CAPE

Caribbean
Studies
Quick Review Guide 2017
By L. Anastasio Morrison

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 Table of Contents
Topic Pg.

Module 1

Location and Definition of the Caribbean 2

Migratory movement and settlement patterns up to 1838 and beyond 3
Responses to Oppression 7
The Genesis of the Peasantry – 1838 to 1900 8
Movements towards Independence 10
Characteristics of Caribbean Society and Culture 11
Caribbean Identity and Social Formation 13
Social Stratification 15
The Genesis of Caribbean Cultural Creolisation 19
Geographical impacts on Caribbean society and culture 24
Coral reefs 27

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS –
The Family 29
Education 31
Religion 34
Justice 35

The Caribbean Court of Justice versus the Privy Council 36

Good Governance – Creating A ‘Just’ Society 37
Caribbean Arts and Popular Culture 38
Caribbean Development through the Arts 39
The Influence of Caribbean Art Forms on Extra-Regional societies 40
The Caribbean’s influence on extra-regional countries 41
The Impact of Rastafarianism on the World 43
The influence of extra-regional societies on the Caribbean 44
Caribbean Governance Systems 46
The Westminster-Whitehall System of Government 47
Electoral systems in the Caribbean 48

MODULE 2

Sustainability and the Environment 50

Concepts and Indicators of Development 52
Factors that Promote and hinder Development 54
Tourism Challenges 57
Globalisation and Development – Organs, Functions, Impacts 58
Regional Integration – The Genesis 64
Regional integration – Contemporary Issues 66
Contributions of Sports to Development 72
Caribbean Intellectual Traditions 73
The Role of Media in Development 83
Social Justice 85

MODULE 3

Research Methods 88

Important Exam Tips 91

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 Module 1

***Location and Definition of the Caribbean***

THE CARIBBEAN is a large region that is marked by diversity from main land territories to islands and archipelagoes.
Having knowledge of the Caribbean’s location fosters a better understanding of the diversity that co-exists with our
shared Caribbean experiences.
There is no one way to define the Caribbean, however, the Caribbean is generally referred to as a melting pot. This
concept refers to the combination of a variety of cultures, people and experiences in the Caribbean region. There are
five ways by which we can define the Caribbean, these are:
GEOGRAPHICAL CARIBBEAN - The main idea behind the geographical definition of the Caribbean is that it is based on
the concept of the Caribbean Basin where the central identifying feature is the Caribbean Sea rimmed by mainland
territories of Central and South America.
The geographic Caribbean can also be defined using the lines of latitude and longitude, the Caribbean region stretches
from 600W to 9o0W of the Greenwich Meridian. The region stretches from 50N of the Equator to beyond 250N. It is
sometimes extended to 300N to incorporate Bermuda.
SHORTCOMINGS OF THIS DEFINITION - The idea of the Caribbean Basin and even the coordinates of longitude and
latitude are interpreted subjectively. The geographic conception of the Caribbean is based on the view of the Caribbean
as a basin with the surrounding territories representing the limits of the basin.
Belize is not in the Caribbean Basin, but is a large land mass in Central America and it is very much Caribbean.
The definition excludes countries that are normally accepted as Caribbean such as Guyana, Barbados and Bahamas.
Barbados and Bahamas are located in the Atlantic Ocean and not the Caribbean Sea and Guyana’s coast also borders the
Atlantic Ocean. Bermuda is also found in the Atlantic Ocean.
GEOLOGICAL CARIBBEAN - Is not as well used as the other ways by which we define the Caribbean region. However, the
defining feature is the Caribbean Plate which has marked boundaries or margins where it meets other plates. A ‘plate ‘is
a subterranean feature that is a part of the Earth’s crust and on which land and oceans are found. Much of the
Caribbean region lies on the Caribbean plate. While the Caribbean Plate is a significant entity on which to build our
conception of the Caribbean region, it does not include Guyana, the Bahamas and much of Cuba.
HISTORICAL CARIBBEAN - The historical definition of the Caribbean lies in the idea that region shares similar historical
processes regardless of our English, Spanish, Dutch or French colonial connections.
These historical processes include the occupation of the area by the indigenous peoples, the genocide and war engaged
against the indigenes, African slavery and indentureship, colonialism, the development of plantation economy and
plantation society, independence and forging a free society out of such experiences.
Language embodies these cultural differences and presents the major distinguishing factor that delimits the Caribbean
region from Latin America In defining the Caribbean using historical criteria; the European influence looms larger than
that of the indigenous peoples even though they were brought here later as indentured labourers.
POLITICAL CARIBBEAN - The Caribbean has three main political systems namely:

INDEPENDENT STATES - These are former colonies of metropole countries which are now self-governing. These islands
have chosen to govern their countries completely different from that of their colonial masters, namely democracy and
communism, eg., Jamaica, Haiti.

ASSOCIATED STATES - These countries are not independent but enjoy all the rights and privileges of the country that
governs it eg. Anguilla.

COLONIAL DEPENDENCIES - These are countries who are governed by another countries but do not enjoy the rights and
privileges enjoyed by the associated states, eg., Turks and Caicos Islands, Bermuda, Cayman Islands and British Virgin
Islands.

CARIBBEAN DIASPORA - The word ‘diaspora’ is Greek in origin and means ‘to scatter.’ In Caribbean Studies, the
Diasporic Caribbean refers to a group of people who reside in another geographical location for instance people of
Caribbean ancestry who reside in European metropolitan counties, North America, Canada among others who share an
emotional connection to their homeland.

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 *** Migratory movement and settlement patterns up to 1838 ***
THE CARIBBEAN we have come to know today has been marked by similar historical experiences, ranging from the
occupation of the indigenous peoples in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, to the coming of the Europeans, namely:
Spain, England, Holland and France to the plight and fight for freedom which has shaped history of the Caribbean.
MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS: Migration refers to the movement of people from one region to another.
The nomadic Amerindians often referred to as the ‘Indigenous Peoples’ migrated from Asia to settle in North, Central
and South America. Being nomads, they moved about in groups or tribes searching for food, and pasture lands for their
herds in the face of harsh winters. When the world experienced the last Ice Age, where large sections of the earth
including land, seas and oceans were covered with ice. The mongoloid peoples of East Central Asia migrated from their
homeland across the Bering Strait (narrow land bridge) which connects Siberia with Alaska in North America.
The indigenous peoples migrated and settled in North, Central and South America, nomadic tribes like the Sioux,
Cherokee Indians and Eskimos settled North America while the Mayans settled in countries of Central America.
The Tainos and Kalinagos migrated further south in the Caribbean in the Greater and Lesser Antilles Hence, distinct
patterns of settlement emerged among the indigenes. The Mayans established city states while the Tainos and Kalinagos
did not develop beyond the village stage with rudimentary (basic) social and political structures.

THE AREAS SETTLED AND REASONS FOR SETTLEMENT

KALINAGOS - Settled mostly in the Lesser Antilles eg. north-west Trinidad, Puerto Rico, parts of Barbados, Grenada, St
Vincent, St Lucia, etc.
Settled along the coast for the following reasons:
1. Protection
2. Fishing
3. Recreation
4. Household purposes
5. Transportation
TAINOS - Settled in the Greater Antilles eg. Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, San Salvador (San Salvador),
Barbados.
Settled along the coast for the following reasons:
1. Protection
2. Fishing
3. Recreation
4. Household purposes
5. Farming
6. Transportation

MAYANS - Settled in Central America eg. Honduras, Guatemala, Southern Mexico and the Belize, Yucatan Penninsula
Settled inland, in the dense forest regions, for the following reasons:
1. Protection
2. Farming
3. Firm foundation to construct their buildings.
4. For trade
5. Easy access to building materials.
THE EUROPEANS - At the time of the Age of Exploration, the Europeans namely England, Spain, Holland/Netherland and
France were in a quest to establish their empire. It is believed that the first set of Europeans who came were the Spanish
in 1492 who established colonies in different areas of the Caribbean. The French, English and Dutch became interlopers
in the monopoly that Spain had of the New World in particular the Caribbean. The English, Spanish and French settled
islands and established plantations employing enslaved labour, the Dutch however who were traders did not erect
plantations except for salt ponds in Punta De Araya off the coast of Venezuela, and used Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao
(ABC islands) as their base and warehouses to carry out their trade with the mainland.
THE AFRICANS - The Africans were brought to the Caribbean as slaves to work on sugar plantations when Caribbean
tobacco farmers had failed to compete with Virginian tobacco farms. Honey was an expensive commodity in Europe,
hence there was need a new sweetener, sugar was chosen as the new sweetener because it was much cheaper to
produce. The Europeans who had established plantations in the Caribbean turned to Africa to find a suitable source of
labour for the production of sugar since the indentured Europeans were not suitable to produce sugar.

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The African presence in the Caribbean brought about a dramatic change in Caribbean society, it heralded a new class
structure, racial composition and division of labour. The Europeans did everything in their power to try and alienate the
Africans from their cultural identity by giving them new names, implemented laws forbidding religious worship and
scattering of different cultures. Despite all their efforts, the Africans held on and preserved many of their African cultural
forms namely:
religious practices – obeah, voodoo, shango
folk medicine – use of herbs and bushes as medicine
music – drumming, use of tambourines, rattles, call and answer style of singing
foods – yam, cocoa, asham, fu-fu, duckoonoo
language – creation of Creole as a result of the merger of English and African dialect (nyam, su-su, kas-kas, bafan)
festivals and celebrations: nine nights, Dinki mini, yam festivals and Jonkonnu.

EAST INDIANS - The East Indians came after 1838 in an attempt to solve the labour shortage on Caribbean plantations
being that the English Caribbean had just received full freedom from slavery. This caused a mass exodus from
plantations. The Indians presence in the Caribbean added to the vast array of culture the Caribbean now boast, they
brought their food (rice and pak choi), dress (Sari), festivals (divali, hosay etc),language, lifestyle practices, music, dance,
religious beliefs (Hinduism and Muslim)etc. The East Indians came in large number with over 400, 000 from different
castes, for some, work on the plantation was a form of oppression hence, as soon as their contracts expired they left
plantation to set up businesses.
CHINESE - came in small groups, they lacked the skills necessary to work the plantations although they were hard
workers. At the end of their contract period they left the plantation to set up wholesales and shops across the
Caribbean.
MIGRATION AND ITS IMPACTS POST-1838
MIGRATION - People migrate between rural and urban areas, between countries and the region, and between the
region and the wider world. People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified as economic,
social, political or environmental:
ECONOMIC MIGRATION - Moving to find work, follow a particular career path, access to food, need for modern
infrastructure, low wages.
SOCIAL MIGRATION - Moving somewhere for a better quality of life, to be closer to family or friends, social and cultural
amenities and facilities, and educational opportunities.
POLITICAL MIGRATION - Moving to escape political persecution, war, crime and violence. E.g. Homosexuals in
homophobic societies such as Jamaica.
ENVIRONMENTAL - Environmental causes of migration include natural disasters, such as flooding. It must be noted that
some people are forced to migrate, e.g., those who move due to war or famine, such as refugees or individuals seeking
asylum. A refugee is someone who has left his home and seeks somewhere to settle in comfort and freedom from fear.
TERMS USED TO EXPLAIN MOVEMENTS OF THE POPULATION
• Push factors: These are the reasons people leave an area which include a lack of services, lack of safety, high
crime, crop failure, drought, flooding, poverty, war and so on.
• Pull factors: Reasons people move to a particular area, including higher employment rate, more wealth,
better services, good climate, safer environment, less crime, political stability, more fertile land, lower risk
from natural hazards, and so on. Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and
pull factors.
RURAL AND URBAN MIGRATION - One noticeable issue in the society today is the rate at which people migrate from the
rural to the urban areas. One of the factors responsible for rural-to-urban migration is the lack of or inadequate social
amenities and facilities in the rural areas. These include piped water, electricity, good roads, hospitals, schools,
recreational centres, and so on.
Inadequate and varied jobs in the rural areas also cause many youths to migrate to the urban areas, in the hope of
finding better opportunities for themselves. Rural-to-urban migration has negative consequences. It leads to over-
population of the urban areas, thus encouraging crime in the society. Rural-to-urban migration also slows down the rate
of development of the rural areas.

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 CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION
A) To the host/country of destination (place to which people migrate)
POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION TO THE HOST COUNTRY/INDIVIDUAL
• New skills are introduced by the immigrant.
• New cultures are introduced and integrated in the society.
• The labour force may be more equipped, skilled and will increase competition for jobs, which will satisfy
employees.

NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION TO THE HOST COUNTRY/INDIVIDUAL.

• Exploitation of workers via underemployment and poor-paying jobs, with poor working conditions.
• Open violence against the newly arrived, who do not wish to integrate or who have not been accepted by other
individuals at the destination.
• Greater stress is placed on the resources and social services of the country as more individuals ‘fight’ for the
little that is there.

B) On the Country of origin

POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION TO THE SENDER COUNTRY/INDIVIDUAL.
• Provides a temporary solution to unemployment problems as people vacate jobs so others can fill the
vacancies.
• Contributes to foreign exchange, especially in the form of remittances to relatives and friends.
NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION TO THE SENDER COUNTRY/INDIVIDUAL.
• Further unemployment, as those who normally explore ventures migrate for new enterprise and resources
migrate.
• No investment, due to people with money leaving; those who are left behind are unable to put forward capital
and expertise needed for increasing productivity. Brain drain, as those who are educated migrate to ‘greener
pastures’.
• The creation of a dependency syndrome as those left behind stop being productive and depend on remittances.

ADDITIONAL CONSEQUENCES TO THE INDIVIDUAL –

NEGATIVE:
• Discrimination faced in foreign lands.
• Inability to find a job as quickly as expected to look after themselves.
• Low-paying, non-status, poor-quality jobs are made available for immigrants.
• Culture shock, as individuals find themselves unable to fit into a new culture.
• Loneliness and separation from loved ones becomes a reality.
POSITIVE
• Employment opportunities for individuals.
• High-paying jobs which enable individuals to be able to look after loved ones back in the country of origin.
• New opportunities may be available to migrants.
• Freedom, maybe from problems back home.
EMIGRATION WITHIN THE CARIBBEAN
1. Free villages established as a result of a mass exodus of ex-slaves off the plantations after 1838.
2. Caribbean nationals moved to countries in Central America to work on the Venezuelan oil fields, the Panama Canal
and to construct railways they even when to work on banana plantations in Nicaragua. Caribbean nationals also
emigrated to work on sugar plantation in Cuba, some went to Bermuda to become domestic workers while others
went to Trinidad because of high wages that were being offered.
EMIGRATION OUTSIDE OF THE CARIBBEAN
1. Caribbean Nationals immigrated to England in WWII- war time jobs, they helped in reconstructing the ruins from
the war specifically the postal services, construction, nursing, transport & in more recent times for teaching.
2. Some nationals also migrated to the USA to fill the void in labour as a result of WWII.
IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON THE REGION
1. Creation of a multiracial society
2. New systems of government introduced
3. Opened the Caribbean to Europe, Africa, Asia and the American Continents
4. Introduction of new languages
5. Introduction of new religious beliefs
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IMPACT OF EMIGRATION ON THE REGION
1. Brain drain
2. Unemployment levels lowered
3. There is no direct benefit from investment made in human resources
4. Governments spend additionally to replaces lost skills
5. The pressure placed on limited social service (education, health, housing) are lowered

CARIBBEAN SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

SLASH AND BURN - Used by the indigenous peoples to clear the land, still used today by peasant farmers.
ENCOMIENDA - Implemented by the Spanish, Amerindians had to work gold mines, ranches or on farms in exchange for
food, housing, Christian teaching, clothes and protection from their encomendero.
SLAVERY - Introduced by the English, Africans were brought to the Caribbean through the Trans- Atlantic slave trade to
plant, reap and produce sugar for the economic benefit of the planters.
INDENTURESHIP - Indentureship happened in two phases.
PHASE 1 - The period when tobacco farms were in, poor white men were brought to the Caribbean to work on tobacco
farms but they were unsuitable.
PHASE 2 - This happened after 1838 when slavery was abolished and there was a need for labour because ex-slaves
refused to work on the plantations hence, the planters when in search of human resource in Africa, Europe, India and
China to continue sugar production on plantations.
PLANTATION SYSTEM - A self-contained unique system that used extensive cheap labour. The lives of the Africans who
lived on it were controlled by the authorities, the system employed a mono-crop culture and depended heavily on the
metropolitan countries to finance and to purchase its produce since it was an export oriented industry. It brought major
profits to the owners and financiers over the years while exploiting the humanity of the labour force who were
considered to be sub-human because of their phenotypical characteristics.

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 *** Responses to Oppression – Historical Processes ***
OBJECTIVES
1. ASSESS WAYS in which Caribbean people responded to oppression and genocide.
European presence in the Caribbean not only introduced the Caucasian race to the region, but it also brought with it an
air of dominance which has been explicitly expressed in the ways they dealt with anyone who did not have the same hair
texture, body mass or skin complexion. This dominance was particularly meted out on the Africans who, in the eyes of
the Europeans, were barbaric and “dirty, stinking animals” according to Dyde, Greenwood and Hamber. The
introduction of the encomienda system of production by the Spanish and slavery by the English were the start of
oppression. Caribbean people over the years have responded to oppression in a number of ways, namely:
COLUMBIAN ERA - The indigenous peoples choose marronage as a way of escaping the harshness of plantation life.
 Committed acts of suicide and infanticide.
 Tainos and Kalinagos fought Spaniards.
 They hanged or poisoned themselves with cassava juice.
 Starved themselves.
SLAVERY - Some slaves choose marronage as a way of escaping the harshness of plantation life.
 Committed acts of suicide and infanticide.
 Continued to meet in the evenings even when meeting was banned on plantations.
 African slave women used their tongues to gossip European women.
FORMS OF RESISTANCE - Resistance is further categorized as insurrectionary (active resistance) and non-
insurrectionary (passive resistance) methods.
A. Insurrectionary methods tended to be violent and caused more damage to the plantation and whole system of
slavery. Such methods included:
• Destruction of property – damage to plantation tools and machinery done in such a manner so as to appear
accidental. Over a prolonged period, this caused considerable cost to the plantation, in terms of repairs.
• Rebellions/Murder of plantation owner(s) – poisoning was one such method used by the domestics.
• Running away aka. marronage
B. Non-insurrectionary methods were a prolonged non-violent approach to resisting slavery. Such methods included:
• Gynaecological – a) exaggerating female complaints b) inducing abortion c) prolonging the period of
gestation, sometimes opting to breastfeed babies for as long as two years./Pretending not to understand
the language to evade working.
• Malingering/pretending to be ill or exaggerating any existing ailment or sometimes even injuring
themselves.
• Suicide
Revolts/Active Resistance carried out on the plantations of the Caribbean from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.
1791 Haitian revolution, 1816 revolt in Barbados,1823 in Demerara and 1831 in Jamaica, 1865 rebellion in Jamaica
Post-emancipation riots e.g. potato/food riots that occurred on plantation because of poor wages, lack of food.
Non-violent acts/Passive Resistance – malingering, sabotage of plantation equipment, verbal defiance, pretending not
to understand instructions given by planter.
Other Coping Mechanisms –
1. The emergence of the tambo-bamboo bands when drum were banned in Trinidad, the playing of tins and eventually
the formation of steel pans.
2. Using literacy as a tool of opposition – to understand the ways of the planter, e.g., Sam Sharpe, Toussaint and Nanny.
POST SLAVERY - Blacks and indentured servants turned to peasantry, rejecting plantation life and establishing free
villages which contributed to the diversification of the economy. Asian indentured servants opted to return to India and
China. Some established shops and restaurants as a way of escaping plantation life.
Labour riots/rebellion of the 1930s - throughout the British Caribbean, this led to the widening of the electoral
franchise, the beginning of self-government and the establishment of trade unions to negotiate fair wages for workers.
(Moyne Commission sent in response)
 Emergence of Rastafarianism as a response to colonialism and a rejection of Eurocentric views.
 Establishment of faith-based school for Muslims and Hindus.
 Muharram Massacre in Trinidad in 1884 and protest over the laws and treatment of Muslims.

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 *** The Genesis of the Peasantry – 1838 to 1900***
OBJECTIVES
1. Outline three factors that aided the development of the peasantry.
2. Discuss three factors that hindered the development of the peasantry.
3. Discuss the contribution of the peasantry to the social and economic life of the Caribbean.

EFFORTS OF THE FREEDMEN (Ex-slaves)

 Missionary-supported free villages, many freedmen bought their own land with money earned from overtime
work during apprenticeship. They became subsistence farmers but sold some surplus crops in local markets and,
in some cases, grew sugar cane. They eventually developed trading systems (‘higgling’ in Jamaica) and exported
crops: coffee, ginger and pimento in Jamaica; arrowroot in St Vincent; cocoa and copra in Grenada.
 The co-operative venture in Guiana was short-lived but, after its collapse, co-operative members still sought
land by squatting in the interior.
 Squatting – illegal occupation of Crown lands in remote areas; common in large territories.
 Metayage or sharecropping – labourers produced the sugar and the profits were shared between themselves
and the plantation owner. This was done mainly in the French islands, St Lucia and Tobago. In Barbados and
other areas, the freedmen grew sugar cane on plantation grounds or small plots nearby. The cane was milled on
the estate; estate owner and growers shared profits.

HINDRANCES - The peasants encountered such difficulties as:

 lands were not officially surveyed.

 colonial governments imposed restrictions on the sale of Crown lands.
 the land itself was very often marginal, infertile and remote.
 licences for the sale of export crops were required.
 opposition from the planters.
 exploitation of land buyers; they were forced to pay excessively high prices for inferior land.
 laws were passed restricting the movement of labourers, both within a particular colony and among the various
Caribbean islands.
 blacks had to pay for costly licences to sell sugar and coffee and for making charcoal.

