The contrary viewpoint is that when the navigator is more familiar and
comfortable with a ground referenced display, switching between that and water
referenced course and speed is more likely to cause confusion.

For navigation evaluation the decision is far simpler. Whenever possible it is better
to use course and speed over the ground based on echo referencing, input from GPS
or a Doppler bottom track log.

Vectors

Both vector types should be used but be aware that there is a greater likelihood of
error in true vectors.

Relative vectors are good for collision avoidance evaluation and in some cases are
less likely to be affected by course and speed input errors.

True vectors give a good indication of flow of traffic around own ship, but course
and speed input error will affect the accuracy of the true vector.

Own ship altering course and/or speed

Remember that when own ship takes avoiding action the relative motion of the
targets will become a curve. The vector will indicate the mean track prediction.
Course and speed inputs will also vary from actual values during the manoeuvre. It
is therefore difficult to interpret target information during a manoeuvre. No
reliance should be placed on target track information until own ship has steadied on
new course/speed for about three minutes.

75
Topic Seven – LORAN-C

LORAN-C was first developed to provide radionavigation service for U.S. coastal
waters, then the coasts of Canada and Alaska. It later spread throughout the
Northern Hemisphere so that potential coverage is now as shown below.

Within LORAN-C coverage areas the navigator can expect absolute position accuracy
of better than 0.25 nautical miles. Repeatability (its ability to return to a previous
position), however, should be better than 50 metres.

The future of LORAN C

With the greater degree of accuracy that became available with the advent of GPS,
the future of LORAN C was cast in doubt. Control of LORAN C stations outside the US
had already been handed over to the host countries from 1994 onwards, so the
decision as to whether coverage will continue may vary between regions.

The current position in the US is summarised in a January 2007 Notice from the USCG
that requested public comment:

“The Department of Transportation in coordination with the Department of

Homeland Security is considering the need to continue to operate or invest in the
North American LORAN-C Radionavigation System beyond fiscal year 2007. Future
investment decisions might include: de-commissioning the LORAN-C system,
maintaining the LORAN-C system as currently configured, or developing a fully
deployed Enhanced LORAN (eLORAN) system. Contributing factors to these decisions
are (1) whether the Global Positioning System (GPS) and other available back-up
systems are adequate for the public’s navigation and timing needs, thus making the
LORAN-C system redundant, and (2) whether the eLORAN investments made to date
provide enhancements that now merit consideration as a complementary capability
to GPS, and not merely as a GPS back-up.”

76
Enhancing the capability of LORAN “is part of the on-going effort between the
Federal Aviation Administration and the U.S. Coast Guard to modernize the
LORAN-C system. The LORAN Data Channel (LDC) will provide information using
pulse position modulation of the broadcast signal. The proposed pulse position
modulation would be used to broadcast up to sixteen message types including
but not limited to station identification, absolute time, early skywave
warnings, and differential LORAN correction messages. The proposed method
will use an additional pulse added one thousand microseconds after the eighth
pulse on a secondary transmitting station and between the current eighth and
ninth pulses on Master.” (http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/loran/9th-pulse-
modulation-ldc.html) The meaning of this will become clearer when the
operation of existing LORAN-C is described.

The position in the UK is covered in “2020 – The Vision” (the GLAs Marine Aids to
Navigation Strategy-2020):

“There are concerns about the vulnerability of GNSS in view of the total reliance on
the system for electronic position fixing and timing input to many applications
including navigation, vessel traffic monitoring and casualty analysis. The GLAs
therefore consider the provision of a terrestrial radionavigation backup, particularly
in areas of high traffic density, restricted waters, Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas
(PSSAs) and Marine Environmental High Risk Areas (MEHRAs) to be essential. The
backup should be complementary to GNSS and not suffer from the same
vulnerabilities.

LORAN-C is the only terrestrial radionavigation backup currently operational that has
the potential to fulfil these requirements.”

To achieve their stated objectives, on 31 May 2007 the GLAs announced the award of
a fifteen-year contract to VT Communications (part of VT Group plc) for the
provision of a state-of-the-art enhanced Loran (eLoran) radionavigation service to
improve the safety of mariners in the UK and Ireland. The operational phase is
planned to begin in 2010.

Meanwhile the Norwegian Department of Fisheries and Coastal affairs

has decided to continue operating their four Loran-C stations throughout 2009.

It would therefore appear certain that some form of LORAN will continue to be with
us for a number of years.

The notes that follow describe the nature of hyperbolic position fixing (of which
LORAN-C is the only remaining widespread example), and then LORAN-C itself.

77
HYPERBOLIC POSITION FIXING

The Hyperbola

A line joining places where the difference in distance from two fixed points is a
constant.

The line P1, P0, P2, P3 etc

P3 is a hyperbola where A
and B are the two fixed
points, called Foci.
P2
A
The difference in distance
P1 B between AP0 and BP0 is
exactly the same as the
difference between AP1
P0 and BP1 etc.

A family of hyperbola
In the diagram the points A
and B are exactly six units
of distance apart.
1 0 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5

A ‘family’ of hyperbola is
shown where the
difference in distance B A
between points A and B is 0
units, 1 unit, 2 units, 3
units etc.

Hyperbolic patterns

The hyperbolic pattern shape is important. The figure above clearly shows that
since we are measuring a difference value a given fraction or percentage of that
difference value translates into a larger distance on the earth’s surface when:

 the observer moves further from the pair of beacons;

 the observer is approaching the base line extension.

78
Accuracy in the centre of the pattern is good but it gets progressively worse as you
move outwards and round towards the base line extension.

The length of the baseline is also an important feature. A short baseline produces
a pattern of nearly radial lines – this concept was once used in the Consol
navigation system. A very long baseline produces a pattern where the hyperbolic
lines can be considered almost parallel over large areas – this concept was used in
Omega.

Hyperbolic navigation systems

Hyperbolic navigation systems used to require the provision of navigation charts

that were overlaid with lattices representing families of hyperbola. Each family of
hyperbola represented differences in distance from a pair of transmitters.
Information gained from the receiver was then used to identify two or more
hyperbolic position lines - and a position fix at their intersection.

In radio terms one can measure either the difference in time of two transmissions
(pulses) or the difference in phase of two transmissions to generate hyperbola.
LORAN is a time difference system (Decca was a phase difference system).

The rate of propagation of low frequency radio energy over the sea is constant and
predictable, so the LORAN-C system uses radio frequencies of about 100 kHz.

With a system that is based on the measurement of time difference there is a

fundamental requirement to synchronise the signals from each station in the group
of transmitters. The original solution to the problem was to designate one
transmitter the master and use its transmissions to trigger pulse transmissions in
the other (slave) stations. With the advent of highly accurate atomic clocks this
method of synchronisation is no longer necessary.

LORAN

LORAN – standing for Long Range Navigation, is a World War II developed system,
the coverage of which is almost entirely confined to the North Atlantic and North
Pacific.

The original system, known as LORAN-A, was superseded by the more accurate
LORAN-C in 1957, and this is the system in use today. In 1974 the domestic Loran C
service was transferred from the Department of Defence to civil authority and was
adopted as the coastal navigation system of choice by the United States Secretary
of Transportation. Coverage for the whole of North American waters was achieved
by Canadian participation in the North and integration with the Russian Chayka
system in the Northwest.

Facilities outside of North America had also been installed and operated by the US
Department of Defence, but were transferred to the host nations in the mid 1990s
for civil use. The US LORAN-C system was originally scheduled to be discontinued
in 2000. For the reasons discussed at the beginning of this topic that event did not
take place.

Since coverage outside the US is no longer under American control it might be

thought that any decision about the US system has little relevance to the rest of

79
the world, but from a commercial point of view that is not the case. It is unlikely
that manufacturers of LORAN-C receivers would be willing to invest the funds
necessary for future research and development unless the lucrative US market
(with more than 1 million users) is preserved.

ENHANCED LORAN (eLORAN)

The predecessor of eLORAN, Loran-C, delivered a positioning accuracy of 460m,

principally to mariners sailing in coastal and oceanic waters. When the Global
Positioning System (GPS) appeared in the1980s, with its positioning accuracy of
tens of meters, many began to regard Loran-C as irrelevant. But others saw it as an
essential source of position and time that could still be relied upon if GPS failed.

Enhanced Loran is an internationally standardized positioning, navigation, and

timing (PNT) service for use by many modes of transport and other applications. It
is the latest in the long-standing and proven series of low-frequency, LOng-RAnge
Navigation (LORAN) systems and takes full advantage of 21st century technology.

