Lecture 7 - Steel Application

Framework for Lecture 7
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Steel Production
7.3 Steel Reinforcement
ARBE 3100
7.4 Structural Steel
Construction Technology 3 7.5 Steel and Environment
Lecture 7 7.6 Recommended Study Texts
Steel Application 7.7 Summary
Reinforcing steel and Structural steel 7.8 Self-study Questions
By Dr. Patrick Tang
Senior Lecturer
School of Architecture and Built Environment pijitrade.com
Semester 1 2015 ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3
Lecture 7 Steel Application 7.1 Introduction

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Intended Learning Outcomes 7.1.1 Structural Systems

At the end of this lecture you should be able to: Buildings utilize an extensive number of building materials
but their structural systems usually have one material
Describe the general properties of steels and their
(either concrete or steel) as the predominate material to
production process.
carry the structural loads.
Describe the types of steel reinforcement and their
Since the 1960's there has been an increasing use of
properties and application
"composite systems" in which both steel and concrete are
Describe the use of structural steel, the connection utilized together in ways that neither material
details and structural steel work. predominates over the other.
Understand the contribution of steel to sustainable Future trend: Sky-scrapers/High-rise buildings, especially
construction. non-residential buildings, steel framework will be the
dominant material.
ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3 ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3
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7.1 Introduction 7.1 Introduction
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http://skyscraperpage.com
http://skyscraperpage.com
“Megatall”
“Supertall”
Figure 7.2 Skyscrapers currently under-construction around

Figure 7.1 World's Ten Tallest Buildings (2015)
ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3 the world (2015)
ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3

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skyscraperpage.com
Where is Petronas Twin Towers???
geekologie.com
 Inspired by Mount Fuji

 Designed by Taisei Construction Corporation
 Height: approximately 4 km, 200 m taller than the real Mount
Fuji.
 6,000m in diameter at the base and contains 800 floors, and
be capable of housing between 500,000 and 1,000,000
people. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRjEtTlq7kk
archrecord.construction.com
Figure 7.3 World's Ten Tallest Buildings in 2020 Figure 7.4 The X-Seed 4000
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9 10
www.geekwidget.com mostbeautifulplacesintheworld.org http://kientrucinfo.vn/266-crystal-island.html
 The Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid is a hypothetical project for construction of a  World’s biggest building (to be built within next 5 years)
massive pyramid over Tokyo Bay in Japan.  Designed by Sir Norman Foster
 The structure would be 2,000 meters high.  Height: 450 m.
 Would house 1,000,000 people.  Floor space of 2.5 million square metre will feature 900 apartments, 3000 hotel
 The proposed structure is so large that it cannot be built with currently available rooms, an international school for 500 students, cinemas, a theatre, sports complex
materials, due to their weight. The design relies on the future availability of super- and much more.
strong lightweight materials based on carbon nanotubes. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aS2ob2wAnmU  There will also be a 16,500 space underground parking lot for all the visitors.
Figure 7.5 Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid Figure 7.6 Crystal Island Moscow, Russia

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Table 7.1 List of tallest buildings in the world
In the era of super high rise buildings the need for
lightweight and cost effective construction is continuously
increasing.
Along with this durability is also an increasing concern.
Thus the solutions reached upon were steel structures
with calculated detailing.
Problem like building height, fire resistance, earth-quake
resistance etc. could be dealt with in these constructions.
The properties of steel like capacity to withstand high
tension as well as compression helps engineers to use it
in varied permutations and combinations.
en.wikipedia.org
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7.1.2 General Properties of Steel Steel has the following properties, that makes it one of the
most efficient materials for use in building construction.
Steel is an alloy consisting mainly of iron, with a carbon
content normally between 0.2 to 2.1 % by weight, Favourable properties Some drawbacks
depending on grade.
 Strong: has a high  Heavy and lengthy, not easy
Carbon and other elements act as a strength/weight ratio to handle
hardening agent, preventing  Versatility: adaptable and  Loss strength under higher
dislocations in the iron atom crystal ductile temperature
lattice from sliding past one another. knol.google.com
 Cheap and plentiful  Easily get rust if not properly
treated
Varying the amount of alloying elements controls qualities  Easy to cut, connect and
such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the fabricate  Deflect under loads
resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be
made harder and stronger than iron, but is also less
ductile.

