GREY (FLAKE) IRON

CHEMISTRY

BACK

GREY (FLAKE) IRON

CHEMISTRY

Ir G HENDERIECKX
GIETECH BV

CONTENT

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 1

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

1. INTRODUCTION
2. IRON
3. CARBON
4. SILICON
5. MANGANESE / SULFUR
6. PHOSPHORUS
7. NITROGEN
8. LEAD
9. ALLOYING

1. INTRODUCTION

Grey iron is produced already over several thousand years. And yet there is a
continuous improvement and understanding of the material.

The material is used to have expected mechanical and sometimes physical

properties and to be able to produce (complex) shaped castings.

The foundry has control over the chemistry and temperatures, but everything
else is up to Mother Nature and sometimes she makes it very difficult because
the foundrymen do not always understand her.

Grey iron does exist, besides of the iron atom, thanks to 5 basic elements:

* carbon C
* silicon Si
* manganese Mn
* sulfur S
* phosphorus P.

It is not true that P and S are undesired elements and they only have a harming
effect to the iron.

At the end, the alloying elements, especially the ones to get higher strength will be
discussed.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 2

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

2. IRON

Iron does consist of “cubic” crystals with a different lattice depending on the
temperature:

 from the solidification temperature (T S, about 1394 °C) to the structure

changing temperature (Ac3, about 910 °C):
face centered cubic lattice (see figure)
with lattice constant of 3,57 Angstroms
 below structure changing temperature (Ac3):
body centered cubic lattice (see figure)
with lattice constant of 2,87 Angstroms.

The simple cubic lattice is not found in grey iron (see figure).

When other elements are mixed with iron (Fe), there are 2 possibilities for entering
the atom:
 substitutional
 interstitial.

Substitutional:

One atom replaces another existing one. This is only possible if the size is
nearly equal. The elements that can do this are Mn, Cr and Si.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 3

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

Interstitial:

A smaller atom will locate itself in between the other existing ones. This is only
possible if the size is much smaller. The elements that can do this are: C.

All elements, that have a much larger size, will mostly not be solved and will create
compounds that are pushed out of the metal as is slag. The most common ones are:
Mg, Ca and Ba.

Sulfur is a special element because it is too small and too large. See table.

Table of atomic diameters in Angstroms

Element Ba Ca Mg Cr Fe Mn Si S C
Diameter 4,34 3,94 3,19 2,49 2,48 2,48 2,34 2,12 1,54

What about the solidification of iron?

During the solidification (starting at the T L-temperature and running till the TS-
temperature is reached), the liquid goes over to solid.

The common grey irons (Ceq from 3,7 to 4,2) mostly solidify as follows:

1. precipitation of austenite (gamma lattice, face

centered cubic lattice) growing as dendrites (see
figure)
2. due to this, the liquid enriches in carbon and the
austenite continues to growth in dendritic way
3. when the carbon equivalent (Ceq = C + Si / 3 + P
/ 3) becomes 4,3 then the eutectic solidification
starts in between the dendrite structures
4. at the eutectoid temperature (Ac3), the austenite
with its gamma-lattice transforms to the alpha-
lattice (body centered cubic lattice). See figure on page 3.

Iron with a low carbon equivalent (Ceq < 4,3 or hypo-eutectic) will always (partly)
solidify with dendrites and the free graphite will show up as type D and E.
A decreasing Ceq will tend to have more undercooling and dendritic solidification.

Iron with a high carbon equivalent (Ceq > 4,3 or hyper-eutectic) will solidify
eutectic without dendrites.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 4

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

3. CARBON

3.1 Introduction

Carbon is the most essential element for iron. A lot of the properties are highly
influenced by carbon, which will appear as “free graphite”.

Preferred properties due to carbon:

1. good machinability (chips break easily)

2. anti-galling: self-lubrication of graphite
3. high damping capacity for vibrations
4. high heat shock resistance (due to interconnected graphite network)
5. fairly high strength and wear resistance
6. decreasing liquidus
temperature.

Due to the high carbon, the iron has a low

melting temperature (TL-temperature or
liquidus temperature), especially
compared to steel. Therefore it can be
poured in thinner sections and it needs
less energy to produce castings.