The US modernization program resulted in this new version of Loran with

significantly improved performance. It will have much better accuracy, integrity
and continuity while continuing to meet Loran-C’s traditional availability
requirements. This improvement is realized through the addition of a data channel.
This data channel allows eLORAN to meet the very demanding requirements of
landing aircraft using so-called non-precision instrument approaches, and bringing
ships safely into harbour in low-visibility conditions. eLORAN has also been shown
to be capable of providing the exceedingly precise time and frequency references
needed by the telecommunications systems that carry voice and internet
communications.

As eLORAN uses high-powered transmitters and low-frequency signals (not

microwatts and microwaves like GNSS), it is very unlikely to be disrupted or
jammed by the same causes that would disrupt GNSS signals. This means that
small, low-cost, eLORAN receivers, even built into GNSS units, can mitigate the
impact of disruptions to GNSS. Moreover, eLORAN can do things GNSS cannot, such
as acting as a static compass. At sea, a new concept of navigation – enhanced
navigation (e Navigation) – is being developed which requires an exceptionally
reliable input of position, navigation and time data. Uniquely, the combination of
GNSS and eLORAN has the potential to meet its needs.

Extract from US DHS Press Release Announced on Feb 7th 2008.

“Today the U.S. Department of Homeland Security will begin implementing an

independent national positioning, navigation and timing system that complements
the Global Positioning System (GPS) in the event of an outage or disruption in
service.

The enhanced Loran, or eLoran, system will be a land-based, independent system

and will mitigate any safety, security, or economic effects of a GPS outage or
disruption. GPS is a satellite-based system widely used for positioning, navigation,
and timing. The eLoran system will be an enhanced and modernized version of

80
Loran-C, long used by mariners and aviators and originally developed for civil
marine use in coastal areas.

In addition to providing backup coverage, the signal strength and penetration

capability of eLoran will provide support to first responders and other operators in
environments that GPS cannot support, such as under heavy foliage, in some
underground areas, and in dense high-rise structures. The system will use
modernised transmitting stations and an upgraded network.”

This important announcement from the USA now effectively gives the green light
for eLoran based applications to emerge. In a move of exciting technological
foresight, The General Lighthouse Authorities (GLA), backed by the UK Dept for
Transport has commissioned the world’s first new eLoran Transmitter site at
Anthorn in Cumbria which was brought into operation in December 2007. With a
frequency only half that of the well known BBC Radio 4 long wave signal, eLoran
signals have phenomenal penetration capabilities.

eLORAN Signal

The principal difference between the eLORAN transmitted signal and the
traditional Loran C signal is the addition of a data channel. The data channel
conveys corrections, warnings, and signal integrity information to the user's
receiver via the Loran transmission. The data transmitted may include:

 The identity of the station; an almanac of Loran transmitting and

differential monitor sites;
 Absolute time based on the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) scale; leap-
second offsets between eLORAN system time and UTC;
 Warnings of anomalous radio propagation conditions including early
skywaves; warnings of signal failures, aimed at maximizing the integrity of
the system;
 Messages that allow users to authenticate the eLORAN transmissions;
official-use only messages;
 Differential Loran corrections, to maximize accuracy for maritime and
timing users; and
 Differential GNSS corrections.

eLORAN transmissions are synchronized to an identifiable, publicly-certified,

source of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by a method wholly independent of
GNSS. This allows the eLORAN Service Provider to operate on a time scale that is
synchronized with but operates independently of GNSS time scales. Synchronizing
to a common time source will also allow receivers to employ a mixture of eLORAN

81
and satellite signals. Phase corrections are provided in a continuous vice stepped
manner.

Users will continue to be notified immediately of signal outages and abnormalities.

Scheduled maintenance work is planned carefully to minimize the impact on users
of stations being off the air. Users are given adequate notice of interruptions via
well-publicized channels of communication.

Users’ Equipment: eLORAN users’ receivers operate in an all-in-view mode. That

is, they acquire and track the signals of many Loran stations (the same way GNSS
receivers acquire and track multiple satellites) and employ them to make the most
accurate and reliable position and timing measurements. Another benefit of using
the all-in-view mode is that it ensures that the eLORAN receiver is always tracking
the correct cycle of each individual signal.

An eLORAN receiver is capable of receiving and decoding the data channel

messages and applying this information based on the user specific application
(Figure 1). This information, coupled with the published Signal Propagation
Corrections, provides the user with a highly accurate PNT solution.

General principles of LORAN-C

LORAN-C is a radio navigation aid that creates a system of hyperbolic position lines.
Each hyperbola related to the difference in time of arrival of pulses from a master
and slave station.

82
Pattern ambiguity

Although the principle of timing the arrival at the ship of two pulses, and plotting
the difference in their arrival times as a hyperbolic position line, is a relatively
straightforward one, a number of practical problems have to be solved before an
acceptable navigation system can be produced.

The following diagrams assume two transmitting stations, A and B, are 324nm
apart. Bearing in mind that a radio wave moves 300 metres per microsecond (µsec)
the time of transmission from one to the other can be calculated.

324 x 1852 = 2000 µsec

300

The first diagram illustrates the pattern of hyperbola deriving from the simplest
system using the two stations transmitting simultaneously.

0
The centre line, at right
500 500 angles to the baseline of
1000 1000
the stations, will be a
line of zero time
1500
1500 difference reading.

2000 2000
The baseline extensions
A B will always be lines of a
maximum difference, in
this case 2,000 µsec as
this is the difference
along the baseline.

Other hyperbola will be

between these
extremes, i.e. from 2,000 down to zero from each side of the centre line.

It can be seen that there is an inherent ambiguity in this system. There are similar
time differences on either side of the centre line. In practice, such an ambiguity
would only lead to uncertainty in the immediate area of the centre line. A vessel’s
DR position would normally be known sufficiently accurately so that there would be
no problem outside the centre line area.

Removal of ambiguity
2000
2500
1500
3000 1000 This figure illustrates the
3500 500 solution to this problem.
By nominating station A
as the master station
and delaying station B
4000
A B
0 transmissions until the
arrival of the pulse from
A, the difference values
are reduced to zero on
the baseline extension
from B and increased to
4,000 µsec on that from

83
A, i.e. a vessel on the A extension receives the A pulse first, but has to wait 4,000
µ seconds for B because A’s pulse has to travel for 2,000 µsec to trigger B and B’s
pulse must then make the return journey. All other lines now grade from zero
through to 4,000.

There is another problem that will require a further modification. The pulse
lengths in the LORAN-C system are typically 250 µsec, which means that as the
system stands, there will be an overlap of signal before the vessel crosses the 250
µsec difference on lines on the B side of the pattern. With such an overlap, no
time difference will be measurable.

Coding delay

This figure illustrates the

3000
use of ‘coding delay’ in the 3500
2500
system. Instead of 4000 2000
transmitting immediately 1500
4500
the pulse from A arrives,
the slave station B delays
its transmission for a
5000
nominal period. In this 1000
A B
case, the coding delay is
1,000 µsec. This has the
effect of increasing all
difference readings by
1,000 µ seconds right across
the system and gets rid of
the overlap.

The coding delay in the LORAN-C system has the secondary purpose of station
identification. Each slave station is ‘coded’ by having a different delay time.
These delays are sufficiently large so the slave stations will always respond to the
master in strict alphabetical sequence.

Transmission pattern

The pattern of transmission of a typical LORAN chain is shown below. All stations
transmit a sequence of eight (8) pulses at 1,000 µsec intervals. In addition, the
master station transmits a ninth pulse 2,000 µsec after the eight-pulse sequence.

Master Slave W Slave X Slave Y Master

IIIIIIII I IIIIIIII IIIIIIII IIIIIIII IIIIIIII I
Time differenceW

Time difference X

Time difference Y

Group repetition interval

This ninth pulse of the master has two functions. Primarily it is a means of
identifying the master signals, but its secondary function is to blink on and off in a

84
code to indicate any current errors in the system. If, for example, one of the
slaves is not responding within set time specifications, a warning code from the
master ninth pulse will identify the problem.

The pattern of master followed in sequence by the slave transmissions is known as

the Group Repetition Interval (GRI) and is defined as the time in microseconds
from the start of the first pulse of the master station in one sequence, to the start
of the master pulse beginning the next sequence.

The GRI is used by the LORAN-C system as a means of identifying the chain. On old
lattice charts showing LORAN-C position lines, the GRI identifier appeared in the
bottom left hand margin. This identifier is, in fact, the GRI in microseconds,
divided by 10. For example, for the North Atlantic chain with a GRI of 79,500 µsec,
the identifier will be written 7950.