ROLE PLAYED BY GOVERNMENT IN FACILITATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PEASANTRY

 The Imperial Department of Agriculture suggested suitable crops to be grown in the different islands. It also
aimed at introducing new crops in areas where sugar was not the ideal crop.
 Government grants and loans were provided to improve the steamship service between Canada, the United
States and the West Indies. For example, the government gave £20,000 to Elders and Fyffe to carry 40, 000
 bunches of bananas to England every fortnight. This assistance was to enable fruits and other foods to be
transported quickly to these markets.
 In the 1860s, the colonial office began to encourage local governments to allow black farmers to acquire land in
Trinidad. Sir Arthur Gordon took the lead in 1868 by beginning the sale of Crown land to freedmen at low prices.
In British Guiana, the price of land was reduced, so more blacks were able to acquire land. In
 other colonies, farmers were encouraged to buy wasteland from uncultivated plantations. In Grenada, sugar
cultivation was abandoned, so the number of small farmers increased by 1910. In Jamaica, the number of small
farmers doubled in the period 1860-1910. In St Vincent, abandoned estates were given to arrowroot
 farmers. This was the colonial government’s effort to provide land to farmers through a land-settlement
scheme.
 Botanical gardens were established to experiment with new varieties of seeds and to demonstrate new farming
methods to small farmers, distribute plants and seeds and organise courses in agriculture.
 The price of land was reduced to encourage small farmers to purchase land for the cultivation of new export
crops.

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NEW CROP TERRITORIES
1. Rice - British Guiana
2. Bananas - Jamaica
3. Limes Dominica, St. Lucia
4. Sea Island cotton - Montserrat, St Vincent
5. Cocoa - Trinidad, Grenada, St Lucia, Dominica
6. Arrowroot - St Vincent
7. Rubber - Trinidad, British Guiana
8. Coconuts – Nevis

EFFECTS OF THE SUCCESSFUL ESTABLISHMENT OF A MARKET FOR NEW CROPS

 The peasant farmer class grew in number and importance as sugar plantations declined, so peasant production
became vital to the economies of many territories, particularly in the Lesser Antilles.
 Peasant farmers were able to improve their standard of living from the income earned from the sale of new
crops.
 The establishment of banks and cooperative societies encouraged small farmers to save money earned from the
sale of crops. Perhaps, later, this money was used to buy new equipment or more land.

In conclusion, the peasants started producing some of their crops for export. They grew ginger, pimento and coffee,
which were sold to local brokers who supplied European brokers. The small farmers in the Leewards
grew arrowroot as a staple export crop. In Grenada, they exported coffee, cotton, cocoa, copra, honey and beeswax. In
Trinidad, as the squatters cleared the land, they sold the timber for charcoal burning and exported some for boat
building.

Later, they planted and exported coffee and cocoa. The new farmers, small traders, craftsmen and shopkeepers, and
women who ran lodging houses, laid the foundation for a new pattern of social and economic life in the Caribbean. In
Jamaica, this could be seen by the middle of the 19th century.

Inland towns, villages, schools and health facilities grew up as a result of the peasantry. Shopkeepers, tailors,
shoemakers and blacksmiths settled inland to supply goods and services to the surrounding farmers. A system of tracks
and pathways were developed to link the interior towns and villages with each other and to the coast. Along with this
came the higglers and wholesalers to buy fresh fruits, vegetables, cocoa, coffee, pimento, arrowroot and ginger.

Goods for sale were taken to the coastal town to be prepared and shipped by a new group of merchants. A two-way
trade developed where they sold the farmers’ produce to Europe and imported manufactured goods and provisions,
which they sold to the new village shopkeepers. A system was built that was separate from the plantation; the new
merchants gave the coastal towns a new importance.

ACTIVITY – EXTENDED WRITING

Imagine that you are a peasant living in Jamaica in the 1890s. Prepare a speech for the local assembly in which you:
i. Outline three factors that aided the development of the peasantry. [9marks]
ii. Describe three hindrances faced by peasants. [9 marks]
iii. Outline four effects of the peasantry on British Caribbean economy and society. [7 marks] Total 25 marks

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 ***Movements Towards Independence***

POLITICAL ENFRANCHISEMENT - Political enfranchisement refers to the right of a people or nation to determine their
own affairs. The abolition of slavery in 1834 in the British colonies did not result in any meaningful change in the social,
economic or political well-being of ex-slaves. However, freedom from slavery created a demand for greater freedoms,
and so began the movement to independence. In the years after emancipation, thousands of Caribbean people migrated
to different regional destinations for work and better wages. For instance, there were a number of Caribbean nationals
who went to work on the Panama Canal, sugar industries in Cuba and textile factories in Puerto Rico. This propelled the
process towards Constitutional Decolonization, which is the process whereby the colony achieves independence.

The 1930s Caribbean was marked by a period of devastating economic conditions. People were living in squalid
conditions. This period was marked by a number of labour riots, strikes and wide-scale protest; violence and mayhem
followed. This period saw the rise of charismatic leaders in the labour movement who, riding on their mass popularity,
made the successful transition to political leaders. Uriah Buzz Butler,Sir Alexander Bustamante, Adrian Cola Rienzi and
Captain A.A Cipriani of Trinidad and Tobago began a working-class movement dedicated towards better working
conditions for the poor as well as improvements in health and education. This concern with the social welfare made it
inevitable that the trade unions would be the birthplace for Caribbean political parties.

ADULT SUFFRAGE - This is the right of citizens in a given society who are entitled to vote in an election to select, at
periodic intervals when these elections are called, a government to represent them. The widespread unrest in the 1930s
forced the colonial masters to instate elected representation. There were no restrictions put on the population – except
that of age in being eligible to vote and elect members to the legislature. Where universal suffrage exists, the right to
vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, sexual orientation, gender identity, wealth, social status or disability.
Universal Adult Suffrage Dates: - 1944 Jamaica, 1945 Trinidad and Tobago, 1950 Barbados, 1951 Antigua and Barbuda,
St. Lucia, St Vincent, Guyana and St Kitts.
Historically, universal suffrage often refers to universal adult ‘male’ suffrage. The concept of universal suffrage originally
referred to all male citizens having the right to vote, regardless of property requirements or other measures of wealth.
INTERNAL SELF-GOVERNMENT - The term ‘internal self-government’ meant that the head of government and the
Cabinet are in control of all the domestic matters, except security. All British Caribbean territories throughout the 1950s
moved towards internal self-government. What was unique about this is that it relates to how this arrangement was
practised. Caribbean nationals were disappointed because they thought they would have been the ones who would be
in full control of the affairs of their countries. No single colony gained full control of its government and controlled its
own foreign policy. Britain still dominated and managed the economies, finance and trade patterns. The governor of the
colonies still had direct control/special control over the police, prisons and public orders.

ECONOMIC ENFRANCHISEMENT - This is a condition whereby a country or nation achieves the right to determine how it
will develop its systems of production. The genesis of this enfranchisement can be found in the movement of the newly
freed people to establish themselves as new proprietors and which evolved into the formation of free villages and
peasantry. Caribbean people, in their quest for self-governance, also wanted the opportunity to control their economy.

The plantation economy was diversified to include alternative crops such as banana, cocoa, coffee and arrowroot, which
were all cultivated by peasant farmers on small landholdings. This strategy of economic diversification attempted to
make small farmers self-sufficient and resilient to face the economic hardships. It kept them independent of the planter
and the low wages offered on the plantations.

It gave them the opportunity to organize themselves for the export market and develop some sophistication in making
trading connections with the wider world. In spite of this yearning to become economically viable, peasants still faced
oppression from the ruling class, who charged high rents for land or face eviction.

Planters refuse to sell lands to peasants in order to block their efforts to seek credit facilities; some were sabotaged.
Efforts at economic diversification did assist the colony in establishing a more balanced economy and provided the
peasants with a sense of independence.

ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITIES - At the establishment of free villages and independent peasantry, an important aid to
farmers was the saving banks set up in most colonies in the 1870s. These made it possible to save money earned from
the sale of crops and, perhaps, use it to later to buy new equipment or a little more land (Claypole, Robottom, 2011)

10
 ***Characteristics of Caribbean Society and Culture***
OBJECTIVES
(1) Define society, culture, demography and human ecology.
(2) Describe the elements that determine the characteristics of a society.
(3) Describe the relationship between society and culture.
(4) Assess the factors that have shaped Caribbean society and culture, including Caribbean diasporic communities.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY - Human civilisations tend to organise in groups which facilitate interactions with each
other. Within every community, roles are assigned to individuals for effectual operation, which often leads to a civilised
society. A society therefore can be defined in the following ways:

 DEFINED TERRITORIAL SPACE - A society is often referred to as people living together in the same geographical
area over a long period of time. In the context of the Caribbean, a society is referred to as the boundaries of a
nation state. For instance, the Jamaican society, the St Lucian Society, the Cuban Society, etc.
 A SHARED COMMON PURPOSE - The term ‘society’ is also used to refer to people who share similar historical
background, culture and interests for instance, the Jamaican Horticultural Society, Jamaican Society for the
Aged.
 CONTINUITY OVER TIME AND SPACE/CITIZENSHIP WITHIN A SPACE - Sociologists in their study of society speak
of an organised group framework, meaning that within each society, there is a strict social structure. This refers
to a network of interrelationship among the individuals and groups. In their pursuit of understanding the general
make-up of a society, sociologists study relationships to verify their effects on the function of the society.
ELEMENTS THAT DETERMINE THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF A SOCIETY

POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS - This determines the general social patterns of a group of people living within a certain
geographical area. There are two chief kinds of population studies, demography and human ecology.
Demography - is the systematic study of the size, composition and distribution of human populations.
Human ecology - on the other hand, deals mainly with the structure of urban environments and their patterns of
settlement and growth. Studies in human ecology explain why and how cities and other communities grow and change.

SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS - Societal institutions include churches, governments, security forces, hospitals, families,
business organisations and schools. For each of these institutions listed above there are clearly defined relationships
among people who perform specific actions within the society. It is imperative to note that each institution has a direct
effect on the society. For instance, infusing aspects of Vision 2030 in the curriculum across schools in Jamaica, therefore,
goals of the entire society are influences by the transmission of learning and knowledge in educational institutions.

SOCIAL CHANGE - Social change involves any key modification in the social conditions and patterns of behavior in a
society. Change may be caused by fashions, inventions, revolutions, wars or other events and activities. Sociologists, in
the pursuit to uncover the mysteries behind social change within the societies have concentrated their efforts on
education, social values and settlement patterns that occur in newly industrialised nations.
Here are two main types of social change:
 Change in the number and variety of positions and roles.
 Change in obligation or duties attached to positions.
Changes can take pace gradually or suddenly and can result from deliberate planning and it could be unintentionally.
These changes can be beneficial to some and punitive to others, and as such, it is inevitable that there will be resistance
to some changes.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES - Refers to similar experiences that people within ethnic/racial groups share. There are practices
that are unique to them, such as the preparation of food, religious rituals, mode of dress, politics, festivals and
celebrations informing their way of living. These practices are passed down to the young. For instance, the Tainos,
Kalinagos and Mayans all had distinct cultural practices.
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR - Social behavior is the study of people’s attitude to change, conformity, leadership morale and any
other form of behavior. It also includes the interaction people share with members within a group. Through the process
of socialization standards of behaviours are relayed from generation to generation. Sociology studies how people adjust
their behaviors to fit the already established standards.
THE CARIBBEAN SOCIETY REFERS TO: The population that falls within the geographical confines of the greater and lesser
Antilles. The natives or citizens of those countries that are bordered by the Caribbean Sea and those of the mainland
territories. Those who share a common history of colonialism, slavery, the plantation system and its attendant culture,
values and norms. Those groups of persons who were born in the Caribbean but live outside of the region.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE - Culture speaks to the ideas, beliefs, practices and values that form the basis on which a
society is built, hence, the culture of a society is learnt and shared by the members of that society. Culture is transmitted
from one generation to another through verbal and non-verbal interactions. Cultures are passed down through
institutions such as the family and religion which have prescribed behaviors for its members to follow.
Culture also has gendered practices, in terms of how males and females are expected to respond in situations that are
unique to them. Culture is a dynamic, creative continuous process. The culture of the Caribbean is diverse, oftentimes
referred to as a ‘melting pot of cultures’ because of the contribution of various groups such as the East Indians, Chinese,
Europeans, Africans, and Amerindians. This legacy of diversity can be readily seen in the languages spoken in the
Caribbean: English, Spanish, French, Dutch, Creole, Mandarin (Chinese immigrants).
Culture, therefore, provides individuals with a set of common understandings that they employ in fashioning their
actions, and makes society possible by providing a common framework of meaning.
The process by which people learn their society’s culture is called enculturation. Enculturation unifies people of a society
by providing them with common experiences. Social scientists identify certain aspects of culture as pop culture or
popular culture. Pop culture includes such elements of a society’s arts and entertainment as television, radio,
recordings, advertising, sports, hobbies, fads and fashions.

Also satisfies human needs in a particular way, is acquired through learning based on the use of symbols and consists of
individual traits and groups of traits called patterns

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

 Norms: Norms are social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior in given situations. They
afford a means by which we orient ourselves to other people. Folkways, mores, and laws are types of norms.
 Values: Values are broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct, and good that most members of a society
share. Values are so general and abstract that they do not explicitly specify which behaviors are acceptable and
which are not.
 Symbols and language: Symbols are acts or objects that have come to be socially accepted as standing for
something else. Symbols assume many different forms, but language is the most important of these. Language is
the chief vehicle by which people communicate ideas, information, attitudes, and emotions, and it serves as the
principal means by which human beings create culture and transmit it from generation to generation.

CULTURAL UNITY AND DIVERSITY

 Cultural universals: Cultural universals are patterned and recurrent aspects of life that appear in all known
societies. All people confront many of the same problems; culture represents an accumulation of solutions to
the problems posed by human biology and the human situation.
 Cultural integration: The items that form a culture tend to constitute a consistent and integrated whole. For
example, societies that value universal education also usually have norms and laws about schools, organise
education into a collective activity, and create symbols and share meanings about the value of education and
educational organizations.
 Ethnocentrism: The cultural ways of our own society become so deeply ingrained that we have difficulty
conceiving of alternative ways of life. We judge the behavior of other groups by the standards of our own
culture, a phenomenon sociologists term ethnocentrism.
 Cultural relativism: In studying other cultures, we must examine behavior in the light of the values, beliefs, and
motives of each culture.

SUBCULTURES AND COUNTERCULTURES - Cultural diversity may be found within a society in the form of subcultures.
When the norms, values, and lifestyles of a subculture are at odds with those of the larger society, it is a counterculture.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Explain how population characteristics determine the general social patterns of a group of people living in a certain
geographical area.
2. Assess the extent to which cultural traits evident throughout the region have resulted from Caribbean peoples’
experiences.

12
 ***Caribbean Identity and Social Formation***
OBJECTIVES:
1. Define cultural diversity, social stratification, creolization and hybridization.
2. Describe the process of identify in the Caribbean.
3. Describe the process of social formation in the Caribbean.
The Caribbean is made up of a chain of islands that share distinct and similar experiences in terms of food eaten, clothes
worn, customs/practices, religion, politics, etc. Caribbean people identify themselves as island nationals, for instance,
Jamaicans, St Lucians and Dominicans. The debate as to whether or not the Caribbean itself has an identity is one that is
ongoing. However, we have seen that Caribbean nationals toy with the idea of being Caribbean and not Bajans, Cubans
or Jamaicans, when it comes to sports, for example track and field and cricket (with the West Indies cricket team coming
out of the Federation Movement).
CULTURAL DIVERSITY - Cultural diversity is the variety of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world
as a whole. In addition to the more obvious cultural differences that exist between people, such as language, dress and
traditions, there are also significant variations on the way societies organise themselves, in their shared conception of
morality, and in the ways they interact with their environment. Cultural diversity emphasises differences among people.
It is both a call to celebrate and recognise differences and, at the same time, an awareness that cultural differences is a
potentially explosive situation. This is so because people of different ethnicities usually keep a distance from each other.
For example, the Asian immigrants had friction with Negroes over women and labour issues during the indentureship
period.
Cultural diversity in the Caribbean is also evident in racial differences. These include people of aboriginal stock such as
Tainos, Mayans and Kalinagos; European stock; Mongoloid stock such as Chinese and Indians; and Negroid stock.
Cultural diversity in the Caribbean is particularly marked because of the many races and racial groups present. Similarly,
cultural groups are identified using several criteria. These include race, colour, religion, heritage and language. Other
cultural dimensions are also used to differentiate the groups. For example, wealth, kin (family relationships), education,
rural or urban residence.
Diversity within the Caribbean region has been fueled by historical, sociological and anthropological issues. Historically,
the Caribbean society was formed with the meeting of different groups who migrated here, some via the Bering Strait,
others through exploration, the triangular trade and indentureship. Europeans, Africans, Indians, Chinese and
Amerindians all met and interacted within the context of European dominance and plantation life. This brought about
the mixing of cultures.
Sociologically, the groups who came to the Caribbean all varied in cultural orientation, which eventually posed a
problem for the organisation of the society. These varied cultural orientations were seen in religion (European –
Christianity, Chinese – Buddhism, Indian – Hinduism and Muslim, Africans – ancestral worship), languages and customs.
Over time, the Caribbean society became stratified based on colour, race, class, wealth, prowess and education. In the
post-Emancipation era, education became the chief means of social mobility.
The anthropologist focuses on understanding how people/groups in a society develop a sense of identity. For example,
how a person perceives himself or herself is influenced by how his/her ethinic group experienced the transplanting
process within the new societies of the Caribbean. The Indians who were considered to be at the bottom of the social
ladder came with their cultural practices to the Caribbean when they were brought here as indentured labourers.
This they held on to when they faced hardship and oppression in a foreign land amid strange people who were long
established. They clung to their customs and remained in the rural areas long after their contracts had expired. Being
social outcasts, they formed a virtually closed community. However, their children, born in the Caribbean, sought
education and, soon after that, competition for the rewards of the society.
They used any means – education, land, business and family contracts – to better their social and economic conditions.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Occupying the same space meant that accommodations had to be made between the different ethnic groups. For
example: In similar places where different groups had been brought in as a source of labour, cultural pluralism was the
form of accommodation that resulted. Cultural pluralism is a term associated with the cultural diversity resulting from
European colonisation, when different groups shared the same space but did not mix to a significant extent.
In the Caribbean, from the very first contact of Europeans and the Amerindians, hybridisation or the mixing of cultures
and races to produce new or Creole forms became the form of accommodation. Another option also exercised from the
beginnings of conquest was marronage, or running away and attempting to build a different society and culture.

13
In the contemporary Caribbean, different ethnic groups have begun to live together through miscegenation, which is the
mixing of different races. In Trinidad, then Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar developed a Cabinet comprising a
variety of races and religions.

Their Housing Development Corporation (HDC) built houses in rural areas in which they accommodated people of
different races and religion, political and economic power and social visibility.
POSITIVES
 Variety of ethnic celebrations – members are introduced to foods, festivals, music and celebrations, fashion,
handicraft and cultural expressions such as dance.
 People may appreciate other cultures and a range of perspectives by growing up in the society, for instance,
being invited to celebrations and festivals.
 Day-to-day living in such societies provided instances enabling one to reflect on the values and customs of
others. For example, the reluctance of some Christians schools to admit Rastafarian students because of the
‘dreadlocks’ hairstyle. This situation presented opportunities for national dialogue which may not have occurred
as civilized discourse - they were opportunities nonetheless.
 Diverse and plural societies provide unique conditions under which experiments in cultural hybridization may
take place to create different forms of music, art, literature and poetry.
 A plural society provides opportunities for persons to learn from an early age that conflict is endemic (common)
and that they need skills of negotiation, alliance building and peace brokering to accommodate all the many
issues that may arise.
NEGATIVES
 There may be feelings of discrimination which may break out in social unrest, such as ethnic violence, labour
riots, etc.
 There may be overpopulation from people coming in where their culture is flourishing.
 Ethnic politics develops with political parties becoming polarized (divided into opposing groups). In such a
situation, politics becomes a contest between ethnicities. The ethnic lines harden and jobs, promotions and
opportunities are limited to people of the same ethnicitiy.
 Ethnic hate may arise out of feelings of ethnic superiority (the ‘us versus them’ syndrome), compounded by the
feelings that another group is getting more of the national pie than one’s own group.
 Ethnic prejudices are perpetuated through socialization within the family, which is reinforced through
interaction with friends and acquaintances. Many times, differences appear to be so profound that myths and
misconceptions of the other race or ethnic groups are believed as facts.

14
 ***SOCIAL STRATIFICATION***
People’s relationships are characterised by social ordering. Sociologists apply the term social structure to this social
ordering – the interweaving of people’s interactions and relationships in recurrent and stable patterns.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is defined as the presence of distinct social groups which are ranked one above the other in
terms of factors such as prestige and wealth (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). This definition gives a clear indication that
social stratification is structured social inequality [unequal distribution of wealth, prestige, power, opportunities among
individuals and groups] (Tischler, 2002).
Stratification occurs because of scarce access to resources, assests or property, and can also occur on the basis of age,
race, gender, caste and religion.
STATUSES - Status represents a position within a group or society. It is by means of statuses that we locate one another
in various social structures. Some are assigned to us – ascribed statuses. Others we secure on the basis of individual
choice and competition – achieved statuses.
ROLES - A status carries with it a set of culturally defined rights and duties that sociologists term a role. A role is the
expected behaviour we associate with a status. Role performance is the actual behaviour of the person who occupies a
status. Role conflict arises when individuals are confronted with conflicting expectations stemming from their occupancy
of two or more statuses. Role strain arises when individuals find the expectations of a single role incompatible.
GROUPS - Statuses and roles are building blocks for more comprehensive social structures, including groups of two or
more people. Roles link us within social relationships. When these relationships are sustained across time, we frequently
attribute group properties to them. Sociologists distinguish groups from aggregates and categories.
INSTITUTIONS - Institutions are the principal social structures used to organise, direct and execute the essential tasks of
social living. Each institution is built around a standardised solution to a set of problems and encompasses the notions of
both cultural patterns and social structure.
SOCIETIES - Societies represent the most comprehensive and complex type of social structure in today’s world. By virtue
of their common culture, the members of a society typically possess similar values and norms and a common language.
One particular approach for classifying societies is based on the way people derive their livelihood: hunting and
gathering societies, horticultural societies, agrarian societies, industrial societies, and post-industrial societies. Another
approach rests on the distinction between traditional and modern types.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION DURING SLAVERY

RACIAL COMPOSITION - There were two distinct races found on the plantations, the whites and blacks. There were the
European-born whites and Caribbean-born whites, also called Creole whites. The whites had the most privilege on the
plantation, in comparison to the other groups of people living there. The white population was the least (in terms of
their numbers) on the plantation and was divided into two categories:

THE ELITE WHITES/GRAND BLANCS - They had the most prestige on the plantation and in the Caribbean society since
they owned the means of production (land, labour, capital, enterprise). They planned all estate activities, administered
punishments, and almost, if not completely, made up the lower houses of parliaments, for example, in Jamaica.

