Chapter 1

Abstract

The number of vehicles on our roads is burgeoning day by day. This is turn forced
almost all this vehicle manufactures to think about the extra safety instruments and
electronic controls to attach with these products for giving the users a safety
derived in all road conditions through a mass flow traffic. If asked, one should
always mention that the right driving is very cumbersome due to the dazzling light
problems and the frequent dipping of headlights by manual means that often causes
fatigue to the driver particularly at the time of peak traffic. So naturally to get rid
of this perennial problem, an automatic mechanism has to come up to dip the
headlamp automatically whenever required. For keeping a motor vehicle under
perfect control and reins of the driver, different types of controls and accessories
are provided in an automobile around the driver’s seat, on the dashboard and at the
footboard. Simply, an automatic high beam controller is a unit, which can
automatically judge when the headlight beam needs to be lowered, and which dip
the headlamp from which beam to a dipped beam. Our work proposes an effective
automatic control of the vehicle headlamps based on the detection of head lights
and tail lights under night time road conditions. This project is about to control
high/low beam automatically. This project will make sure that the consumer will
save their time and energy also for those who have the illness of nervous. This
project will not disturbing any manual function of the beam.
 Chapter 2
Introduction

Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum. The word usually refers to visible light, which is visible to the human
eye and it is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is usually defined as
having wavelength in the range of 400-700 nanometers(nm), or 400×10−9 m to
700×10−9 m, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the
ultraviolet(with shorter wavelength). Light can be produced by nature or by
humans. “Artificial” light is typically produced by lighting systems that transform
electrical energy into light.
The human eyes are adaptable to a particular range of vision. There are two
visions namely photopic and scotopic vision. Human eyes actually behave
differently in different conditions. During bright surroundings, our eyes can resist
up to 3cd/m 2 .
This is the photopic vision. During dark and unlit conditions, our eye
switches to scotopic vision which has the range of 30-45 μcd/m2 . It takes 4
seconds for our eyes to change from photopic vision to scotopic vision. This is also
an example of TROXLER effect. As the brightness increases, the strain to focus on
an object increases. This will increase the response time of that person. The
requirement of headlight is very common during night travel. The same headlight
which assists the driver for better vision during night travel is also responsible for
many accidents that are being caused.
The driver has the control of the headlight which can be switched from high
beam(bright) to low beam (dim). The headlight has to be adjusted according to the
light requirement by the driver. During pitch black conditions where there are no
other sources of light, high beam is used. In all other cases, low beam is preferred.
But in a two way traffic, there are vehicles plying on both sides of the road. So
when the bright light from the headlight of a vehicle coming from the opposite
direction falls on a person, it glares him for a certain amount of time. This causes
disorientation to that driver. This discomfort will result in involuntary closing of
the driver‟s eyes momentarily. This fraction distraction is the prime cause of many
road accidents.The prototype that has been designed to reduce this problem by
actually dimming down the bright headlight of our vehicle to low beam
automatically when it senses a vehicle at close proximity approaching from the
other direction.
Motorists face a huge problem due to high beam light which falls directly onto
their eyes when driving at night or foggy conditions. There is medical effect
associated with these phenomena. This effect includes temporary blindness, glare,
fading effect of image and something causing accident leading to many lives. This
effect contributes to a terminology known as troxler effect. Troxler effect is used to
describe a kind of temporary blindness. It is otherwise known as the „fading
effect‟. A study shows that if our eyes are exposed to a very bright light source of
around 10,000 lumens, we experience a glare.
This glare is produced due to over exposure of the rods and cones inside our
eye. Even after the source of glare is removed, an after-image remains in our eye
that create a blind spot. This phenomenon is called troxler effect. This means that
the driver‟s reaction time is increased by 1.4 seconds. For example, let us assume a
motorist travelling at 60 miles per hour takes 0.5 seconds to react to a hazard and
will stop within 41 feet. Due to troxler effect, the same person travelling under the
same conditions will take 0.9 seconds longer to react and hence will come to a
complete halt only at 123 feet.
 There is a huge difference of 82 feet. This is more than enough to cause a
disaster on the road. This troxler effect is across all the ages. Anyone exposed to
sudden bright light experience this troxler effect. Hence there is a need to design
and construct a prototype of this device that automatically dims the headlights for
on-coming vehicles using light dependent resistor sensing technique help to solve
this problem.
 Chapter 3
Components Required