As with radar pulses, the Loran pulse does not take the ideal form because the
amplitude increases, then decreases over a number of cycles. Because the first
cycle is relatively weak, the end of the third cycle in each pulse is selected as the
point from which time is measured. This is 30 µsec after the start of the pulse and
is the point at which maximum amplitude is reached without the possibility of
skywave contamination.

At greater distances from the transmitter even the third cycle may be difficult to
detect. When the signal is in danger of being lost the operator is given the option
of selecting extended range mode and the measuring point moves to the seventh
cycle. This provides maximum amplitude but may be subject to skywave
contamination. This option is only available when normal mode has previously
been in use and the receiver correctly locked to the third cycle, so cannot be
selected when first entering coverage from outside.

In modern receivers, signals and error codes are received and processed
automatically. The position is calculated and latitude and longitude of the fix
displayed.

LORAN-C - sources of error

When operating correctly the LORAN-C system will provide a 2-dimensional fix
every second to an absolute accuracy of 0.25 nm and repeatable accuracy of 18-90
metres. Transmitting
stations are constantly
Amplitude monitored to detect any
abnormalities that cause
Time the failure of signals to
comply with the system
specification. Within 60
seconds of such an
abnormality occurring,
the “blink” generated by
the chain will be
automatically recognised
by a receiver and a
The Loran C Pulse warning displayed to the
user.

85
There are a number of other factors that can have an effect on the accuracy and
integrity of LORAN-C derived positions.

Skywaves

The principle source of error, as in most radio navigation systems, is skywave

interference. This will occur most often at the limits of the chain coverage, but
can also occur elsewhere, particularly at night.

Because skywaves are arriving via the ionosphere, they have taken a longer time.
The maximum error will occur when the receiver is trying to compare the time
difference of signals following two different paths, eg: the signal from the
secondary is a skywave, but that from the master station is a ground wave.

The recommendation is to use LORAN-C only when within the normal ground wave
range (1,000 nm). Always consult Admiralty Publication NP.285a ‘Radio
Communication and Position Fixing Systems’ or a similar publication to confirm
that your vessel is within the ground wave coverage.

Envelope to cycle discrepancy

When the signal path has considerable distance to travel over land, particularly
when ice covered, or there is a high level of interference, the receiver may
misidentify the third cycle point. Mistakenly identifying the second or fourth as
the third cycle will cause a 10 µsec time error (with multiples of 10 µsec for each
additional cycle of mis-identification). This causes a baseline shift in position line
of 0.8 nm - and far more towards the edges of coverage in extended range mode
where this cycle slippage is most likely to occur.

Additional secondary factor

The speed of LORAN ground waves will vary depending on the conductivity of the
ground over which they pass. Without any correction being applied, receivers
assume that the signals have travelled over a sea-water path and use the USCG
Salt-Water Model when computing a position. The velocity used comprises the
primary factor (velocity in the earth’s atmosphere) and a delay due to the sea-
water secondary factor. When part (or all) of the transmission path is over land
there will be a further delay, relatively small when over good farming land but
more significant when over ice, deserts or mountains. To maintain the accuracy of
position fixing these additional secondary factors (ASFs) must be applied.
Fortunately ASFs vary little over time, so once mapped they provide essentially
fixed errors for a given location.

Additional secondary factors for the North American LORAN C system have been
fully mapped and can be automatically applied by a suitable receiver. Mapping of
ASFs for the Northwest European Loran C System (NELS) has also been completed.
Given the complex paths over which NELS signals may pass, particularly in Scotland
and Norway, the mapping of ASFs is of considerable importance. The results
achieved to date suggest that a high level of accuracy can be achieved by
reference to electronic databases to facilitate automatic application by receivers.

86
Inherent errors

Because LORAN is a hyperbolic system, it must be borne in mind that there are
inherent errors. Firstly, the divergence of the hyperbola towards the edge of the
coverage will cause larger errors on the ground, i.e. 1 µsec error at the centre will
represent a much smaller measurement on the ground than the same error at the
edge. Secondly, the decreasing angle of cut between hyperbola will cause
increasing errors the further the vessel moves from the centre of the chain.

87
Topic Eight – Global Positioning System (GPS)
What is GPS?

GPS is an acronym for Global Positioning System. As such it is very much a generic
term for any positioning system that scans the globe, and should not be limited to
one based on man-made satellites. For the majority of users outside Russia,
however, the term has become synonymous with the US system that is more
correctly called NAVSTAR GPS (Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global
Positioning System). Reference to GPS in this topic will mean NAVSTAR.
Alternative systems will be referred to by name and GNSS (Global Navigation
Satellite System) will be used as the generic term.

Globally, the reliance on GNSS has increased radically. Assured access and system
reliance is now crucial for the maritime industry but also for many other forms of
transport, industries and everyday applications. Recognising the important of this
a number of satellite systems are now in full development and with a timeline for
completion. The main GNSS space based systems of the future will be shared
between four main superpowers, with a total satellite cage in excess of 70 space
vehicles all dedicated to satellite position fixing and timing. Firstly, the Navstar
System from the USA.

Navstar GPS

• Worldwide coverage
• 24 SV, 20,000 km altitude, deployed 6 orbital planes
• Accuracy of 29-30m (95%)
• Future GPS III

The Russian system is called GLONASS (GLobal Navigation Satellite System). After
the fall of the Soviet Union, funding issues and under investment reduced the
capability to around 5 or 6 working satellites. However, since 2002 a rebuild
program is now near completion an as a result now consists of 22 space vehicle
with as of December 2009. With the final satellites scheduled for launch in
February 2010.

GLONASS

• Worldwide coverage (signals will be available across 90 percent of Russia

and 80 percent of the globe)
• 24 SV, 19,100 km altitude, deployed in 3 orbital planes
• Accuracy of 57–70m (95%)
• Development programme to be completely by 2010
• Better accuracy in higher latitudes due to the ground control segment of
GLONASS being entirely located within former Soviet Union territory.

Both of the above systems are controlled by the state and/or military. Prior to
2000 the US system provided civilian access only to a degraded system with a much
reduced level of accuracy via “selective availability” (SA). The most accurate
system is available to US military users only. Although selective availability was
reduced to zero at the beginning of May 2000, the capability remains. Since the

88
entire system may be modified for military purposes eg to provide better
coverage/accuracy for the US military in the Middle East area during the Gulf War
(but poorer coverage for other users), there is still some concern about reliance on
GPS. The received satellite signals are very weak (see below) and easily jammed.
When there is a great increase in solar activity it will have an effect on all radio
navigation systems. It is possible that GPS coverage could be lost for at least
several hours at a time.

Whilst there is no selective availability with GLONASS, it has proved less reliable
than NAVSTAR. Designed for 24 satellites, the number operational at any time has
consistently fallen far short of this figure. These Russian satellites have generally
had a life span of only 2-3 years. By comparison the US system currently has more
than the design number of satellites (24) and a replacement programme that
outpaces losses. GLONASS may, however, provide greater accuracy in high
latitudes.

Receivers are now available that access both systems, thus reducing reliance on
either, but the differences between the systems make this option expensive. The
European Community in particular is still uncomfortable with the current situation
and the development of a third system, Galileo, is well advanced.

It should also be noted that GPS satellites rely on solar energy and currently
transmit about 1 watt of power - from an altitude of 20,000 kms. A GPS receiver
on earth has about 1.10-16 watt of signal power to work with! Using components
costing a few pounds, a terrorist could construct a device capable of jamming GPS
signals for 200 kms - more than enough to neutralise the GPS navigation approaches
to all London airports from a single location. Spoofing jammers are rather more
difficult to build but have the capability of jamming the real signal with one that
mimics it well enough to fool the receiver and provide disastrously incorrect
information to the user.

The future of GPS

With Selective Availability (SA) in place GPS could provide accuracies of ±100
metres. It should be stressed that this was the level of accuracy available,
whether it was delivered or not depended largely on the quality of receiver (for
which there are currently no IMO performance standards). For example, good
receivers today will recognise and adjust for multipath errors (of which more
later), lesser ones will not.

Differential GPS (DGPS) was able to overcome the SA degradation and provide
accuracy in the order of 1-3 metres. A further development called carrier phase
differential (CPD) produces accuracy in the order of 1 cm. Its range is generally
limited to a maximum of approximately 100 km. With current technology it is
theoretically possible to achieve ± 1 mm accuracy! So accurate has position fixing
become that phenomena that we were previously aware of but could largely ignore
(like earth tides and the relative movement of continents) now have to be taken
into account for some applications.

