energies

Article
Analysis and Experiment of Hot-Spot Temperature
Rise of 110 kV Three-Phase Three-Limb Transformer
Ruohan Gong *, Jiangjun Ruan, Jingzhou Chen, Yu Quan, Jian Wang and Cihan Duan
School of Electrical Engineering, Wuhan University, No. 8, South Road of Eastern Lake, Wuhan 430072, China;
ruan308@126.com (J.R.); chenjingzhou9@163.com (J.C.); quanyu@whu.edu.cn (Y.Q.);
whu2013wj@whu.edu.cn (J.W.); dduancihan@163.com (C.D.)
* Correspondence: rhgong@whu.edu.cn

Received: 28 June 2017; Accepted: 18 July 2017; Published: 25 July 2017

Abstract: This paper presents a fluid-thermal coupled analysis method to compute the temperature
distribution in a 31.5 MVA/110 kV oil natural air natural (ONAN) three-phase three-limb transformer.
The power losses of windings and core are measured by load-loss test and no-load test respectively.
The convective heat transfer process, radiation and oil flow inside the transformer are investigated
by finite volume method (FVM). In order to validate the feasibility and accuracy of the presented
method, the temperature measuring system based on fiber Brag grating (FBG) sensor is constructed
for the temperature rise test of the 31.5 MVA/110 kV ONAN transformer. The simulation results
deduced from the proposed method agree well with experimental data. This model can be applied to
optimizing design and load scheduling.

Keywords: fluid-thermal coupled analysis; finite volume method (FVM); temperature rise; oil natural
air natural (ONAN) transformer; fiber Brag grating (FBG) sensor

1. Introduction
Power transformers are the main and one of the most expensive pieces of equipment in power
networks. The operating reliability of large power transformers has a close influence on the stability
and security of power systems. The end of the life span of transformers is mainly due to the degradation
of internal insulation, which is very much dependent upon the highest temperature occurred inside the
transformer, namely the hot spot temperature (HST). In addition, HST is also the main factor that limits
the load of transformer [1,2]. Therefore, it is significant to obtain the value and location of HST [3,4].
The oil immersed cooling way is mainly adopted by large power transformer, and the oil natural
air natural (ONAN) cooling system is more than 80% in order to prevent oil flow electrification [5].
The main motion of flow for a natural oil circulation transformer is the thermal buoyancy lift compared
with oil-forced circulation power transformer. The heat exchange process inside the transformer is
complicated because the internal oil flow cycle consists of a cooling path of windings and an outside
radiator. The HST of a transformer is mainly determined by the losses and internal oil flow.
Lots of research has been done on the measurement and calculation of temperature distribution
inside an oil-immersed transformer. A calculation formula of hot-spot temperature calculation is
given in the international standards [6]. The finite element method (FEM) is used to calculate the
temperature distribution and HST of a transformer in reference [7–9]. The oil flow process and velocity
distribution inside an oil-immersed transformer are analyzed by finite volume method (FVM) in
reference [10,11]. Diagnostic measurements and fault detection of the power transformer are put
forward in reference [12,13]. Traditional thermocouple sensors cannot be used inside the transformer
because it suffers from electromagnetic noise interference. Compared with thermocouple devices,
the Fiber Brag Grating (FBG) sensor has the advantages of being a small volume, implantable structure,

Energies 2017, 10, 1079; doi:10.3390/en10081079 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1079 2 of 12

anti-interference and so on. For these reasons, FBG has been widely used in temperature measurement
of electrical devices [14–16].
By taking a 31.5 MVA/110 kV three-phase three-limb ONAN transformer as an example, this paper
presents a fluid-thermal coupled analysis model to calculate the temperature and velocity distribution
inside a transformer. The rated load losses of windings and core are measured by load loss test and
no-load test respectively. For boundary conditions, the surface convective heat transfer coefficients of
different parts of the transformer are calculated according to Newton’s law of cooling. Meanwhile,
heat radiation phenomena, which is often overlooked, is considered according to Stefan-Boltzmann’s
law. The heat transfer process and oil flow inside a transformer are investigated by FVM.
To validate the feasibility and accuracy of the presented method, a rated-power temperature
rise test is performed. During the test, the FBG sensing system was placed inside the transformer to
monitor the temperature rise of the windings and iron core. It shows that the simulation results are in
good agreement with experimental data. This fluid-thermal coupled model offers help to transformer
designers and related workers.

2. Theory and Equations

2.1. Solid Model

In solid, heat is transferred through conduction, which is described by equation of heat conduction:

DT
∇ · k∇ T + q = ρc (1)
Dt
where ρ is the density, T is temperature; c stands for the heat capacity; q represents the heat productivity
of unit volume.