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7.1.3 Steel Design Standards Steel reinforcement

Loading codes  AS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials which
supersedes the following Standards
 AS 1170.0 General principle
- AS 1302 Steel reinforcing bars for concrete
 AS 1170.1 Permanent, imposed and other
actions - AS 1304 Welded wire reinforcing fabric for concrete
 AS 1170.2 Wind Actions - AS 1554.3 Part 3: Welding of reinforcing steel
Steel structures
 AS 3679
 AS 4100:1998
 HB 2.2 - 2003 Australian Standards for civil
engineering students - Structural infostore.saiglobal.com
engineering
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7.2 Steel Production 7.2 Steel Production
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7.2.1 Global Demand of Steel 7.2.2 Steel Production in Australia

The World Steel According to Australian Steel
Association (worldsteel) Institute (ASI) steel indicators,
reports the world crude the annual capacity of
steel production has Australian steelmakers is 8
reached about 1.64 billion million tonnes of which
tons for the year of 2014. approximately 20 % (i.e. 1.6
This is an increase of million tonnes) is structural steel.
bokertov.typepad.com
3.8% compared to 2013.
Mainly used for industrial, commercial and residential
China, the largest steel maker in the world, its output of buildings, bridges, towers and masts, maritime structures,
crude steel in 2014 was about 822 million tons, which mining and materials handling projects.
was a half of the world annual production! There are estimated to be 50,000 tonnes of structural
For more details about steel production statistics, please see http://www.worldsteel.org/
steel stock in the distribution chain at any one time.

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Table 7.2 Approximate segmentation of steel usage in Australia 7.2.3 Steel Production Process
Agriculture 8%
Dwelling Construction 6% When iron is smelted from its ore
Non Dwelling Construction 13% by commercial processes, it
Engineering Construction 21% contains more carbon than is
Manufacturing Plant and Equipment 14%
Vehicles and transport 13%
desirable. cascadesteel.com
Mining 17%
To become steel, it must be melted
Other 8%
and reprocessed to reduce the
carbon to the correct amount, at
which point other elements can be
added.
The molten steel is then brocksolutions.com
continuously cast into long slabs or Figure 7.8 Steel melting

and continuous casting
cast into ingots.
Figure 7.7 Current steel usage in Australia
ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3 http://steel.org.au/about-our-industry/steel-indicators/ ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3
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The ingots can be heated in a

soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs,
blooms, or billets.
Rollers
alfadux.com
Figure 7.9 Steel and Gold ingots
stainlesssteelseamlesspipe.net Figure 7.11 Steel billets
alfadux.com
Hot rolling of steel at a temperature above re-crystallization

(above 1000 C) makes the individual crystals being
reduced in size after each rolling ‘pass’.
The rolling of hot steel has two important purposes:
commodityforsale.com
Figure 7.10 Steel long slabs  to get the steel into a desirable shape, and
brocksolutions.com
 to improve the quality of steel

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Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Because of the cold ductility of
metal, they can be shaped below
Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. re-crystallization temperature
Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such (usually at room temperature).
as I-beams. In cold rolling, steel passes
between the rolls. The metal
coming from the rolls consists of
the same crystals but are now www.vinssco.com
elongated. Figure 7.14 Cold rolled steel
An elongated and distorted crystal structure of this kind

has greater hardness and tensile strength than the original
fulcrumsteel.com oursbiz.com
structure but is less ductile and in addition makes the steel
Figure 7.12 Deformed steel bar Figure 7.13 I beam more resistant to further cold work. This effect is known as
work hardening.
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7.2 Steel Production 7.3 Steel Reinforcement
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In modern foundries these processes often occur in one 7.3.1 Application of Steel Reinforcement
assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel
coming out. Steel reinforcement is commonly used
in in-situ reinforced concrete and
reinforced masonry structures. It is
usually formed from carbon steel, and
is given ribs/indentation for better
mechanical anchoring into the
concrete.
It can also be described as
reinforcement or reinforcing steel. In
Australia, it is commonly known as reo.
The resulting reinforced concrete or shotcreteconcrete.com
eng2mfg.co
other material is an example of a Figure 7.16 Steel RC
Figure 7.15 Steel manufacturing Process composite material.
7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

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encompass-engineering.co.uk rom-tech.co.uk
personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bswmwong/ personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bswmwong/
Figure 7.19 RC Slab Figure 7.20 RC Beam
Figure 7.17 RC Wall Figure 7.18 RC Column
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7.3.2 Reinforcing Steel Manufacturing Control

In compliance with AS4761, manufacturing control shall
apply to all aspects of production, from steel melting to
the dispatch of end products to the purchasers (steel
processors or customers).
In Australia, all the major steel
reinforcement processors are
Members of the Steel
Reinforcement Institute of
Figure 7.21 The Lucia Australia (SRIA), operating
Apartments in South
Yarra, Melbourne using material supply centres
RC structural frame throughout Australia.
http://www.sria.com.au/ sria.com.au
http://www.edgearchitectural.com.au/