The level of accuracy now available makes automatic docking, warning of wind
effects, measurement of squat, attitude (including heading) and depth
measurement at several positions in the hull, all real possibilities.

89
GPS RTK (real time kinematics) has applications for on board measurement of
stress and distortion. In this application there are a number of GPS facilities
strategically positioned around the vessel. One of these is the base station. The
base station may be used for ordinary navigation purposes and provide accuracy to
normal limits. Acting as a base station using phase differential principles it can
measure relative positions of the other on-board stations (and changes in them) to
millimetre accuracy. This allows very precise stress monitoring.

Portable Pilot Units (PPUs) that combine DGPS receivers with twin antennae, AIS
technology and laptop computers allow pilots to carry a navigation system on board
and remain independent from the vagaries of shipboard resources.

Communication is currently the GPS Achilles heel. Although highly accurate

positions have been available to the primary user, until the advent of Universal
Automatic Identification System (AIS) they were not accessible by secondary users.
Communication is also the weak link in DGPS. A desire to overcome the
communication problem has lead to the development of HydraNav (Hydra as in
many-headed creature).

By linking all the advances in position determination with the communication

technology of Inmarsat and Internet it is now possible to provide a system that will,
for example, inform shipowners of the stresses their ships are being subjected to at
the time they are being subjected to them. It has great possibilities for fleet
management, vessel traffic systems (VTS) and collision avoidance.

Galileo will target many of these new uses for GNSS. It will provide for
communications as well as position determination. General navigation will be a
free service but other value-added services will be encrypted and sold to users.
The system will comprise 30 satellites in three orbits when fully operational.

This discussion of the future of GNSS may seem a little premature. We have yet to
describe the principles of operation of GPS or DGPS. This look into the future has
been placed here to remind us all of the vast potential offered by GNSS so that we
may better understand the importance of what follows.

Existing and future electronic position fixing systems

Navstar GPS

• Worldwide coverage
• 24 SV, 20,000 km altitude, 6 orbital planes
• Accuracy of 10 – 20 m (95%)
• Future GPS III

Differential GNSS (DGPS)

• Dependant on distance from reference station

• Accuracy of 1 – 5 m (95%)
• Self integrity monitoring
• Commercial and special purpose local systems available providing sub metre
accuracy

90
Galileo

• Worldwide coverage
• 30 SV, 23,000 km altitude, 3 orbital planes
• One order of magnitude higher accuracy than GPS 5 - 10 m (95%)
• Better integrity monitoring
• GIOVE-A & GIOVE B (experimental) (in orbit Dec 2005)
• GIOVE-A2 in obrit (mid-2008) Ensures continuous reservation of frequency
for ITU
• Should be operational by 2013

BEIDOU 2 (Compass Navigation System)

• Worldwide coverage
• 30 SV in medium earth orbit x 5 Geostationary, 5 orbital planes
• BEIDOU 1 uses Geostationary SV. Regional system limited to sats in view
• Accuracy sub 10 m (95%)
• Better integrity monitoring
• First sat launched April 2007
• Should be operational by 2012

GLONASS

• Worldwide coverage (Concerns about system maintenance)

• Accuracy of 10 – 20 m (95%)
• Better in higher altitudes

IRNSS - Indian Regional Navigational Sat System

• Regional coverage – Indian plus 2000km radius

• 4 SV in Geosynchronous orbit x 3 Geostationary, 5 orbital planes ensuring
continuous radio visibility with Indian control stations
Geostationary (Above Equator) Geosynchronous (Inclined to equator still 24
hour orbit
• Should be operational by 2012

QZSS – Quazi-Zenith Satellite System - Japan

• Regional coverage
• 3 SV medium earth orbit Although can provide a position
• Accuracy sub 20 m (95%)
• Should be operational by 2012

LORAN C

• Hyperbolic system
• Accuracy of 20 – 100 m (95%)
• Being replace by eLoran (In trials has offered sub 10 m accuracy)
• Improved integrity and complementary to GNSS systems

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GPS principles

A GPS receiver determines the position of its antenna by simultaneously measuring

the ranges from a number of satellites whose positions are accurately known. In
practice what the receiver measures is how far a code signal* received from the
satellite is out of step with an identical (replica) code generated within the
receiver. If we assume that the satellite clock and the receiver clock are perfectly
synchronised then 0.1 sec step difference indicates that the signal has travelled
30,000 km - and a position sphere can be “drawn”. Where that sphere cuts the
earth’s surface it becomes
a position circle. If the 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 Satellite
process is repeated with a code
second satellite then two
position circles are 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 Replica
produced. The antenna’s code
position is therefore fixed
at one of the intersections. Step difference is function of travel time ± clock error

(* the only code available to civilian users is known as course acquisition (CA) code. Military users
were able to access the precision (P) codes. Since the P code is now well understood it has become
less secure and has been replaced by a far more secure "Y" code.)

Cost prohibits a GPS receiver being equipped with an atomic clock. Its clock is not
perfectly synchronised with satellite time and direct calculation of range is not
possible. The errors of all satellite clocks are known and promulgated - one of the
tasks of the ground/control segment is to ensure that they are.

The receiver therefore has not only to calculate its latitude, longitude and
altitude*, but also the exact satellite time. It therefore has four unknowns to
calculate.

(*It may be thought that the antenna’s altitude is known, but such measurement is above sea level at
its geographical location – not above the WGS84 spheroid.)

Casting our minds back to school maths we know that the value of two unknowns
can be found by solving two simultaneous equations. To find the value of three
unknowns requires three simultaneous equations. These are provided by the
measured data from three satellites. With four unknowns, data from four satellites
are required. This type of simultaneous equation (algorithm) requires more than
school maths for solution, but is readily handled by the receiver’s microprocessor.

The receiver does not measure range - it measures a difference in step between
two signals, one of which is generated by an inaccurate clock whose error must
also be calculated. The terminology used to describe what the GPS receiver
measures is pseudo-range.

The system components

The GPS comprises three distinct parts: the ground control segment, the space
segment, and the user segment.

The ground control segment

This is the brains of the organisation. For the NAVSTAR system the master control
station is situated at Colorado Springs. It controls and monitors the satellite orbits,

92
predicts performance and produces the ephemeris for all satellites. Information
about the health of the satellites is passed to each satellite for storage and
transmission to users.

In addition to the master control station there are four monitoring stations sited in
low latitudes evenly spaced around the globe so that satellites are always above
the horizon of one or more stations. These collect data used in ephemeris
production. They may also be used to transmit navigation data and commands to
the satellites.

The GLONASS master control station is situated outside Moscow. Monitoring

stations are less widely spaced than in the NAVSTAR system so satellites are
frequently out of line of sight of the ground segment. Since GLONASS satellites
(and the more recent NAVSTAR satellites) can communicate with each other, they
are able to relay data to control/monitoring stations, so being out of line of sight is
not considered a major problem.

The space segment

NAVSTAR satellites operate in six circular orbits, inclined to the equator, at an

altitude of approximately 20,000 kilometres. Each orbit has four active satellites.
The configuration ensures that at least four satellites are available to a user
anywhere on the earth’s surface at any time. In the majority of cases there will be
more than four available.

The user segment

GPS signals are very weak and spread over a wide bandwidth. The antenna
receives the "good" signals along with a lot of noise. Because it must be highly
sensitive to receive the GPS signals, yet resistant to overload from stronger, local
signals, the antenna design is critical. The signal is amplified and sent down the
cable to the receiver. To overcome power loss in the cable the frequency may be
lowered in the antenna.

Further amplification and frequency mixing takes place in the receiver to enable
the signal to be digitalised for processing. The receiver then goes through a
process of exactly correlating its replica code to the unique code of the satellite
(in the GLONASS system each satellite uses a different frequency and is identified
by that) before locking onto the wavelength of the carrier phase and extracting
ephemeris information concerning that satellite. Since satellite clocks cannot be
corrected, any error is found during the control segment monitoring process and
included with the ephemeris information.

Armed with information on step difference and satellite position the

microprocessor is able to determine pseudo-ranges, then antenna position and
time.

GPS RECEIVERS

The accuracy of a GPS position depends not only on the data received from the
system, but the quality of the antenna and the receiver. There are three types of
receiver available:

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Parallel receivers

These have one channel dedicated to each satellite. They are therefore able to
access all satellites continuously and simultaneously. Such receivers also achieve
better signal:noise ratios and more accurate pseudo-ranges as a result. One
channel is typically dedicated to "housekeeping" - initial acquisition of satellites
and downloading ephemeris data.