2.2. Fluid Model

For an oil-immersed transformer, the oil motion inside the transformer plays an important role in
the process of heat convection, since the thermal conductivity of the transformer oil is relatively low.
For the sake of simplification, transformer oil is considered to be an ideally incompressible Newtonian
fluid and the oil flow inside transformer is assumed as laminar flow.
The heat exchange process inside a transformer can be described by the mass conservation
equation, momentum conservation equation and energy conservation equation, which are presented
as below [10,11]:
∇ · (ρV) = 0 (2)
DV
ρ = F − ∇ p + µ ∇2 V (3)
Dt
ρcV · ∆T = ∇ · k ∇ T + q (4)

where ρ is the density, V is fluid velocity; F stands for the body force vector; p represents the pressure,
µ denotes the dynamic viscosity; k is thermal conductivity, c is the specific heat capacity; T represents
the temperature; q indicates heat source per volume inside the transformer.

2.3. Boundary Conditions

The external heat dissipation depends on the heat convection and radiation along the surfaces of
transformer. The convective and radiant heat transfer process is governed by the following equations:

qconv = hS( Ts − T f ) (5)

qrad = σεTs4 − αG (6)

Energies 2017, 10, 1079 3 of 12

where qconv and qrad are the heat transfer rates per unit area at the surface by convection and radiation;
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient; S stands for the heat dissipating area of the transformer
tank and radiator; Ts represents the temperature of the transformer tank and radiator; Tf stands for
ambient temperature; σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant; ε is the emissivity of the surface, α is the
absorptivity; G is the irradiation.
Convective heat transfer coefficient is different across all the surfaces of the oil tank and radiator.
It is significant to obtain heat transfer coefficients across all the surfaces. According to heat transfer
theory [17], h can be calculated by the following:

gβ( Ts − T f ) L3
Gr = (7)
v2
µc
Pr = (8)
k
Ra = Gr · Pr (9)
hL
Nu = aRab = (10)
k
where Gr is the Grashof number; g is the gravitational acceleration; β is the expansion coefficient; L is
the feature size; v is the kinematic viscosity; Pr is the Prandtl number; µ is the viscosity coefficient; c is
the specific heat capacity; k is the thermal conductivity; Ra is the Rayleigh number; Nu is the Nusselt
number; k is the thermal conductivity; a and b are constants dependent on the system.

2.4. Corrections of Model

The heat dissipation process and load loss of the transformer is closely related to temperature.
The thermal and physical parameters of oil, such as viscosity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity
change with temperature. The physical parameters of the transformer oil used in this model are
presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Physical parameters of transformer oil.

Parameters of Oil Function Fitting

Density 1098.72 − 0.712T
Specific heat capacity 807.163 + 3.58T
Heat conductivity 0.1509 − 7.101 × 10 − 5T
Viscosity 0.08467 − 4 × 10 − 4T + 5 × 10 − 7T2

On the other hand, as we can see from Equations (5) and (6), the process of convection and
radiation are affected by temperature as well. Last but not least, the load loss of windings will fluctuate
with temperature because the resistivity of copper changes with temperature. The following equation
is used to describe the relationship between windings loss and temperature.

P( T ) = P0 [1 + α( T − T0 )] (11)

where P0 is the windings losses at temperature T0 ; T is the windings temperature; α represents

temperature coefficient of copper, set to be 0.00393 in this paper.
To sum up, it is necessary to take the temperature corrections into consideration in order to make
sure the accuracy of calculation.
In this model, winding losses, parameters of oil and boundary conditions will be corrected on the
basis of the thermal field calculation result till the maximum difference of temperature between two
adjacent steps is less than 0.1 K. The flowchart of 3D coupled fluid-thermal coupled analysis is shown
in Figure 1.
 To sum up, it is necessary to take the temperature corrections into consideration in order to make
sure the accuracy of calculation.
In this model, winding losses, parameters of oil and boundary conditions will be corrected on
the basis of the thermal field calculation result till the maximum difference of temperature between
two adjacent steps is less than 0.1 K. The flowchart of 3D coupled fluid-thermal coupled analysis is
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 4 of 12
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The
The flowchart
flowchart of coupled Fluid-Thermal field analysis.

3.
3. Loss
Loss Measurement
Measurement of
of Three-Phase
Three-Phase Three-Limb
Three-Limb Transformer
Transformer

3.1. 110
110 kV
kV Three-Phase
Three-Phase Three-Limb
Three-Limb Transformer
An oil-immersed
oil-immersed 110 kV three-phase three-limb ONAN transformer
transformer is selected to validate
proposed model. The characteristics of the transformer model are shown in Table
Table 2.
2.

Table
Table 2.
2. Characteristics
Characteristics of
of 110
110 kV
kV Oil-immersed
Oil-immersed three-phase
three-phase three-limb Transformer.
Transformer.