S.no Name

1 LDR

2 LM 324 IC

3 10 k ohm quarter watt resistance

4 BC 547 general purpose transistor

5 SPDT Relay

6 9-0-9 500mA transformer

7 7805 IC

8 Bulb holders and bulb

9 1N4007 rectifier diode

10 General purpose LED’s

12 General wires and pcb

 Chapter 4
Circuit Diagram and Working

Fig 4.1 Circuit Diagram

Working
The various components used in the circuit are LDR (light dependent
Resistor), two resistors as a potential divider, Transistor, Relay switch, LED
bulbs and a Supply voltage. The LDR is used to sense the incoming light. As
the name suggests, its resistance value will vary according to the intensity of
light that is incident upon its sensor. Higher the light intensity, lower will be
its resistance.
The resistors used are a standard 0.25 watt, 1.6 kilo ohm and 30 ohm.
They are used a potential divider in order to control the gate current to the
transistor. To sense a wider range of light intensities, a POT can be used. The
transistor can be a BJT (bipolar junction transistor) or a MOSFET (metal
oxide field effect transistor). If BJT is used, then the standard BC 547 is
preferred. If a higher switching speed is required, then MOSFET – IRF 840 can
be used. The relay used is a 400 ohm coil, 12 Volt, 5 terminal type. The normally-
open contact is connected to the low beam bulb of the vehicle while the
normally-closed contact is connected to the high beam bulb.

A supply of 12 volts is required for the circuit. It is taken from the vehicle’s
battery box. This is preferred for two reasons. First, it is a constant DC
supply and second, there is no need for introducing a separate electrical supply
source.

Two 0.25 watt LED bulbs are taken for simulating the headlights of the
vehicle. One represents the bright mode bulb and the other, the low beam bulb.
From the layout given if Figure.3, the basic idea about the working of the
circuit can be understood. The LDR acts as a variable resistor. So the LDR,
the two resistors form a potential divider network which will decide the current
in the circuit. Thus, this balanced network gives a trigger to the gate/base of
the transistor. The design of this particular circuit gets a trigger if there is a voltage
imbalance in the circuit due to change in resistance of the LDR due to the light
source. The basic operation is like that of a comparator. The transistor’s
output is connected to the relay coil.
The bulbs are already connected to the relay contacts as mentioned earlier.
LED 1 represents the high beam bulb which is in normally closed (NC)
condition with the relay. LED 2 represents the low beam bulb of the vehicle
which is at the normally open terminal (NO) of the relay. Whenever a high-
intense light falls on the LDR, it’s resistance drops thus creating an unbalance in
the potential divider formed between the LDR, and two resistors R1 and R2.
This will create a trigger current which turns on the transistor BC 547. The
transistor gets into conduction mode and switches the relay. Hence the NC
terminal will get disconnected and NO terminal will be switched. So, the
vehicle’s headlight which is in bright mode (LED 1) gets turned off and the low
beam mode (LED 2) gets turned on by the relay.
This happens when the vehicle from the opposite side crosses our vehicle.
Thus as the other vehicle comes nearer, the intensity of that beam will increase and
will hence switch our high beam light to low beam. As it moves away, the
LDR will be turned away from the moving vehicle. So the LDR resistance
increases and the bridge balances.
There will hence be no trigger current and the relay switches back to its
normal position. This will again turn on the bright beam mode bulb in our
vehicle. Based on the prototype, an actual working model of the same circuit has
been constructed. The exact same components have been used in its construction
To understand the real-time working of this circuit, a high intense flash light
has been used to simulate the event of an approaching vehicle. Whenever the
LDR senses a light, it has to automatically switch from the high beam mode to
the low beam mode. So, till the LDR senses the bright light (approaching
vehicle), the bright bulb will be ON (RED LED).
Once the intensity of the incident light goes beyond a particular value, it
means that the vehicle is in close proximity of our vehicle. The LDR senses this
threshold level and a drop in resistance is observed. This will send the
transistor into conduction and the relay switches its contacts. Hence the NO
contact which is connected to the low beam bulb gets turned ON. As the
relay is switched, the NC terminal is turned OFF. Thus the low beam light is
switched ON automatically (shown by BLUE LED in Figure5(b)). The left side of
the figure 5(b) is illuminated by a flash light to simulate the presence of an
approaching vehicle.
The circuit had been constructed and proved to be working model. There
are a few criteria which need to be addressed while placing this device in a
real vehicle. They are:
• It should be kept at a safe place, protecting from external environment
like rain, and dust.
• The placement of this circuit should be in line with the eye of the driver, so
that it responds exactly in the same way how a driver would react to the bright
light.
• The circuit should have a constant supply whenever the headlights are turned
ON.
• It should be compact and easy to install.