The use of parallel receivers is essential for highly accurate applications like
surveying and DGPS base stations. The number of channels varies but given that
twelve satellites are potentially available at any one time, twelve channel
receivers are common. Parallel receivers are more expensive than the types
described below, but their cost is no longer prohibitive.

Fast sequencing receivers

As the name suggests, these receivers do not have dedicated channels but are able
to rapidly switch the channels between available satellites in sequence. A single
channel receiver is uncommon and most today are multi-channel. It may be
possible to switch a multi-channel receiver with sufficient channels to the parallel
mode.

Since all measurements are not made simultaneously, estimates are necessary for
updating data from those not currently sequenced (rather like a running fix).
Inaccuracies may result.

Multi-channel receivers are likely to dedicate one channel to the housekeeping

tasks. Because a single channel fast sequencer is unable to do this it must
constantly change tasks - and becomes far slower.

Multiplexing receivers

These are fast sequencing receivers that are able to switch between all tracked
satellites so rapidly that they appear to be continuously accessing all of them.
Accuracy may suffer in comparison with parallel receivers because in reality each
satellite is only tracked for a very short period of time so when noise:signal ratio is
high, results may be poor.

Limitations and errors of the GPS

As has already been emphasised, how well the potential accuracy of GPS is realised
will depend largely on the quality of the shipboard equipment (antenna and
receiver).

The designers of NAVSTAR believed that coarse acquisition would provide a far less
accurate position for civilian use than it actually did. Faced with the reality that
the difference between coarse acquisition and precision codes was relatively small,
the US military introduced selective availability (SA) whereby the accuracy of CA
was downgraded by either modifying the apparent position of each satellite and/or
introducing random dither into each satellite’s clock. SA was due to be
discontinued in 2006, but an announcement of its early reduction to zero was made
on 01 May 2000.

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GPS provides positions based on WGS84 (World Geodetic System 84), which is a
particular mathematical model of the earth (semi-major axis 6378137 metres,
flattening 1/298.2572). GLONASS uses Parameters of the Earth 1990 (PE90) as its
geodetic datum, so integrated receivers must be capable of converting this to
WGS84. WGS84 is becoming the universal standard for all marine and civil air
navigation. Already all air navigation aids, airport facilities and flight paths have
been published in WGS84 coordinates. The task to convert all marine charts and
navigation aids is far larger. An indication of the inaccuracies possible was
indicated by a survey of the nine radar sites for the Port of London. The positions
of seven were quite accurate, one was in error by nearly 100 metres and the final
one by 200 metres. The port of London has over 1000 navigation aids that need to
be coordinated to WGS84, the UK General Lighthouse Authority some 1200, many
located (not recommended), and the corrections given on many charts, there
remain many opportunities for navigational errors.

The other errors associated with GPS are outlined below. They are relatively
insignificant when compared with SA and the potential problems associated with
use of existing marine charts.

System errors

Despite monitoring by the control segment, small clock and ephemeris errors may
exist. Combined effect on position is unlikely to exceed an error of 2 metres.

Ionospheric delay is an error caused by refraction at the ionosphere. Since the

error is (approximately) inversely proportional to the square of the frequency in
use, and two frequencies are used by satellites, the delay can be calculated and
supplied to users of (expensive) dual-frequency receivers.

Tropospheric delay is independent of frequency so cannot be calculated. Total

error is unlikely to be greater than a few metres when using a quality receiver.

Multipath error refers to error caused by reception of direct and reflected signals.
This has the potential to cause errors of several metres but the better modern
receivers recognise multipath signals and compensate to remove errors.

Relativity error is caused by the greater compression of time close to the earth
than at the satellite altitude. Correction is applied within the system and the error
would only be very small in any case.

Noise is likely to cause errors in positions obtained from GPS (abnormal solar
activity may be included in this category.

Dilution of precision

We should all know that when selecting three objects for visual bearings or radar
ranges the resulting position lines should ideally cut at 60°. A GPS receiver
automatically selects from the available satellites those most likely to provide an
accurate fix. NAVSTAR will usually provide relatively good geometry except when
receivers are masked. There will be times when GLONASS, with its incomplete
array of satellites, is unable to provide such a good selection.

It is important that the navigator receives some indication of the accuracy that can
be expected given current satellite geometry. This is provided by the receiver and

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available on the display as Dilution of Precision (DOP). The dilution of precision of
interest to the user will depend on the application:

GDOP - Geometric Dilution of Precision applies to four dimensions (N/S, E/W,

height and time).
PDOP - Position Dilution of Precision applies to all except time.
HDOP - Horizontal Dilution of Precision is probably of most value to marine
navigators because it indicates the probable accuracy in the N/S and E/W
dimensions.
EDOP - Easting Dilution of Precision is of interest when longitude errors are most
critical.
NDOP - Northing Dilution of Precision is of interest when latitude accuracy is
critical.
VDOP - Vertical Dilution of Precision when altitude is critical.
TDOP - Time Dilution of Precision applies to time accuracy only.

DOP figures are factors. If you are using NAVSTAR with SA and could normally
expect an accuracy of 100 metres (95% probability) and HDOP is indicated as 2 then
there is a 95% probability that the GPS position is within 200 metres of the true
position.

The DOP effect is illustrated below:

Poor geometry provides

large DOP generally, but
good NDOP in this case

Good geometry will

provide small DOP

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Topic Nine – Differential GPS (DGPS)

Background

For civilian users the full potential of GPS could not, until recently, be realised
when using the standard (coarse acquisition) service. This was partly because of
the inherently lower degree of accuracy than the military option, and partly
because of selective availability. It has long been realised that far greater accuracy
could be obtained by pairing a base GPS receiver in an accurately known position
with any one of a number of mobile receivers. The system that developed is known
as Differential GPS and provides the mobile station user with highly accurate
position, course and speed over the ground information. This information can be
updated at intervals of less than one second, providing accuracy in the region of:

 Position accuracy 1 to 10 metres

 Ground speed accuracy < 0.25 knots
 Ground track accuracy < 1 degree

Theory of operation

A DGPS base (or reference) station is erected over a point (such as a survey mark)
of known coordinates. These coordinates are then entered into the receiver. The
receiver will typically be of the twelve channel parallel type so that it can measure
ranges to all satellites above the radio visible horizon.

Given its true position

Mobile station receives
range error message from
base station and applies it
to ranges measured by
GPS receiver. DGPS
position has greatly
enhanced accuracy.
long as a mobile station has a compatible DGPS receiver it is able to access these
range corrections and apply them to its own pseudo-ranges.
and the ephemeris for
all satellites in view,
the base station
receiver is able to
calculate a series of
true ranges. It
simultaneously
measures the pseudo-
ranges to the same
Base station compares
satellites. The
GPS range with range based difference between
on its known position and the two provides a set
satellite ephemeris. of range corrections
Calculates range correction that is transmitted to
and transmits it to mobile
station users. mobile station users
in the same
geographical area. So

DGPS addresses all the inaccuracies that result from selective availability and
inherent system errors except those that are caused by localised conditions like
multi-path and receiver noise. Ionospheric and tropospheric delay are effectively
eliminated for mobiles very close to the base station, but as the separation
increases the difference in the angle that signals pass through these layers
becomes larger - and with it the difference in refraction. Since modern receivers

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are able to handle multipath and ionospheric delay independently of the base
station, any residual error should be very small.

Telemetry systems - the weak link

For any real time DGPS to provide precise navigation for a mobile station it is vital
that the range corrections are transmitted and received continuously. Any break in
transmission will cause a gradual degradation in DGPS positional accuracy. A long
break can mean loss of DGPS altogether, with the mobile reverting to standard GPS
or DR mode.

Medium Frequency (MF)

Lists of available services are now found in Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume
2. In the UK the frequencies used for DGPS correction transmissions are in the
band 283.5 - 315 kHz (elsewhere in the world 285 - 325 kHz). This is the band
formerly used for marine radiobeacon transmissions and has been utilised because
the radio regulations permit its use for transmitting supplementary information - a
classification into which DGPS transmissions conveniently fit.

In the UK (and in many other locations) the DGPS service utilises radiobeacon
facilities as well as frequencies. The UK General Lighthouse Authorities have
twelve DGPS base stations sharing locations with RDF beacons strategically placed
around the UK and the Republic of Ireland.