Classification Value
Classification Value
Rated Power/MVA 31.5
Rated Power/MVA
Rated Voltage/kV 31.5
110/38.5/10.5
Rated Voltage/kV
Rated Current/A 110/38.5/10.5
165.3/472.4/1732.1
Rated Current/A 165.3/472.4/1732.1
Frequency/Hz 50
Frequency/Hz 50
Connection Group YNyn0d11
Connection Group YNyn0d11
Core
Core Type
Type Planar laminated
Planar core core
laminated
Cooling Type
Cooling Type ONAN ONAN

The picture of the 110 kV transformer is shown in Figure 2.

The picture of the 110 kV transformer is shown in Figure 2.
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 5 of 12
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 5 of 12
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 5 of 12

Figure
Figure 2. 110
2. 110 kVkVkV three-phase
three-phase three-limbtransformer.
three-limb transformer.
Figure 2. 110 three-phase three-limb transformer.
As we can see from Figure 2, there are 7 radiators, which consist of 2 pipes and 28 cooling fins
As we can see from Figure 2, there are 7 radiators, which consist of 2 pipes and 28 cooling fins
As we can
on both sidesee from Figuretank.
of transformer 2, there
Theseare 7 radiators,
radiators which
play an consist
important roleofin2 the
pipes and of
process 28the
cooling
heat fins
on both side of transformer tank. These radiators play an important role in the process of the heat
on both side ofprocess:
dissipation transformer tank.
the heat These from
is removed radiators play anand
the windings important
core, thenrole in the process
transported of the heat
to the radiators
dissipation
by theprocess:
oil whichtheflows
heatthrough
is removed from
oil duct nearthe windings and core, then transported to the radiators
dissipation process: the heat is removed from the windings
windingsandandcore,
core,then
then viatransported
the pipes located
to theatradiators
the
by the oil
topwhich flows through intooil duct near fin,the windings andatcore, then via the pipes located at the
by the oilofwhich
the radiators
flows and
through the
oilcooling
duct near then
the to the pipes
windings andthe bottom
core, then of via
the radiators
the pipesand finally
located at the
top of the radiators
back to the and
windings into the
and cooling
core. fin, then to the pipes at the bottom of the radiators and finally
top of the radiators and into the cooling fin, then to the pipes at the bottom of the radiators and finally
back to the windings and core.
back to the windings and core.
3.2. Measurement of Losses
3.2. Measurement
3.2. of of
Measurement
The load Losses
Losses
loss and no-load loss experiment according to standard IEC 60076-7 were performed
to obtain the copper loss and iron loss under rated condition. A schematic diagram of load loss test
The
Theload
loadloss
lossand
and no-load loss experiment according to standard IEC 60076-7 were performed
performed to
and no-load test areno-load
presentedloss
inexperiment
Figure 3. Theaccording toare
losses tests standard IECon
performed 60076-7 were
the principal tapping
toobtain
obtainthe
thecopper
copperloss
lossand
andiron
ironloss
lossunder
underrated
ratedcondition.
condition.AA schematic diagram of load
schematic diagram of load loss loss
testtest
and
and at rated frequency (50 Hz).
and no-load test are presented in Figure 3. The losses tests are performed on the principal
no-load test are presented in Figure 3. The losses tests are performed on the principal tapping and at tapping
and at rated
rated frequency
frequency (50 Hz).
(50 Hz).

(a)

(a)

Figure 3. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 6 of 12
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 6 of 12

(b)
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of load test and (b) Schematic diagram of no-load test.
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram of load test and (b) Schematic diagram of no-load test.
The load loss of HV-MV short circuit is measured with voltage applied to the HV windings, with
The load loss of
the terminals ofMV
HV-MV shortshort-circuited,
windings circuit is measuredand withwith
LVvoltage
windings applied to the HV
open-circuited. windings,
The supplied with
current ofof
the terminals HVMV windings is equal
windings to the rated current.
short-circuited, and withThe LV
ironwindings
loss is veryopen-circuited.
low because the voltage of
The supplied
HV windings is very low and the magnetic motive force in the iron core is basically balanced,
current of HV windings is equal to the rated current. The iron loss is very low because the voltage of so the
measuredisloss
HV windings canlow
very be identified as winding
and the magnetic loss. The
motive windings
force in the losses at different
iron core temperatures
is basically balanced, can
so the
be corrected by Equation (11). The result of load test is illustrated in Table 3.
measured loss can be identified as winding loss. The windings losses at different temperatures can be
corrected by Equation (11). Theresults
Table 3. Experiment resultofofload
load
testtest
(HVissupplied,
illustrated in Table 3. LV open-circuit).
MV short-circuit,

Measured Current
Table 3. Experiment results(A) Measured
of load Voltage
test (HV (kV) MV
supplied, Measured Load Loss
short-circuit, (kW)
LV open-circuit).
122.73 6.686 148.719