This device should be place in all the vehicles. By installing this device,
each vehicle can independently operate on its own. Until the vehicle is encountered
by an opposite vehicle, it can travel with high beam. Once it encounters an
opposite vehicle, each of the two vehicles senses the opposite vehicle’s light.
Thus if either of the vehicles are using high beam, it switches to low beam. If the
headlight is already in low beam, then no change occurs. As the vehicles cross
each other, the intensity of light falling on the sensor decreases and the
headlights switches back to their original mode.
There might be a question of other sources of light in the road like sign
boards, street lights and buildings. But as LDR is used as the source and
the placement of the device is highly directional, it is not affected by any
of other light sources which might be present in vicinity. Moreover, the light
from the vehicle’s headlamp is of a distinc t nature. The maximum spread
angle of the headlight is 135 only [5]. The other sources will be located far
away from the road and hence their spread angle will be very high. Hence by
the time the spread light from other sources reach the sensor its intensity
will be very much reduced below the triggering threshold level.
From the above discussions, it has been concluded that the device can be
concealed in front of the car, near the wipers, at the base of the windscreen
(Figure 4.2). The device is denoted as a red dot. This is the ideal place as
it mimics the driver’s line of sight and also safe from environmental factors
and accidents.

Fig-4.2: Positioning the device in vehicle

 Chapter 5
Component Description

5.1 Light dependant resistor

A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell)

is a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases
with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it
exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive
detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a

photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the
light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If
incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by
the semiconductor give bound electronsenough energy to jump into the conduction
band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity,
thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor
can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors
may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic

semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor,
for example, silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in
the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the
electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also
called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band;
since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer
wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample
of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there
will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic
semiconductor.

Photoresistors are less light-sensitive devices

than photodiodes or phototransistors: the two latter components are
true semiconductor devices, while a photoresistor is a passive component and does
not have a PN-junction. The photoresistivity of any photoresistor may vary widely
depending on ambient temperature, making them unsuitable for applications
requiring precise measurement of or sensitivity to light photons.

Photoresistors also exhibit a certain degree of latency between exposure to

light and the subsequent decrease in resistance, usually around 10 milliseconds.
The lag time when going from lit to dark environments is even greater, often as
long as one second. This property makes them unsuitable for sensing rapidly
flashing lights, but is sometimes used to smooth the response of audio signal
compression.

Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can

be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm
devices (as the detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street
lamps and solar road studs, etc.

Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on.

Ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus
energy is saved by ensuring the light is only on during hours of darkness.

They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a

small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-emitting diode to control gain reduction.
A common usage of this application can be found in many guitar amplifiers that
incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating light patterns control the
level of signal running through the amp circuit.

The use of CdS and CdSe[3] photoresistors is severely restricted in Europe

due to the RoHS ban on cadmium.

Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-dependent

resistors) are used for the mid-infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

5.2 Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such
as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a
separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraphcircuits as amplifiers:
they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another
circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers
to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called
a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect
electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in
one direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses
from the same input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in
applications where interrupted power should not be able to transition the contacts.
Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil
device, the relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one
polarity, and will reset when the polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when
polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the contacts will transition. AC
controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ steering diodes to
differentiate between operate and reset commands.
A simple electromagnetic relay
consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core (a solenoid), an iron yoke
which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of
moving contacts. The armature is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is
de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The
relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and
the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered
to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed
through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, and the
consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens
the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually
this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it
reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized
with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy
from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate
a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were
not widely used before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon
became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this
surge. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar
problem of surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case
a snubber circuit (a capacitor and resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb
the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the associated resistor are sold as a single
packaged component for this commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be
energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used to split the flux into
two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper
"shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-
of-phase component,[9] which holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the
control voltage.[10]
Contact materials for relays vary by application. Materials with low contact
resistance may be oxidized by the air, or may tend to "stick" instead of cleanly
parting when opening. Contact material may be optimized for low electrical
resistance, high strength to withstand repeated operations, or high capacity to
withstand the heat of an arc. Where very low resistance is required, or low
thermally-induced voltages are desired, gold-plated contacts may be used, along
with palladium and other non-oxidizing, semi-precious metals. Silver or silver-
plated contacts are used for signal switching. Mercury-wetted relays make and
break circuits using a thin, self-renewing film of liquid mercury. For higher-power
relays switching many amperes, such as motor circuit contatctors, contacts are
made with a mixtures of silver and cadmium oxide, providing low contact
resistance and high resistance to the heat of arcing. Contacts used in circuits
carrying scores or hundreds of amperes may include additional structures for heat
dissipation and management of the arc produced when interrupting the
circuit.[11] Some relays have field-replaceable contacts, such as certain machine
tool relays; these may be replaced when worn out, or changed between normally
open and normally closed state, to allow for changes in the controlled circuit.
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to
relays; a relay switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can
be thrown by energizing the coil. Normally open (NO) contacts connect the circuit
when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive.
Normally closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated;
the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. All of the contact forms involve
combinations of NO and NC connections.
The National Association of
Relay Manufacturers and its successor, the Relay and Switch Industry Association
define 23 distinct electrical contact forms found in relays and switches.[23] Of these,
the following are commonly encountered:
 SPST-NO (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Open) relays have a
single Form A contact or make contact. These have two terminals which can
be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has
four terminals in total.
 SPST-NC (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Closed) relays have a
single Form B or break contact. As with an SPST-NO relay, such a relay has
four terminals in total.
 SPDT (Single-Pole Double-Throw) relays have a single set of Form
C, break before make or transfer contacts. That is, a common terminal
connects to either of two others, never connecting to both at the same time.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has a total of five terminals.
 DPST – Double-Pole Single-Throw relays are equivalent to a pair of SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a
relay has a total of six terminals. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or
one of each; the designations NO and NC should be used to resolve the
ambiguity).
 DPDT – Double-Pole Double-Throw relays have two sets of Form
C contacts. These are equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by
a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil
The S (single) or D (double) designator for the pole count may be replaced with a
number, indicating multiple contacts connected to a single actuator. For example,
4PDT indicates a four-pole double-throw relay that has 12 switching terminals.
EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical
EN 50005-compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1
and A2 for the C, NC, NO, and coil connections, respectively.[24]
DIN 72552 defines contact numbers in relays for automotive use;
 85 = relay coil -
 86 = relay coil +
 87 = common contact
 87a = normally closed contact
 87b = normally open contact