THE POOR WHITES/PETIT BLANCS - These had less prestige yet they were higher than the coloureds, free coloured and
free blacks and blacks. This was all attributed to their race (ascribed status). The poor whites were indentured labourers
from England, Spain and France (depending on the colonising agent). They were given less important jobs on the
plantation, such as booker and training the specialised slaves in carpentry and masonry.

MULATTOES/COLOUREDS - There is a growing debate whether they were a race or ethnicity (coloured/mulattos).
Basically, these individuals were the offspring of whites and blacks; the offspring of the elite whites were way more
privileged that the poor whites, e.g., George Washington Gordon. They had a right to an education and could inherit
property, etc. The offspring of poor whites were normally domestic servants who catered to the needs of the planters
and their families, or whites who were aligned with the great house.

FREE BLACKS - Free blacks were individuals who bought their freedom through manumission, even though this was not
practised in the British West Indies (BWI), for example, Rachel Pringle, a black woman who owned a brothel in Barbados.

BLACKS - The majority of the population in the Caribbean was black. These individuals originated from Africa through
the transatlantic slave trade. There were two types of black people living on the plantations: the Africa-born blacks and
the Creole blacks. The Creole blacks were individuals who were born in the Caribbean. They were the movers and
shakers of the productive sector in the Caribbean.

15
SOCIAL RELATIONS - WHITES AND BLACKS - Social stratification was the order of the day. To assert their dominance and
to emphasise the black people’s inferiority, the whites robbed them of their dignity and identity. Blacks were considered
as barbaric and uncivilised heathens. Whites and blacks were never allowed to be seen at the same place in public. In
church, for example, the blacks had to sit at the back. Their huts were made with one room, one door and one window
and dirt floor, and this emphasised their inferiority.
Relationally, blacks were treated harshly. White women would slaughter their domestic slaves with their tongue and
physically hurt them in the event that they found out that their husbands were having sexual relations with them.
Local colonial assemblies and individual planters introduced measures to repress their slave populations. Many of these
methods could be categorised as legal, social, economic and psychological controls.
LEGAL CONTROL MEASURES
British Laws – The British Caribbean had no universal slave code, but rather, individual colonies created their own laws.
These included:
• Slaves not being allowed to leave the estate without permission
• Slaves not being allowed to congregate in large numbers because this would suggest unity, which could
possibly lead to revolt
• Slaves not being allowed to beat drums, blow horns, carry weapons or read and write
• Slave marriages being forbidden
• Enslaved persons not being allowed to rent houses or land or buy liquor without the masters’ consent
• Obeah and group meetings carrying the death penalty
• Manumissions (the ability to purchase one’s freedom) being discouraged.
French Laws (Code Noir/Black Code) – These laws were directly drawn up in France. The French Laws were:
• allowed enslaved Africans to marry with their masters’ consent
• suggested planters were to provide food and clothing for slaves and to provide care for the elderly and
the disabled
• provided slaves with the ability to appeal to legal offices known as procureur-général (attorney-general)
to complain against illtreatment and neglect, but at the same time, the code stated that the slaves could
be punished by means of flogging, branding, mutilation and execution for theft, assault, and attempts to
escape.
Spanish Laws (Las Siete Partidas) – The Spanish laws outlined that:
• enslaved peoples should not be overworked, starved or unlawfully punished by their master
• gave enslaved people the right to buy their freedom, to marry and appeal to the court against illegal
treatment.
• made masters obligated to provide the basic amenities for his slaves.
ECONOMIC CONTROL MEASURES - There was severe limitation on free time for the enslaved, as free time was equated
to loss of production time on the estate. As a result, a structure of economic dependence was created, whereby
enslaved Africans relied, to a great extent, on the planter for their basic amenities. Though there was the development
of an internal marketing system by the enslaved population, the planters instituted several measures that sought to limit
its viability. Severe restriction was placed on the ability of the enslaved Africans to carve an economic livelihood, for
instance, growing provision crops to be sold in the market.
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL MEASURES - Enslaved Africans were also subjected to psychological and
ideological control, but they continued to resist the system of slavery. They did this by running away, malingering and
rebelling. Enslaved women also participated in the resistance movement and used their bodies as weapons in resisting
slavery. They practiced what was described as ‘gynaecological resistance.’ Undoubtedly, the plantation society created a
culture whereby the practices of the whites were seen as superior to that of the Africans. As a result, African cultural
practices were denigrated.
SOCIAL CONTROL MEASURES - In the bid to control the enslaved population, underlying as well as overt social control
measures were encouraged. For instance, there was the creation of a rigid social divide in the wider society as well as
among the slaves. For instance, domestics were usually the lighter-skinned slaves and they were entrusted with their
master’s valuables and children. They were allowed to wear better clothes; the females were allowed to wear necklaces,
bracelets and earrings. Some also learnt to cook, sew, read and write. These slaves were loyal to their masters and were
most likely to report plans of rebellion. Also, skilled slaves/artisans were highly valued by their masters and were
sometimes hired out. They also had more freedom of movement than other slaves on the plantation. The field slaves
were seen as the worse class on the sugar estate and were the ones to usually receive the harsher punishments –
reflecting the whole system of divide and rule among enslaved labour.

16
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION - POST-SLAVERY ERA
STRATIFICATION - IN this time society was still influenced by race, class, colour, wealth and gender. However, education
became a tool of social mobility that people used to challenge the already-established stratified society. Social mobility
refers to the movement of individuals or groups from one social position to another within the social stratification
system in any society. The black population saw education as an instrument through which their children could achieve
economic and social advancement in society. As a result of this, the elite sought to block education from the ex-slaves by
attaching a cost to education. This was done because the elites thought the blacks would compromise the position of
the stratified society. Also, they would have developed thinking skills with which they could establish themselves as
successful individuals and create the avenue for decolonization to take place

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN CONTEMPORARY CARIBBEAN SOCIETY

1. Certain social groups continue to dominate society. These groups may be direct descendents of Europeans
whether white or coloured.
2. There is still a strong resemblance to the colonial economy where raw materials are exported and there is a
minimum of manufacturing or significant investment of local persons in the economy and abroad. Very little has
changed in terms of developing viable alternatives which could lead to economic diversification.
3. Cultural pluralism is still evident. Certain ethnic groups may be found in specific geographical locations, in
certain occupations and in certain clubs and associations. Cultural pluralism describes a situation where
different cultural or racial groups in a society mix only to a certain extent, with limited social and cultural
integration (Trinidad and Guyana). There is a preference for or a privileging of the ideology of European
superiority ( more recently it has become a wholesale acceptance of US cultural values evident in fashion,
consumer goods, images of physical beauty, appreciation of lifestyles and values.
CONTEMPORARY CHANGES
 Society and culture today are not as stratified as plantation society largely due to the social mobility
brought about through education.
 Political power today largely resides in the hands of people who are the descendents of slaves and
indentured labourers.
 There are groups today in the society who espouse African customs, ethnic wear, religions, designs and
interaction with the African continent in an effort to learn more about their ancestral roots and at the
same time supplant European ideologies of superiority.
SOCIAL MOBILITY
Social mobility is the movement of persons from one status position to another. Social mobility may be inter-
generational i.e. a person attains a higher class position than that of his/her parents; or intra-generational i.e. a change
within a person’s class position within his/her lifetime.
Factors affecting social mobility: marriage, divorce, inheritance, windfall, skin colour, education.
A meritocracy is a society where social mobility is attained through achievement (educational qualifications). In
contemporary Caribbean social class is used to distinguish between those who have the same social and economic
resources and therefore the same social status and those who do not. A social class is a group of people who share a
similar position in the stratification system.
The typical social class divisions in contemporary Caribbean are upper, middle and lower. These divisions are in line with
Weber’s categorisation of class that is based on power, prestige or status. In the Caribbean context, social class is the
key ingredient in the stratification of society rather than the strict ascription of race and colour that typified plantation
society.
CASTE AND CLASS SYSTEMS
People are divided into different groupings and their lives are structured according to these groupings. There are certain
things that some people cannot do, simply because their station in life prevents them from being able to do them.
Other people, in a different social stratum, are able to do these things specifically because they occupy a more favorable
position in the social hierarchy. Depending on how much individual mobility is possible; societies may be classified as
either a caste system or a class system.
1. A caste system amounts to social stratification based on ascription:
a. A caste system consists of a fixed arrangement of strata from the most to the least privileged, with a
person's position determined unalterably at birth.
b. The most extensive contemporary example of a caste system is found in India, especially in rural areas.
c. Caste discrimination is officially illegal but exists nonetheless.

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The traditional castes of India:

• Brahmans: mostly priests and scholars.

• Kshatriyas: warriors, rulers, and large landholders
• Vaishyas: merchants, farmers, and skilled artisans.
• Shudras: laborers and unskilled artisans.
• Harijans: Sometimes called "untouchables, " they are ranked so low that, technically, they are outside
the caste system itself.
d. Caste boundaries in India are reinforced further by the practice of ritual pollution or ritual avoidance.
e. A caste system may be determined by many ethnic and cultural factors. European imperial powers in Africa imposed a
caste system based on skin color: all whites were in a higher position or caste than any non-white
f. Caste systems shape people's lives in four crucial ways:
• Caste system largely determines occupation
• Caste systems largely mandate endogamy
• Powerful cultural beliefs underlie caste systems
• Caste systems limit outgroup social contacts
g. Although caste influences remains strong in India, the situation is changing due to communication, transportation,
industrialization, and the growth of a middle class.
2. In a class system, social stratification is based on individual achievement
a. Class Systems - People who can be considered peers in society because of their similar life chances, similar life
circumstances, and similar opportunities, constitute a social class.
In a class system social standing is determined by factors over which people can exert some control, and some mobility
does take place.
b. In a class system, status inconsistency, the degree of consistency of a person's social standing across various
dimensions of social inequality, is lower than in a caste system
c. Structural social mobility: a shift in social position of large numbers of people due more to changes in society itself
than individual efforts (Ex. Technology Industry)
d. Stratification persists because it is backed up by an ideology: cultural beliefs that directly or indirectly justify social
stratification.
e. Ideological support for inequality. An ideology or pattern of beliefs justifies social inequality in the Unites States,
which legitimizes or justifies a particular societal arrangement.

P.S. Also research concepts such as: plantocracy, intelligentsia, middle class, bourgeoise, working class, underclass,
caste.

18
 ***The Genesis of Caribbean Cultural Creolisation***
CREOLIZATION AND HYBRIDIZATION - Culture is not static, it changes with time. When there is a failure of certain parts
of a culture to keep up with the others, as there are changes, this is called culture lag. There are TWO main factors that
cause culture to change: the contact with other cultures and inventions. When a culture comes into contact with others,
there can be the borrowing of cultural traits from one another. Thus, these borrowed traits are spread throughout each
society. This is called cultural diffusion. Diffusion may not be firsthand, but may occur from one culture into another, and
given to another, by second-hand contact.
When two cultures have continuous first-hand contact with each other, the exchange of cultural traits is called
acculturation. Acculturation occurs only when one culture has been colonized or conquered by another. In this society
there may be a blend of cultural traits, for example, languages. When the Africans and British mixed, pidgin (Patois)
came as a result. It is important to note that groups can remain distinct through acculturation. For example, during
slavery – the slaves versus the plantation owners were very distinct in culture.
CREOLISATION - was a “cultural process that took place within a creole society – that is, within a tropical colonial
plantation polity based on slavery. As a colonial polity, the island was attached to and dependent on the British; for its
economic well-being , its protection and (from the view of the whites), its cultural models.” (E. K. Brathwaite, 1971)
The development of Jamaican society was as a result of a ‘cultural process’ – (material, psychological and spiritual) by
which interaction between different cultural groups lead to the acquisition of ‘new’ cultural patterns by the subordinate
groups. The level of interaction was dictated by the structure and composition of society whereby newcomers to the
landscape fell into the societal construct of the existence of one dominant group and the other legally and subordinated
slaves.
Creolization is based upon an ascriptive value system (colour/class hierarchy) and is largely applied to the European-
African relationship. Creolization is a “way of seeing the society, not in terms of white and black, master and slave, in
separate nuclear units, but as contributory parts of a whole.” Furthermore, Brathwaite posited that creolization was “a
way of seeing the society, not in terms of white and black, master and slave, in separate nuclear units, but as
contributory parts of a whole.” He goes on to add that although there is white/brown/black, there are inifinite
possibilities within these distinctions and many ways of asserting identity.
Brathwaite concludes by stating that a common colonial and creole experience is shared among the various divisions,
even if that experience is interpreted in many different ways.
CULTURAL HYBRIDISATION - refers to the processes of cultural and ethnic mixing to produce new or Creole forms. The
term ‘hybridization’ is borrowed from biology and refers to one specie being cross-fertilized with another to produce a
new specie. It is used in the context of Caribbean life to describe many levels of meeting and mixing and the creation of
something new, especially fusions between different races to produce hybrid peoples and cultures. The development of
new cultural forms out of existing ones through a period of contact and interaction is referred to as cultural
hybridization.
The term ‘creolization’ is used if this hybridization took place in the context of European colonization. Thus,
hybridization and creolization mean virtually the same thing in the Caribbean context. Cultural hybridization is,
itself, a process, and so the hybrids themselves change and develop over time. Cultural hybridization (syncretism)
happens in the following areas – Religion: Myal; Rastafarianism; Shouter Baptist (Trinidad and Tobago). Language:
Patois.
PROCESS OF CULTURAL HYBRIDIZATION - An understanding of the process of cultural erasure, cultural retention and
cultural renewal is important in any discussion of the hybridization of cultures. These terms help us in our understanding
of creolization and hybridization and describe culture change.
CULTURAL ERASURE - This is the loss of cultural practices that occur as a result of tension/conflict between traditional
ways of doing things and the modern or progressive way. It happens with both the material and non-material elements
of culture.
CULTURAL RETENTION - This refers to the practices that have survived even when most other forms and symbols of a
culture are no longer evident. Cultural retention may occur as a result of a deliberate desire to keep traditions alive and
help some groups to preserve their sense of identity. Small groups may feel alienated within a larger community and try
to vigorously preserve their traditions. The Maroon community of Jamaica, for example, Accompong Maroons, is
distinctive because of its long history of rebuffing or refusing European values and norms, and robustly retaining their
West African cultural practices.

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CULTURAL RENEWAL - This occurs when a group goes through a conscious rejuvenation process and returns to some
elements of its culture, which it believes have been ignored or suppressed. Cultural renewal is stemmed from a deep
consciousness that there is much value in what has been neglected or erased. Throughout the Caribbean, the renewal of
interest in our African heritage may be a direct reaction to the pervasive influence of European and North American
cultures across the Caribbean.
Racial hybridization involved the Amerindian, African and, to a lesser extent, Indian women, who were forced to
cohabitate with and have children for the European conquistadors, slave masters and overseers. Sexual unions between
persons of different races, resulting in children of mixed race, is called miscegenation.
Miscegenation, therefore, causes pigmentocracy, which is the practice where persons of fairer complexion wield more
prestige and power in a society than others, as was the case in the time of slavery.
Dougla – offspring of East Indians and Africans
Mestizos – offspring of Amerindians and Europeans. Borianden (Guyana)
Mulattoes - offspring of Africans and Europeans
CULTURAL SYNCRETISM
Syncretism refers to the mixing of cultural practices from different ethnic groups to create a different entity that fused
aspects of the original practices e.g. religion, language, culinary arts, etc.
The Caribbean has been shaped by migration patterns that have combined to form a unique blend of customs, cuisine
and traditions that have marked the sociocultural and economic development of the region. Most of the Caribbean
territories were inhabited and developed by European settlers. The result is a blending of European, Asian and African
connections that has proven important in the development of the Caribbean diverse culture.
Knowledge and understanding of the history of the Caribbean is critical in understanding its cultural diversity. The
process is described as having resulted in a distinguishable and distinctive entity called ‘Caribbean’. To be more specific,
the Caribbean is a group of islands and mainland territories located south of North America, north of South America and
east of Central America. These beautiful islands and mainland territories are known worldwide because of their vibrant
and diverse, inviting culture that is as a result of years of colonization, struggles and integration. This, therefore,
highlights the fact that Caribbean societies are influenced by cultural diversity; it is this fact that gives the Caribbean its
unique identity.
Cultural diversity from the information above refers to the multiplicity of ethnic groups, such as Indians, Africans,
Chinese and Europeans that exist within the Caribbean society, and the particular ways of life, manifested by each
group, that we have inherited. The cultural diversity of this region has resulted from the colonization of the Europeans in
the 15th century, the forced migration of the Africans between the mid-17th to 19th century, and the voluntary
migration of the Asians in the 19th century.
FOOD - Each ethnic group brought its traditional practices, which are still practised today.
For example, the Indians brought their traditional foods such as curry and other spices. The curry brought to us by the
Indians has been incorporated with various local foods to create lavish dishes.
Jamaica’s bammy and Antigua’s bamboola are based on the Amerindians use of cassava The Caribs made ‘pepperpot’
which is still cooked in Guyana and some of the islands. The Caribs’s custom of cooking over an open fire has led to the
word barbeque. Another Amerindian method of cooking, i.e. baking meat or fish in a charcoal pit , was combined with
the barbeque to give rise to ‘jerking’ in Jamaica. Spices such as hot pepper, sweet basil, allspice (pimento in Jamaica).
The Chinese also brought their unique style of cooking which has flourished with a proliferation of chinese restaurants
dotting the Caribbean landscape.
The Africans - Their one-pot method of preparing most dishes and traditional cooking utensils including the three-legged
iron pot, grater and mortar and pestle. The love for ground provisions yam, sweet potato etc.
Seasonings such as ‘sive’, or chives, escallion, ginger, nutmeg, pimento, and hot pepper, also came from Africa. Bush
teas and the use of ‘bush’ as remedy for ailments and diseases.
British Heritage: The use of diary products, Christmas pudding, fruit salads and Sweet bread (bun) are part of the British
heritage.
Spanish Heritage: The Spanish contributed hot chocolate, avocado, marinated or escoveitched fish, gizzada (coconut
tart) and their custom of soaking fruits in wine.

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TRADITIONAL MEDICINE - These are widely used throughout the Caribbean; a result of our cultural diversity. Traditional
medicine is the terminology used to refer to different herbs and other substances that are used for healing purposes by
the different ethnic groups. This cultural tradition has had a major influence on, especially, the rural areas of each
Caribbean territory.
CREOLE LANGUAGES - Creole languages of the Caribbean are considered languages in their own right. Jamaica boasts a
dictionary of Creole from Cambridge University Press, and Papiamento is used along with formal Dutch for instruction in
Curaçao. Creole is the language used for news broadcasts sometimes in territories where the French once settled. These
languages still have cultural influence. According to the late Professor Rex Nettleford, as with language, so too is religion
in the arrangement and effect on Caribbean cultural life. Religion, he said, “is an expression of the biblical reminder that
in God’s house there are many mansions”. In the Caribbean, this has manifested itself with the diverse religious beliefs
to be found in the region.
MUSIC - The music of the Caribbean has reflected the multicultural influences that have shaped the Caribbean.
Nevertheless, the Caribbean’s first peoples, the Spanish, the French, and the British, have all made large contributions to
the musical heritage of the Caribbean as well. The Africans brought traditional music such as ‘Mento’ in our Jamaica.
‘Hindi music’ and ‘chutney’ in Trinidad and Guyana were brought by the Indians. The rhythms and beats from traditional
music have helped to enhance our diverse culture.
RELIGION - There are so many forms of denominations religions in the Caribbean, ranging from Roman
Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, Presbyterian, Seventh-day Adventist to Santeria, voodoo, pocomania, obeah, revivalism,
kumina, shango, cumfa or any other native-born or religious expression. Hinduism, Islam, Orisha worship and other new-
age spiritualism are all legitimate religions today, in what was once an exclusive settlement of Christendom.
MODELS OF CARIBBEAN SOCIETY
Past Question - Giving reasons for your answer describe which model of Caribbean Society, Plural, Plantation or
Creole best describes contemporary Caribbean society. 30 mks
PLURAL SOCIETY
The plural society model as proposed by M. G. Smith posits that:
 All Caribbean societies are plural societies.
 A plural society is one characterised by multiple “cultural groups” which “mix but do not combine”.
 They do not “combine” or share cultural traits because they do not share cultural institutions such as religion
and marriage. For example, Afro-Caribbean people practice spirit and ancestral-based worship forms such as
obeah, while Euro-Caribbean people practise Christianity (mainly Anglicanism or Catholicism).
 Institutions (cherished ideas, values and beliefs) form the core of a group’s culture. Without meaningful sharing
between groups, the institutions remain unaltered or static.
 Despite the divisions, society is kept stable by the government, which is usually dominated by the small
European elite.
 Light mixing occurs in the market place/economy as people work, buy and sell. However, in many ways the
economy also reflects a division of labour along ethnic/cultural lines.
Evidence of the Plural model in individual countries:
 Most countries do not reflect the rigid cultural divide proposed by the original theory.
 Many however, reflect social plurality with members of the elite classes enjoying different lifestyles from the
rest of society. The model has been adjusted to account for this reality.
 Cultural plurality is not evident where the majority of people in a territory belong to the same ethnic group.
– In Jamaica where the majority is Afro-Caribbean, distinct cultural plurality is absent.
– The reverse is likely though where different ethnic groups are similar in size.
Cultural plurality is more evident in Trinidad and Guyana for example, due largely to the similar sizes of the
major ethnic groups in each territory.
Evidence of the Plural Model in the Caribbean:
 Distinct language and political differences across the four subsections of the Caribbean – Hispanic, Francophone,
Anglophone and Dutch
 There is often insularity and conflict as is seen in our CARICOM operations.
 Individual countries could also be seen as plural groups each having their own set of social and cultural
institutions and citizens with a strong sense of nationalism.
 Mixing takes place in economic spheres through bodies such as the Association of Caribbean States that includes
a wider range of countries than CARICOM.