Measured Current (A) Measured Voltage (kV) Measured Load Loss (kW)
The no-load loss of transformer is measured with LV windings load rated voltage, with the
122.73
terminals of MV 6.686The supplied voltage of LV 148.719
and HV windings open-circuited. windings is equal to
the rated voltage. The loss of windings is very low because of the very low value of current in LV
current. Hence, the measured loss can be considered as loss of iron core.
The no-load loss of transformer is measured with LV windings load rated voltage, with the
The result of no-load test is demonstrated in Table 4 and Figure 4.
terminals of MV and HV windings open-circuited. The supplied voltage of LV windings is equal to the
rated voltage. The loss4.of
Table windings
Experiment is very
results low because
of no-load test (HV of
andthe
MVvery low value
open-circuit, of current in LV current.
LV supplied).
Hence, the measured loss can be considered as loss of iron core.
Exciting Voltage of LV Windings No-Load Current No-Load Loss
The result of no-load testUisr (%)
demonstrated inIaTable (A)
4Iband
(A)
Figure
Ic (A)
4. P0 (kW)
10% 0.160 0.142 0.222 0.25
Table 4. Experiment20%
results of no-load test (HV and
0.276 0.237MV open-circuit,
0.375 LV supplied).
0.90
30% 0.385 0.319 0.512 1.92
40%
Exciting Voltage of LV Windings 0.489 0.402
No-Load 0.645
Current 3.34 No-Load Loss
50% 0.593 0.499 0.790 5.14
Ur (%) Ia (A) Ib (A) Ic (A) P0 (kW)
60% 0.705 0.621 0.959 7.37
10% 0.160 0.142 0.222 0.25
70% 0.850 0.789 1.184 10.03
20% 0.276 0.237 0.375 0.90
80% 1.071 1.040 1.509 13.13
30% 0.385 0.319 0.512 1.92
90% 1.526 1.519 2.120 17.00
40% 0.489 0.402 0.645 3.34
95% 2.019 2.032 2.760 19.47
50% 0.593 0.499 0.790 5.14
100% 2.922 2.948 3.903 22.54
60% 105%
0.705 5.084
0.621
5.123 6.570
0.959 27.02 7.37
70% 110%
0.850 0.789
14.270 14.372 16.998
1.184 34.84 10.03
80% 115%
1.071 1.040
97.660 97.610 100.590
1.509 54.37 13.13
90% 1.526 1.519 2.120 17.00
95% 2.019 2.032 2.760 19.47
100% 2.922 2.948 3.903 22.54
105% 5.084 5.123 6.570 27.02
110% 14.270 14.372 16.998 34.84
115% 97.660 97.610 100.590 54.37
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 7 of 12
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 7 of 12

60

100
I0
50
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 P0 7 of 12
80
40

No-load current(A)

No-load loss (kW)

60

60 100
I0 30
50
P0
40 80
4020

No-load current(A)

No-load loss (kW)

60
20 3010

40
20
0 0
20% 40% 60% 80% 95% 105% 115%
20 Exciting Voltage
10

Figure
0 4. No-load characteristic curve of core.
core.
0
20% 40% 60% 80% 95% 105% 115%
Exciting Voltage
The total
The total losses
losses of
of running
running transformer
transformer can
can be
be described
described by:
by:
Figure 4. No-load characteristic curve of core.

total = P iron · Ur (%)2 + P copper · k2 P =P ⋅U (%) 2 + P ⋅k2 (12)