Fig. 5.1 Basic relay symbols

5.3 LM 324
The LM324 series are low−cost, quad operational amplifiers with true differential
inputs. They have several distinct advantages over standard operational amplifier
types in single supply applications. The quad amplifier can operate at supply
voltages as low as 3.0 V or as high as 32 V with quiescent currents about one−fifth
of those associated with the MC1741 (on a per amplifier basis). The common
mode input range includes the negative supply, thereby eliminating the necessity
for external biasing components in many applications. The output voltage range
also includes the negative power supply voltage.
Features
• Short Circuited Protected Outputs • True Differential Input Stage • Single Supply
Operation: 3.0 V to 32 V
• Low Input Bias Currents: 100 nA Maximum (LM324A) • Four Amplifiers Per
Package • Internally Compensated
• Common Mode Range Extends to Negative Supply
• Industry Standard Pinouts
• ESD Clamps on the Inputs Increase Ruggedness without Affecting Device
Operation
• NCV Prefix for Automotive and Other Applications Requiring Unique Site and
Control Change Requirements; AEC−Q100 Qualified and PPAP Capable
• These Devices are Pb−Free, Halogen Free/BFR Free and are RoHS Compliant
The LM324 series is made using four internally compensated, two−stage
operational amplifiers. The first stage of each consists of differential input devices
Q20 and Q18 with input buffer transistors Q21 and Q17 and the differential to
single ended converter Q3 and Q4. The first stage performs not only the first stage
gain function but also performs the level shifting and transconductance reduction
functions. By reducing the transconductance, a smaller compensation capacitor
(only 5.0 pF) can be employed, thus saving chip area. The transconductance
reduction is accomplished by splitting the collectors of Q20 and Q18. Another
feature of this input stage is that the input common mode range can include the
negative supply or ground, in single supply operation, without saturating either the
input devices or the differential to single−ended converter. The second stage
consists of a standard current source load amplifier stage.
 Fig. 5.2 LM 324 Pin out
5.4 Power supply
When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer it can either
be stepped down or up depending on the value of DC needed. In our circuit the
transformer of 230v/15-0-15v is used to perform the step down operation where a
230V AC appears as 15V AC across the secondary winding. One alteration of
input causes the top of the transformer to be positive and the bottom negative. The
next alteration will temporarily cause the reverse. The current rating of the
transformer used in our project is 2A. Apart from stepping down AC voltages, it
gives isolation between the power source and power supply circuitries.
5.4.1 RECTIFIER UNIT:
In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid state
diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one direction
at proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons only flow
when the node and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage will not
permit electron flow.
A commonly used circuit for supplying large amounts of DC power is the
bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four diodes (4*IN4007) are used to achieve
full wave rectification. Two diodes will conduct during the negative cycle and the
other two will conduct during the positive half cycle. The DC voltage appearing
across the output terminals of the bridge rectifier will be somewhat lass than 90%
of the applied rms value. Normally one alteration of the input voltage will reverse
the polarities. Opposite ends of the transformer will therefore always be 180 deg
out of phase with each other.
For a positive cycle, two diodes are connected to the positive voltage at the top
winding and only one diode conducts. At the same time one of the other two
diodes conducts for the negative voltage that is applied from the bottom winding
due to the forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due to positive half cycleD1 &
D2 will conduct to give 10.8v pulsating DC. The DC output has a ripple frequency
of 100Hz. Since each altercation produces a resulting output pulse, frequency =
2*50 Hz. The output obtained is not a pure DC and therefore filtration has to be
done.

5.4.2 FILTERING UNIT:

Filter circuits which are usually capacitors acting as a surge arrester always follow
the rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a
bypassing capacitor, is used not only to ‘short’ the ripple with frequency of 120Hz
to ground but also to leave the frequency of the DC to appear at the output. A load
resistor R1 is connected so that a reference to the ground is maintained. C1R1 is
for bypassing ripples. C2R2 is used as a low pass filter, i.e. it passes only low
frequency signals and bypasses high frequency signals. The load resistor should be
1% to 2.5% of the load.
1000f/25v : for the reduction of ripples from the pulsating.
10f/25v : for maintaining the stability of the voltage at the load side.O,
1f : for bypassing the high frequency disturbances.