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  On the other hand: There are avenues for meaningful cultural sharing in the Caribbean. CARIFESTA, the UWI,
and the West Indies cricket team are three such examples. It may be argued though that these pertain only to
the Anglophone Caribbean.
 We cooperate in international arrangements such as the CARIFORUM.

PLANTATION SOCIETY – George Beckford

1. The essence of the plantation society model is that the plantation system led to the development of plantation
societies and continues to influence the economic, cultural and social structure of the contemporary Caribbean.
2. Defining features of the plantation as an economic system include:
 Use of cheap or forced labour (chattel slavery or indentureship);
 Large scale, ‘monocrop’ agriculture for export;
 Ideological control of labour force.
3. George Beckford describes plantation societies as “those countries where the internal and external dimensions of
the plantation system dominate the country’s economic, social and political structures and its relations with the rest of
the world”.
4. Simply put, these are societies whose structures have been shaped by the plantation system – structures such as
government, education, and social stratification.
 Bringing people from different ethnic groups and parts of the world created ethnic and cultural diversity;
 The need for systems of rigid control of large enslaved populations resulted in rigid systems of social
stratification;
 The need to reinforce European standards influenced the formation of institutions that insisted on European
ideals, resulting in acculturation in areas such as language and religion. In a way, this model helps us to
understand why both the plural society model and the creole society model are relevant to understanding the
Caribbean.
 On one hand, by explaining issues of power and control, the model helps us to see why social divisions
emphasised by the plural society model were important.
 On the other hand, the model helps to highlight the context of adaptation and the process of defining our ideal
cultural institutions; thereby giving support to the plural society model.
Evidence of the plantation society model in the Caribbean
To what extent can Caribbean territories be considered plantation societies?
There is no doubt that our economies, demographic structures, ethnic composition and social stratification systems
were shaped by the plantation system. We see this in:
 The popularity of democracy and European political structures in the Caribbean e.g. Westminister
 The preponderance of departments and overseas territories of European countries in the region
 The continued preference for or value attributed to European cultural traits, such as language and the Catholic
or Anglican Christian denominations
 Continued though diminished importance of race and colour in various social spheres
 Continued dependence on a narrow range of industrial activities and export-oriented economies
 Insularity and close relationships within political and/or language groups.

CREOLE SOCIETY – Edward Kamau Brathwaite

Creolisation, according to Edward K. Brathwaite, is the mixing of old world (mainly European and African) cultures, as
both groups adjust to their situation in the ‘new world’.
1. Creolisation is a process of adaptation by Europeans and Africans to the new world.
2. The product of their attempt to adapt is Creole and by extension, Caribbean.
3. Creolisation takes two forms:
 Acculturation – this occurs when mixing results from the dominant group (Europeans) forcing a
cultural trait on the subordinate group (enslaved Africans)
 Interculturation – this is a symbiotic and mutual mixing of the cultural traits of different cultural groups.

4. The process was uneven as the Europeans had greater influence in determining the acceptable or the ideal
culture. Consequently:
 Expressive aspects of the culture, such as music, tend to reflect more influence from the minority groups.
 Formal institutional culture, such as official language, tends to reflect greater European influence.
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5. Cultural traits (and by extension cultural groups) are ranked in a hierarchy where some cultural traits are considered
ideal (usually European).
6. Despite (and arguably due to) European cultural dominance, the process of adaptation allows for common values and
institutions to emerge and form a value consensus.
Evidence of creole society model
In individual countries:
• The idea of creole culture is evident in every aspect of the cultures across the Caribbean including cuisine,
music, language, religion and government.
• Many people are also creole as they are the result of miscegenation (racial hybridisation).
• The ideal or official cultural institutions of most Caribbean countries reflect the European norm such as:
– Official languages – French, Spanish, Dutch, English
– Official religion – Christianity
– Government systems
– Education

In the Caribbean:
• There are some ideas, beliefs, norms, symbols and even artefacts that are common across the region.
– Most have dialects which mix a variety of Asian, European and African languages.
– Many territories have dynamic music forms that combine the rhythm and instruments of a variety of ethnic groups.
– Christianity and democracy reflect beliefs held by most countries in the region.
– European ideals colour the stratification systems in most territories.
• On the other hand, there are some particularistic traditions or traditions that are specific to each territory. On a whole,
we can say that the Caribbean as a society has features of the creole model in terms of both particularistic and
universalistic values, and cultural forms that result from adaptation through cultural mixing.

▶ There is no one right answer; simply be able to defend your answer with credible evidence.
▶ There is no one model that completely explains the Caribbean reality. As revealed, a combination of all
three tells us why the Caribbean social structure is the way it is and how to interpret it.

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 ***Geographical impacts on Caribbean society and culture***
INTRODUCTION TO PLATE TECTONICS – STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH - The Earth consists of three concentric layers: core
(subdivided into the inner and outer core), mantle and the crust. The crust is made up of tectonic plates, which are in
constant motion. Earthquakes and volcanoes are most likely to occur at plate boundaries.
 The inner core is in the centre and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of iron and nickel with
temperatures of up to 55,000C. With its immense heat energy, the inner core is like the engine room of the
Earth.
 The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also made up of iron and nickel. It is
still extremely hot, with temperatures similar to the inner core.
 The mantle is the widest section of the Earth. It has a thickness of approximately 2,900km. The mantle is made
up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of the mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the
rock is soft and beginning to melt.
 The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-60km thick. The crust is the solid rock layer
upon which we live.
There are two different types of crust: continental crust, which carries land, and oceanic crust, which carries water.
PLATE TECTONICS - MAIN TENETS - Plate tectonics is a relatively new theory that has revolutionized the way geologists
think about the Earth.
Plate: Large slab of solid rock.
Tectonics: from the Greek root ‘to build’
The plate tectonics theory was developed on the ideas brought forward by Wegener’s continental drift theory and Harry
Hess’ theory of seafloor spreading.
THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS
1. The Earth’s crust is made of several plates – both major and minor, which are constantly in motion (driven by
convection currents in the mantle) and interacting with each other.
 Crustal plates – Major/Minor
 North American/Caribbean
 South American/Cocos
 Africa/ Nazca
 Eurasian/Scotia
 Australian/Arabian
 Pacific/Phillipines
 Antarctic/Juan de Fuca
2. Plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other. These are the plate boundaries, or plate
margins.
 Divergent or constructive plate margin – this is where plates move away from each other.
 Convergent or destructive plate margin – this is where plates are moving toward each other.
 Transform or conservative plate margin – this is where plate are sliding past each other.
3. This plate motion causes the plates to interact with each other, which gives rise to the occurrence of earthquakes and
volcanic activity at the edge of the plate boundaries.
THE CARIBBEAN PLATE - The Caribbean Plate is a mostly oceanic tectonic plate underlying Central America and the
Caribbean Sea off the north coast of South America. Roughly 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles) in
area, the Caribbean Plate borders the North American Plate, the South American Plate, the Nazca Plate and the Cocos
Plate. These borders are regions of intense seismic activity, including frequent earthquakes, occasional tsunamis and
volcanic eruptions. Much of the Caribbean region lies on the Caribbean Plate. The boundaries of the Caribbean Plate are
extremely active as it is being squeezed by converging plates on either side.
On the northern edge, there is a transform boundary between the Caribbean Plate and North American Plate. Sideways
movement occurring along this boundary has been responsible for several major earthquakes, the most recent being the
2010 Haiti earthquake, which killed over 230,000 persons. At the western boundary, oceanic crust making up the Cocos
Plate is subducting (sinking) beneath the Caribbean Plate, forming a zone of volcanoes, earthquakes and fold mountains
in Central America. The Southern boundary is highly complex, being part convergent and part transform. While
earthquakes do occur here, it is not as active as the other Caribbean Plate boundaries.

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PLATE TECTONICS AND THE OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKES - Earthquakes are sudden vibrations of the Earth’s crust
caused by the sudden release of stored energy when plates are displaced (moved) along a fault line.
Earthquakes are described as having a focus and an epicentre. The focus is the source in the Earth’s crust where the
earthquake originates. The point on the Earth’ surface directly above the focus is the epicentre. The strength of the
seismic waves released from the focus determines the magnitude of the earthquake. These waves are recorded and
measured by sensitive instruments called seismographs. As seismic waves radiate out from the focus, they are strongest
at the epicentre and weaken gradually as they spread further away.
The movements of plates along the plate boundaries are not smooth. This is due to the huge amount of friction between
the rock surface colliding, diverging or sliding plates. When the rocks are stressed by the great amount of friction, they
may bend, and stored energy gradually accumulates in the bend. Finally, when the stress becomes too great, these bent
rocks will snap free to their new positions along a fault line. At the same time, the stored energy is released as seismic
waves, which cause ground vibrations and earthquakes to occur. Earthquakes in the region, over the years, have
resulted in numerous effects and wide-scale social displacement. Social displacement occurs when a population
becomes fragmented or separated during a natural disaster due to evacuation or migration. Earthquakes are known to
cause:
 Destruction of life and property, and this is accompanied by disruption of communication lines. In addition to
this is the outbreak of uncontrollable fires from broken gas lines.
 Landslides and rock fall, depending on the magnitude, which can lead to loss of lives and destruction of
property.
 Gigantic waves called tsunamis result in destruction of coastal areas, for e.g., in 1692 great damage was done to
Annotto Bay, Buff Bay and Port Antonio in Jamaica.
 Loss of culture and traditions.
 Trauma and emotional stress.
PLATE TECTONICS AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Similar to earthquakes, there is a direct relationship between plate tectonics and volcanic activity. Volcanoes are not
randomly distributed over the Earth’s surface. Most are concentrated on the edges of continents, along island chains, or
beneath the sea forming long mountain ranges. More than half of the world’s active volcanoes above sea level encircle
the Pacific Ocean to form the circum-Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’. In the past 25 years, scientists have developed a theory—
called plate tectonics—that explains the locations of volcanoes and their relationship to other large-scale, geologic
features.
When tectonic plates spread apart from each other, hot magma rises up and fills the space between. As it cools, it forms
new land, either on the continents or on the seafloor, depending on where the plates are located. When the plates
come together, one of them may get pulled under the other one, getting recycled back into Earth’s interior. During this
process, called subduction, the piece of crust getting pulled under is melted and turned into magma – the very magma
that erupts from a volcano.
Volcanic activity occurs all over the Caribbean region. However, most of the active volcanoes are situated in the Eastern
Caribbean due to the eastern boundary, which is the subduction zone. It is also known as the Lesser Antilles Subduction
Zone, where oceanic crust of the South American Plate is being subducted under the Caribbean Plate. This formed the
volcanic islands of the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc from the Virgin Islands in the North to the islands off the coast of
Venezuela in the south.
POSITIVE IMPACTS
• Valuable minerals such as gold, nickel copper in locations such as the Pakaraima area in Guyana.
• Good farming soil from weathered volcanic rocks e.g., slopes of Mt Misery in St Kitts.
• Hot springs which are potential for geothermal energy sources in countries such as St Lucia and Dominica.
• Major tourist attraction – sulphur springs in St Lucia, boiling lake in Dominica.
• Creates consciousness among Caribbean people as to the threat of natural disaster.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
• Destruction of lives and property; displacement of people and sometimes loss of culture.
• Pollution due to contamination of water supply by ash, dirt and gases.
• Poisonous gases released into the atmosphere, resulting in respiratory ailments.
• Mudflows which destroy vegetation and infrastructure.
• Changes in weather pattern due to clouds of ash, which decrease the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth.

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NATURAL & MAN-MADE DISASTERS - When disasters, whether man-made or natural, wreak havoc on Caribbean
communities, the lives of the residents are affected in a myriad of ways. Disasters can cause both social and economic
displacement when the environment is destroyed – landslides occur, there is soil erosion, people are displaced from
homes, utility poles are destroyed, and the productive sector is put on pause. This phenomenon affects the
development of a country and, as such, governments have to make necessary changes to their development plans to
provide immediate aid to those affected. Natural and man-made disasters not only have negative effects, because when
they do occur, employment is generated, and governments and their agencies engage in reflective planning for the
social and physical plant of their islands. Infrastructural development also takes place, which includes the restoration,
removal and building of new structures.
Environmental Disasters: Soil Erosion
Soil is formed by the breakdown of rocks over hundreds of years. The rocks decompose into their inorganic materials
which combine with vegetation, water, air and humus to form soil.
Soil Erosion is defined as the removal of soil by wind, water or moving ice. It is a natural process but human activity has
served to accelerate this process. It is a creeping hazard meaning that its occurrence is often not dramatic and may go
undetected as soil is hardly likely to be reused or recovered.
Social and Cultural Practices which Accelerate soil erosion: Deforestation - Since plant roots and vegetation hold soil
together and leaves and branches often slow rainfall when plants are removed soil is often left bare and is easily washed
or blown away.
This can happen through:
 Slash and Burn: practice to remove undergrowth which increases fertility because of the ash but leaves the land
bare leading to erosion
 Overgrazing: occurs when animal numbers exceed the land’s ‘carrying capacity’; increasing the likelihood that
they will remove vegetation leaving soil bare.
 Bulldozing: clearing lands like hillsides for development projects leaves land unprotected with construction is in
progress
 The making of charcoal: common practice in places where fuel is expensive wee large expanses of wooded
landed is burnt to convert to charcoal.
 Social and Cultural Practices which Accelerate soil erosion: Farming
 Shifting cultivation: where plots are cleared and cultivated for a few years and left fallow while another one is
cleared for use. Since this is continuous land loses it fertility and its ability to withstand erosion
 Ploughing up and down hillsides as well as in neat rows helps to create channels which flow from the top of a hill
downwards or provides a path for the wind to blow away soil.
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION - Removal of topsoil leaves immature subsoils which cannot sustain previous crop production
so land productivity decreases. Land may become useless; overgrown will secondary vegetation i.e. bush or carved into
gullies or ravines. Soil erosion near rivers from hillsides may increase sediment build-up on riverbeds reducing river
capacity. When coupled with hurricanes, earthquakes or any other natural disaster eroded hillsides are more prone to
create landslides or mudslides
Soil Conservation - This is meant to prevent erosion and restore eroded land to pre-erosion conditions.
Afforestation: Vegetation or topsoil is brought to an eroded area to produce a dense network of roots to bind the soil
together, prevent water and wind erosion and create new organic matter to make new soils.
Landscaping: An entire area may have to be re-sculpted into an undulated land before afforestation
Agricultural Practices:
Contour Ploughing: Tilling land across hillsides rather than down breaks potential natural channels of water downslope
Planting shelter belts: Lines of trees are planted at intervals along flat land expanses to break the force of wind
Intercropping/strip cropping: Neat rows between crops are avoided when different crops are planted together at
different angles
Agro-forestry: Crops such as Coffee, Cocoa, fruit trees and bananas are growing in the forest co-existing with existing
vegetation.
Crop rotation: Each crop depletes different nutrients in the soil so different crops are planted in succession rather than
continuously so nutrients will regenerate naturally
Terraces: Building small walls or ridges around sloping land to prevent rainfall from freely running downwards reducing
the probability of soil erosion.
Stubble mulching: Leaving stubble residues after harvesting on the field as long as possible helps to reduce evaporation
while covering the soil.
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 ***Coral reefs***

FACTS ABOUT CORAL REEFS - Coral reefs are among the oldest ecosystems on Earth/Coral reefs are the largest living
structure on the planet/ Although coral reefs cover less than one per cent of the Earth’s surface, they are home to 25
per cent of all fish species./500 million people rely on coral reefs for their food and livelihoods/Without the existence of
coral reefs, parts of Florida would be under water./If the present rate of destruction continues, 70 per cent of the
world’s coral reefs will be destroyed by the year 2050.
WHAT ARE CORAL REEFS? - A coral reef is a limestone rock made up of the skeletons of tiny marine organisms called
coral polyps. Corals are formed by tiny marine creatures which are confined to tropical and subtropical waters between
latitudes 300N and 300S. CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR CORAL GROWTH:
• Warm and clear oxygenated seawater where temperatures vary between 200C and 300C.
• Clear salt water (water with normal salinity). Coral polyps do not grow at all in fresh water.
• Waters no more than 45m deep, as temperatures decrease with depth.
• Shallow sunlit water, so that the sun’s rays can penetrate the water to allow the coral polyps to
photosynthesise and grow.
TYPES OF CORAL REEFS
FRINGING REEF - This is a shallow-water reef. A shallow lagoon is often formed between the reef and the shore. It is
formed from the gradual accumulation of corals close to the coast. The Buccoo Reef in Tobago is an example of a
fringing reef.
BARRIER REEF - This is a wide coral platform separated from the coast by a wide, deep lagoon. It is much larger than a
fringing reef. The area between the reef and shore is a deep area of water called a lagoon. The Great Australian Barrier
Reef is the largest barrier reef in the world. The second largest is found in the Caribbean, off the coast of Belize.
ATOLL - This is a circular, ring-like or horse-shoe coral reef which encloses a lagoon. It is commonly found in The
Bahamas, Mauritius and Maldives.
VALUE OF CORAL REEFS TO CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE
SOURCE OF NATURAL HERITAGE - Reef systems are living museums that have been around for hundreds of years. They
are the world’s natural heritage.
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES - Many coral species have medicinal potential. Scientists believe that the reefs of Montego Bay
in Jamaica have a pharmaceutical value of between US$50 million and US$80 million.
COASTAL PROTECTION - Reefs protect the coast from erosion brought about from storm surges. As a result, this
facilitates the development of ports, harbours, settlements, fishing and tourist activities.
TOURISM - They are also the source of sand for beaches on which the tourist industry is based. Coral reefs are valuable
to the tourist industry in Caribbean countries as corals attract tourist, thus providing an essential foreign revenue source
(snorkeling, scuba-diving, glass-bottom boats).
FISHERIES - Coral reefs are a diverse ecosystem rich in biodiversity. For years, Caribbean fishermen have been depending
on reefs to sustain the livelihoods of many coastal villages. The Caribbean fishing industry provides employment for
about 182,000 people and is a major contributor to the GDP.
CAUSES OF CORAL REEF DESTRUCTION
 GLOBAL WARMING - Warm temperatures cause coral bleaching, turning white which, causes corals to die.
 OVERFISHING - Corals are very sensitive to touch and are killed when fishing nets are dragged over them. The
depletion of parrot fish, which help to eat algae off corals, is becoming a major problem.
 TOURISM - Coral reefs are nice for diving and snorkeling. However, when tourists walk on coral reefs, they
damage them.
 POLLUTION - The discharge of sewage, oil and garbage into seas and oceans stifles corals.
 HURRICANES - Waves can cause widespread destruction to coral reefs.
 SEDIMENTATION - This involves the discharge of sediments from the mouths of rivers into the sea. This makes
water become cloudy, reduces photosynthesis and causes corals to die.
CORAL REEF CONSERVATION – MITIGATION STRATEGIES
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
 Minimise or stop consumption of parrot fish which protect coral reefs by removing algae that can stifle and kill
corals. Also, corals provide sand for our beaches.
 Practise proper disposal of waste: Waste should be disposed of in receptacles and not gullies, via which the
garbage may end up in the sea.
 Avoid buying souvenirs made from corals.
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NATIONAL/REGIONAL LEVEL
 Education of fisherfolk, hoteliers, citizens and tourists is most profound way to sensitise all stakeholders about
the value of coral reefs.
 Creation of marine-protected areas as fish sanctuaries. Implementation of laws and imposition of fines for illegal
fishing and methods of fishing which destroys reefs (cyanide fishing or dynamite fishing).
 Protection of reefs by authorities.
 Implementation of a fish sustainability regional approach. This is a regional measure whereby all Caribbean
nations decide on policies and measures that foster a sustainable exploitation of the fish stock that thrives in a
coral habitat.

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 ***SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS - The Family***
WHAT IS THE FAMILY? - The family is often described as a unit where people live under the same roof sharing a
relationship through blood, marriage or adoption. Here are some terms that relate to a more complex understanding of
defining the family through lines of authority and descent.
 Patriarchal – the father is the head of a family or tribe. The father is therefore vested with authority.
 Patrifocal – (culture, society) the father is the head of the household
 Matriarchal – the mother is the head of a family or tribe.
 Matrifocal – (culture, society) the mother is the head of the household. For example, during the slavery period,
the homes were occupied mainly by the women and children. Plantation owners discouraged families and only
allowed men to occupy the homes for breeding purposes.
 Egalitarian – this connotes equal sharing of authority between mother and father in the family or tribe.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
CONSANGUINE FAMILY - This type of family is usually described as the 'original family' because the members are related
by blood.
CONJUGAL FAMILY - This is a family that has been created through by marriage.
TRACING KINSHIP
 Matrilineal – this is where the special privileges or duties follow the female line in the family.
 Patrilineal – Special privileges or duties follow the male line.
 Bi-lineal – Special privileges and duties follow both the male and female line
FAMILY FORMS IN THE CARIBBEAN
The Caribbean community has a very interesting mix of family types and unions. Some are widely accepted, while others
are being rejected on the grounds of morality and tradition. Most, if not all of our family types and unions have been
products of our rich historical past (colonialism, African slavery, and Chinese and East Indian indentureship) handed
down to the next generations.
Let us begin by exploring the different family types that exist in our Caribbean society.
1. Nuclear family
2. Single-parent family
3. Extended family
4. The sibling family
5. The reorganised family
NUCLEAR FAMILY - The nuclear family consists of a married or unmarried couple living under the same roof with their
children. Please bear in mind that the children in this relationship may be the couple's own or adopted. This type of
family is most widely embraced by the Caribbean society
SINGLE-PARENT FAMILY - This family consists of only one parent living with his/her children. Such a family is very
common in the Caribbean homes, seen most times being headed by a woman. The circumstances that give rise to the
formation of this family type include:
A. Divorce or separation
B. Death of one of the partners
C. By deliberate choice
D. Desertion or abandonment
EXTENDED FAMILY - is made up of members from more than two generations living under the same roof or in a family
compound with members having close contact with one another. This type of family may contain grandparents,
grandchildren, several married siblings, their spouses, and children, among other relatives. In most Caribbean settings,
this family tends to be centred on the woman.
SIBLING HOUSEHOLD - This is a family in which the older brother/sister takes care of the younger ones in the home.
Here, the siblings live together with no parents. The following circumstances account for the formation of this type of
household:
1. Migration of parents to a foreign country
2. Death of parents
3. Imprisonment of parents
4. Desertion by parents

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BLENDED FAMILY - This type of family exists on account of one of the spouses bringing into his/her new family
(relationship) a child or children from an old relationship that was dissolved. This will result in the children having half-
sisters and half-brothers.