The total losses of runningPtotal iron canr be described
transformer copper
by: (12)
where Ptotal are the total losses of transformer; Ur(%) is the 2 voltage2percentage; Piron stands for no-load
P = PironU⋅rU
where Ptotal are the total losses of transformer; (%)(%) + Pvoltage
is the copper ⋅ k percentage; Piron stands for(12)
no-load
losses; Pcopper represents the load losses;total
and k is ther load factor which is set to be 1.0 in this experiment.
losses; Pcopper represents the load losses; and k is the load factor which is set to be 1.0 in this experiment.
where Ptotal are the total losses of transformer; Ur(%) is the voltage percentage; Piron stands for no-load
4. Fluid-Thermal Analysisthe
losses; Pcopper represents of load
Three-Phase
losses; andThree-Limb Transformer
k is the load factor which is set to be 1.0 in this experiment.
4. Fluid-Thermal Analysis of Three-Phase Three-Limb Transformer
4. Fluid-Thermal
4.1. Fluid-Thermal
Fluid-Thermal Analysis
Analysis of Three-Phase Three-Limb Transformer
Model
4.1. Analysis Model
The 3D
4.1. 3D
The model of
Fluid-Thermal
model of aaAnalysis
110 kV
110 kVModel
ONAN transformer is
ONAN transformer is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5. 5. In
In order
order to to save
save computation
computation
time, some
time, someThe simplifications
simplifications were adopted. Since the goal of this study is the temperature distribution
3D model of a were110 kVadopted. Since the goal
ONAN transformer of this
is shown study5.isInthe
in Figure temperature
order distribution
to save computation
and HST
and HSTtime, inside the
some the
inside windings
simplifications
windings and and iron
wereiron core,
adopted. some
core,Since
somethe components that
goal of this study
components have little
is thelittle
that have influence
temperature
influence on the result
distribution
on the result
were suppressed.
were suppressed.
and HST inside These
These components
the windings
components are core
and iron
are core clamp,
core,clamp, compacted
some components
compacted wood
that
wood such
havesuch as
littleas strip, spacer
influence
strip, spacer and
on theand angle
result
angle
ring, leads,
were bushing
suppressed. and
ring, leads, bushing and so on. so
These on.
components are core clamp, compacted wood such as strip, spacer and angle
The
ring,convective
The heatand
leads, bushing
convective heat transfer
so on.coefficients of different surfaces are calculated by Equations (5)–(10).
transfer coefficients of different surfaces are calculated by Equations (5)–(10).
The simulationThe
simulation of convective
of the heat
the radiator
radiatortransfer coefficients
is aa huge
huge of different
calculation andsurfaces
requiresaremass
calculated
mass memory by Equations
due to (5)–(10).
to the
the complex
The is calculation and requires memory due complex
The
structure simulation
of radiator. of the
For radiator
the sake is a
of huge
saving calculation
computing and requires
time, the mass memory
radiator is due to
simplified,the complex
as shown in
structure of radiator.
structure of
For For
radiator.
the the
sake of of
sake
saving
saving
computing
computing
time,
time,
theradiator
the
radiatoris issimplified,
simplified,as
as shown
shown in
in
Figure 5a.
Figure 5a. The
The convective
convective heatheat transfer
transfer coefficient
coefficient isis corrected
corrected according
according the the superficial
superficial area
area ofof radiator.
radiator.
Figure 5a. The convective heat transfer coefficient is corrected according the superficial area of radiator.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Three-phase three-limb transformer model (external) and (b) Three-phase three-limb
Figure 5. (a) Three-phase three-limb transformer model (external) and (b) Three-phase three-limb
Figuretransformer
5. (a) Three-phase three-limb transformer model (external) and (b) Three-phase three-limb
model (internal).
transformer model (internal).
transformer model (internal).
As illustrated in Figure 5b, the 110 kV three-phase three-limb transformer analyzed in this paper
consists of a 19-layer
As illustrated
illustrated planar
in Figure laminated
5b, the 110 kVcore and 9 winding;
three-phase each transformer
three-limb phase is madeanalyzed
transformer up of 3 concentric
analyzed in this paper
windings: LV
consists of a 19-layer winding
19-layer planar in the inner part, HV winding
planar laminated core and 9 winding; in the outer part and
winding; each phase is made madewinding
MV up ofof 33 located
concentric
concentric
between the two former ones. Windings are radially separated by vertical oil channels and spacers
windings: LV winding in the inner part, HV winding in the outer part and MV winding located
between the two former ones. Windings are radially separated by vertical oil channels and spacers
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 8 of 12

windings: LV winding in the inner part, HV winding in the outer part and MV winding located
between the two former ones. Windings are radially separated by vertical oil channels and spacers
that are reduced in this model. In order to investigate the oil flow and convective heat transfer process
Energies
inside the 2017, 10, 1079 vertical oil ducts between windings are considered and no-slip condition
transformer, 8 of 12 is
taken into account in the surfaces of the vertical oil ducts. The horizontal oil-ducts that separate the
that are reduced in this model. In order to investigate the oil flow and convective heat transfer process
copper coils
insidearethe ignored for vertical
transformer, the sake oilof saving
ducts computational
between windings arecost.
considered and no-slip condition is
Thetaken
simulation
into account in the surfaces of the vertical oil5 ducts.
of this model shown in Figure was performed using
The horizontal a commercial
oil-ducts tool
that separate the(ANSYS
copper coils are ignored
v15.0, ANSYS, Pittsburgh, PA, USA). for the sake of saving computational cost.
The simulation of this model shown in Figure 5 was performed using a commercial tool (ANSYS
v15.0,
4.2. Results ANSYS,
with Pittsburgh, Analysis
Fluid-Thermal PA, USA).