But it is found that a lot of influence of

carbon is due to the combination of
carbon and silicon. Silicon encourages the
graphitization. For this reason, the carbon
equivalent (Ceq = C + Si / 3 + P / 3) is
defined and used in many formula.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 5

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

3.2 Graphite appearance

Graphite will appear in 2 basic forms:

1. cementite or Fe3C
It contains 7 % of carbon and has a hardness of 550 – 600 HB.
In a lamellar structure, together with the ferrite structure, it forms
pearlite (ferrite + cementite).

2. free graphite
In the ferrite structure, only 0,025 % of carbon can be solved, the extra
appearing as free carbon. In pearlite there is maximum 0,87 % of
carbon (no alloying elements) to 0,60 % (due to alloying elements like
Si, Cr…).
In a commercial grey iron, example ASTM A48, class 30, containing
about 3,45 % of carbon, 80 % of it (or 2,76 %) will appear as free
graphite.

The free graphite, flakes for grey iron, is one of the major factors for the iron
properties. The graphite can appear in 5 different forms: A, B, C, D and E. This is not
taking in account the length of the flakes!

Graphite appearance:

1. Appearance A
This is associated with a chemistry
close to the eutectic (Ceq = 4,3), with
slow cooling and a potent nucleation.

2. Appearance B
This is a mixed appearance in this
way that the center of the cell will
contain type D and around the cell
periphery it will be A.

3. Appearance C
This is the appearance for a hyper-
eutectic composition where the first
solid phase is graphite rather than
austenite. The flakes are large and
coarse and called “pro-eutectic
graphite”.

4. Appearance D
This is the appearance when there is
a strong undercooling (high cooling
rate) or a low nucleation metal
situation.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 6

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

5. Appearance E
This is the appearance when the chemistry has a low Ceq. It is a
complete dendritic cooling and solidification.

For the equal chemistry, metal with a graphite appearance D or E will have a
lower tensile strength than metal with an appearance of A.

3.3 Flake size

The flake size is a crucial factor for the properties of grey iron:

 increasing flake size will increase the

damping, thermal conductivity,
machinability and producibility (casting
thinner sections).
 Increasing flake size will decrease the
tensile strength, fatigue limit and
fracture toughness.

How to decrease the flake size?

 Increasing the inoculation will increase

the flake size. The purpose of
inoculation is to decrease the tendency
to chilling and to nucleate a larger
number of eutectic cells, which also
increase the tendency to have graphite
A appearance.
 Some alloying elements can help, but they can have some side effects. So
the addition of vanadium (V) will decrease the eutectic cell dimensions and
flake size but will increase the tendency to chilling and reduce the
machinability.
 Decreasing the carbon equivalent is the best way to reduce the flake
length.
 Increasing the cooling rate as well using chills will decrease the flake length
but will increase the amount of pearlite and increase the tendency to form
carbides.
 Restricting the superheating will decrease the graphite flake length.

The best way to control the number of flakes, the graphite appearance and the flake
length, especially for hypo-eutectic irons (Ceq > 4,3) is:

 S > 0,06 % will increase the response to inoculation

 Presence of sulfides will increase the response to inoculation
 Graphite containing inoculants will increase the inoculation effect
 Ba and Ca containing inoculants will have a higher nucleation effect.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 7

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

3.4 Graphite addition

The addition of carbon is very important and has a different result depending on the
type of melting.

1. Electrical melting:
 Requires time because the absorbing is a process
 Carbon pick-up will increase by 10 % for each 50 °C of temperature.
 Carbon must be added to a slag free metal bath to avoid that carbon is
hold by the slag or that it reacts with other elements in the slag.
 The best addition is together with the steel charge because it will be
absorbed very quickly. The silicon is to be added after the carbon is solved.
 Low ash containing recarburizers will increase the carbon pick-up
efficiency.
 For a medium and high frequency furnace, the addition of carbon should be
done with a small size material. A main or low frequency furnace (50 Hz)
can have some larger sizes.

2. Cupola melting:

2.1 system
 consistent coke bed preparation
 symmetrical charging (compared to the furnace diameter and section)
 maintenance of full stack to maintain a constant preheating of the
charged metal
 control of the air addition and temperature
 addition of coke with constant physical properties and size
 addition of constant quality metallic charge
 proper weighing of all charges (metallic and cokes)
 addition of corrective amount of coke trough the tuyeres.

2.2 constant carbon pick-up efficiency

 coke with low ash content
 addition of low sulfur content metals
 use silicon-carbide briquettes
 use hot wind or oxygen enrichment blowing air
 increase the cupola well depth
 decrease the cupola slag depth
 use carbon injection with the air trough the tuyeres.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 8

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

4. SILICON

4.1 Purpose

Without the addition of silicon, the graphite flakes will never be the correct and
desired ones.