The GLAs DGPS service is intended to offer accuracies for general navigation of 
10 metres for vessel position-fixing in areas where the freedom to manoeuvre is
restricted. The intended coverage area of the GLA’s DGPS Service is 50 nautical
miles around the coasts of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.
Paper 29, Nav98, The Royal Institute of Navigation

For the technically minded, the GPS range corrections are superimposed onto the
carrier wave part of the MF transmission using a technique called minimum shift
keying (MSK). A set of pseudo-range corrections for nine satellites can take up to 5
seconds to transmit. Range is very good; typically 100-150 nautical miles between
base and mobile receiver. Beyond 300 nautical miles, although the signal may still
be received, errors become more significant and overall positioning accuracy
decreases.

Reception of the MF signal is very dependent on atmospheric conditions. Night-

time reception is generally worse than daytime. The changes in the ionosphere
that occur at dawn and dusk may result in breaks in reception. Periods of high
electrical noise, especially during thunderstorms in the area of the receiver, may
cause total loss or intermittent reception even at close range.

Ultra High and Very High Frequency (UHF/VHF)

Ranges of operation of these options are limited to approximately 40nm for VHF,
3nm for UHF. UHF/VHF is therefore suitable for local area DGPS systems covering
the approaches and navigation within a harbour. Antennas must be carefully
placed so as not to be shielded by obstructions such as masts or funnels, but relay
transmitters can help overcome this weakness. UHF/VHF is less susceptible to
atmospheric interference than MF and HF. It also allows a faster speed of data
transmission, so theoretically slightly more accurate positioning.

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Microwave

Commercial microwave systems are available throughout South East Asia, Europe
and the USA. Corrections are broadcast via communications satellites to the user.
The user must pay a fee for this service but the communications are very secure
and do not suffer in poor atmospheric conditions.

FM radio broadcasts

Available in some major ports in Europe, USA and Australia. Uses the single side
band of an FM radio broadcast to piggy-back differential corrections to the user.
Users pay for this service and range is limited to the range of the radio station.
Coverage is very dependent on topography but atmospheric interference is less
than with MF.

Standards for DGPS broadcasting

Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services Special Committee No 104

(RTCMSC104) provided recommended standards for differential Navstar GPS
services. This American group is the most common standard for DGPS corrections
and information. Virtually all DGPS receivers are capable of receiving corrections
in the RTCM format.

The International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) recommended the

use of marine radiobeacons for public broadcast of DGPS corrections. Subsequently
the IMO Subcommittee on Safety of Navigation also recommended that member
governments using maritime radiobeacons for differential transmission ensure they
conform to CCIR 823 and are not encoded - and therefore free of charge to the
user.

The RTCM message types used for position fixing contain the pseudo-range
corrections in metres for a group of satellites as measured at the base station.
Associated with each pseudo-range correction is a range rate correction. The
range rate correction is the rate, in metres per second, at which the pseudo-range
correction is changing. Updating of pseudo-range corrections under ideal
conditions should be every 5 to 10 seconds. The range rate correction is used to
fill in the gaps between updates.

RTCM is not the only message format available, some companies have their own
formats with which the appropriate DGPS receiver allows positions to be
differentially corrected.

ERRORS AND LIMITATIONS OF DGPS

As we have seen, DGPS cancels out the majority of both the natural and man-made
errors of the GPS. Its weak link is the communication between base station and
mobile.

Physical separation of base station and mobile receiver

Maximum separation should be kept to within 300 nautical miles. Beyond this
range the differential corrections become increasingly erroneous mainly due to the
effects of atmospheric refraction. A handy rule of thumb is that positioning

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accuracy decreases 1 metre for every 100 mile separation between base and
receiver.

Age of the most recent valid RTCM message

The greater the age of the correction, the more likely the correction will be
erroneous. Accuracy of DGPS positions can be suspect if the age of the correction
is greater than 10 seconds.

Message age is a function of the telemetry receiver’s ability to stay locked to the
base station signal. Using a medium frequency link at long range and with high
electrical noise, age of messages will often be above 20 seconds.

Receiver noise and multipath

Receiver noise can result in an error of a number of metres in pseudo-range

measurements. Lower elevation satellites will tend to be noisier, and hence have
larger range errors. This can be observed by the signal:noise ratio value shown on
the mobile GPS receiver for each satellite tracked. Most receivers allow the
operator to select minimum acceptable signal:noise ratio values, so the navigator
should be guided by equipment manufacturers’ recommendations. Quality of
receiver and antenna will dictate how great an effect this will have on position
accuracy.

Multipath error cannot be removed by DGPS but modern receivers recognise and
discount multipath signals.

Geodetic datum

Most receivers are able to present the DGPS derived position (WGS84 datum) in
terms of the datum of the chart currently in use. How accurately this is done will
depend on the quality of the receiver’s software.

The General Lighthouse Authorities recommend that the DGPS receiver remain
referenced to WGS84 and the correction values given on the chart be applied to
the DGPS position. Not only will this ensure accuracy, it will increase the
navigator’s awareness of the potential magnitude of datum shift.

Integrity monitoring
Landline from monitoring station to base
An integrity monitoring site MF transmission from base station
with a GPS receiver may be Satellite transmission
located close to the base Monitoring
station at an accurately station
known reference point. The
integrity monitor receiver
calculates its position based
on derived satellite pseudo- Base
ranges, adjusted using station
differential corrections
supplied by the base station –
and compares it with its
known position. Mobile
station

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If a bad range correction is detected, the monitor site can relay that information
back to the base station via a land line. The base station will then insert a code
into the RTCM message to inform operators that data from certain satellites is
suspect.

Although the reduction in SA to zero may have reduced the importance of DGPS for
normal navigation purposes, it still provides a method of ensuring the integrity of
GPS derived positions, particularly whilst the US military retains the ability to
reinstate SA at any time. The highly accurate applications of DGPS for special
purposes that were outlined at the beginning of the previous chapter continue to
be developed.

LORAN C and DGPS

The introduction of GPS, and particularly DGPS, was the major factor in the
decision to close down the Decca Navigator system. Whilst a similar fate could
have well have befallen Loran, it seems that some clever integration may have
helped secure its future.

Delft University in The Netherlands has been working on a Eurofix system since
1989. In 1997 it began implementation experiments on the Sylt Loran C station
with the approval of the German Department of Transport. These experiments
proved so successful that further trials were carried out at Wildwood NJ at the
request of the US Coastguard.

Stated simply, Eurofix uses the existing Loran C infrastructure to transmit DGPS
correction data and integrity information. It is now liked that this will be the
signal used by eLoran, and if this is the case, the Eurofix term will then disappear.
As with the GLA’s DGPS, an existing network of stations and infrastructure is
utilised. In the case of the Loran transmitters their upgrading should prove to be
straightforward and achievable at low cost.

It was stated earlier in this chapter that separation between base and mobile DGPS
station should be kept below 300 nm to reduce the difference in atmospheric
refraction that each experiences. Given that Loran C has a range of approx 1000
nm, this would seem to be a limiting factor. It is envisaged, however, that DGPS
corrections will be usable to the full Loran range when coverage is complete. This
will be achieved by receiving corrections from more than one base station and
calculating a “networked” correction for the mobile station’s current position.

There is one problem with the Loran C frequency that is more difficult to
overcome. The speed of data transmission is far slower. To enhance transmission
performance, and as explained previously, Eurofix/eLoran uses a different message
format that can be converted to an RTCM Type 9 message at the receiver. Despite
this, a full set of corrections for 9 satellites takes an 18 second cycle. Range Rate
Corrections (RRC) must be used for longer periods, and accuracy is consequently
reduced. Plans are in hand for cycle time to be substantially reduced.

Space-based augmentation

The differential systems outlined above have incorporated terrestrial base stations.
One or more geostationary satellites can similarly be used to provide differential
and integrity data to augment the GNSS. One such system developed by the
Federal Aviation Administration (US) is simply known as WAAS (Wide Area

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Augmentation System). A similar Japanese system is known as MSAS.

In Europe a system has been developed that comprises 3 geostationary satellites

capable of sending their own ranging signals. This European Geostationary
Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) will also provide information about the
accuracy of position measurements received from both GPS and GLONASS (and
later from Galileo), allowing for great improvements in accuracy.

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Topic Ten – Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) and Long
Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT)

Automatic Identification Systems

An increasing number of maritime countries throughout the world have introduced

mandatory ship reporting systems. For countries like Australia, with long and
largely isolated coastlines, justification for such systems may be the need for up-
to-date information on the movement of vessels operating in coastal waters. In
such cases search and rescue facilities are stretched to their limits. At the other
extreme lies the need for positive identification of vessels operating in areas of
extremely high traffic density.