FAMILY UNIONS IN THE CARIBBEAN

There are several different family unions that exist in the Caribbean community. Most of these unions are as a result of
our strong historical past, but there are few that were birthed out of current happenings in our society.

1. THE LEGAL MARRIAGE In the Caribbean, this union exists where a man and a woman are legally united, usually in the
presence of a Christian priest, Hindu priest, a Muslim priest, a justice of the peace, or any person who is duly authorised
to conduct this religious or legal ceremony. One enters into a legal union either through reaching the age of 18, or if
younger, through parental consent. Both parties involved in this union share a common residence and a socially
approved sexual relationship.

2. COMMON-LAW OR CONSENSUAL UNION - This union exists between a man and a woman who are not legally
married but share a sexual union and a common residence by mutual agreement. This type of family union is popular in
the Caribbean, however, it is widely viewed that this relationship gives birth to 'illegitimate' children and lacks the
binding strength needed to keep the relationship alive during stressful and hard times.

3. VISITING RELATIONSHIP In this type of union, the man and woman are not married and do not share common
residence. They visit each other at times for sexual intercourse. The sexual relationship shared by both partners may
lead to the birth of children, often times classified as 'illegitimate' children because of the circumstances under which
they were born.

FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE ON FAMILY

Functionalists say that the family should carry out several functions for order, stability and harmony in society.

Such functions include:

1) Reproduction
2) Socialisation
3) Economic function
4) Provision of love and a sense of belonging

These functionalist ideas and values provide a basis for the common interpretation of the institution of the family across
the region. The family is seen as the basic unit of society. If these functions are carried out in an optimal manner and if
everyone plays a role, then families would be happy and society would not be threatened by an breakdown of social
order.

MARXIST PERSPECTIVE ON FAMILY

For the conflict theorist, families are associated with exploitation, oppression and domination. Nuclear families in
particular are seen as products of capitalism where labour has to move where employment is located, leaving behind
the extended family. Conflict theorists also argue that the values attributed to nuclear family units are a result of the
values imposed by the rich and powerful in the society. The nuclear family form also fits into the capitalist plans in that
there is a sexual division of labour, where the man works outside, and the woman stays at home and carries out the
roles of wife, mother and homemaker.

Marxists aka Conflict theorists believe that the "assigning of roles" in a family has contributed to family oppression,
abuse and violence. This is because what results is an unequal distribution of powerthat jeopardises gender relations
and even produces generational conflict. Even children are affected by this assignment of roles as they are expected to
be obedient and subservient, and many of them are powerless because their voices are silenced.

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 ***SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS - Education***
GOAL: For students to gain an understanding of education’s impact on the lives of Caribbean people.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain what education is concerned about.
2. Examine the definitions of formal and informal education.
3. Describe the historical context of education in the Caribbean.
4. Examine the main idea and purpose of education.
5. Compare and contrast education from a functionalist and conflict perspective.

WHAT IS EDUCATION CONCERNED ABOUT?

Education, as a social institution, contains our deep beliefs and values about what the young should know and how
learning should take place. Our national consensus, enshrined in law, sees school as the main place to become educated.
Home schooling is a recent phenomenon, but the vast majority is of the view that schools should be the place to
educate its people.

The institutional environment of education refers to the values that comprise the social institution of education and the
practices that stem from such a value position. It may not be the usual way you think of education, but it helps in
relating what you see around you. Education, therefore, is concerned with socialising members of a society into the
norms, values, knowledge and skills that a society deems important.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION - Formal education is classroom-based, provided by trained teachers. Informal
education happens outside the classroom, in after-school programmes, community-based organisations, museums,
libraries or at home.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION?

 In general, classrooms have the same kids and the same teachers every day. After-school programmes are often
drop-in, so attendance is inconsistent, as is leadership.
 Formal education classroom activities can last several days. After-school programmes need to complete an
activity each day because a different group of kids could be in attendance tomorrow.
 Classroom-based teachers have a certain level of training in educational philosophy, effective teaching
strategies, classroom management and content. After-school providers, by contrast, vary in experience and
knowledge of teaching techniques, content expertise, and group management.
 Typically, materials for after-school settings need to include a lot more structure. Teachers need to meet
educational standards and stick to a specified curriculum, which can make it difficult for them to incorporate
non-traditional content. After-school programmes, on the other hand, can be more flexible with their content.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN

Education was only for the children of the Europeans. What implication would education have on slaves? Were they
ever exposed to formal/informal education? If yes, how did this impact them?

The Emancipation Act of 1834 exposed ex-slaves to formal education through the Negro Education Grant. This grant
facilitated the construction of elementary schools throughout the British Caribbean. It is imperative to note that ex-
slaves were not educated beyond the elementary level. This was so because the elites felt that education would provide
the avenue for ex-slaves to transition in a free society, hence, they were only introduced to the basics – reading (mostly
the bible), arithmetic, writing and a little geography.

This move was good, but it was irrelevant to the Caribbean because the curriculum used was strictly English, professing
English values, norms, beliefs, songs, poems, stories, customs, etc. As such, Caribbean pupils had no real concrete
examples to hold on to (symbolism was not possible).

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 EDUCATION’S MAIN IDEA
Education was the means to social mobility – the Caribbean was highly stratified. The elite sought to block education
from the ex-slaves, hence, a cost was attached to secondary education and elementary education was completely free.
The elites thought that the ex-slaves could compromise the position of the stratified society if exposed to education
beyond the elementary level, because they would have been exposed and poised to develop thinking skills with which
they could establish themselves as successful individuals and create the avenue for decolonization to take place. The
secondary curriculum was steeped in European values and customs. African, Indian and American histories and cultures
were not considered legitimate topics for Caribbean children. Therefore, there was a deep feeling that only the
understanding of Western culture could help us to develop into a modern nation.
In keeping with maintaining a stratified society, only children who were ‘bright’ or showed the ability for academic work
were to be educated at the secondary level and beyond. Therefore, assessment procedures were put in place to
maintain the status quo in society; for example, qualifying exams for entry into secondary schools – such as GSAT
(Jamaica), and CXC and CAPE for entry into tertiary-level education. As the years progressed, education became
available to the masses, therefore, the focus shifted from merely securing a place in a secondary school to looking for a
‘good’ school.
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That’s why most persons, in their GSAT choices chose schools like Manchester High, Campion College, Immaculate
Conception High, Kingston College, Ardenne High School, Holy Childood High School, Wolmer’s Girls and Wolmer’s Boys’
schools, etc, as opposed to Papine High, Dunoon Technical, Kingston Technical and Charlie Smith High, just to name a
few.
The dominant ideas in education are translated into the social organisation that frame our education system – for
example, schools, examinations, streaming. These customary practices are derived from the institutional ideas and
beliefs about education.
PURPOSES OF EDUCATION
The purpose of education after slavery revolved around the principle of inculcating English values and customs which
would facilitate an easier administration of the newly freed people. In the 20th century, the focus on education changed
because all children were required to attend school. There was, however, biases in the system as students were sorted,
allocated and selected based on their abilities; only the ‘bright’ ones followed a different path. The social institution of
education thus performs different function on children, categorising them according to academic ability and placing
them in different types of schools. Education, then, organises the opportunities and life chances of the young people.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION
To a large extent, functionalism regards education as an agent of socialization. Schools are agents of secondary
socialization, which never stops. Even adults continue to learn appropriate behaviours. Schools inculcate dispositions of
obedience, regularity, punctuality and work ethics that are valued by employers. They socialise students into the need to
get a ‘good job’. They sort, stream and allocate students through exams and curricula to different positions. Additionally
schools perform the following functions:
 Socialise students into patriotism through rituals and explicit curriculum goals.
 To respect the nation’s political institutions; to accept the status quo.
 Schools socialise children into the role they will play as adult voters.
 Denominational schools socialize students to accept religion and its values as important to education.
 High status and prestige are conferred on denominational schools by the values in the institution of education.
MARXIST aka CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION
Conflict theorists focus their explanations of the social institution of education on its relationship with the social
institution of the economy. They trace the beginning of mass education system in Europe and North America in the 19th
century to the parallel development of capitalist economies. Capitalism needed a supply of educated workers and so the
education system developed a ‘handmaiden’ role to provide for the needs of the economy.
Conflict theorists view the education system as organised to reflect functionalist ideologies. However, the education
system may discriminate against the poor and those who need extra help to negotiate the curriculum. These theorists
argue that if achievement data were to be examined, it would be clear that the majority fails at secondary and only the
children of the wealthy and academically inclined students achieve success. Schooling has several mechanisms which
ensure that the poor cannot compete effectively. It, thus, perpetuates inequities in the society.
Examinations are an obstacle students have to repeatedly hurdle in order to gain credentials, obtain a good job and
enjoy an enabling lifestyle. They function as a selection mechanism to sort children to different types of schools and, in
this process, the rich and the academically able get the most prestigious placements. Yet, there may be unequal
preparation for the examination. In the structures and processes of schooling, little attention is paid to those who are at
risk.
Only very few access social mobility through education, and conflict theorists indict the education system as contributing
to a cycle of social reproduction.

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 ***SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS - Religion***
The social institution of religion is that realm of society where our beliefs about a supernatural power, an afterlife, and
how these impact our lives exist. Specific religions as well as churches, mosques, temples and halls of worship are
tangible outcomes or forms of social organisation that reflect the beliefs and values of religion.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGION
 Beliefs - Ideas, based upon faith, that people consider true.
 The sacred and profane - Sacred: that which has supernatural qualities. / Profane: that which is the ordinary.
 Rituals - Routines that reinforce the faith.
 Moral communities - People who share a religious belief/Personal experience
 Grants meaning to life.
Religion, over the years, dating as far back as to communal societies, has experienced a great transformation. In
communal societies, religion permeated all aspects of society because hunters/gatherers depended on their gods for a
successful farming year, good weather, luck and fortune. However, in contemporary industrial society, the institution of
religion has become separated from many social and economic activities.
**Religion has the power to control and integrate people in any given society. Sociologist Emile Durkheim is of the
view that religion is an integrative force, being that it: Gives meaning and purpose to people’s lives. Offers ultimate
values and ends to hold in common. Serves to bind people together in times of crisis and confusion.**
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVES OF RELIGION
Functionalist perspectives on religion revolve around social order since social order is a cardinal value of the
functionalist’s view of society. Social institutions are explained in terms of how they can contribute to integration and
harmony in society. One may find it strange that religion, which is concerned with supernatural powers and mysticism,
should be thought of in this way, but functionalists see a fundamental link between religion and the maintenance of
social stability.
Commitment to certain beliefs, rituals and forms of worship are mechanisms that increase the levels of social solidarity
among people. Religion tends to be conservative in nature, preaching obedience and perseverance through suffering,
emphasising an ethic of care for one’s fellow man, as well as virtues such as truth, discipline and temperance.
Functionalists, therefore, see religion as playing a major role in social cohesion. Religion provides a basis for social order
because they are based on consensual values.
MARXIST/CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES ON RELIGION
Marxists regard religion as serving the needs of those groups dominant in the economy. Religion acts as a conservative
force in the society by making legitimate the values that the capitalist machinery needs to continue to accumulate
profits. While we understand the world view held on religion, Marxists challenge us to reflect on our orientation to
religion and decide to what extent it is preserving the status quo or about personal salvation and empowerment.
**Karl Marx, believed the institution of religion to be a potent medium of social control in any given society, since**:
 People focus on other worldly concerns.
 Religion drugs masses into submission by offering a consolation for their harsh lives on Earth.
 Religion’s promotion of social stability helps to perpetuate patterns of social inequality.
 Women have played fundamental role in religious socialization, but generally take subordinate role in religious
leadership.
 Most religions are patriarchal and reinforce men’s dominance in secular and spiritual matters.
 Women compose 12.8 per cent of US clergy, but account for 51 per cent of theology students.
THE CARIBBEAN REALITY - The Caribbean has a variety of religions with Christianity being the most dominant. There are
established churches: Anglican, Catholic, Baptist, Presbyterian, etc. There are those churches that are syncretic in
nature. These churches are a mix of European and African practices to create new forms of worship. Examples of these
are the Shouter Baptists of Trinidad, New Testament Church of God, Revivalists, etc.
Syncretism of religious forms in the Caribbean displays elements of resistance, independence, and a deep appreciation
of the divine. Syncretic religions, therefore, help to comfort the worshipper and oppose mainstream values, thus seeking
to undermine the status quo. However, these religions do not have a majority following yet. Their value systems are not
dominant in the social institution of religion. Overall, the functionalist ideas of religion, and how it affects our lives, tend
to dominate. Many forms of syncretic religions in the Caribbean attest to the desire of Caribbean people to not only
fashion beliefs and worship so that they can find solace and comfort, but, in so doing, to resist traditional institutional
values.
SUMMARY - Religion affects our lives as a conservative force associated largely with positive values. Moreover, Christian
religion is legitimised by the values in the social institution of religion more than any other form of worship. Christian
worship, then, has historically been associated with preserving the social life as per the norms and customs of European
and Caribbean people who have accepted those values.

Marxists, on the other hand, choose to disrupt the positive messages associated with religion. They believe that religion
has hoodwinked the masses into believing that they can find peace and comfort through worship. Syncretism of
religious forms in the Caribbean displays elements of resistance, independence and a deep appreciation of the divine.
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 ***SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS – Justice***
THE JUSTICE SYSTEM DEFINED: - The family, education, and religion all affect the lives of Caribbean people in different
ways. The Caribbean justice system is based on the norms of the society that satisfy the majority of the society based on
their value system. As such, we can draw the conclusion that the justice system affects us as individuals, social
institutions, and other social groups. The justice system, therefore, refers to the interaction of those social institutions
that are clearly identified with social control.
It is important to note, however, that an individual’s perception of justice is based on his personal experience with it,
which, eventually, is warped, resulting in subjective and opinionated statements. The justice system further includes the
relationship among crime, the law, the judiciary, the police, and the protective services. The justice system is, therefore,
concerned with maintaining a society where citizens are treated justly and fairly. As with all societal institutions, the
justice system also acts as a medium of social control, hence, members of society are usually taught what is considered
acceptable or unacceptable social behaviour at a young age via the family and the education institution (primary and
secondary socialisation). Observance of these rules is most often based on a system of rewards and sanctions. For
example, children are rewarded for acceptable behaviour and punished for unacceptable behaviour.
THE POLICE - Law enforcement plays a crucial part in our criminal justice system. Each officer is specially trained in many
aspects of criminal justice and the law, in general. The duties carried out law enforcement personnel include traffic
citations, criminal investigations, emergency response, as well as crime prevention.
The police hold a special place in the criminal justice system. Not only do the activities of law enforcement officers affect
the operations of the entire criminal justice system, but the police are said to be the ‘gate keepers’ of the system: “They
are usually the first to make contact with accused offenders and are in a position to make some very important decisions
about what will happen to those individuals. Perhaps the most frequent decision that a police officer makes is to initiate
an alleged offender’s journey through the maze of the criminal justice system” ( Alpert and Dunham, 1997:11 ).
THE COURTS - The structure of the Jamaican judicial system is based on five tiers. The lowest tier is the Petty Sessions
Court.
CARIBBEAN COURT OF JUSTICE - The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) settles disputes between Caribbean Community
(CARICOM) member states and also serves as the highest court of appeal on civil and criminal matters for the national
courts of Barbados, Belize, and Guyana. The CCJ’s seat is in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. The Caribbean Court of
Justice does not have the capacity to hear individual complaints of alleged human rights violations, except in its role as a
court of final appeal in civil and criminal matters, which often involves fundamental rights.
In 2001, the establishing agreement granted the CCJ original and exclusive jurisdiction to interpret and apply the Revised
Treaty of Chaguaramas Establishing the Caribbean Community. However a person or private company must have the
CCJ’s permission to bring proceedings before it, and moreover, the CCJ’s original jurisdiction only extends to the
application and interpretation of the treaty and not human rights, generally.
CORRECTIONAL SYSTEMS - The correctional system is a governmental system tasked with safeguarding the proper
interpretation and application of the law in the cases of violators of the law. The correctional system guarantees proper
handling of convicts or violators of the law. This system involves different government agencies. Law enforcement
agencies, the court system, and parole boards are just some of these agencies in the correctional system. Thus, the
system involves various types of activities based on the distinct objectives of these agencies. In general, the correctional
system involves the executive and judicial branches of government. The intended purpose of the correctional system is
twopronged: to decrease crime rates and to apply justice in consideration of victims. These purposes are actually based
on the expected benefits for society. The correctional system helps reduce crime rates and ensures that victims and
their families’ demands are addressed.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE OF THE JUSTICE SYSTEM
They believe that justice, equality, and fairness help to form the basic framework of society and are universally good.
Deviant behaviour is best explained in terms of a breakdown in the socialization process within the family or how
individuals react to changes in society. Society must find ways to deal with deviants (those who break the laws of
society) and deviant behaviour as these contribute to disorder, chaos, and confusion in society.
The institution of the justice system was created to take care of deviants through punishment, deterrence, or
rehabilitation; therefore, the operations of the police force and court system have a role.
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE ON JUSTICE SYSTEM
They believe that the justice system is oppressive and exploitative of the lower class of society. Members of the lower
class are usually targeted as criminals and, therefore, the fairness of the justice system is not extended to these
individuals. For example, members of the upper class are sophisticated criminals and, therefore, they are rarely caught
by the police or convicted in the court. This makes it seem as if crime is predominantly a lower-class activity, which may
not be the case. According to the Marxists, structural inequalities in society brought on by capitalism isolate the poorer
groups. Their acts of crime are, therefore, thought of as rebellion against their situation and not deviant acts. Crime is
used as an excuse to enact legislations to restrain the poor and is in the interests of the elites.

35
 ***Justice system – The Caribbean Court of Justice versus the Privy Council***
Objective: Assess the arguments put forward for and against the adoption the CCJ as the final appellate court for
Commonwealth countries. There has been an ongoing debate surrounding whether Jamaica should adopt the CCJ as its
final court of appeal or remain with the Privy Council (PC). The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is primarily the
final Court of Appeal for those Commonwealth territories which have retained the appeal to Her Majesty in other
matters.

“The Privy Council is an institution that became established as the final court for the individual countries during the era
of colonialism. The Privy Council was instituted under the premise that the King is the fountain of all justice throughout
his Dominions, and exercises jurisdiction in his Council, which acts in advisory capacity to the Crown. During the colonial
era, the King exercised final appellate jurisdiction over all colonies and territories.” In the case of the West Indies, the
services of the Judicial Courts were requested as a relief from the decisions of the local courts. In particular, the Court
intervened in cases pertaining to property such as plantations. By the end of the 19th Century, and as the English
dominion expanded, the Privy Council had jurisdictional power over more than a quarter of the globe. It had earned the
distinction of being respected as a court of great skill, erudition and versatility.

As the era of colonialism came to an end, a number of countries gave up the Privy Council as their final Court of Appeal.
Since then, the Privy Council has rendered its services to the Caribbean gratuitously, and continues to do so to this day,
perpetuating the colonial status of the Caribbean islands. For the past decade or so, there has been a move to dissolve
the Privy Council as the Caribbean’s Final Court of Appeal and adopt what is known as the CCJ. The institutionalisation of
the CCJ assumes political, economic, nationalistic and even emotional overtones and is inextricably bound up with the
issues of independence and sovereignty. The nations of the Caribbean are now becoming increasingly of the opinion
that it is offensive to the sovereignty of independent nations and, therefore, politically unacceptable to have a foreign
tribunal permanently entrenched in their constitutions as their final court.

ARGUMENTS FOR THE CCJ

 When Caribbean countries adopt the CCJ as the final appellate court, they complete the process of the
independence of Commonwealth countries. Most Caribbean counties have been independent of England for
over 40 years. The time has now come where these countries must sever the ties to their colonial past and
reliance on London judges to decide on the matters coming before our courts.
 The adoption of the CCJ will allow people of the Caribbean greater access to justice. This means that they will be
able to take their matters to the final Court of Appeal, if they so wish, at a much reduced cost. The argument is
that appeals to the Privy Council are extremely expensive, and that factor operates as a deterrent to presenting
an appeal before that body.
 Caribbean judges’ intellectual competence is unquestionable when compared to judges in other jurisdictions in
the world. Their ability to analyse legal issues and write carefully crafted judgments with reasons is not a matter
in dispute. The Caribbean has produced brilliant legal minds for decades.
 Another fundamental issue regarding trust and confidence, when one is comparing the CCJ and the Privy
Council, relates to the judicial knowledge of local conditions, the parties, and the lawyers involved in any
particular case. It is commonly said that one negative about retention of the PC is that the judges in London are
far removed from the local circumstances and local conditions and have little or no knowledge of same.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE CARIBBEAN COURT OF JUSTICE

 The main opponents to the adoption of the CCJ question the trust and confidence of the judges in their
judgements. The skepticisms are relaxed around the belief that in the small society in which we operate, some
judges may be reluctant to offend some politicians who hold the reins of government.
 The argument of lack of respect for the ruling passed down by Caribbean Judges as seen in 2009 case where the
CCJ granted a mandatory order against the Government of Guyana, directing it to implement the Common
 External Tariff (CET) which it had arbitrarily lifted without lawful authority. The Government of Guyana has
refused to pay the costs of the proceedings assessed by the Court.