The silicon will have a combined effect with carbon and therefore the carbon
equivalent (Ceq) is set: Ceq = C + Si / 3 + P / 3.
The phosphorous content is mostly less than 0,12 % and has a small influence.
Silicon is a graphitizer and will promote the eutectic solidification.

4.2 Amount of silicon

If silicon is added in an amount over the required one for graphitizing, it will promote
ferrite structure. The ferrite structure has a low strength and hardness.
If silicon is in excess of 3,5 %, it will harden the ferrite structure and make it more
brittle.

The difference between the eutectic graphite curve and the iron carbide curve (see
figure) is about 8 °C if the silicon content in the iron is zero. If silicon is increased, the
gap between the two lines is widening (see figure):

Percentage of silicon 0% 1% 2%
Difference between the two lines 8 °C 15 °C 35 °C

If the real cooling curve goes below the iron carbide eutectic line, due to a high
cooling rate and or the presence of carbide stabilizing elements, more carbides will
be formed.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 9

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

4.3 Effect on mechanical properties

For an equal Ceq, melting method, pouring temperature, inoculation and cooling rate,
an increase in carbon (and appropriate decrease in silicon) will:

1. increase the tensile strength due to a finer pearlite

2. decrease the shrinkage tendency
3. increase the chilling tendency.

The tensile strength can be calculated according to one of the following methods:

Method 1

Weis and Orths suggest following formula:

Rm = 787 – 150 (% C) – 47 (% Si) + 54,9 (% Mn) + 219 (% S) MPa

R2-correlation of the formula is 68.

Standard deviation of the formula is 25 MPa.

This formula is valid for a grey iron if the composition is according following
conditions:
%C 2,90 – 4,00 % %P 0,05 – 1,00 %
% Si 1,00 – 3,30 % %S 0,03 – 0,18 %
% Mn 0,25 – 1,00 %

Method 2

Weis and Orths suggest another formula:

Rm = 713 – 496 Sc MPa

Sc = (% C) / { 4,3 – 0,33 (%Si) – 0,33 (% P)}

Sc = 1 for a cast iron with an eutectic composition (Ceq = 4,3),
This means it has a tensile strength of about 217 MPa.
R2-correlation of the formula is 62.
Standard deviation of the formula is 27 MPa.

This formula is valid for a grey iron if the composition is according following
conditions:
%C 2,90 – 4,00 % %P 0,05 – 1,00 %
% Si 1,00 – 3,30 % %S 0,03 – 0,18 %
% Mn 0,25 – 1,00 %

The real tensile value will be different from the calculated one. But if the basic
formula is good, the difference, in ratio, will be equal. Therefore the following factor is
set:

RG = Treal / Tcalculated.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 10

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

5. MANGANESE / SULFUR

5.1 Sulfur

Sulfur will decrease the hardness and toughness and bring hot shortness.

If no manganese is present, it will form FeS with a melting temperature of 1193 °C. It
concentrates in the eutectic solidifying iron and forms thin films at the grain
boundaries.

Sulfur blocs the graphite precipitation by a ratio of 10 – 15 / 1 compared to silicon

that promotes it. So will 0,1 % S compensate the activity of 1 – 1,5 % Si.

5.2 Manganese

Totally solvable in iron because the atom dimension is equal to this of iron (Fe).

Manganese has a higher affinity to S, C and O than iron (Fe) and will first react with
them. It will be mostly present as (FeMn)3C and MnS.

Manganese will:

 increase the hardenability

 prevent the harming effects of S by forming MnS
 form a glazy manganese silicate slag if (Mn – Si) = +/- 0,4 %.

5.3 Combination of manganese and sulfur

5.3.1 general

Forms MnS (see figure) with a freezing temperature of 1620 °C and a density of 4,0
g/cm3 containing 1,7 times more Mn than S (atomic weigh Mn is 55 and of S is 32):

Mn = 1,7 * S.

But to combine all the sulfur, there must be an excess of manganese to prevent the
formation of FeS, because also:

 (FeMn)S is formed, which needs more Mn

 (FeMn)3C is formed.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 11

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

5.3.2 amount

So the amount of manganese will be: Mn = 1,7 * S + a %. How much must “a” be?