The4.2.
results
Resultsofwith
fluid-thermal
Fluid-Thermalcoupled
Analysis analysis are shown here. The heat power sources of windings
and core areThe obtained
results of from a formercoupled
fluid-thermal load test and no-load
analysis are shown test. The
here. Thewinding
heat power losses are corrected
sources of
according to Equation (11). To simulate the short-circuit method temperature
windings and core are obtained from a former load test and no-load test. The winding losses are rise test situation,
the totalcorrected
losses obtained
accordingfrom Equation
to Equation (11).(12)
To when
simulatevoltage percentage
the short-circuit is 100%
method and loadrise
temperature factor
test is 1 are
situation, the total losses obtained from Equation (12) when voltage percentage
loaded on the windings according to the resistances because the iron loss is very low in the short-circuit is 100% and load
factor rise
temperature is 1 are
test.loaded on the windings according to the resistances because the iron loss is very low
in the short-circuit temperature rise test.
The heat dissipation process inside the transformer can be investigated by FVM in fluid-thermal
The heat dissipation process inside the transformer can be investigated by FVM in fluid-thermal
9 ) of oil flow, laminar
field. Because of theofhigh
field. Because viscosity
the high and
viscosity andrelatively
relativelylow Rayleighnumber
low Rayleigh number ≤ 10≤
(Ra(Ra 10oil
9) of flow, laminar
flow will be will
flow the bemain formform
the main of convection
of convection ofoftransformer oil.
transformer oil.
The ambient temperature
The ambient was set
temperature wastosetbeto30be◦ C.
30Take the oil
°C. Take thechanges, heatheat
oil changes, transfer
transfer coefficient
coefficientchanges,
changes, radiance changes and loss changes with temperature into consideration,
radiance changes and loss changes with temperature into consideration, the temperature distribution the temperature
distribution inside transformer is investigated by fluid-thermal analysis. By iterative calculations, the
inside transformer is investigated by fluid-thermal analysis. By iterative calculations, the model is updated
model is updated according to the temperature distribution till the maximum difference of hot spot
according to the temperature distribution till the maximum difference of hot spot temperature between
temperature between two adjacent steps is less than 0.01 °C. The results of fluid-thermal analysis are
two adjacent ◦
shownsteps is less
in Figure 6. than 0.01 C. The results of fluid-thermal analysis are shown in Figure 6.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 6. (a) Temperature distribution inside transformer (total model); (b) Temperature distribution
Figure 6. (a) Temperature distribution inside transformer (total model); (b) Temperature distribution of
of core; (c) Temperature distribution of HV windings; (d) Temperature distribution of inner MV
core; (c)windings;
Temperature distribution
(e) Temperature of HV windings;
distribution of outer LV(d) Temperature
windings distributiondistribution
and (f) Temperature of inner MV windings;
inside
(e) Temperature
of radiatordistribution
(section view).of outer LV windings and (f) Temperature distribution inside of radiator
(section view).
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 9 of 12
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 9 of 12