36
 ***Exercising power and authority – Creating A ‘Just’ Society***
The concepts ‘power’ and ‘authority’ are separate but very related ones. With authority comes the duties and
responsibilities delegated to a position holder in a bureaucratic structure. A police officer has the authority to arrest an
offender of the law. Power is the possession of authority, control or influence by which a person affects the actions of
others, either by direct authority or by some other, more intangible means. Power can reinforce authority, and authority
is one of the primary sources of power. One application of authority and power is the practice of good governance.
GOVERNANCE: This is the process of decision-making and this involves the process by which decisions are carried out or
not carried out. Governance may be good or bad, as this will depend on what is happening in a country. It involves the
establishment of policies and continuous monitoring of their proper implementation by the members of the governing
body of a country.
GOOD GOVERNANCE - Good governance depends on an ability to exercise power and to make good decisions over time,
across a spectrum of economic, social, environmental and other areas. This is linked with the government’s capacity for
knowledge, mediation, resource allocation, implementation and maintenance of key relationships.
ATTRIBUTES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE - The concept of good governance has been explained by the work of the
Commission on Human Rights. The commission identified the following key attributes of good governance:
 transparency
 responsibility
 accountability
 participation
 responsiveness (to the needs of the people).
Most writers on this topic see good governance as being made up of eight major characteristics. It should be
participatory, consensus-oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive,
and follow the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimised in a country, and in many cases prevented. The views
of minorities are taken into account as victimisation is of great concern. The voices of the most vulnerable in society are
heard in decision-making. It also encourages sustainability as it is reactive to the current and potential needs of the
society. It sees respect for human rights as a very important aspect of society.
PARTICIPATION - Citizens’ opportunity to participate in their government is required for there to be good governance.
This participation may be direct or through institutions or the duly elected representatives. Participation means that
citizens are kept informed and given a say in the direction of the country. Citizens must also be able to enjoy freedom of
association and expression and live in an organised and civil society.
RULE OF LAW/INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY - Every society dreams, hopes for, welcomes a just and unswerving
justice system which is necessary for good governance to be enforced impartially. It will require the autonomy to
exercise full protection of human rights and the unbiased enforcement of the laws by an independent judiciary and,
more so, an impartial and ethical police force.
The Rule of Law emphasizes that one legal standard should be maintained for all citizens within a country regardless of
race, class or creed.
TRANSPARENCY - Transparency gives the impression that decisions are being taken and enforced in a manner that
follows the rules and regulations in a country and does not do so discriminately. Information should be made available
and accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions. When a government is enforcing ideas, there must be the
use of a medium that is understood and accessible to all citizens in the country.
RESPONSIVENESS TO THE NEEDS OF THE CITIZENS - Citizens should have confidence that development will enhance
their quality of life, that processes will be taken care of as they occur, and that their needs are viewed as important and
will be catered to in an opportune way. In a democratic country, free and fair election is a sure way of ensuring that the
wishes of citizens are met. If needs are not met continuously, then the government may not win the next election.
CONSENSUS-ORIENTED/CONSULTATION WITH CITIZENS - Cooperation is necessary in order to entertain the different
interests in society in order to attain consensus in society. Consensus is necessary to ascertain the best interest of a
country and how best it can be achieved.
EQUITY AND INCLUSIVENESS/ACCESS TO INFORMATION - The well-being of a society depends greatly on ensuring that
all citizens feel that they have a say in decisions taken in their country and do not, in any way, at any time, feel excluded
from these decisions. Access to information will allow for greater public participation in government and, thereby,
strengthens democracy in any country.
EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY - Good governance means efficiency and good sense in order to produce results that
meet the needs of citizens while making the greatest use of resources at their disposal. The sustainable use of natural
resources is necessary as is the protection of the environment, together with the best possible use of the human
resources.
ACCOUNTABILITY - Accountability is the key requirement in a country to produce good governance. This takes in all
sectors of a country – governmental institutions and the private sector. All civil organisations must be accountable to the
public and to their stakeholders. Accountability in a country must use transparency as a rule of law.

37
 ***Caribbean Arts and Popular Culture***
GOAL: For students to evaluate the ways in which the arts and popular culture impact Caribbean society.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Define Caribbean art forms.
2. Describe the variety of Caribbean art forms, including visual arts, popular music, festivals and culinary arts.
3. Explain how Caribbean art forms inform the culture of the region.

CARIBBEAN ART FORMS

The Caribbean’s shared historical experience places the region in a position where there is shared cultural forms ranging
from music, dance, culinary practices, etc. Caribbean art forms, however, are not easily defined. Caribbean authors have
referred to the concept as a ‘contested’ one, as art forms in the Caribbean can range from traditional paintings,
sculptures and performances to those that are considered to be more contemporary, such as popular music, dance and
festivals; while some theorist believe that Caribbean art forms fall between traditional and popular (contemporary)
practice. Even though this is an unsettled debate, it is important to realise that expressions of culture within the
diaspora and the Caribbean continues to be an important element that creates a distinction that marks a Caribbean
identity which is necessary for human and cultural development in the region.

MUSIC - The shared historical experience in the Caribbean has created variety in the various music and dances of the
region in which people participate. It is obvious that the different groups brought their cultural practices, and through a
syncretic process of borrowing and mixing elements, a distinct musical form and genre has emerged. As for the Africans
who came here from various tribes, their influence is still in our music. For example, the musical and dance forms that
can be found in the Anglophone and non-Anglophone Caribbean include: Junkanoo, mento, ska, rock steady, reggae,
roots, reggae, lovers rock, dance hall (Jamaica), Marumba, breakdown, punta (Belize), Soca (Trinidad and Tobago,
Barbados and St Lucia), Tumba, ritni kinbina (Curacao), Reggaetón (Puerto Rico), Meringue, beguine (Martinique,
Guadeloupe)
It is important to note that it was during the colonial era that the steel band was developed; it is still used as a popular
musical form in the region and among the diaspora. The United States has also made an influence on the region through
recorded music. These influences include, for example, rap music.
DANCE - Caribbean music is often associated with dance, and this can be expressed from among the normal man on the
street to those who are highly skilled and trained choreographers. Like music, dance in the Caribbean has undergone its
fair share of mixing elements of various culture to form a distinct version of dances.
Dances that were creolized include some European dances like quadrille, mazurka, polka, contredanse and waltz. On
plantations, some of these dances, in particular quadrille, were adopted and creolised as a form of resistance to
European domination. Other examples of dances done in the Caribbean are: Folk dances such as limbo in Trinidad,
Goombay in Bermuda and cakewalk in Grenada. Indigenous ceremonial dances - Mari mari in Guyana.
Spiritual dances that are associated with religious practices, such as kumina in Jamaica.‘ Popular dance forms – calypso,
soca, ska or punta.
FESTIVALS - Caribbean countries celebrate many different festivals; one such festival is carnival. Carnival did not
originate in the Caribbean, though it has been transferred to a Creole environment. Carnival is no longer only held in the
Caribbean, but in the diaspora in North America and Europe. In countries where there is a pronounced influence of the
Roman Catholic Church, carnival is usually celebrated on the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday. In other
countries, however, carnival is slated to begin on August 1, when the slaves in British colonies received Emancipation. It
is important to note that carnival, which is celebrated across the Caribbean, is done for various reasons. For instance,
Crop Over, which has been celebrated in Barbados from the 18th century to now, observes the sugar cane harvest.
All carnival celebrations in the Caribbean have the same characteristics. They involve a street festival with a massive
crowd, costumed revellers, music (steelpan or brass pan); the songs played are normally soca, calypso or a local variant.
Before the big road march, the carnival season is quite active with a number of shows and competitions, such as Soca
King and Queen of Carnival and J’Ouvert.
ARTISANAL CRAFT - The Caribbean Artisan Network was implemented to offer expertise in many different artisanal
work. Annually, they host a festival called the Caribbean Arts and Craft Festivals, where the region’s artisans get a
chance to showcase their best craft items. It must be noted that artisanal craft is an important area of popular culture,
because the crafts made by the craftsmen are instrumental in forming the Caribbean identity.
CULINARY ARTS - The culinary competence of the Caribbean people showcases the creative nature of the region’s most
valuable resources. Foods eaten in Europe, Africa, India, China and those eaten in the pre-Columbian epoch have all
influenced Caribbean food to this date. It is important to note that each groups of people has distinct ways of preparing
meals, but just as how music and dance have been syncretised, food in the Caribbean has experienced the mixing of
different elements from the groups of people that settled in the Caribbean. In most cases, created dishes are
characterised by the various spices and methods of preparations, therefore creating a unique Caribbean cuisine.

38
 ***Caribbean Development through the Arts***
OBJECTIVES: Describe how human and cultural development contributes to a sense of identity.
IDENTITY AND BELONGINGNESS - A sense of identity and belongingness can be developed in the Caribbean when
artists, musicians, poets and various performers develop a sense of self-worth for the work they do by marketing
themselves internationally. This international recognition facilitates the development of a Caribbean identity through
their achievements in literature, music and dance. The successes enjoyed by our singers, musicians, dancers and writers
give Caribbean people a sense of pride in their heritage. This feeling suppresses Eurocentric beliefs and cultural
imperialisms from the colonial legacies, and leads to the empowerment of the human being, which is a necessary
requirement for human development. Caribbean arts also contribute to the empowerment of man, because people can
grow intellectually through their dedication to a particular disciple, for example, Rex Nettleford for his work in dance
movement.
CONTRIBUTION TO EMPLOYMENT - The development of the arts across the Caribbean is a great opportunity for the
creation of unconventional employment opportunities. It is important to note that in this case, the artiste is not the only
one who benefits but also those who are integrally involved in the production process – promoters and even those who
manage successful artistes. The rise of the arts has created an arena of new types of jobs in Caribbean.
CONTRIBUTIONS BY NOTED CULTURAL ICONS
REX NETTLEFORD - “Patriotism is not short, frenzied outbursts of emotion, but the tranquil and steady dedication of a
lifetime,” said former United States presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson. With a lifetime of dignified and distinguished
service to Jamaica and the wider Caribbean, Professor the Honorable Ralston Milton ‘Rex’ Nettleford established himself
as the quintessential Caribbean patriot, whose contributions will forever be etched into the annals of the region’s
history. Nettleford was a prominent Jamaican historian, sociologist, dancer and choreographer, considered by many to
be ‘Jamaica’s cultural ambassador’ to the world. He was co-founder of the National Dance Theatre Company in Jamaica
in 1962 and led the organisation for almost 50 years. He studied the Rastafari movement in West Kingston, Jamaica,
after returning from Oxford University. He founded and ran the Trade Union Education Institute. He was the vice-
chancellor of the University of the West Indies in Jamaica. He was one of four alumni awarded an honorary degree in
2003 in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Rhodes Scholarship at Oxford University in Oxford, Oxfordshire,
England. He earned a Rhodes scholarship to study political science at Oxford University in Oxford, Oxfordshire, England,
while he was a student at the University of West Indies in Jamaica. In describing his legacy, it seems that no other words
are more fitting than, ‘Rex Nettleford, a nation, his monument.’
LOUISE BENNETT-COVERLEY - This beloved poet and social activist was born in Jamaica and recieved her formal
education from some prominent schools in the country like Ebenezer Primary, St Simon’s College and Excelsior High
School. From an early age, she had a taste for the theatrics, and at 17 she recited her first poem at a concert at Coke
Methodist Church in 1936. However, her early work was not appreciated mainly because of her use of the Jamaican
dialect; the British accent was highly admired at that time. Nevertheless, Louise Bennett remained persistent in using
the Jamaican dialect in her poetry as she wanted her poems to be a reflection of the life and philosophy of Jamaicans.
Her poems were first published in a Sunday newspaper by Michael deCordova and this paved the way for the fame of
Louise Bennett. Her poem Colonization in Reverse (1966) became one of the main sources of her popularity. It reflected
the thoughts of the minorities of post-colonial times who were residing in the United Kingdom. In this poem, she
touched the sensitive topic of racial inequality experienced by Jamaicans as well as South Asians under the post-colonial
rule, especially those minorities who had moved to England in search of better jobs but were facing oppression at the
hands of the British. Bennett reflected on the struggles which both the Jamaicans and South Asians had to endure in an
attempt to survive in Britain at that time. In 1945, Bennett went to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts in England, then
she later joined the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and hosted ‘Caribbean Carnival’ and ‘West Indian Night’ on
radio. She later married Eric Winston Coverley in 1954 and in 1956 she became the drama officer at the Jamaica Social
Welfare Commission. Later, she was appointed as its director. Bennett also taught drama at the University of the West
Indies Extra Mural Department and at some other agencies. She was subsequently awarded the MBE (Member of the
British Empire) for her work with the Jamaican theatre, and also received several other awards, nationally and
internationally, like the insignia of the Order of Jamaica in 1974 by the Government of Jamaica for her extraordinary
performance in the school of literature and the arts.
MARTIN CARTER - One of the most important poets to come out of the Caribbean, Martin Carter has been compared to
literary lions such as W.B. Yeats and Pablo Neruda. His most famous work was fuelled by the political turmoil that
gripped his native Guyana in the 1950s and 1960s. He told fellow Guyanese writer Bill Carr, in an interview for the
Guyanese magazine Release, that politics and poetry were inseparable. “*If+ politics is a part of life, we shall become
involved in politics, if death is a part of life, we shall become involved with death, like the butterfly who is not afraid to
be ephemeral.” Unfortunately, because of his politically charged poems, Carter was often pigeon-holed as a
revolutionary poet, but as Guyana’s Stabroek News wrote, “...There were other voices in Martin Carter, strains of
tenderness, love poems of moving fervour, agonies expressed that have nothing to do with politics, insights into all of
human nature.” During his life, Carter received limited recognition outside of Guyana, mainly because he refused to
abandon his country. A friend of his told the Guyana Chronicle, “Exile for him was not going overseas like so many of the
Caribbean’s best writers, but exiled within his own country; in his own way, and fighting the fight at home.” As he fought
that fight, he wrote words of defiance, beauty, pain and hope, leaving a literary legacy that, finally, in the 21st Century,
is receiving worldwide critical respect.

39
 ***The Influence of Caribbean Art Forms on Extra-Regional societies***
OBJECTIVE: Assess the ways in which Caribbean art forms are retained in the diaspora. Major cities in the North Atlantic
(USA, Canada, England) are heavily populated with Caribbean nationals. Caribbean nationals and their offspring make up
a considerable segment of the population of England, Canada and the United States of America, hence, forming what is
known as the Caribbean diaspora.

The diasporic Caribbean refers to a group of people who reside in another geographical location, for instance, people of
Caribbean ancestry who share an emotional connection to their homeland.Festivals in the Caribbean diaspora play an
integral role in the lives of the migrants, since this is a time when they get to experience authentic Caribbean cuisines,
music, fashion and the general culture.

At these carnivals in England, Canada and the USA, the parade is made up of bands, revellers dressed in costumes
depicting a common theme, along with participants jumping to the music while competing for ‘Band of the Year’ title.
Along with the parade is the Calypso Monarch competition (best calypso performer). There is also a junior carnival
competition – the inculcation of carnival traditions so it won’t die. Popular diasporic festivals include the Brooklyn
Labour Day parade in USA, Notting Hill Carnival in England and Caribana in Canada.

NOTTING HILL CARNIVAL

The event originated in 1964 as a way for Afro-Caribbean communities in the United Kingdom to celebrate their cultures
and traditions, similar to the Caribbean carnivals of the early 19th century. These types of carnivals were hugely popular
in Trinidad and were generally a celebration of the abolition of slavery. During the period of slavery, festivals were
forbidden, so the residents took full advantage of their new-found freedom.

The first-ever Notting Hill Carnival was arranged to showcase popular steel band musicians who played in Earl’s Court
every weekend. The festival music drew residents out on to the streets, reminding many of the Caribbean homes they
had left behind. The well known tradition of elaborate costumes began as an element of parody, mimicking the
European fashions of their former masters. Today, this tradition has evolved into 15,000 handmade costumes every
year, taking one million hours to create and decorate them all!

CARIBANA

The Toronto Caribana Festival began in 1967 as one of the first Caribbean festivals held outside of the region. Originally
known as the Canadian Centennial Festivals, Caribana was meant to share West Indian and Black Canadian culture and
traditions with the community, and to help fund the building of a West Indian cultural centre. Since then, every summer,
Toronto, Canada, illuminates to the pulsating rhythm of calypso and steel pan music.

The atmosphere is also enhanced by elaborate masquerade costumes. This two-week festival attracts over a million
participants and tourists annually. The festival today includes the music, dance, food and costumes of Jamaica, The
Bahamas, Brazil and other cultures present in Toronto.

BROOKLYN LABOUR DAY PARADE/WEST INDIAN DAY PARADE

The West Indian Day Parade is held every Labour Day and runs down Brooklyn’s Eastern Parkway. It is part of the West
Indian-American Carnival celebrations which take place during and before Labor Day Weekend and include concerts,
contests, children’s pageants and private parties, in addition to the main event, the parade. Brooklyn’s Carnival initially
came out of Trinidad’s carnival tradition and, as such, steel bands are one of the most commonly heard sounds at the
parade.

Over time, other Caribbean traditions and music have been added, including reggae from Jamaica, spouge from
Barbados, cadence from Dominica, and merengue from Haiti. Many food vendors set up stalls in the streets surrounding
the parade, offering up curried chicken, oxtail, Jamaican meat patties, roti, fried plantains, ginger beer and coconut
water, to name some of the wide assortment of food and drinks available. Other kinds of vendors also set up stalls at the
parade, selling many different goods, including crafts from the Caribbean, African sculptures, and African bead work.

40
 ***The Caribbean’s influence on extra-regional countries***
Since the arrival of Columbus, the Caribbean region has been interacting with Europe (Spain, England, France, Holland,
etc). The United States and Canada later became frequent interactors with the region, even to this day. This earliest
form of interaction had many benefits for all who were involved. It is safe to say, as Mohammed (2015) agrees, that this
interaction was an early form of globalization which knitted the economy, culture and society of the Caribbean and
Western Europe into a close relationship. This relationship was an amination of superiority and inferiority between the
metropole countries, which dominated the means of production, and the Caribbean region that was exploited for its
economic gain. The influence of the society and culture of the Caribbean on extra-regional countries has been identified
in a number of areas: politics, economics and culture.
POLITICAL INFLUENCE - Caribbean nationals over the years have migrated to parts of the United States, Canada and
Europe. The most organised group of Caribbean nationals in the US are the Cubans, and they have had significant
influence on US politics because of their number and economic power. Though illegal immigrants who came by boat,
they were not repatriated because of their possible fate if they returned home. They represent a major voting bloc in
South Florida.

The Cuban-American lobby is second in importance to the Israeli-American in US politics. They have largely spoken with
one voice, fought for one cause, the overthrow of Castro. Cubans hold offices in state, local and federal governments.
They represent a significant voting bloc in South Florida (credited with securing office for George Bush Jr. and Jeb Bush
in 2000 elections). The Cubans have influenced US legislation on Cuba, of note: the 1983 Bill to create Radio Marti with
the intention to undermine Castro’s influence through the flow of information and the Helms-Burton Act 1996 which is
aimed at strengthening the US embargo against Cuba by penalizing anyone who traded with Cuba. The Haitian
population in USA is scattered mainly across Florida, Miami and Boston. Their political impact is limited largely because
they are divided along class lines; the professionals speak French and the working class speak kreyol.

In Miami, Haitians act as a voting bloc. The issue of the ‘boat people’ has been used to mobilize the Haitian community.
In 1982 the Haitian Refugee Center brought a class action suit against the US government that was successful in winning
release on parole of 1900 detainees. The large number of migrants and the extent of narcotics trafficking in the region
have resulted in N. American and European governments enacting more stringent immigration policies and surveillance
measures: in 1995 the US entered into an agreement with Cuba to repatriate all Cubans picked up at sea thus reversing
its decades old policy.

A significant event affecting this agreement was the Mariel Boatlift in 1980 when Castro allowed 125,000 Cubans to
leave for Florida, many of whom were criminals. Haitian ‘boat people’ are automatically repatriated as economic
refugees in the face of political instability (1991 bloody coup that removed Jean Bertrand Aristide from power, the total
breakdown of law and order following Aristide’s alleged resignation and removal from the country by the US in ??).
Increased cost to obtain visa, applicants have to travel to obtain interview, pay more for application. Deportation to
home countries of aliens convicted of crimes. Bi-lateral agreement with some countries for US coastguard vessels to
pursue suspected drug traffickers in Caribbean waters Shiprider Agreement) Other activities under international
cooperation, such as, intelligence sharing and the splitting of the proceeds from successful indictment of drug
traffickers.

On the positive side Caribbean nationals were in the forefront of the civil rights movement, for example, Marcus Garvey,
Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael and Louis Farrakhan, Dr. Yosef Ben Jochannon. A host of Caribbean people have held
political posts in N. America and the UK. Some notable examples, Shirley Chisholm, first black woman in US Congress and
first to run for office of President, Colin Powell first non-white Chief of Staff (US) Members of Parliament, Diane Abbott
and Baroness Amos (UK) Michaelle Jean (Haitian) Governor General of Canada 2005.

They have been credited with:

 ‘Forcing’ lawmakers to maintain and strengthen the trade embargo against Cuba (key legislation the Helms-
Burtons Act 1996).
 The creation of Radio Marti, with the expressed intention to undermine the communist system in Cuba through
the flow of information.
The political impact of Haitians is limited largely because they are deeply divided along class lines. In Miami, Haitians act
as a voting bloc. The Haitian Refugee Center has used the issue of the ‘boatpeople’ to mobilize the Haitian community
and to bring a number of legal actions against the US government.

41
The increased flow of migrants and the extent of narco-trafficking to North America and Europe from the Caribbean
have resulted in the enactment of more stringent immigration and surveillance measures such as:
 A reversal of a decades-old policy on the repatriation of Cuban asylum seekers.
 Increased cost to obtain visas or imposing visa requirement on some Caribbean countries (countries that enjoy
Canada’s visa waiver are Antigua and Barbuda, St Lucia, St Vincent, St Kitts and Nevis, Barbados and The
Bahamas).
 Deportation to home countries of aliens convicted of crimes.
 The Shiprider Agreement that allows the US coastguard to pursue suspected drug traffickers in Caribbean
waters.
 Intelligence sharing and the splitting of proceeds from successful indictment of drug traffickers.
ECONOMIC IMPACT - Large populations of Caribbean migrants in New York, Toronto and London have created a
tradition of carnival celebrations which are attended by thousands. These festivals boost the local economy in hotel
bookings, taxes on entertainment services, the food industry and provide work in producing costumes and organizing
aspects of the festivals. In a report published by the London Development Agency 2003, the Notting Hill Carnival was
said to contribute £93 million to London’s economy and generate 3,000 full-time jobs. The West Indian Day Parade is
said to attract two million participants and generate US$70m in revenue (Caribbean Quarterly 1985). The Caribbean
Quarterly 1985 found that Caribana was to be attracting over one million visitors and accounted for CDN $200 million in
tourist expenditure.
EDUCATED WORKFORCE - The US government has appointed people of Caribbean origins in high offices in various arms
of the government and judiciary. The Canadian and US governments have also allowed temporary migrant workers
(farm workers) to pick fruit in Canada and Florida. These economies are very dependent on Caribbean workers to
harvest fruits before winter. Increasingly, from the 1990s, teachers, nurses and other health-care professionals are
actively recruited to fill growing vacancies in these areas to which nationals are not attracted or are in short supply.
Caribbean people continue to impact on the economy of developed countries by providing an educated and willing
workforce.
OFFSHORE BANKING - Countries such as the Cayman Islands, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos,
Anguilla and Antigua, and Barbuda are offshore economies catering largely to clients abroad. These clients are mainly
interested in tax avoidance in metropolitan countries.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES - Caribbean cultural forms such as music, food, dance and religion have penetrated the waves of
international markets and have gained acceptance. The impact of Caribbean music, largely reggae, and to some extent
soca, is felt mainly in the urban centres of large cities such as New York and London. Reggae has been used to:
✔ Market Levi jeans (Boombastic)
✔ Create online courses e.g. ‘The Rhetoric of Reggae’, at the University of Vermont.
Reggae music has been the main medium through which Rastafarian beliefs and lifestyle were introduced to the wider
world. Rastafarian communities and reggae are to be found on every continent. Currently, in North America, steel-band
music is part of the curriculum, while the tuning of pan is a growing skill that has the potential to contribute to the
economic development of this region. The steelpan is also incorporated into forms of music like rap. Caribbean cuisine
competes with those of other ethnic groups in the urban centres companies like Golden Crust and Caribbean Food
Delight have become big business.