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These processors act as the main link between the major The Australian Certification Authority for
steel manufacturers in Australia and overseas, and the Reinforcing Steels (ACRS) administers an
end user of reinforcing materials by providing a one-stop independent voluntary product certification
shop for reinforcing material. scheme to provide an audit of the
manufacturing processes for reinforcing
The SRIA processor members aim steels as supplied to the Australian market
to produce products of a high to ensure their compliance with Australian acrs.net.au
standard in compliance with the http://www.reinforcing.com/ Standard, AS 4671.

relevant Australia Standard
AS/NZS 4671:2001 Steel ACRS mission
reinforcing materials.
“The continued manufacture and supply of reliable, safe,
consistent-quality steel reinforcement and prestressing
How the steel products be certified strand to Australian Standards”
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7.3.3 Steel Storage Does rusting affect the performance of reinforcement?

The steel must be stored above Surface rusting of reinforcing
the surface of the ground upon bars or mesh does not affect
platforms, skids, or other the performance of the steel
supports and shall be protected unless the physical properties
from damage and deterioration. of the suspected steel are
This prevents excessive rusting below the minimum
that would occur if sitting directly requirements of AS4671.
on the ground. alaglobal.com
Figure 7.22 Steel batch What are the min requirement? Figure 7.23 Surface rusting of steel
When placed in the work, reinforcement shall be free from In fact, surface rusting can increase the bond of the steel
dirt, paint, grease, oil, or other foreign materials, and shall to the concrete. However, prolonged surface rusting can
be free from defects such as cracks and laminations. eventually lead to pitting of the steel and this may lead to a
weakening of the steel section.

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7.3.4 Reinforcing Steel Characteristics Reinforcing steel abbreviation

Grade strength
Grade 500 yield bars;
 Only three strength Grades have been considered, yield strength = 500
i.e., those having lower characteristic yield strengths Deformed
steel N/mm2
of 250 MPa, 300 MPa and 500 MPa respectively.
Ductility class,
Ductility
N = normal
 Three ductility classes. These are distinguished in D 500 N
requirements by the letters ‘L’ (low), ‘N’ (normal) and
‘E’ (earthquake), placed immediately after the
strength-grade number.
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Brittle failure and ductile failure

Importance of Ductility
 Large displacements before Brittle
collapse (as opposed to a
brittle material, which fails Ductile
suddenly)
 Energy dissipation as the
steel yields (important for
resisting earthquakes and
other overloading)
Stress (F/A), 
Elongation
Al: > 40%
High strength Al alloy: 10-15%
High strength steel: < 10%
Ceramics: ~0
hsc.csu.edu.au
Figure 7.24 Ductility among different materials O ’ Strain (l/l),  ’’

Figure 7.25 Brittle failure vs ductile failure

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Size of reinforcing bars Bond mechanism

Table 7.3 Preferred nominal diameters, cross-sectional areas and  Bonds refer to transfer of stress along the length of
masses for reinforcing steels (AS 4617)
the bar.
Nominal diameter mm Cross-sectional area Mass per metre
mm2 length, kg/m  Deformed bar increase surface area, thus more
12.0 113 0.888 effective bonding with concrete.
16.0 201 1.58
20.0 314 2.47
24.0 452 3.55 Concrete
28.0 616 4.83 Interfacial bonding
Deformed Steel
32.0 804 6.31
36.0 1020 7.99 Figure 7.26 Bond between concrete and reinforcement
NOTE: The values for the mass per unit length given in Table 7.3 have been calculated from
the values for the nominal diameter using a density value of 7850 kg/m3.
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Geometry of ribs and indentations 7.3.5 Examples of Steel Reinforcing Materials

Grade D500N hot-rolled deformed bars
 Manufactured to AS/NZS
4671.
 Straight lengths up to about
12 metres.
Rib flank inclination (α) and rib
height (h)
 Standard diameters 12 mm,
16 mm, 20 mm, 24 mm, 28
acereinforcements.com.au
mm, 32 mm and 36 mm.
Figure 7.27 Example of rib geometry (AS 4671) Figure 7.28 D500N
The rib height (h) shall be 0.05d to 0.10d and the longitudinal spacing (c)  Mainly for moment resistance Deformed bars
of the ribs shall be between 0.5d to 1.0d. The crest width of ribs (wc) shall purpose.
be not greater than 0.3c. For more details, please refer to AS 4671.