A good example of the latter justification is on the route from the Mediterranean
to the North Sea, where ships pass through five mandatory reporting areas (Straits
of Gibralter, Cape Finisterre, Ushant, Casquets and Dover Straits).

Given the growth of reporting requirements and the increased pressure on bridge
watchkeepers, who may already be suffering from work and/or information
overload, the provision of automatic identification systems to remove the burden
of making periodic radio reports would seem to be a logical and welcome
development. There may be an important secondary benefit – enhancement of
collision avoidance and navigational safety systems.

The remainder of these notes considers the current state of play on AIS, and
prompts discussion on some of the implications for mariners.

The state of play

The pace of advancement in position fixing and communication techniques,

particularly the widespread use of GPS and DGPS, made the provision of AIS both
technically and economically feasible.

In the early 1990s the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA)

proposed that AIS become mandatory as an extension of the Global Maritime
Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) that was in the process of being implemented.
The intention was that VHF channel 70, earmarked for Digital Selective Calling
(DSC), could also be used for automatic identification of vessels within Vessel
Traffic Services (VTS) areas. There were further proposals along similar lines from
Scandinavian maritime authorities.

By the mid 1990s the IMO had decided to begin procedures to adopt a single
Universal AIS. The Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation prepared performance
standards that were approved in 1998 – the Recommendation on Performance
Standards for a Universal Shipborne Automatic Identification System. Unlike the
earlier proposals for VTS use only, these standards encompassed ship-to-ship
working of AIS. The new standards cover the following: ship to ship and ship to
shore (4S) working, automatic and continuous operation, the provision of
information messages and the use of maritime VHF for transmission.

The International Telecommunications Union has designated two VHF channels

(161.975 and 162.025 MHz) as AIS 1 and AIS 2. Performance and testing standards

103
for AIS equipment have been developed by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC).

The dates for compulsory fitting of AIS were reviewed by IMO in December 2002.
The accelerated schedule that resulted meant that all ships of 300 gt and upwards
engaged on international voyages were fitted with AIS by 31 December 2004 at the
latest.

Although there are no provisions for mandatory fitting of AIS on non-SOLAS

Convention ships, it is expected that the great potential for enhanced safety at sea
will provide great incentive for voluntary fitting of some level of AIS.

Professional mariners will be well aware of the difficulty experienced with locating
small craft (particularly those constructed of timber or GRP) using current anti-
collision aids like radar and ARPA. Since even the smallest yachts and fishing
vessels are typically fitted with GPS, they have the potential to report their
positions with great accuracy now selective availability (SA) has been reduced to
zero. It is therefore possible to display that position (with vessel identity) on the
radar/ARPA or ECDIS of a full AIS vessel without radar contact ever being made.
Existing IMO performance standards for radar and ECDIS will need to be revised to
ensure the full potential is reached.

It is not only small craft that escape radar detection. A large target may be hidden
within the blind sector of an observer’s radar, within heavy rain or sea clutter,
around the bend in a river, behind a point of land or island. AIS will allow all these
targets to be displayed and identified. This aspect of AIS makes it particularly
attractive to VTS operators.

AIS (or AIS-like) components are now integrated into many Portable Pilot Units to
provide pilots with more information about vessels they will encounter in pilotage
regions, and allow more accurate planning of passing/overtaking points.

The implications for mariners

 AIS derived plots have the capability of reacting more rapidly to speed/course
changes than ARPA does. Rates of turn can be displayed.

 Evidence to date suggests that AIS encourages greater compliance with traffic
separation schemes. Will the same apply to compliance with collision
regulations?

 Reduced delay in SAR operations.

 AIS may add to the problem of information overload on a one-man bridge.

 Some operators may consider the information disclosed by AIS to be

commercially sensitive.

 The slow pace of introduction of vector charts in some areas means that ECDIS
will continue to be largely fuelled by raster charts for some time. Although AIS
information may be readily interpreted when overlaid on a vector chart from
which superfluous information has been removed, it could well be overlooked
on a crowded raster display.

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 Automatic information exchanges between ships with GPS receivers
experiencing different errors may confuse, rather than clarify, in a collision
avoidance situation.

 The voyage-related data that relies on operator input may be incorrect. To

help overcome this it is suggested that routine updating of data into the AIS
should be included in the navigating officer’s checklist – see MGN 277 (M&F)

 Positive identification of target vessel may tempt mariners to reach private

agreement in contravention of collision regulations. MGN 167 warns of the
dangers resulting from the use of VHF in collision avoidance. MGN 277 (M&F)
also refers to this danger and states “Collision avoidance must be carried out in
strict compliance with the COLREGs. There is no provision in the COLREGs for
use of AIS information therefore decisions should be taken based primarily on
visual and/or radar information”.

 The increased probability of locating all targets within range may encourage
excessive speed in reduced visibility.

 Masters of vessels navigating in waters where acts of piracy or other security

incidents could be expected may be reluctant to transmit their ship’s data.
Chapter 21 of the IMO guidelines on the operation of AIS make some provision
for this possibility:

“AIS should always be in operation when ships are underway or at anchor. If the
master believes that the continual operation of AIS might compromise the safety
or security of his/her ship or where security incidents are imminent, the AIS may
be switched off. Unless it would further compromise the safety or security, if the
ship is operating in a mandatory reporting system, the master should report this
action and the reason for doing so to the competent authority. Actions of this
nature should always be recorded in the ship’s logbook together with the reason
for doing so. The master should however restart the AIS as soon as the source of
danger has disappeared. If the AIS unit is shut down, static data and voyage
related data remains stored. Restart is done by switching on the power to the
AIS. Ship’s own data will be transmitted after a two minute initialisation period.
In ports AIS operations should be in accordance with port requirements.

Display options

The minimum mandated display requires not less than three lines of data consisting
of bearing, range and name of selected ship. Other data of the ship can be
displayed by horizontal/vertical scrolling.

Equipment manufacturers are able to provide a number of alternate/additional

display methods. Amongst the options are:

 Stand-alone graphical display – this looks like a basic radar screen but is simply
a computer screen showing the relative positions of all/selected ‘targets’ with
additional relevant information. The navigator would need to observe both the
ARPA and AIS displays, and check CPAs, TCPAs etc and run trial manoeuvres on
both, since each could be displaying targets that the other missed (small
vessels on AIS, non-AIS vessels on ARPA). Add the need to check a second
radar, ECDIS and other displays and the watchkeeper would have no time to
look out of the window!

105
 Integration with radar – so that AIS targets are displayed on the radar screen.
One problem with this system is the fusion of AIS and radar data – how far apart
must targets from different sources appear before being displayed as separate
targets?

 Integration with ECDIS – what may seem to be the ultimate navigation/anti-

collision system may suffer from over-clutter or inaccuracies until all ECDIS are
fuelled entirely by WGS84 vector charts.

AIS information types, rates and modes of transmission

Information types:

• STATIC - name, call sign, IMO & MMSI number, length and draft.
• DYMAMIC - GPS position, course and speed made good, gyro heading and
rate of turn.
• VOYAGE RELATED - ship type, cargo, destination, ETA etc. Repeated every
6 minutes or updated as required.
• SHORT MESSAGE - safety related transmitted as required.

Transmission principles:

• Two VHF channels used

• Data collected from ship sensors and manual input
• Information transmitted in 26.67 millisecond slots
• 2250 slots of information per minute on each channel (using time division
multiple access). 4500 slots in total
• AIS terminals automatically select time slots and inform other AIS terminals

Reporting rates:

• Static information 6 minutes

• At anchor 3 minutes
• 0-14 knots 12 seconds
• 0-14 knots and a/c 3.33 seconds
• 14-23 knots 6 seconds
• 14-23 knots and a/c 2 seconds
• >23 knots 3 seconds
• >23 knots and a/c 2 seconds

Modes of operation available:

• Autonomous and continuous – normal, automatic mode for vessel at sea.

• Assigned – may be assigned by competent authority in areas subject to its
control.
• Polling or controlled – ship’s AIS may be interrogated by another ship or
competent authority – does not interfere with other mode in use.

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 AIS – the overall picture

Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) (Source: www.imo.org)

The Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) at its 81st session in May 2006 adopted new
regulations for the LRIT together with associated performance standards and
functional requirements.

The new regulation on LRIT is included in SOLAS chapter V on Safety of Navigation,

through which LRIT will be introduced as a mandatory requirement for the
following ships on international voyages: passenger ships, including high-speed
craft; cargo ships, including high-speed craft, of 300 gross tonnage and upwards;
and mobile offshore drilling units.