* a = 0,30 %: gives the lowest tensile strength in the absence of Cr, Mo and Cu
* a = 0,10 %: the tensile will increase due to the refining of the graphite and
the increased pearlite content, but the tendency to chilling will also
increase
* a > 0,30 %: the tensile will increase due to the pearlite formation and refining
of the grains
* a > x % (depending from foundry to foundry): tensile strength will decrease
due to the manganese segregation, which is accompanied by grain
coarsening and undesired grain boundary conditions.
This effect is depending on the presence of residual and alloying
elements. Some tests are given below as well as a figure.
* a > 0,50 %: will form sub-surface blowholes especially with low pouring
temperatures.

5.3.3 blowholes

The MnS dissolves in the FeSi & MnSi oxidized slag, which is very oxygen rich, on
the surface metal. It dissolves also carbon that forms carbon oxide (CO), which
escapes or stays in the metal, below the solidified top layer, as blowholes.
This reaction can go on for a long time and at low temperatures, because the new
formed slag has a low melting temperature.

The appearance can be seen in next figure. In the area of the blowhole, there will be
an excess of MnS and other complex slag.

This problem can be prevented by:

 increasing the TP (pouring temperature), especially if S > 0,15 %

 decreasing the Mn content. If Mn > 0,70 %, a high pouring temperature will
always be required.

5.3.4 nucleation

Because MnS is a high temperature component, it can act as nuclei together with Sr,
Ce and Ca, which also forms sulfides.
The influence of S on a non-inoculated iron is shown in next figure.

The disregistry of sulfides with carbon at 1149 °C is as follows:

Element MnS CaS CeS LaS SrS

Disregistry -12,1 -4,1 -2,9 -1,5 +1,3 %

So especially the Ca, Ce and La and Sr are matching very well and should be
present in the inoculants for grey iron.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 12

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

But they need sulfur to be active!

* S < 0,03 % nearly no effect on inoculation

* S > 0,06 % effect will start
* S = +/- 0,08 % preferred amount.

5.4 Conclusion

Sulfur is no impurity in grey iron!

Sulfur content is preferably 0,08 %. It can be up to 0,15 % if the Mn / S content is

balanced. If S > 0,15 %, mostly blowholes will be formed (depending on the presence
of other alloying elements).

The challenge is to find the correct amount of manganese compared to sulfur:

* Mn = 1,7 * S + a % to ensure absence of FeS and other iron-sulfides

* a = 0,10 to 0,30 % high strength but tendency to chilling. The limit is

where as the hardness still increase but the tensile
stops to increase.
* a > 0,30 % small tensile increase but at a certain point the
hardness starts decreasing

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 13

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

6. PHOSPHOROUS

There are 2 types of irons from the past:

 P < 0,20 %
 P > 0,20 % with a low strength.

Phosphorous is soluble up to 0,02 % in the austenite structure. Steadite is eutectic

with 10,2 % P and 89,8 % Fe. It is located at the cell boundaries and it starts forming
from P > 0,06 %. Its hardness is about 400 HB, but if Cr, Mo or and V are present,
ternary forms of steadite and iron carbides will form with a much higher hardness.
The melting temperature of steadite is about 955 – 1010 °C (1750 – 1850 °F) and the
quantity will be +/- 10 times the quantity of the phosphorous content.

Phosphorous does increase the fluidity but the effect

on fluidity will be only 30 – 50 % the effect of the carbon.

Phosphorous does decrease the machinability.

Phosphorous does increase the tendency to form porosity in the hot spots. This
potential porosity is difficult to feed by risers and will look “spongy” or like “micro-
shrinkage”. See figure. The problem will start from P > 0,06 %.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 14

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

If the casting has to be pressurized, the phosphorous content should be anyhow <
0,06 % and preferably < 0,02 %. The tendency to form porosity increases with the
presence of Cr, Mo and V, due to the increase in ternary eutectic. See figures.

Low phosphorous irons do have a higher tendency to metal penetration and fining!
Too much inoculation can also cause this, which can only be compensated by
increasing the phosphorous content from 0,02 to 0,06 % to 0,08 to 0,12 %. But the
risk for an increased porosity is still there.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 15

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

7. NITROGEN

This element is mostly forgotten by the foundries. This can be due to the fact that, in
the time that iron was melted by cupola, the nitrogen content was fairly stable
because it was mainly introduced by the cokes.