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Grade D250N deformed bars Resistance-welded reinforcing mesh

 More-easily bent into  Made from Grade 500L
complex shapes, hence cold-drawn wires
preferred in concrete
swimming pool  Square or rectangular
construction.  Available with reduced
 Not allowed for side laps
foundation purposes.  Standard sheets 6.0 x
gharexpert.com
Figure 7.29 D250N Deformed bars

2.4 m mcmahons.ie
Figure 7.30 Steel mesh

 May be cut and bent
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Reinforcing accessories - Mechanical Splices Reinforcing accessories - Bar Chairs

 Compression and tension splices  Plastic-tip wire chair
 Tapered screw-thread couplers  Metal bases
 Swagged/screwed couplers  Bottom and top reo support
sria.com.au sria.com.au
 Single-part couplers  Clip-fast plastic chairs
 Slab-on-ground plastic chairs
 Plastic fastwheel chairs
photographersdirect.com sria.com.au
Figure 7.32 Bar chairs

hotfrog.in bikudo.com edingaps.com
Figure 7.31 Rebar splicing


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Reinforcing accessories - Bar Safety Guards 7.3.6 Steel Lapping

 Place on starter bars Maintaining steel continuity
in the longitudinal direction
 Site safety and protection
is important in ensuring
 Bright colours good performance of the
long span structural
 Many types and sizes
elements.
The continuity of the
longitudinal steel is
achieved conventionally by onlinemanuals.txdot.gov
sria.com.au
overlapping individual steel Figure 7.34 Example of lapped
Figure 7.33 Safety Guards reinforcing steel
bars.
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49 50
Extensive testing shows that as long as the overlapping is Steel lapping or splicing?
more than 33 times bar diameter, stresses in one steel is Lapping Advantages
effectively transferred to the next steel via surrounding  More flexible
concrete.  Require less prefabrication work
 Cheap
For example, bars of 10 mm diameter would need a 330
 Increase resistance of bending/buckling
mm splice for effective stress transfer.  Traditional method
Steel splicing using couplers becomes more popular. Splicing Advantages
 Reduces rebar congestion
 More no of rebars can be added within same cross-
section
 Direct load path continuity
 Develops rebar splice strength independent of concrete
strength & conditions
 Huge steel saving due to overlap length (50d), nearly barsplicing.tripod.com
30-40% saving compared to lap length


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7.3.7 Sampling and Testing of Reinforcing Steel Tensile properties

The sampling and frequency of testing of the various types  The tensile properties include the
of reinforcing steel shall be in accordance with Appendix B yield strength, maximum tensile
of AS 4671. strength and ductility of a metal
can be characterized by
The following material properties are required to test:
performing the longitudinal
 Chemical composition tension test in accordance with
 Yield stress and tensile strength AS 1163.
 Uniform elongation  For reinforcing bars, one test for
 Mass per unit length each 50 tons of product or part
 Bending and rebending properties thereof, but not less than three
tests per batch shall be performed.
 Geometric properties Figure 7.35 Tensile test
 Bond strength machine
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Tensile stress-strain curve Bond test

 The bond test in Appendix
D
C C of AS 4671 has been
B introduced.
(F/A), 
A Fracture  An alternative means for

demonstrating the ability of
deformed reinforcement to
develop sufficient bond to
Stress
achieve its characteristic

yield strength when
O embedded in concrete.
<1% Strain (l/l),  <30 % Figure 7.37 Schematic arrangement of
bond test equipment and test specimen
(AS 4671)
Figure 7.36 Stress-strain diagram by tensile test
7.4 Structural Steel 7.4 Structural Steel

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7.4.1 Application of Structural Steel

Increased demands for efficient use of
space and cost-effective building
practices have resulted in the adoption
of structural steel frame allows the
maximum provision of usable space steelhomeplans.com.au
Chan, 2012
with the minimum space taken up by
the structures.
Advances in construction technology
have allowed buildings of great height
with great spans to be erected with the
engineering.leeds.ac.uk
adoption of structural frames. Figure 7.38 Steel frame structure
steelandsite.com inter-steel.com
Figure 7.39 A steel frame building

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skyscrapercity.com skyscrapercity.com
Figure 7.40 New York Times Tower Figure 7.41 Shanghai's World Chan, 2012
Financial Center Figure 7.42 Steel roof

59 60
7.4.2 Structural Steel Advantages and Disadvantages

The choice of structural steelwork system as an
alternative to reinforced concrete structures has many
advantages.
Speed of construction
 Building can be occupied sooner.
 Less disruption to public.
Low construction depth