The temperature
The temperature distribution
distribution inside
inside the
the transformer
transformer is is presented
presented in Figure 6. The transformer
transformer
hot-spot temperature
temperature is is 101.379
101.379 °C, ◦ C, located at the upper part of HV windings as shown in Figure 6c.
hot-spot located at the upper part of HV windings as shown in Figure 6c.
temperature is 75.836 °C, ◦ C, located at the middle part of upper
As for transformer core, the maximum temperature located at the middle part of upper
yoke, as shown in Figure 6b. Maximum
yoke, Maximum temperature
temperature of MV windings is 91.370 °C. ◦ C. The
The temperature
temperature
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 9 of 12
rise of LV
rise of LV windings is relatively small because LV windings are open-circuited.
LV windings are open-circuited.
The oil
The flow
oilThe flow velocity distributions
velocity
temperature insidethe
distributions
distribution inside the three-phase
inside three-limb
the isthree-phase
transformer presented transformer
three-limb
in Figure are demonstrated
transformer
6. The transformer are
in Figure
demonstrated 7. Asin
hot-spot we can see
Figure
temperature from
7. is
As weFigure
101.379 can 7a, from
see theatmaximum
°C, located Figure
the upper7a, velocity
partthe inside the
maximum
of HV windings as tank
velocity
shown isin
0.071
inside
Figurem/s,
the which
6c. tank is
appears
0.071 As
m/s, for
inside
whichtransformer
the core,
verticalinside
appears the maximum
oil channel temperature
between
the vertical is 75.836
the HV windings
oil channel °C, located
between the andHV at the middle
MVwindings
windings. part
The
and of
MV upper
oilwindings.
inside the
yoke, as shown in Figure 6b. Maximum temperature of MV windings is 91.370 °C. The temperature
radiator
The flowsthe
oil inside down fromflows
radiator the top
downandfrom
the maximum
the top and velocity in the radiator
the maximum velocityisin0.039 m/s, located
the radiator at
is 0.039
rise of LV windings is relatively small because LV windings are open-circuited.
the import
m/s, locatedand at export
the import of oil
and pipe.
export of oil pipe.
The oil flow velocity distributions inside the three-phase three-limb transformer are
demonstrated in Figure 7. As we can see from Figure 7a, the maximum velocity inside the tank is
0.071 m/s, which appears inside the vertical oil channel between the HV windings and MV windings.
The oil inside the radiator flows down from the top and the maximum velocity in the radiator is 0.039
m/s, located at the import and export of oil pipe.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 7.
7. (a)
(a) Oil
Oil flow
flow velocity
velocity distribution
distribution inside
inside transformer
transformer (section
(section view);
view); (b)
(b) Oil
Oil flow
flow velocity
velocity
(a) (b)
distribution
distribution inside
inside radiator
radiator (section
(section view).
view).
Figure 7. (a) Oil flow velocity distribution inside transformer (section view); (b) Oil flow velocity
5.
5. Temperature
Temperature Rise
distribution Test
inside radiator (section view).
Rise Test
To
To 5.validate the
Temperature
validate feasibility
the Rise Test
feasibility and
andaccuracy
accuracyofofthe theproposed
proposedfluid-thermal
fluid-thermalcoupled coupled analysis, a
analysis,
temperature
a temperature rise test of the transformer
rise testtheoffeasibility
To validate the transformer is performed
and accuracy is performedand the FBG sensor
and fluid-thermal
of the proposed the FBG sensor is used to
is used
coupled measure the
to measure
analysis, a
temperature distribution
temperature rise testof
of windings
the and
transformer core.
is The temperature
performed and the FBGmeasurement
sensor
the temperature distribution of windings and core. The temperature measurement system based is used system
to measurebased
the on the
on
FBG sensor is shown
temperature in Figure
distribution of 8. The
windingstemperature
and core. Themeasurement probe
temperature measurement is fixed in
system
the FBG sensor is shown in Figure 8. The temperature measurement probe is fixed in a protective case, a protective
based on the case,
as FBG sensor is8a.
shown in Figure 8. The temperature measurement probe is temperature
fixed in a protective case,
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 8a. Twelve
Twelve FBGFBG sensors
sensors are
are applied
applied toto measure
measure the
the temperature of
as shown in Figure 8a. Twelve FBG sensors are applied to measure the temperature of windings and
of windings
windings and
and
core respectively.
core respectively.
core respectively.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure
Figure 8. 8. (a)sensor;
(a) FBG FBG sensor; (b) Sensors
(b) Sensors onon thewindings;
the windings; (c)
(c)Sensors
Sensorsonon
thethe
corecore
and (d)
andArrangement of
(d) Arrangement of
temperature rise(c)
test. (d)
temperature rise test.
Figure 8. (a) FBG sensor; (b) Sensors on the windings; (c) Sensors on the core and (d) Arrangement of
temperature rise test.
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 10 of 12

Energies 2017, 10, 1079 10 of 12

The temperature rise test is conducted according to the JBT 501-2006 and IEC 60076-7. The short
circuit method
The is usedrise
temperature to perform the temperature
test is conducted according rise
to test. The501-2006
the JBT schematic anddiagram of short
IEC 60076-7. Thecircuit
short
method is the same
circuit method is usedwith the load
to perform thetest as shown rise
temperature in Figure 3a:schematic
test. The supplieddiagram
to the HV windings,
of short circuitwith the
method
terminals of MV windings short-circuited, and LV windings open-circuited,
is the same with the load test as shown in Figure 3a: supplied to the HV windings, with the terminals ofthe test is performed
considering
MV windings theshort-circuited,
transformer total andlosses obtainedopen-circuited,
LV windings from no-load test the and load
test is test. Maintain
performed the input
considering the
power unchanged
transformer till the
total losses temperature
obtained of transformer
from no-load test andisload
stable.
test.The wholethe
Maintain temperature
input power testunchanged
last about
12
till h.
the temperature of transformer is stable. The whole temperature test last about 12 h.
The data of FBG sensor sensor measurements
measurements are presentedpresented in Figure
Figure 9.
9. The hot spot result in the
windings ◦ C and is located at the upper of B phase HV winding, as shown in Figure 9a–c.
windings is is about
about 96.5
96.5 °C and is located at the upper of B phase HV winding, as shown in Figure 9a–
The hothot
spotspotresult in iron ◦ and is found at the upper yoke. It is worth mentioning
c. The result in core
ironiscore
aboutis 79.8
aboutC79.8 °C and is found at the upper yoke. It is worth
that since there
mentioning that are
sincenothere
current in current
are no LV windings, the temperature
in LV windings, of LV windings
the temperature is affected
of LV windings by the
is affected
ambient temperature fluctuation and heat from HV and
by the ambient temperature fluctuation and heat from HV and MV windings. MV windings.