Later when electrical melting entered the scene, the graphite introduction was done
by other material than coke.
The second fact was that the foundries started producing ductile iron, which has a
problem with too high sulfur content. To decrease the sulfur addition, the pure
graphite additions were introduced: electrode graphite, synthetic graphite…
But with the sulfur also the nitrogen was decreased or nearly disappeared!

It is clearly found that:

N < 50 ppm (0,005 %) the tensile strength decreased quickly

50 ppm (0,005 %) < N < 90 ppm (0,009 %) the tensile strength increased by:
6 – 8 MPa / 10 ppm (0,001 %)
N > 90 ppm (0,009 %) danger for gas defects.

Of course these figures are valid for castings with a wall thickness from 10 to 50 mm.
For larger sections, the maximum content (for problem of gas) must be lowered.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 16

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

8. LEAD

Lead is one of the elements that really harm the grey iron metal quality.

8.1 Influence on graphite

The presence of lead can lead to graphite deformation:

 spiky graphite (see figure)

 sooty graphite (see figure).

Spiky graphite requires and the presence of lead and hydrogen, both above the
critical (high) level. Because the destroying of the flake graphite does take time
(similar to chunky graphite in ductile iron), this deformed graphite (spiky graphite) is
mostly present in thick section castings. The following rules are valid:

* Pb < 0,003 % in thin sections no problem

* Pb < 0,0004 % in thick sections no problem.

8.2 Influence on structure

Lead does decrease the amount of ferrite and does increase hardness.

8.3 Remarks

Rare earths (Mishmetall) will not compensate the effect of lead!

Lead should be avoided totally. It mostly comes in the metal by improper copper or tin
or painted charged material. Cupola melting has fewer problems than electric melting
because most of the lead can evaporate during the melting.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 17

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

9. ALLOYING

9.1 General remarks

9.2 Effect on eutectic temperature
9.3 Effect of copper
9.4 Formula
9.5 Conclusion

9.1 General remarks

The best way to increase the strength is:

 to avoid the presence of ferrite

 to refine the pearlite.

Alloying to increase the strength can be done by adding several elements, which all
have a different effect. The effect for some of the elements is:

Element max addition % increase / % addition chilling

Vanadium 0,35 % 45 % very strong

Molybdenum 1,00 % 40 % mild
Chromium 0,50 % 20 % strong
Nickel 3,00 % 10 % weak / negative
Copper 1,50 % 10 % weak / negative
Manganese 10 % weak
Tin weak / negative
But the addition of several elements together is not the addition of the effects per
element! It is preferred to add two types of elements: one to avoid ferrite and one to
refine the pearlite. Example:

Element pearlite promoting pearlite refining chilling

Chrome (Cr) strong weak strong

Molybdenum (Mo) weak strong mild
Copper (Cu) strong weak negative
Tin (Sn) very strong mild negative
Vanadium (V) mild strong strong.

But always pay attention on the tendency to form carbides!

9.2 Effect on eutectic temperature

It is known that each (alloying) element has an influence on the eutectic temperature.
This temperature, as shown in next figure, does influence the solidification
temperature range.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 18

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

Al does increase the temperature.

Mn, Mo, W, P, Sn, Sb and Mg do decrease

the temperature.

Si, Ni, Cu and Co do increase the

difference between the graphitic and iron-
carbide temperature.

Cr, V and Ti do decrease the difference

between the graphitic and iron-carbide
temperature.

9.3 Effect of Copper

The effect of copper is discussed separately because it is common use in foundries.

1. Properties of copper
It has a density of 8,93 kg/dm3, a face centered cubic lattice (FCC) and
a melting temperature of 1083 °C (1981 °F).

Carbon equivalent decrease by 0,075 % per 1 % of Cu.

Solidification temperature decrease by 2 °C per 1 % of Cu.

2. Solubility in iron
It is soluble from 3,0 to 3,5 % in iron. This solubility does increase if
nickel is added: 0,4 % by an addition of 1 % Ni.

3. Effect
* The main effect is:
 low graphitizing effect if iron has common silicon level (Si from
1,7 to 2,4 %)
 good pearlite promoter
 poor pearlite refiner.
* It increases the tensile strength, the transverse strength and the
hardness. See figure on next page.
* It decreases the deflection (transverse test) a little.
* It does not influence the impact value.

4. Combination of elements
The combination with a pearlite refiner will have the best effect.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 19

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

Example:
1 % Cu tensile strength +5%
0,5 % Mo + 20 %
1 % Cu + 0,5 % Mo + 40 %.