 Reduce overall height of structure.
Long spans
 Few columns.
braemarbuildings.com
 Flexible occupancy. Figure 7.44 Clear-span steel structure
Chan, 2012 Chan, 2012
Figure 7.43 Steel stair  Cheaper foundation.
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Permanent slab formwork There are some drawbacks using structural steel
 Falseworks are eliminated. construction.
Lower weight of structure Fire performance

 Fewer piles and size of foundation.  Weaker in fire resistance for steel
 Typical 50% weight reduction over concrete. will lose strength and deform
serious at higher temperature (at
www.core77.com
600oC or above).
Prefabrication in workshop Figure 7.45 Lightweight steel
 Quality control in good conditions avoiding sites affected by  This can be improved by applying
weather. fire resistant plaster. farm3.static.flickr.com
Figure 7.46 Fire bent steel
High deformability construction
Other benefits
 Adaptability, future extension, predictable maintenance costs,  Produce larger deflection & deformation (Bend) under wind - this
lightweight units for erection, options for site joint locations, will cause discomfort to users of building.
aesthetics, etc.

63 64
Rusting or corrosion problems Hoisting and handling

 Very strict anti-corrosion treatment has to be applied.  Demand greater transportation or
cranage provision.
 Large member delivery to site waiting
to hoisting up for erection.
 Huge amount of structural members
make erection very complicated.
rollanet.org farm4.static.flickr.com superstock.com
Figure 7.48 Crane

Figure 7.47 Serious structural problem due to rusting
hoisting steel beam to top
of building
asc.llnl.gov
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Connections Assurance
 Longer and highly coordinated
planning – require long time to
make structural design, fabrication,
delivery and connection.
 Complicated quality assurance Roof truss and the decking not on
procedures especially in the the same level
control of welding connection. www.tboake.com
Figure 7.49 Complicated connections
 Difficult to make connection with rigid structures – especially in

composite structure in which RC core structure is involved.
 Connecting large and complicate shaped components can be very Concrete has to be trimmed to
difficult. allow steel to pass through
personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bswmwong/
 Unmatched dimension causing problem. Figure 7.50 Examples of location where unmatched dimension
causing problem

67 68
Work at higher altitude

 More complex when building become more gigantic and taller
which may induce more works at higher altitude
appletreeblog.com cache.boston.com
Figure 7.52 Structural steel workers
elegantchic.wordpress.com World’s 10 most dangerous jobs: The risk of falling is high for
Figure 7.51 Workers work at high altitude structural iron and steel workers who work at extreme heights in a
cartoonstock.com
(upper floor of Burj Khalifa) variety of weather conditions.
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7.4.3 Principle Factors Affecting Choice of Structural Frame The functional requirements of a structural frame are:
Structural design considerations  Strength and stability
 Foundation consideration e.g. yield strength of steel and rigidity
of connections and stability against
 Standardization of Framework
various loads
members or design Floor
structure
 Durability and freedom from
 Span and floor loads maintenance
 Fire resistance requirement e.g. corrosion resistance
 Maintenance consideration  Fire safety
Foundation
 Integration of architectural fgg.uni-lj.si
e.g. fire resisting period and strength exponent.com
Figure 7.53 Typical layout of
& structural elements multi-storey steel building
retention Figure 7.54 Collapse of steel
structure

71 72
7.4.4 Standard Forms of Structural Steel

The availability of steel
sections in a variety of
Angles Tee
dimensional ranges provides
the designers with a wide
variety of design options.
These sections are Channel H-section Beam
manufactured in convenient
shapes, sizes and thickness.
They can be readily
fabricated, combined and S.H.S R.H.S C.H.S
connected to form unlimited

corusconstruction.com Figure 7.56 Steel section terminology
Figure 7.55 Common sections used
possibility of designs. for structural steelwork.
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Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high Cellular beam is an advanced development of the
second moments of area, which allow them to be very castellated beam design. Castellation is a technique
stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area. used to expand a standard section steel beam (~1.5
times) without adding any weight or wastage.
neo-techsys.webhop.net
 High fabrication cost
 Less deflection
 Long span
Figure 7.57 Examples of hot-rolled steel sections Chan, 2012  Good for housing electrical
What kind of sections can u see? Figure 7.58 Cellular beam and mechanical services

75 76
Steel strength grades commonly used in structural

applications in Australia are “300PLUS”, conforming to AS
3679.1, AS 3679.2 and mainly hot rolled sections.
Table 2.1 (HB 2.2 page 153) provides yield stresses and
tensile strengths of the above strength grades.
E.g. 300PLUS sections exceeds the min. requirements of
AS/NZS 3679.1:1996 grade 300 (yield strength of 280 -
300MPa depending on thickness, HB 2.2 page 155)
The above steel grades ensure ductility permitting plastic
design criteria.
NB: Steel members are generally slender and susceptible
to buckle in and out of plane. http://www.onesteel.com
Figure 7.59 BHP Catalogue
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7.4.5 Structural Connections Bolting or Welding ?