100 100

90 90

80 80
Temperature(℃)

70 Temperature(℃) 70

60 60

50 50

LV winding LV winding
40 MV winding 40 MV winding
HV winding HV winding
30 30
0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12
Time(h) Time(h)
(a) (b)
100 90

90
80

80
70
Temperature(℃)

Temperature(℃)

70
60
60

50
50

LV winding 40
lower yoke
40 MV winding core limb
HV winding upper yoke
30 30
0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12
Time(h) Time(h)
(c) (d)

Figure 9.9.(a)(a)Temperature
Figure Temperatureof Aofphase
A phase windings;
windings; (b) Temperature
(b) Temperature of B phaseofwindings;
B phase(c)windings; (c)
Temperature
Temperature
of of C phase
C phase windings andwindings and (d) of
(d) Temperature Temperature
iron core. of iron core.

Table 5 describes the comparison between the experimental data and simulation results of the
Table 5 describes the comparison between the experimental data and simulation results of
windings and iron core temperature. It is shown that the fluid-thermal coupled analysis can
the windings and iron core temperature. It is shown that the fluid-thermal coupled analysis can
approximately come near the real model. The simulation results agree well with experimental data,
approximately come near the real model. The simulation results agree well with experimental data,
the maximum error of temperatures between simulation results and experiment data is about 7.4 °C,
the maximum error of temperatures between simulation results and experiment data is about 7.4 ◦ C,
which is mainly due to the neglect of horizontal oil channel which separate the disc of coils. Because
which is mainly due to the neglect of horizontal oil channel which separate the disc of coils. Because
part of the heat can be transferred from coils to oil through the horizontal channel, this leads to the
part of the heat can be transferred from coils to oil through the horizontal channel, this leads to the
difference between experimental data and calculation results: the simplification of the horizontal
difference between experimental data and calculation results: the simplification of the horizontal
channel decreases the heat transfer between the windings and oil so that the simulated temperature
channel decreases the heat transfer between the windings and oil so that the simulated temperature of
of the windings is higher than measured; as for the core, it is heated by the windings because the iron
the windings is higher than measured; as for the core, it is heated by the windings because the iron
loss is very low; the decrease of the heat transfer leads to a lower simulation temperature.
loss is very low; the decrease of the heat transfer leads to a lower simulation temperature.
Energies 2017, 10, 1079 11 of 12

Table 5. Comparison between experimental data and simulation results.

Temperature Experimental Data (◦ C) Simulation Results (◦ C) Relative Error (%)

A phase LV winding 64.4 68.225 5.6
A phase MV winding 86.4 91.370 5.4
A phase HV winding 94.0 101.368 7.3
B phase LV winding 65.6 68.178 3.8
B phase MV winding 87.6 91.342 4.1
B phase HV winding 96.5 101.346 4.7
C phase LV winding 65.9 68.199 3.4
C phase MV winding 88.5 91.367 3.1
C phase HV winding 95.6 101.379 5.7
Core 79.8 75.836 4.9

6. Conclusions
This paper focuses on the hot spot temperature rise of 31.5 MVA/110 kV ONAN three-phase
three-limb transformer. A fluid-thermal coupled FVM model is proposed and a relative test is
conducted. A FBG sensor system is constructed for the temperature measurement. The presented
model has proven effective by a temperature rise test: the maximum relative error between
experimental data and simulation results is 7.3%. This model can approximately simulate the heat
dissipation process of a transformer, which involved heat conduction, convection and radiation. The
design of the oil channel between the windings, coils and radiator is significant to the heat dissipation
effect of cooling system. The neglect of horizontal oil channel, which separates the disc of coils, is the
main factor that affects the accuracy of this model. In a future improved model, the influence of the
horizontal oil channel should be taken into account.
Even so, this model still leads to a better understanding of the thermal performance of an ONAN
transformer. The hot spot inside the transformer under rated power is 101.379 ◦ C, located at the
upper part of the HV windings; as for core, the hot spot is located at the middle part of upper
yoke. This fluid-thermal coupled model offers help to transformer designers and related workers: for
ONAN transformers, the heat dissipation capability is mainly determined by oil flow cycle inside the
transformer, which consists of oil ducts between windings and oil ducts in the outside cooling fin. For
transformer designers, it is necessary to make sure the structure of the oil duct meets the requirements
for heat dissipation. On the other hand, this model can be applied to calculate the HST inside the
transformer under different loads and evaluate the overload capacity of the transformer. Reasonable
load scheduling advice can be put forward according to this model.

Acknowledgments: This article is supported by the National Engineering Laboratory for Ultra High Voltage
Engineering Technology (Kunming, Guangzhou, China) (CSGTRC [2015] Q1543B14).
Author Contributions: Ruohan Gong and Jiangjun Ruan conceived and designed the models; Jingzhou Chen and
Jian Wang performed the calculations; Ruohan Gong, Jingzhou Chen and Cihan Duan carried out the experiment;
Yu Quan analyzed the data; Ruohan Gong wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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