The SOLAS regulation on LRIT establishes a multilateral agreement for sharing LRIT
information for security and search and rescue purposes, amongst SOLAS
Contracting Governments, in order to meet the maritime security needs and other
concerns of such Governments. It maintains the right of flag States to protect
information about the ships entitled to fly their flag, where appropriate, while
allowing coastal States access to information about ships navigating off their
coasts. The SOLAS regulation on LRIT does not create or affirm any new rights of
States over ships beyond those existing in international law, particularly, the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), nor does it alter or
affect the rights, jurisdiction, duties and obligations of States in connection with
UNCLOS.

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The LRIT information ships will be required to transmit include the ship's identity,
location and date and time of the position. There will be no interface between
LRIT and AIS. One of the more important distinctions between LRIT and AIS, apart
from the obvious one of range, is that, whereas AIS is a broadcast system, data
derived through LRIT will be available only to the recipients who are entitled to
receive such information - and safeguards concerning the confidentiality of those
data have been built into the regulatory provisions. SOLAS Contracting
Governments will be entitled to receive information about ships navigating within a
distance not exceeding 1000 nautical miles off their coast.

The regulation foresees a phased-in implementation schedule for ships constructed

before its expected entry into force date of 1 January 2008 and an exemption for
ships operating exclusively in sea area A1 from the requirement to transmit LRIT
information, since such ships are already fitted with AIS. It also identifies which
authorities may have access to LRIT information.

The MSC also adopted performance standards and functional requirements for LRIT
and an MSC resolution on Arrangements for the timely establishment of the long
range identification and tracking system.

LRIT system

The LRIT system consists of the shipborne LRIT information transmitting

equipment, the Communication Service Provider(s), the Application Service
Provider(s), the LRIT Data Centre(s), including any related Vessel Monitoring
System(s), the LRIT Data Distribution Plan and the International LRIT Data
Exchange. Certain aspects of the performance of the LRIT system are reviewed or
audited by an LRIT Co-ordinator acting on behalf of all Contracting Governments.

LRIT information is provided to Contracting Governments and Search and Rescue

services entitled to receive the information, upon request, through a system of
National, Regional, Co-operative and International LRIT Data Centres, using where
necessary, the LRIT International Data Exchange. The system architecture is
illustrated on the next page.

Each Administration should provide to the LRIT Data Centre it has selected, a list of
the ships entitled to fly its flag which are required to transmit LRIT information,
together with other salient details, and should update, without undue delay, such
lists as and when changes occur. Ships should only transmit the LRIT information to
the LRIT Data Centre selected by their Administration.

The obligations of ships to transmit LRIT information and the rights and obligations
of Contracting Governments and of Search and Rescue services to receive LRIT
information are established in Regulation V/19-1 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention.

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109
Topic eleven – Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)
VDRs are the maritime equivalent of the ‘black boxes’ that are fitted on aircraft.
Their purpose is to record and safely store certain important, pre-selected data
that may later assist investigation into marine incidents. The selected data items
are those that relate to the status and output of ships’ equipment, the command
and control of the ship. Recording must be automatic, and the VDR equipment
must be contained in a brightly coloured, protective capsule. The capsule must be
fitted with an appropriate location aid.

The regulations concerning the fitting of VDRs were adopted in 2000 and are
contained in Chapter V of SOLAS. They entered into force on 1 July 2002, with
fitting initially to comply with the following timetable:

SOLAS REQUIREMENTS
Regulation 20: carriage of Voyage Data Recorders (VDR) – Timetable for fitting
Para. Type of vessel Date by which VDR must be fitted
1.1 Passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002 Date of build
1.2 Ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July Date of first survey on or after 1 July 2002
2002
1.3 Passenger ships other than ro-ro constructed before 1 January 2004
1 July 2002
1.4 Ships other than passenger ships of 3000 gt. and Date of build
upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2002

At its 79th session in December 2004 the Maritime Safety Committee adopted
amendments to the above to include a phasing in of the fitting of VDRs to cargo
ships constructed before 1 July 2002 when engaged on international voyages. For
vessels of 20,000 gross tonnage or greater the fitting is to take place at the first
dry-docking after 1 July 2006, but not later than 1 July 2009. For ships between
3,000 and 10,000 gross tonnage the fitting dates will be at the first scheduled dry-
docking after 1 July 2007, but not later than 1 July 2010.

These ships may fit a simplified VDR (S VDR) that is not required to store such
detailed information as a full VDR. Administrations may exempt ships that are to
be taken permanently out of service within two years of the above dates, or where
it can be demonstrated that interfacing a VDR with existing equipment on the ship
is unreasonable and impracticable.

A table of the data items to be recorded by a VDR to meet IMO Performance

Standard (Res. A.861(20)) and IEC Information format (IEC 61996) is reproduced
below.

A.861(20) DATA ITEM SOURCE

REF
5.4.1 Date & time Preferably external to ship (e.g.GNSS)
5.4.2 Ship’s position Electronic Positioning system
5.4.3 Speed (through water or over Ship’s SDME
ground)
5.4.4 Heading Ship’s compass
5.4.5 Bridge Audio 1 or more bridge microphones
5.4.6 Comms. Audio VHF
5.4.7 Radar data- post display Master radar display

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 selection
5.4.8 Water depth Echo Sounder
5.4.9 Main alarms All mandatory alarms on bridge
5.4.10 Rudder order & response Steering gear & autopilot
5.4.11 Engine order & response Telegraphs, controls and thrusters
5.4.12 Hull openings status All mandatory status information displayed on bridge
5.4.13 Watertight & fire door status All mandatory status information displayed on bridge
5.4.14 Acceleration & hull stresses Hull stress and response monitoring equipment where
fitted
5.4.15 Wind speed & direction Anemometer when fitted

Below are further guidelines relating to VDRs:

5. IMO GUIDELINES ON VOYAGE DATA RECORDERS (VDR) OWNERSHIP

AND RECOVERY

1.) Ownership of VDR/data:

The ship owner will, in all circumstances and at all times, own the VDR and its
data. however, in the event of an accident the following guidelines would apply.

2.) Recovery of VDR:

Recovery of the VDR is conditional on the accessibility of the VDR or the data
contained therein.

a.) In the case of a non-catastrophic accident, recovery of the memory should be

straightforward. For example, in some VDRs it can be accomplished by removal of
a hard disc from the VDR unit. This action will have to be taken soon after the
accident to best preserve the relevant evidence for use by both the investigator
[1] and the ship owner. As the investigator is very unlikely to be in a position to
instigate this action soon enough after the accident, the owner must be
responsible, through its on-board standing orders, for ensuring the timely
preservation of this evidence in this circumstance.

b.) In the case of abandonment of a vessel during an emergency, masters

should, where time and other responsibilities permit, recover the memory and
remove it to a place of safety and preserve it until it can be passed to the
investigator.

c.) In the case of a catastrophic accident, where the VDR is inaccessible and the
data has not been retrieved prior to abandonment, a decision will need to be
taken by the Flag State in co-operation with any other substantially interested
States [2] on the viability and cost of recovering the VDR balanced against the
potential use of the information. If it is decided to recover the VDR the
investigator should be responsible for co-ordinating its recovery. The possibility of
the capsule having sustained damage must be considered and specialist expertise
will be required to ensure the best chance of recovering and preserving the
evidence. In addition the assistance and co-operation of the owners, insurers and
the manufacturers of the VDR and those of the protective capsule may be
required.

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3.) Custody of VDR/data:

In all circumstances, during the course of an investigation, the investigator should

have custody of the original VDR data, perhaps in the form of the whole or
part(s) of the VDR itself, in the same way as if he has custody of other records or
evidence under the Code for the Investigation of Marine Casualties and Incidents.

4.) Read-out of VDR/data:

In all circumstances the responsibility to arrange down loading and read-out of

the data from the recovered memory in whatever form should, in the first
instance, be undertaken by the investigator who should keep the ship owner fully
informed. Additionally, specially in the case of a catastrophic accident where the
memory may have sustained damage, the assistance of specialist expertise may
be required to ensure the best chance of success.

5.) Access to the data:

Although the investigator will have custody of the original VDR memory in
whatever form for the duration of the investigation, a copy of the data must be
provided to the ship owner at an early stage in all circumstances. Further access
to the data will be governed by the applicable domestic legislation of the flag
state, coastal state and the lead investigating state as appropriate and the
guidelines given in the Code for the Investigation of Marine Casualties and
Incidents.

Although primarily aimed at incident investigation, a VDR system may also be

extended to transmit data through secure internet connections to ship owners or
operators, thus enhancing security, maintenance and fleet management.

112
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