Design consideration for cost-effective connections Preferred methods of connections
 Carry and distribute the load required Bolting on site
 AS 1252 high strength steel bolts
 Easy fabrication  Fast and economic.
 High Strength Friction Grip bolts (HSFG) imghost.indiamart.com
 Easy transportation
provide extremely efficient connections and Figure 7.61 HSFG bolt
 Easy erection and assembly on site perform well under fatigue load conditions.
 Do not hold water Welding in fabrication shop

 AS 1554 Welds
Connections in structural steelwork are  Difficult and expensive to do site
classified as either shop connection or gdengineers.net
welding at heights.
Figure 7.60 Structural
site connection, and can be made by connections  Easily controlled and hence quality squarehouseinfo3.blogspot.com
Figure 7.62 Beam welding
using bolts, rivets or by welding. assured.
on site

79 80
Common types of structural connections: Beam splices connection

 Beam splices (A) A B  Beam splices either bolted or welded typically resist
large bending moments and shear forces. It is usually
 Simple beam-beam assumed that the flange splice carries all the moment
C
connection (A) and the web splice carries the shear.
 Column splices (B) D
E
 Continuous beam-column
connections (C)
F
 Column base connection (D)

 Bracing connections (E)
 Connection with concrete Chan (2012) csihellas.gr
core (F) http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/

Figure 7.63 Beam bolted splices
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Beam-beam connection Slab-beam connection

 Usually secondary beams are simply  General profile steel floor deck with insitu concrete
supported on main beams and only cast over the deck.
shear force is transmitted.
 Primary and secondary beams in composite steel
 Fastening to the plate bolted to the frames are connected by shear studs.
flanges/webs. bignews.biz
 Floor slab and the beams beneath act compositely.
steelesolutions.com fgg.uni-lj.si img.tfd.com

kurowski.com
Figure 7.64 Beam-beam connection Figure 7.65 Slab-beam connection


83 84
Beam-column connection
 Simple beam, either thin plate and end plate
connection.
 For moment connection, a stud connection can be
Shear Stud
used, column is connected by bolting to the end
plates welded to beams on site.
 Steel beam moment connection bolting the beams on
Chan (2012) Chan (2012)
both flanges and web.
Shear studs are welded onto I-beams Close-up shot of shear studs
Figure 7.66 Slab-beam connection  Common for moment transfer joint.
Details will be covered in Lecture 9 Floor, Ceiling and Floor systems
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85 86
Column splices
 Columns splices are locations where a column
section joins another column section.
Shear connection of using Moment connection using bolts

thin plate connection and welds
Welded Bolted column

column splice splice Chan (2012)
Chan (2012) Figure 7.68 Column-column connection

Beam to CHS column connection Beam to RHS column connection
Figure 7.67 Beam-column connection

87 88
Column-base connection
 Columns connect to base.
microstran.com.au
Chan (2012)
Figure 7.70 Column base (2
channels tied together) at
foundations.
Figure 7.69 Typical column-base connections
ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3 ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3 constructiondetails.us.cype.com
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89 90
Beam and concrete connection Bracing connection
E3
E4
E1
E1
E2
E2 E3 E4
Chan (2012) http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/

Chan (2012)
Figure 7.72 Different types of bracing connection
Figure 7.71 Beam-concrete connection

91 92
Wind braces to the steel frame
Chan (2012)
eco-logic-systems.com
Elevation Plan
Beams are represented by single lines only
Figure 7.74 Multi-storey steel frame
Figure 7.73 Wind braces to the steel structure

23
93 94
7.4.6 Erection of Steel Structures

Aims
 To save time, to achieve rapid
erection.
 Loads can be applied immediately
to the assembled structure.
 Does not delay trades following
erection.
Chan (2012)
 Stability of the partially erected
Beams are represented by single lines only structure.
Figure 7.75 Steel framing plan
 Safety of labour. waltersinc.com
Figure 7.76 Steel erection