5.4.3 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixed
output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is
local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with
single point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in
logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used
with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The LM78XX
series is available in an aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load
current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is included to limit
the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor
is provided to limit internal power dissipation.
If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the
thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating.
Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy
to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to
bypass the output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing
is needed only if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power
supply. For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides
an output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.
Features:
 Output current in excess of 1A
 Internal thermal overload protection
 No external components required
 Output transistor safe area protection
 Internal short circuit current limit
 Available in the aluminum TO-3 package

Fig: 5.4 plastic Package of Voltage Regulator

5.4.4 THREE TERMINAL POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
These voltage regulators are monolithic integrated circuits designed as fixed–
voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on–card
regulation. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown,
and safe–area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output
currents in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage
regulator, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.
 Output Current in Excess of 1.0 A
  No External Components Required
 Internal Thermal Overload Protection
 Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting
 Output Transistor Safe–Area Compensation
 Output Voltage Offered in 2% and 4% Tolerance
 Available in Surface Mount D2PAK and Standard 3–Lead Transistor

5.4.5 STANDARD APPLICATION

Fig: 3.3 MC78XX Voltage Regulator

A common ground is required between the input and the output voltages. The input
voltage must remain typically 2.0 V above the output voltage even during the low
point on the input ripple voltage.
XX- These two digits of the type number indicate nominal voltage.
Cin- is required if regulator is located an appreciable distance from power supply
filter.
CO- is not needed for stability; however, it does improve transient response.
Values of
less than 0.1 mF could cause instability.
5.4.6 TRANSFORMER:

Fig: 5.5 Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high
mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary.
There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by
an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The
two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.
 Fig: 5.6 Step Down Transformer
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the
power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines
the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on
its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a
small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: 5.7 Circuit Diagram Of Power Supply

5.4.7 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
The +5 volt power supply is based on the commercial 7805 voltage regulator
IC.This IC contains all the circuitry needed to accept any input voltage from 8 to
18 volts and produce a steady +5 volt output, accurate to within 5% (0.25 volt). It
also contains current-limiting circuitry and thermal overload protection, so that the
IC won't be damaged in case of excessive load current; it will reduce its output
voltage instead.
The 1000µf capacitor serves as a "reservoir" which maintains a reasonable input
voltage to the 7805 throughout the entire cycle of the ac line voltage. The two
rectifier diodes keep recharging the reservoir capacitor on alternate half-cycles of
the line voltage, and the capacitor is quite capable of sustaining any reasonable
load in between charging pulses.
The 10µf and .01µf capacitors serve to help keep the power supply output voltage
constant when load conditions change. The electrolytic capacitor smooths out any
long-term or low frequency variations. However, at high frequencies this capacitor
is not very efficient. Therefore, the .01µf is included to bypass high-frequency
changes, such as digital IC switching effects, to ground.
The LED and its series resistor serve as a pilot light to indicate when the power
supply is on. I like to use a miniature LED here, so it will serve that function
without being obtrusive or distracting while I'm performing an experiment. I also
use this LED to tell me when the reservoir capacitor is completely discharged after
power is turned off. Then I know it's safe to remove or install components for the
next experiment.
 Chapter 6
Conclusion
The requirement of headlight is very common during night travel. The same
headlight which assists the driver for better vision during night travel is also
responsible for many accidents that are being caused. The driver has the
control of the headlight which can be switched from high beam (bright) to
low beam (dim). The headlight has to be adjusted according to the light
requirement by the driver. During pitch black conditions where there are no
other sources of light, high beam is used to. On all other cases, low beam
is preferred. But in a two-way traffic, there are vehicles plying on both
sides of the road. So when the bright light from the headlight of a vehicle
coming from the opposite direction falls on a person, it glares him for a
certain amount of time. This causes disorientation to that driver. This discomfort
will result in involuntary closing of the driver’s eyes momentarily. This
fraction of distraction is the prime cause of many road accidents.
The prototype that is has been designed, reduces this problem by actually
dimming down the bright headlight of our vehicle to low beam automatically
when it senses a vehicle at close proximity approaching from the other
direction. The entire working of the dimmer is a simple electronic circuitry
arrangement which senses and switches the headlight according to the conditions
required.