42
 ***The Impact of Rastafarianism on the World***
CAPE 2003
Describe how ONE art form or expression of popular culture has contributed significantly to the economic
development of Caribbean countries. (20 marks)

Answer:
One may choose to discuss on either an art form or expression of popular culture. As such candidates may address
Music, Dance, Drama or Art and Sculpture for art forms and for popular culture one may choose Rastafarianism,
Carnivals, Literature, Reggae etc.

For this answer we will look at the popular culture: Rastafarianism

Popular culture may include a range of expressions of creativity that are accessible to, produced by, and enjoyed by, the
majority of a society. Popular culture has been one important means by which, even in days of colonialism and slavery,
people were able to express their identity. Popular culture helped to preserve parts of the heritage of various ethnic
groups that were brought into the region.

Caribbean popular culture in recent years is being marketed all over the world. Calypso, carnival, reggae, literature and
the steel pan, have not gone unnoticed across the globe.

It is quite clear that many people in the Caribbean embrace their Rastafarian identity. Rastafarianism as a popular
culture is seen in our music, fashion and food among other things. This popular culture has contributed significantly to
our Caribbean society economically in the following ways:

 Rastafarians have greatly been associated to the rise and development of Reggae Music. Reggae has
set the pace for Caribbean music and is incorporated in many genres across the world. The USA
being the largest producer of music worldwide has therefore facilitated the explosion of rastafari on
the world scene. It must also be noted that a reggae category has also been added to the Grammy
Awards ceremony with that serving as major recognition for the rastafari brotherhood. Incidentally
some of the repeat winners in the Reggae Grammy category are sons of Bob Marley. Bob Marley,
being a Rastafarian, during his days as one of the pioneers of Reggae popularity suggests the role
played by this popular culture in the music of the region. People from all over the world travel to
Jamaica to experience Reggae music firsthand and this brings economic benefits to our
country/region.
 Rastafarians by themselves attract tourists to the region. People across the world love their idea of
peace and love and their careful attitude to nature. Jamaica is known for instance as the island of
the Rastafarians. Increase in Tourism means increase in foreign exchange for the region.
 Rastafarians are strict vegetarians and so there is the construction and operation of many ital
restaurants across the Caribbean, which brings to the people freshly grown vegetables and plants.
These restaurants are an important attraction for vegetarians and sometimes tourists, thus being
economically important for the region and highlighting the diversity of our cuisine.
 Our fashion has been directly linked to that of Rastafarians. We have incorporated their natural
designs and their belief systems in our clothing and jewelry. These are recognized across the
Caribbean and by extension the world and are generating ever increasing profits.
 Rastafarian dreadlocks is being sported by many top acts across the world and reggae music and
Jamaican creole merged into the lines of many North American songs.
 Our art and sculptures are deeply enriched by our Rastafarian cultures. Their love of the nature and
their beliefs in the use of natural objects to express art are ideal for art lovers. Sculptures of woods
and paintings of nature are instrumental in winning over the attention of both locals and foreigners.
This is quite important as the Art and Craft forms almost 20% of our Tourist sector.
 Rastafarianism has also featured prominently on the big screen as many actors in films worldwide
sport dreadlocks in their respective on-screen roles.
 The use of marijuana in the opinion of some was also popularised by members of the rastsafarian
faith who rose to prominence like Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, Dennis Brown and many other
contemporary artistes.

43
 ***The influence of extra-regional societies on the Caribbean***
OBJECTIVE: Analyse the impact of extra-regional countries on the Caribbean.
Historically, the relationship of the Caribbean to metropolitan countries has been one of dependency. In the colonial
era, European attitudes, ways of life, arts and value systems dominated. While Euro-centric attitudes and values were
imposed, they created the conditions for their continued hegemony in post-colonial societies. These relationships
between the ex-colonizer and the ex-colonized today are labelled as neocolonial. Indigenous efforts to regain legitimacy
of our syncretic cultures have been largely ignored.
The interaction of the Old World with the New World is the earliest form of globalization. Globalisation is the tendency
of businesses to transcend to other markets around the globe, thereby increasing the inter- connectedness of different
markets. Multinational companies threaten to hinder whatever independence we do have. As they normally export their
profits outside the region after ‘investing’ here. There is a general imbalance in trading relationships. Modes of
transportation are modernising and the ways of communication are developing. This increases a country’s ability to
globalize. In effect, this means that the Caribbean market is becoming strikingly similar to the markets of extra-regional
nations.
Postcolonial society is a term to describe how these neocolonial relationships of continued dominance and subjugation
affect people in the ex-colonies.
Caribbean society and culture show an orientation towards the metropole and its impact is perpetuated in:
1. CONSUMPTION PATTERNS - Most of the goods and services consumed in the Caribbean are produced in North
America, and to a lesser extent Britain (for English speaking countries). In post-independent Caribbean, the desire for
what is ‘foreign’ is supported by a number of factors. In history, persons in the Caribbean made a significant effort to
produce their own goods. As time progressed, along with the migration of persons from America, Europe, or more
developed countries, the mixing of the different cultures has changed our thoughts of the goods we produce compared
to the goods made abroad.
 The Caribbean people believe their region is too underdeveloped for producing goods that can compete in
quality to extra-regional societies.
 The Caribbean’s total imports is likely to be more than its exports – a dangerous side of the status quo.
 The Caribbean people now gravitate to foreign diapers (Huggies, etc) instead of purchasing regional
diapers. And that is only one product!
 Globalization has instigated the introduction of some foreign services such as social security, life insurance,
and the credit card culture into the Caribbean society.
2. CREATIVE EXPRESSIONS - The various ways Caribbean people express themselves in festivals, music, theatre arts, etc,
reflect their own creations as well as influences from abroad. US penetration of the region means that its influence is
expanding through the access of the youth, in particular, to its music fashions and festivals.
i. Festivals: Some of the well-established Christian and secular festivals that are observed in the Caribbean – Christmas,
Easter, Father’s and Mother’s Day, Valentines, etc – are extra-regional in origin. They are celebrated in the same fashion
and characterised by the same extent of commercialism as in developed
societies. It is the commercial aspect of the celebrations that marks the degree of Western influence.
Carnival, though not indigenous, had been made synonymous with the Caribbean. In recent times, it too has begun to
cater to foreign tastes in a number of ways, including:
 The sidelining of calypso with it social commentary in favour of the catchier soca.
 The use of computer programs to help create images of costumes
 The production of videos, DVDs, etc.
ii. Theatre arts: Theatre arts include drama, dance and stagecraft, as well as traditional dances, folk singing and
storytelling. In colonial times, Caribbean theatre arts were relegated to the village communities, while the ‘high culture’
of the British was given pre-eminence. The development of theatre arts since independence
reflects the influence of extra-regional countries in respect of:
 Divisions as to the appropriate language i.e. Patios/dialect versus standard English, to convey the arts.
 Many of the themes in presentations mirrored the relationship of the Caribbean to extra regional countries –
issues of identity, race, colour and class, etc.
 The migration of many artistes to receive greater appreciation and rewards for their talents, e.g., V.S. Naipaul,
Dereck Walcott, Jamaica Kincaid.

44
3. MIGRATORY LABOUR - From the middle of the 1950s, migration to North America and Europe was severely curtailed
as developed countries sought to protect their economies from unregulated immigration. However, in the 1980s, on the
recognition of the ageing of these societies, formal arrangements were made to recruit skilled professionals – teacher,
nurses. Opportunities were also available for semiskilled and unskilled labour in sectors not favoured by citizens, such as
agricultural and domestic work and child care. While these occupations are more beneficial to workers vis- á-vis similar
work in the Caribbean and the remittances significant to gross national product of Caribbean countries, the programmes
sustainability is decided by the host countries. Any time they are curtailed, suspended or discontinued, severe
dislocations in the sending countries is the result.

4. TOURISM - Caribbean tourism depends almost entirely for its survival on visitors from Europe and
North America. Economic downturns in the source markets have a negative impact on the local product. All variants of
tourism – adventure, cruise, eco-tourism – are developed on tourists’ demands. Furthermore, the tourism infra-
structure – large hotels, travel agencies, etc – are owned and/or managed in large part by expatriates. Caribbean
countries have developed different kinds of tourist attractions to accommodate their clienteles. Some are:

 Ecotourism – In Dominica, Belize, Guyana and Suriname, the rainforests and their flora and fauna cater for
nature lovers (people interested in birdwatching). The Mountain Pine Ridge in Belize and coral reefs are also
popular.
 Adventure tourism – In Guyana and Suriname, the great rivers offer white water rafting and canoeing. Hunting
is growing in Dominica and mountain climbing in St Lucia.
 Sports tourism – Sea sports: surfing, kite boarding, sailing, scuba diving, snorkelling, and powerboat racing.
There is the Grenada Yacht Club Race, The Spring Regatta of St Maarten and the Blue Marlin Competition in
Curaçao.
 Health tourism – This is where people come to bathe in mineral-charged waters thought to be good for various
ailments. They are found in volcanic areas. Example: Jamaica, St. Lucia, Dominica and Montserrat, where there
are many hot springs.
 Festival tourism – Carnivals such as kadooment in Barbados, the St Lucia Jazz Festival, St Kitts Music Festival,
Reggae Sumfest in Jamaica, and Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago.
 Cruise-ship tourism – Caribbean countries have constructed docking facilities for major cruise ships lines such as
Carnival, Royal Caribbean and Princess. Each vessel carries approximately 2,000 tourists, a large source of
foreign exchange. At present, tourism is one of the world’s largest industries and for developing countries, it is
also one of the biggest income generators. Especially in the Caribbean region, it has both a positive and negative
impacts on the local economy, social life and environment.
5. MASS MEDIA - The cultural imperialism thesis attempts to explain the impact of Western mass media in Caribbean
society and culture. The thesis purports that the cultural products exported to developing countries by the foreign mass
media are adopted at the expense of native culture.
Television has the most powerful of foreign influence in the Caribbean. Some 75 per cent of TV programming in the
English-speaking Caribbean originate outside the region, primarily in the US. Foreign influence come in the form of:
 Music and lifestyle.
 Fundamentalist religious programming.
 Soap and sitcoms.
 The packaging and reporting of news; the overabundance of US views, news and perspectives.
6. SPORT - Various sporting activities such as cricket, soccer (English football), basketball and track and field are among
the sports that are on the rise or have taken root in the Caribbean today. These sporting activities came to the
Caribbean via the non-regional colonial and neocolonial powers. Track and field athletics originated with the ancient
Greeks, who held the first Olympic Games in 776 BC. Basketball’s popularity in the Caribbean has been on the rise,
owing to the dominance of American media in the Caribbean. The multimillion-dollar contracts young black men have
earned in US have attracted the interest of black Caribbean youth to the sport. Soccer is arguably the most popular sport
in a global context, judging by the importance of the World Cup.
7. RELIGION - The influence of extra-regional counties on Caribbean religion is very profound both in the imported
religions such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Judaism, and in the prevalence of syncretic religions showing both
European and African influences. Caribbean syncretic relgions are formed from a merging of European and African
reglion elements. In the Christian Church, elements of African worship is still seen in the worship services, such as
drumming, chanting, shouting and dancing.

45
 ***Caribbean Governance Systems***
COMMONWEALTH CARIBBEAN - is the term applied to the English-speaking islands in the Caribbean and the mainland
nations of Belize (formerly British Honduras) and Guyana (formerly British Guiana) that once constituted the Caribbean
portion of the British Empire.
TYPES OF GOVERNMENTS - There are many types of government to be found in the world. Governments can be
classified into several types. Some of the more common types of governments are listed below:
• Democracy - This is a form of government in which the supreme power is retained by the people, but
which is usually exercised indirectly through a system of representation and delegated authority.
• Republic - A republic is led by representatives of the voters. Each is individually chosen for a set period
of time. All “democracies” are really republics. In a republic, the people elect representatives to make
and enforce laws.
• Monarchy - This is a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the hands of a monarch who
reigns over a state or territory, usually for life and by hereditary right. The monarch may be either a sole
absolute ruler or a sovereign - such as a king, queen or prince - with constitutionally limited authority.
• Aristocracy - An aristocracy is rule by the aristocrats. Aristocrats are typically wealthy, educated people.
• Dictatorship - A dictatorship consists of rule by one person or a group of people. Very few dictators
admit they are dictators; they almost always claim to be leaders of democracies.
The Commonwealth, or The Commonwealth of Nations - is a group of 53 states, all of which (except for two) were
formerly part of the British Empire. It was seen as a way of maintaining global unity through shared language, history
and culture, despite growing independence and self-governance of former British colonies. Despite massive geographic
and demographic differences, these countries are said to be united through their common values of democracy, human
rights and the rule of law.
GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMS EVIDENT IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY - A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises its
authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. This is a system of government in which a monarch
shares power with a constitutionally organized government. The monarch may be the actual head of state or purely a
ceremonial leader. The constitution assigns the rest of the government’s power to the legislature and judiciary. It is seen
as a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the guidelines of a constitution. In Jamaica, a
parliamentary system is employed where the monarch has ceremonial power. Embedded in the constitutional monarchy
is a prime minister who is the head of government and who exercises political power. Election for prime minister and
other members of parliament is carried out every five years.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION: - Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a king or queen acts as head of
state or his or her representative, such as the governor general in Jamaica. The ability to make and pass legislation
resides with an elected parliament, not solely with the monarch’s representative. As a system of government,
constitutional monarchy separates the head of state’s ceremonial and official duties from party politics. A constitutional
monarchy also provides stability, continuity and a national focus. This is possible as the head of state remains the same,
even as governments change.

In a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign must, therefore, remain politically neutral. On almost all matters, the
sovereign acts on the advice of the prime minister and his advisers. However, the sovereign retains an important
political role as head of state, formally appointing prime ministers, approving certain legislation and bestowing honours.
The sovereign has other official roles to play, such as head of the armed forces.

REPUBLICANISM - Republicanism is the ideology embraced by members of a republic – a state in which supreme power
is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president. In this form of
government, leaders are elected for a specific period.

Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two-party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the
Westminster system. The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the president. The head of government is the prime
minister. The president is elected by an electoral college consisting of the full membership of both houses of parliament.
The prime minister is elected from the results of a general election which takes place every five years. The president is
required to appoint the leader of the party who, in his opinion, has the most support of the members of the House of
Representatives to this post. This has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the election.

46
 ***The Westminster-Whitehall System of Government***

BARON DE Montesquieu, a French philosopher, expanded on these nascent ideas regarding separation of powers in
The Spirit of Laws (1748), contending that a government’s executive, judicial and legislative functions should be
administered by separate branches.
The term ‘separation of powers’ describes the distribution of power between different branches of government. In
most Caribbean countries, this is between the executive, judicial and legislative responsibilities of a government which,
to a large extent, are separate and distinct bodies. It is widely believed that a separation of power would prevent the
abuse of power by an individual or any single governmental body.
Jamaica, our island home, is a constitutional monarchy with a British parliamentary system of government. The
Constitution of Jamaica is, therefore, based on the British sociopolitical culture and is modelled on the Westminster-
Whitehall (British) system of government.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS - The separation of powers doctrine ensures that the balance of power
is maintained within each arm of the state. As it relates to Jamaica, separation of powers exists as there are safeguards
put in place to ensure that no institution overpowers the other or usurps its function.

The executive is kept in check by the Parliament to which it is accountable and, by a large extent, by the electorate. The
judiciary also ensures that the executive does not abuse its power; the process of judicial review of the actions of the
executive ensures this. In addition, the judiciary is given the power to declare legislation that goes against the
Constitution of Jamaica as void.

This safeguards the rights of the citizens and ensures that the executive does not wield arbitrary power.
THE LEGISLATURE - Both sides of the House consist of both government and opposition senators.
THE ROLE OF THE LEGISLATURE
 To introduce new laws or statutes.
 To amend or alter existing laws.
 To ratify international treaties.
 To repeal those laws which are no longer applicable or relevant to society.
 To discuss matters of urgent public concern.
The Parliament of Jamaica is the legislative branch of the Government of Jamaica. It is a bicameral body, composed of an
appointed Senate, also known as the Upper House, and an elected House of Representatives, also known as the Lower
House. The governor general represents the queen in Parliament, and his role is a formal one. Once a year, at the official
opening of Parliament, he delivers the Throne Speech.
SENATE - The Senate is a nominated House made up of 21 senators in Jamaica. Thirteen senators are appointed by the
governor general on the advice of the prime minister. The other eight are appointed on the advice of the leader of the
Opposition. Not more than four ministers can be appointed from the Senate, and they may have portfolio
responsibilities. The Senate usually functions as a review chamber, considering bills passed by the House of
Representatives. The Senate may also initiate legislation, except money bills.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES - The House of Representatives consists of 63 members, elected by single-member
constituencies using the first-past-the-post system. The government in power can only exist if it has the support of the
majority of the members of the House of Representatives. Most bills are initiated in the House of Representatives. No
bill may become law unless it is passed by a majority of the members present in the House. The House of
Representatives has control over the Government’s finances. No funds may be granted nor taxation levied without the
approval of the House.
THE SPEAKER - The Speaker of the House is formally elected by the members of the House of Representatives from
among their number, at the first sitting after each general election or when there is a vacancy. His job includes keeping
other members within the rules of the House, ensuring that the rights of the Opposition members are protected, and
that every member gets a fair hearing.
LEADER OF THE HOUSE - The leader of the House of Representatives is responsible for the flow of business within the
House. It is his job to see that time is provided for debate on various matters there. The leader of the House will consult
the Opposition and seek to reach concurrence as to what business will be done in the House each day.

47
 ***Electoral systems in the Caribbean***
THERE ARE two most-used voting systems in parliamentary elections in most countries: The majority selection system
that is used in Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados and other islands. The proportional representation system that is used in
Guyana. Both systems have their advantages and disadvantages
MAJORITY ELECTION SYSTEM - With the majority election system, only one member of parliament is elected for each
constituency; in Jamaica we now have 63. This was changed from 60 members to prevent, as much as possible, a hung
Parliament.
ADVANTAGES - In the majority system, voters know the candidates for a constituency and may, therefore, have a close
relationship. These candidates, it is believed, will be more aware of the needs of the constituents and, therefore,
recognise their responsibility. There is less chance for favouritism on the part of leaders as may become evident when
making the list for a proportional system.
DISADVANTAGES - It is said that in many cases it may lead to a neglect of the constituencies of the opposition.
The party that gains the majority support will form the government. With the majority election system, small parties
have little or no chance to win a majority. Constituencies are of varying sizes as, evidently, people do not live in areas of
exactly the same size. When there is a constituency with a vast majority for one party, gerrymandering may take place,
where there could be the subtracting of an area that usually votes overwhelmingly for that party and the adding of it to
a neighbouring constituency, where such a party just needs a few per cent more of the votes to win the election; so, the
party will win both seats.
‘Political Gerrymandering’ as used above – A party representatives may decide to use the majority realized in one
constituency ‘the garrison’ to influence a neighbouring ‘marginal’ constituency. This is done by registering voters from
constituency 1 at a home in constituency 2 so that they can provide additional votes for him to win the marginal
constituency.
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYSTEM - With the proportional representation system, several members of
parliament are to be elected as representatives for the country, en bloc, which is seen as one large constituency.
Basically, every political party presents a list of candidates and voters vote for a political party. Parties are assigned
parliamentary seats in proportion to the number of votes they get.
ADVANTAGES - With several parties, there is more choice and voters are more likely to find a party that does represent
their major political convictions. Supporters of a small party have a more likely chance to be represented by at least one
member of parliament. The country is one big constituency and there is, therefore, no possibility of manipulating the
boundaries, as with the majority election system (gerrymandering). Since the seats are assigned to parties proportionally
to votes, the boundaries of a constituency are not as relevant to the election result as in a majority election system. The
strength of the party in the legislative body will reflect the strength of the party in the country.
DISADVANTAGES - In most countries with proportional elections, the party leader decides who will represent them in
parliament. There may be a difference between the party hierarchy deciding on the top places on the party’s list of
candidates and the voters’ preferences. There is the possibility of a coalition government, which does not have to
necessarily be a bad thing. Areas of responsibility may be neglected as no one person is directly responsible for a specific
area of a country.
THE STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT - In the Caribbean region, the structure of government is made up of three distinct
bodies/arms or branches. They are the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary. This division of power into these
separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers. Jamaica is a parliamentary
democracy, based on a system of representative and responsible government. The form of government is a
constitutional monarchy. Jamaica is also a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
The Constitution under which Jamaica assumed independence in 1962 is primarily modelled on the Westminster-
Whitehall (British) system of government.
MONARCH - The monarch in England is head of state and is represented by the governor general, who is appointed on
the advice of the prime minister. The governor general should have no attachment to any political party.
GOVERNOR-GENERAL - Our governor general is the representative of the queen on ceremonial occasions such
as the opening of Parliament, and the presentation of honours and military parades. He is also given authority to
appoint and discipline officers of the civil service. The governor general may also exercise mercy on behalf of the queen;
this is done in relation to the advice of the Jamaican Privy Council.
PRIVY COUNCIL OF JAMAICA - The Privy Council of Jamaica consists of six members who are appointed by the
governor general, after consultation with the prime minister. The functions of the Privy Council are usually limited to
advising the governor general.
48
THE EXECUTIVE - The Executive is the part of the government that has the authority and responsibility for
the daily administration of the state. The separation of powers system is evident in most Caribbean countries designed
todistribute authority among several branches; this is an attempt to preserve individual liberty in response to tyrannical
leadership throughout history. The executive officer is not supposed to make laws (the role of the Legislature) or
interpret them (the role of the Judiciary). The role of the Executive is to
enforce the law, as written by the Legislature, and interpreted by the judicial system.