95 96
Site planning & organization Erection activities

 Competition of resources, e.g.  Hoisting - lifting of members or
the use of tower crane. components.
 Temporary connections - rapid
 Limited access in town release of crane.
centres.
 Plumbing & levelling - fine
 Obstruction such as adjustment of position.
scaffolding, shoring.
personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bswmwong  Permanent connection - to dubourdieu-inc.com
 Availability of space in site. Figure 7.77 Complicated provided connection as indicated Figure 7.78 Steel connection
Erection process on drawings.
AS 4100 specifies the requirements for the erection of the
steel frame including the delivery, storage and handling,
assembly and alignment, connections and inspection.
24
97 98
7.4.7 Protection Against Corrosion

Corrosion of steel costs around 4% of GDP.
Every 90 seconds, across the world, one ton of steel turns
to rust; of every two tons of steel made, one is to replace
rust (MIT open courseware).
How to avoid corrosion?
 Careful detailing to protect from
water.
 Use stainless steel.
 Protect steel with galvanizing
(zinc coating) or other protective cffstainless.com
Figure 7.79 Stainless I beam

coating. wb8.itrademarket.com
Figure 7.80 Hot dip galvanizing for structural steel

MIT opencourseware, http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/web/home/home/index.htm.

99 100
Additional notes on corrosion protection: 7.4.8 Fire protection for steelwork

 Good design of members and connections in steel If steel is heated beyond 550
framework is the key to corrosion prevention. oC, its strength would be
 The quality of the coatings on fasteners and welds is as reduced to 150 MPa (about
important as that on the main framework. one-third of its original strength).
 The environments both inside and outside of the Structural steel requires
building have to be considered. external insulation (fireproofing)
in order to prevent the steel
 Avoid inaccessible areas in connection. from weakening in the event of www.exponent.com
Figure 7.81 Structure affected by
 Quality of concrete surrounding steel sections is critical a fire. fire
to corrosion. Degree of fire resistance varies according to the function,
 Advice should always be taken from an experienced occupancy, height, capacity, floor area, distance from
practitioner. other buildings
25
101 102
There are four common methods 7.4.9 Testing of Steel Structures or Elements
of fire protecting structural AS 4100 specifies the methods of proof tests and
steelwork. prototype tests of complete structures, sub-structures,
individual members or connections.
 Intumescent coatings
 Proof testing - the application of test loads to a structure, sub-
 Board based systems structure, member or connection to ascertain the structural
 Sprayed fire protection systems dpcltd.co.uk
characteristics of only that one unit under test.
Figure 7.82 Steel coating
 Concrete encasement or filling  Prototype testing - the application of test loads to one or
more structures, sub-structures, members or connections to
ascertain the structural characteristics of that class of structures,
The fire-resistance test specified in AS 1530 applies to all sub-structures, members or connections which are nominally
steel building elements. identical to the units tested.
Details will be covered in Lecture 12 Fire Engineering and Fire Fighting Equipment
Both testing methods are used to check for the strength
or serviceability limit state compliances.
7.4 Structural Steel 7.5 Steel and Environment

103 104
Tensile properties Testing 7.5.1 Is Steel a Green Material?

Similar to steel reinforcement, the tensile properties Steel manufacturing process consumes lots of resources
include the yield strength and ductility of a structural and produces greenhouse gases inevitably.
element can be characterized by performing the Steel
longitudinal tension test in accordance with AS 1163. Brickwork

Reinforced concrete
Wood
Full section test piece

(MIT open courseware).
Portion of test pieces
Figure 7.83 Sections – location of test pieces for tensile testing
(AS1391) Figure 7.84 Ecological profile of materials
26
7.5 Steel and Environment 7.5 Steel and Environment
105 106
However, steel can be recycled and is a good alternative Environmental Impact of Steel
building material that contribute to sustainable
Environmental Advantages of Steel
construction. 90% of structural steel and 30% of light
gauge steel can be recycled.  Lower weight reduces foundation requirements
 Highly recycled and can continue to be recycled indefinitely
Each ton of recycled steel saves 1200 pounds of coal.
 Durable, if protected from corrosion
Environmental Disadvantages of Steel

 Very high energy use, predominantly from burning coal →
produces pollution
 Lightweight, so lower thermal mass compared to concrete →
requires more insulation
themetalmuse.com happyscrappy.co.nz  Is susceptible to corrosion