5. Risks
If copper is added in excess of the best percentage, the risk for the
metal properties are very low (see figure previous page).

If tin (Sn) is add in excess, the metal will embrittle very quickly.
If antimonies (Sb) is added in excess, the metal impact strength will
decrease and the graphite shape will become irregular.

Pay attention with the addition of copper because a lot of material does
have a residual amount of harmful elements like Sn, Pb, As and Te.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 20

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

There is no oxidation loss during charging.

Adding in the ladle is possible but do not add the charge on the bottom
of a hot ladle.

9.4 Some formula

Formula 1

For the alloyed irons, this formula can be used.

Rm = 713 – 496 Sc MPa

Sc = (% C) / {4,26 – 0,31 (%Si) – 0,33 (%P) – 0,047 (%Ni) – 0,40 (%S) + 0,015 (%Mo)
+ 0,063 (%Cr) + 0,135 (%V) + 0,027 (%Mn)} for aloyed iron
R2-correlation of the formula is 62.
Standard deviation of the formula is 27 MPa.

Formula 2

For alloyed cast irons an estimation of the tensile strength can be made with the
following formula (D is the diameter of the test coupon in mm):

Rm = 1120 MPa + 2865 / D – 150 (% C) – 422 (% Si) – 73 (% Mn – 1,7 % S) - 181 (% Cu) 2

– 164 (% Mo)2 + 95 (% Cr) + 14 (% Ni) + 211 (% Cu) + 275 (% Mo) + 98 (% Si) 2

To use this formula the following limitations are valid (in plus to the above limitations
for C, Si, Mn, P and S):
% Cr 0,2 – 0,6 % Cu 0,50 – 1,50
% Mo 0,2 – 1,0 %V 0,10 – 0,20
% Ni 0,6 – 1,0 % Sn 0,04 – 0,08

Formula 3

The influence of the particular elements is shown in the next table. If more alloying
elements are used, it is not allowed to add the influences per element.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 21

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

Element Symbol Usable range Per addition Tensile strength

Nitrogen N 50 – 90 ppm 10 ppm + 6 – 8 MPa
Copper Cu 0–3% 1% + 25 – 30 MPa
Nickel Ni 0–2% 1% + 15 – 25 MPa
Chromium Cr 0–3% 0,5 % + 35 – 50 MPa
Molybdenum Mo 0–1% 0,25 % + 25 – 30 MPa
Vanadium V 0 – 0,25 % 0,25 % + 30 – 40 MPa

It is very important to recognize that nitrogen (N) has an important influence on the
tensile strength. If the nitrogen content exceeds 90 ppm, there will be gas inclusions.

Formula 4

Formula from Schneidewind & McElwee

T = 68,95 * (b – 2*CE) * f1 * f2 * f3*… result in MPa

CE = (% C) + (% Si) / 3 + (% P) / 4
b: see figure
fi: see figure
Factor "b"
16
14
12
Factor "b"

10
8
6
4
2
0
1 10 100 1000
Equivalent diameter (mm)

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 22

 GREY (FLAKE) IRON
CHEMISTRY

Example:

Example 1
Diameter: 30 mm
Chemical analysis: C = 3,35 %, Si = 2,10 %, P = 0,08 %

T = 68,95 * (11,5 – 2*4,07) = 232 MPa

Example 2
Diameter: 30 mm
Chemical analysis: C = 3,35 %, Si = 2,10 %, P = 0,08 %, 1 % Cu, 0,3 % Mo

T = 68,95 * (11,5 – 2*4,07) * 1,08 * 1,12 = 280 MPa

Remark

The main difference between the formulas is mainly due to the effect of manganese,
which is different depending a lot on the manganese-sulfur ratio.

Equally to the formula of non alloyed grey iron, it is possible to use one formula and
set up the efficiency ratio:

RG = Treal / Tcalculated

This will be less usable as for the non-alloyed irons but can be of good help.

9.5 Conclusion

The most economical way to increase the strength is:

 keep the Ceq equal

 reduce silicon
 increase carbon.

But this is not always possible to achieve the required strength. Therefore the
addition of alloying elements is necessary.

The best combination is one element to promote pearlite and one element to refine
the pearlite, both having a very low (or no) tendency to form carbides.

ir G Henderieckx, Gietech BV April 2006 23