Figure 7.85 Recycled steel
7.5 Steel and Environment 7.5 Steel and Environment

107 108
7.5.2 Future development of using structural steel or  Apply more to other types of
composite structures in Australia. building structure/construction as
in many developed country like
The following ways may be adopted in order to achieve
Japan, USA, or even Korea and
more cost effective application of technology in future.
Taiwan.
 Use more simple and straight
 Forming hybrid structure with
forward design like regular
other prefabricated elements, i.e.
steel frame structure in grid
with the mixed use of precast
layout.
concrete, cast-in-situ concrete archsd.gov.hk
 Use more standardized and steel composite. Figure 7.87 Hybrid structure
components such as Chan (2012)
Figure 7.86 Regular steel structure
universal sections, lattice
trusses or prefabricated
standard sections.
27
7.6 Recommended Study Texts 7.7 Summary
109 110
Australian Steel Institute, http://www.steel.org.au, accessed on 24 After this lecture, be sure you know the followings
August 2015.
Describe the general properties of steels and their
Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia,
http://www.sria.com.au/main/main.html, accessed on 24 August 2015. production process.
OneSteel, http://www.onesteel.com/, accessed on 24 August 2015. Describe the types of steel reinforcement and their
Chan, W. K. (2012), Structural Steel Introduction, RMIT. properties and application.
Barry, R. (2001) The Construction of Buildings (Vol 4), 5th Edition, Describe the use of structural steel, the connection
Blackwell Scientific Publications. details and structural steel work.
Understand the contribution of steel to sustainable
construction.
7.8 Self-study Question

111
1. In any particular construction project, either reinforced

concrete or structural steel is used as the dominant
construction material.
Discuss the pros and cons of both materials for
construction and determine which is the most appropriate
for Australia's construction sector?
2. Please watch “beam-beam connection” video (can be
found in the multimedia folder) and then discuss which of
the two connections do you prefer?
ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3
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Lecture 7 - Steel Application

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Lecture 7 - Steel Application

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Framework for Lecture 7

Semester 1 2015 ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3

Lecture 7 Steel Application 7.1 Introduction

Intended Learning Outcomes 7.1.1 Structural Systems

ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3 ARBE3100 Construction Technology 3

Figure 7.2 Skyscrapers currently under-construction around

7.1 Introduction 7.1 Introduction

Where is Petronas Twin Towers???

 Inspired by Mount Fuji

www.geekwidget.com mostbeautifulplacesintheworld.org http://kientrucinfo.vn/266-crystal-island.html

7.1 Introduction 7.1 Introduction

7.1 Introduction 7.1 Introduction

7.1.3 Steel Design Standards Steel reinforcement

7.2.1 Global Demand of Steel 7.2.2 Steel Production in Australia

7.2 Steel Production 7.2 Steel Production

continuously cast into long slabs or Figure 7.8 Steel melting

The ingots can be heated in a

Hot rolling of steel at a temperature above re-crystallization

7.2 Steel Production 7.2 Steel Production

elongated. Figure 7.14 Cold rolled steel

An elongated and distorted crystal structure of this kind

7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

7.3.2 Reinforcing Steel Manufacturing Control

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7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

standard in compliance with the http://www.reinforcing.com/ Standard, AS 4671.

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7.3.3 Steel Storage Does rusting affect the performance of reinforcement?

7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

7.3.4 Reinforcing Steel Characteristics Reinforcing steel abbreviation

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Brittle failure and ductile failure

Figure 7.24 Ductility among different materials O ’ Strain (l/l),  ’’

7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

Size of reinforcing bars Bond mechanism

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Geometry of ribs and indentations 7.3.5 Examples of Steel Reinforcing Materials

7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

Grade D250N deformed bars Resistance-welded reinforcing mesh

Figure 7.29 D250N Deformed bars

Figure 7.30 Steel mesh

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Reinforcing accessories - Mechanical Splices Reinforcing accessories - Bar Chairs

Figure 7.32 Bar chairs

Figure 7.31 Rebar splicing

7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

Reinforcing accessories - Bar Safety Guards 7.3.6 Steel Lapping

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30-40% saving compared to lap length

7.3 Steel Reinforcement 7.3 Steel Reinforcement

7.3.7 Sampling and Testing of Reinforcing Steel Tensile properties

Tensile stress-strain curve Bond test

A Fracture  An alternative means for

achieve its characteristic

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7.4 Structural Steel 7.4 Structural Steel

7.4.1 Application of Structural Steel

Figure 7.39 A steel frame building

7.4 Structural Steel 7.4 Structural Steel

7.4.2 Structural Steel Advantages and Disadvantages

Low construction depth

Lower weight of structure Fire performance

7.4 Structural Steel 7.4 Structural Steel

Rusting or corrosion problems Hoisting and handling