THE PRIME MINISTER IS THE HEAD OF THE EXECUTIVE - The governor general is responsible for the appointment of the
prime minister. This person is a member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor general’s judegment, is
able to command the confidence of the majority of the members of the House. Some of the duties of a prime minister
include:

 Selecting and presiding over the Cabinet.

 Advising the queen on the appointment of the governor general.
 Being responsible for the dissolution of parliament in preparation for an election.
 Appointment of the chief justice, the president of the Court of Appeal and the three service commissions.
 Appointing the senior members of the Judiciary and the service commissions after consultation with the leader
of the opposition.
 The prime minister also nominates 13 of the 21 members of the Senate in Jamaica.

CABINET - A Cabinet is a body of high-ranking state officials, typically consisting of the top leaders of the executive
branch, usually called ministers, with each holding a different portfolio of government duties, for example, minister for
the environment, etc). The Cabinet is seen as the centre of the system of government. It is responsible for the initiation
of government policies and programmes and is, most of all, responsible for the general direction and control of the
Government. The Cabinet consists of the prime minister and no fewer than 11 other ministers in Jamaica. Four of these
ministers may be appointed from the Senate and they may have portfolio responsibilities. The other Cabinet ministers
are appointed from the House of Representatives. Cabinet ministers are usually assisted by ministers of state and
parliamentary secretaries. Important matters, especially those which may become the subject of discussion in
Parliament, are brought before the Cabinet for discussion and decision.

ACTIVITIES:
1. Which system of choosing a government would you want to be used in your country? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Suggest reasons why we need to vote for our political representatives. Explain your answer.
3. Outline the role and function of the governor general as part of the government of your country.

END OF MODULE 1

49
 MODULE 2

***Sustainability and the Environment***

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - Meeting the needs of today’s population without compromising the needs of future
generations. Today, sustainable development is usually considered to include environmental, social and economic
sustainability (see definitions below). If development includes social, economic and environmental aspects, then it is
considered to be sustainable development.
CONSERVATION - The act of preserving and protecting something.
ENVIRONMENT - The things that surround us. In geography, when we talk about the environment we normally mean
the natural things that surround us, for example, trees, rivers, mountains and lakes. Hence, sustainable development has
three dimensions.
ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY - Development that includes everyone, where everyone has the right of economic
improvement. The development should be longterm and devoid of corruption and burdening debt.
ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY INVOLVES:
 Access to finance
 Removal of debt
 High standards of living
 Good quality of life
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY - Improvements in the standard of living that do not cause long-term damage to the
environment that impact future generations.
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY INVOLVES:
 Protecting biodiversity
 Stopping human-caused climate change
 Elimination of acid rain
 Elimination of damage to ozone layer Reduction of pollution (air, water, noise, etc)
 Management of resources e.g., fish, water
SOCIAL SUSTAINANILITY - The Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) and the Environmental Performance Index (EPI).
The ESI was developed by Yale University and was published between 1999 and 2005. It tracked 21 measures of
environmental sustainability, including pollution levels and resource management. However, in 2005, it was decided to
replace ESI with EPI. The EPI, rather than comparing sustainability strategies of
different countries, looked at outcome orientated indicators. The EPI places Iceland at the top of its index and Sierra
Leone at the bottom.
SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY INVOLVES:
 Freedom of speech
 Health and safety at work
 Access to clean water and sanitation
 Access to needs i.e. water, food, shelter, clothing
 Access to education
 Access to health care
 Equality between sexes, religions, etc
 Right to vote
 Access to justice
 Safety – no threat from crime
 Respect of cultures

50
AN EXAMPLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Sipadan Marine Park – Sustainable tourism Sipadan is a good example of environmental sustainability. Efforts related to
the Amur leopard are well funded but possibly fatally delayed conservation methods.
The bluefin tuna highlights the balance between economic development and environmental sustainability,
unfortunately, it would appear that economic development is currently winning out. Finally, Masdar is a sustainable city
of the future which will, hopefully, be a blueprint for sustainable development in the future.
Sipadan is a small, oceanic island located in the Celebes Sea, off the coast of Sabah, Malaysia. It was formed by coral
growth on the top of an extinct volcano. The island has risen 600 metres from the seabed and is at the centre of one of
the richest marine habitats in the world. The surrounding eco-systems contains over 3,000 species of fish and hundreds
of types of coral. Because of its unique and diverse ecosystem, Sipadan became a popular mecca (an extremely popular
destination) for divers – a number of hotels were built on the island.
However, because of its popularity, the island did suffer some environmental damage. Noise and light pollution
disturbed nesting turtles and water pollution, and litter harmed bird and sea life.
Because of the environmental damage, the Malaysian government decided that it needed to develop the tourism
industry around Sipadan more sustainably. In 1993, the island became a bird sanctuary and in 2004, the government
forced the closure of all hotels on the island. A quota was also set on the number of divers allowed to visit Sipadan each
day. The total permissible number of divers is 120 a day, with no night diving allowed. Permits to dive have to be applied
for in advance. In 2005, the island was proposed as a National Marine Park and the government is now aiming for
UNESCO World Heritage status. Research has suggested that the number of turtles has increased since protection
measures were put in place.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ON SIPADAN IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE: It will preserve the biodiversity
of the island and surrounding ecosystem. It will create long-term income from tourism. If Sipadan is over-dived or over-
fished, then its biodiversity and, therefore, attractiveness will reduce and tourists will decline. Tourism is a growing
industry and without proper management, the island will come under increasing pressure. It is following international
guidelines set out on sustainable tourism at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
THE AMUR LEOPARD - The Amur leopard is one of the rarest animals in the world. It is estimated that only about 30-35
individuals survive in the wild. The Amur leopard is now only found in the mountainous areas of Russia’s far east. The
Amur leopard has become threatened because of poaching (hunting), deforestation (habitat loss), inbreeding and
development projects like railways and gas/oil pipelines. Another endangered animal, the Siberian tiger, is also found in
similar locations. Over recent years, 13 international and Russian NGOs have joined together to make the Amur leopard
and tiger alliance (ALTA).
They have developed a comprehensive conservation programme:
 Anti-poaching methods
 Forest firefighting to reduce habitat loss
 Compensation for farmers who have lost livestock
 Public awareness schemes
 Protected areas
 There are also zoo-breeding programmes where there are an estimated 300 Amur leopards. Thereare plans to
try and reintroduce some of these animals to the wild.
MASDAR, UAE - Masdar in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) aims to be the world’s leading sustainable city and the first to
become carbon neutral. The project started in 2006 and is estimated to cost $22 billion to build and take eight years to
complete (although the current financial crisis has pushed phase one completion back to 2015). The city will cover and
area of 6km2 and be home to about 50,000 people and 1,500 businesses. It is estimated that a further 60,000 people
will commute to the city daily.
MASDAR IS AIMING TO BECOMING CARBON NEUTRAL BY:
 Producing all of its energy through renewable sources (solar, wind, geothermal and hydrogen).
 Eliminating waste through recycling.
 Biological waste will be used as fertiliser.
 Any waste that cannot be recycled will be incinerated to generate electricity.
 Pedestrianising the city and only using public transport within its boundaries.
 Designing buildings that both maximize natural light and allow air to circulate, reducing lighting and air
conditioning. Educating all citizens every year on sustainability methods.
 Desalination of water using solar energy and recycling of grey water for irrigation.

51
 ***Concepts and Indicators of Development***

THREE MAIN CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT – ECONOMIC/HUMAN/SUSTAINABLE

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - A state of advancement or improvement achieved from economic growth based on
increased productivity.
▶ Key terms: capital, technology, labour, per capita income, productivity
▶ International classifications (countries): developed, developing, under-developed, high-income, low-income,
middle-income, advanced, emerging.
E.g.▶ Development based on a continuum established by international agencies (UN, IMF, World Bank, etc.) defined by a
variety of social and economic measures.
▶ Concerned with the notion of industrial progress (modernisation, increased production of goods, consumption) within
a country as well as its trading arrangements which will result in economic growth.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - The strategies and processes implemented which result in the general advancement of human
well-being.
▶ Key terms: quality of life, equity, parity, empowerment, productivity, education, health, employment, life expectancy

▶ Guided by the Human Development Paradigm: human beings are focal to development.

▶ Based on both individual and collective well-being of a people within a society (therefore based on cultural values,
beliefs and norms).
▶ Some aspects to focus on: safety and security (especially in childhood and senior years), freedom from want, access to
information, opportunities for personal growth, access to goods and services in addition to the absolute minimum
necessary, political freedom, access to primary and secondary health care.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - The act or process of developing through economic production and the satisfaction of
human needs, without diminishing the capacity of the environment to cope with the consequences of human economic
activity.
▶ Key terms: sustainability, environmental protection, conservation, environmentalism

▶ Concerned with the idea that economic progress should not compromise the environment and the population;
therefore, the needs of the present population should not deplete the physical and/or natural resources of a country, to
the extent that future generations will be adversely affected.

INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
1) GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) - The total monetary value of goods and services produced and provided in a
country during a specific period, usually one year.
▶ For each country, consumer spending, investment, government purchases and net exports combine to produce the
GDP.
2) GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP) - The total monetary value of goods and services produced and provided in a
country plus income from foreign investments within a specific year
▶ A country’s GNP includes the value of its goods and services produced and income produced outside of the country by
citizens of the country.
3) PER CAPITA INCOME / GDP PER CAPITA - This refers to the average income earned per person in a specific area
(parish, region, country) in a given period (usually a year). The average is obtained by dividing the total income earned in
the area (GDP) by the total population of the area.
▶ In December 2015 Jamaica’s GDP was US$14 billion and the population was 2.79 million.
4) GINI COEFFICIENT - This measure uses the distribution of income to determine the level of inequality that exists
among people within and between countries.
▶ The Gini Coefficient uses a scale to determine the level of inequality: 0 represents perfect equality and 100 represents
absolute inequality.
5) HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI) - This measure is based on 3 variables (income, longevity, knowledge) which
combine to indicate the level of human welfare in each country.
▶ In the HDI, income is ranked based on the GDP per capita; longevity is determined by life expectancy at birth;
knowledge is measured by access to education, adult literacy and mean years of schooling. The scores for each variable
are aggregated to produce an average which is used to rank countries.
52
6) PRODUCTIVITY - This refers to the level of efficiency in economic activity – the efficiency of a person, machine, factory
or system in producing goods and services.
▶ “What you put in is what you get out” is a popular saying. It relates to productivity as it refers to investment of
interest, time, money, energy, etc. – the input needed to achieve goals (output). This is applicable to the development of
a country as it helps to determine the GDP and GNP. As a result, governments seek to provide jobs and create conditions
conducive to investment to drive productivity.
7) INTERNET PENETRATION (IP) - A measure of the portion/percentage of the population of an area that has access to
the internet.
▶ In 2016 the internet penetration for the Caribbean was 43.7%. Curacao had the highest IP (93.1%) and Haiti had the
lowest (12.8%). The world IP was 50.1%. www.internetworldstats.com/stats11.htm#caribbean
8) MODERN TECHNOLOGY - The improved application of skills, techniques and knowledge necessary for designing,
creating and implementing goods and services or applying these to scientific investigation. The extent to which modern
technology can be used to measure development depends on the aspect of technology being measured.
▶ The Global Information Technology Report 2015 uses the Networked Readiness Index (NRI) of 143 countries to rank
them by examining the role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in supporting development.
▶ Barbados is ranked 39th with a value of 4.6, in 2014 it was ranked 55th. Haiti has the lowest rank in the Caribbean,
improving from 143rd in 2014 to 137th in 2015 with a value of 2.5.
9) GOOD GOVERNANCE - The political processes of managing public resources, institutions and affairs in a manner that
respects human rights and the rule of law.
▶ Good governance is determined by the degrees of accountability, transparency, responsibility, participation,
responsiveness, access to information, observance of human rights, political stability, corruption and independence of
the judiciary. For most of the factors stated above, there are international indices which may be used to measure the
progress of countries in maintaining good governance.
10) RESPONSIBLE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - This indicates the extent to which countries act responsibly in utilising
the environment to attain higher levels of development.
Two of the measures used are the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) and Environmental Sustainability Index
(ESI)
▶ The EPI ranks a country’s performance on high priority environmental issues based on the protection of human health
and protection of ecosystems.
▶ The ESI measures progress towards environmental sustainability.

FYI
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• Rate of investment.
• Rate of increase in the working population.
• Technical training and education.
• Government expenditure.
• Migration.
STANDARD OF LIVING - This refers to those factors that indicate the country’s wealth, that is, the quantity of goods and
services consumed, including quality of food and types of houses. A country may have expensive goods and services
such as luxury automobiles, however, we must look deeper than the material measurements of a country’s wealth and
assess whether the general population benefits from this wealth; in other words, we must assess the quality of life.
INDICATORS FOR A COUNTRY’S STANDARD OF LIVING
• Level of consumption of goods and services.
• Average disposable income of the population.
• Level of national ownership of capital equipment.
• Access to modern technology.
• Level of investment in research and technology.

INDICATORS FOR A COUNTRY’S QUALITY OF LIFE

• Extent of security involved [level of crime].
• Availability of health, educational and recreational facilities.
• Diet and nutrition.
• Life expectancy.
• Rate of infant mortality.
• Access to public utility sectors-electricity and potable water.
ECONOMIC GROWTH - Refers to an increase in the value of goods and services produced by the country within a specific
period – usually quaterly and yearly.

53
 ***Factors that Promote and hinder Development***
GENDER (IN)EQUALITY
Promotes Dev.
 Gender equality contributes to GDP and GNP by allowing both males and females to participate in the economy
and be compensated for their work.
 The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and the Gender Inequality Index (GII) implemented by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) measures female participation in national economic, political,
professional affairs, labour force and reproductive health. This places pressure on countries to fully ensure that
the right to equality and development are applied to all citizens regardless of gender.
 Where conditions are conducive to both genders being able to participate in national development at the
economic, political and professional levels, there will be increased productivity and improved human well being.
Hinders Dev.
 Segregates society based on sex and the perceived abilities of men and women to do jobs.
 Limits productivity: preference for a male to do a particular job and a female to do another may result in
persons who do not possess the required skills and qualifications being employed while others possessing the
skills remain unemployed or settle for jobs for which they are overqualified.
 Limits participation in the labour force: gender stereotypes influence the extent to which persons obtain training
for jobs that are deemed masculine or feminine.
 Participation in politics and governance is affected by issues of patriarchy.

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES & POPULAR MOVEMENTS

Promotes Dev.
 Participation in government and governance is a hallmark of democracy. It is believed that the greater the
participation of the citizenry in government, the more developed it will become.
 Capitalism as a political ideology in the Caribbean allows for empowerment of people, as there are limited
restrictions to entrepreneurs for the production of goods and services which contribute to the GDP and GNP.
 Political ideologies such as ‘communism’ and ‘socialism’ aim to promote human development through equality,
equity and productivity. Unfortunately, these are not mainstream ideologies and therefore result in strained
relationships with other countries.
Hinders Dev.
 Political ideologies that limit the participation of the people in the government do not benefit from the
knowledge and expertise of individuals who are able to suggest strategies for development.
 Capitalism’s emphasis is on economic development; therefore, the Human Development Paradigm is somewhat
ignored. Hence, issues such as ‘poverty reduction’ are not emphasised.
 Capitalism embraces the idea of survival of the fittest, which leads to inequality. Inequality hinders
development, as some people will not have access to opportunities for improving their quality of life.
DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH & RESOURCES
Promotes Dev.
 Equity in the distribution of wealth and resources helps to reduce social ills such as poverty, crime and
overpopulation.
 Equity drives sustainability; there will be greater thrust towards prudent use of resources.
Hinders Dev.
 Unequal distribution of wealth and resources means that some people will benefit from opportunities more
than others.
 The history of the Caribbean presents a picture of a region rich in natural resources, which were harnessed by
foreign powers that developed various industries.
 The Caribbean nations were exploited as a result of colonialism, which perpetuated the unequal distribution of
wealth.
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CHANGING CLASS BOUNDARIES
Promotes Dev.
 The shift from slavery to freedom led to gradual changes in the social hierarchy in the Caribbean. Social mobility
became a reality.
 Upward social mobility – whether inter- or intra-generational not only promotes development but is as a result
of development.
 Increased opportunities due to greater equality and equity leads to improved productivity.
 The expansion of the ‘middle class’ suggests improvements in the state of human well-being.
Hinders Dev.
 Division of society into classes places some persons at a greater advantage than others. The playing field is not
level; therefore, stark inequalities still exist across class boundaries although there are opportunities for upward
social mobility.
ENTREPRENEURIAL DRIVE & ACTIVITY
Promotes Dev.
 The drive and activity of entrepreneurs improve national, regional and international competitiveness and
productivity.
 Increased productivity leads to diversity and expansion of the productive sector of a country, thus expanding the
range of knowledge and skills of the human resource.
Hinders Dev.
 Limited resources – both physical and human – cause development to lag, although entrepreneurial drive may
exist.
 Access to capital needed for investment in entrepreneurial activity expansion may be hampered
 by the debt status and investment climate of the country.
USE OF TECHNOLOGY
Promotes Dev.
 Improved efficacy of people and businesses may be enabled by the use of ICTs.
 Education, health care and other social and economic services may be improved to realise the general
advancement of the society.
 Provides opportunities for people to garner 21st century skills.
Hinders Dev.
 Acquiring new technologies without having the necessary expertise to operate them is ineffective use of
resources and limits productivity. ‘Troubleshooting’ or ‘trial and error’ wastes time and energy.
 New technologies may be introduced with an aim of reducing the number of workers at a facility or an industry.
 Additionally, people who have lost their jobs to technology may not have the opportunity to regain
employment, especially if there is no thrust to equip the population with necessary skills and expertise to
operate new technologies.
NATURAL & MAN-MADE DISASTERS
Promotes Dev.
 Natural disasters, such as volcanoes can promote development in the long term as it can improve agricultural
output and develop mineral industries e.g. sulphur.
 Putting strategies in place to mitigate the effects of natural and human-made disasters must be strictly
enforced.
Hinders Dev.
 Hurricanes, earthquakes, flood, drought, etc. have devastating effects on human life, the economy and the
environment.
 Disasters impact on income-generating activities, such as tourism.
GLOBAL ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Promotes Dev.
 Global economic recessions and external shocks present opportunities for individual nations to improvise and
innovate. The extent to which this is successful depends on the level of participation in government and the
motivation of the people to progress.
Hinders Dev.
 Global economic recessions tend to have a greater negative impact on developing countries.
 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) do not have the tenacity to recover from external shocks and financial
crises; their economic development is hampered as it is determined by global conditions.

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QUALITY & RELEVANCE OF EDUCATION
Promotes Dev.
 Relevant curriculum enables the integration of indigenous education and modern technology to maximise the
scope of knowledge and skills to be attained.
 Accessibility and affordability of education empowers people, generates productivity and reduces inequality.
 Citizens gain 21st century skills which improve their ability to solve problems, as the instructional methodologies
and curricular become more relevant to the existing socio-economic and political issues (both nationally and
globally).
Hinders Dev.
 The curriculum must be relevant if the country is to progress. In the pre-independence period, the curriculum
was more relevant to the European student than it was to the Caribbean student.
 Negative attitudes towards the inclusion of indigenous aspects of Caribbean culture in the curriculum (such as
history, art and the use of Creole languages in learning) limits the relevance of the curriculum and makes
education less relatable to students.
 Utilising traditional methodologies hampers expansion of knowledge of new technologies, which are applicable
to driving development.
 Lack of accessibility to particular programmes at the tertiary level leads some of the ‘brightest minds’ to study
overseas and not return to the region to assist with the skills and expertise garnered.

TOURISM
Promotes Dev.
 Diversity in the tourism products available allows access to a wide variety of tourists seeking different
experiences.
 Specialised tourism products will allow the population to acquire the variety of skills needed to serve the
tourists.
 Entrepreneurial activity is boosted as individuals seek avenues to sell their products and services. Persons who
do not work in the tourism industry are able to benefit indirectly as the variety of products offered expands.
Hinders Dev.
 Some tourism products do not enable sustainable development. They deplete and degrade the environment
through excess energy consumption, large waste generation and poor disposal as well as irresponsible use of
water.
 Inviting foreign companies to invest in the tourism industry increases the influence of other cultural practices at
the expense of indigenous practices.
 Citizens are marginalised as the industry is promoted as one that caters to foreigners. The cost to access some
resorts and facilities is far above what many citizens can afford, based on GDP per capita. This further propels
the ‘us versus them’ mentality and highlights inequalities.

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 ***Tourism - Challenges***
FOCUS QUESTION: What are the hazardous effects caused by tourism?
CORAL REEF DESTRUCTION - Tourism contributes to the physical destruction of the reef when tourists trample on it
during sightseeing expeditions. Boats carrying tourists indiscriminately drop anchor, destroying the reef structure. Local
people also rob the reef to make jewellery, handicrafts and trinkets from coral for the tourists.
LAND DEGRADATION - Increased tourism activities, such as the growing construction of tourist and recreational
facilities, has intensified the pressure on these resources and on scenic landscapes. Direct impact on natural resources,
both renewable and non-renewable, in the provision of tourist facilities, can be caused by the use of land for
accommodation and other infrastructure provision, and the use of building materials. Forests often suffer negative
impacts of tourism in the form of deforestation caused by fuel wood collection and land clearing. For example, one
trekking tourist in Nepal – an area already suffering the effects of deforestation – can use four to five kilograms of wood
a day.
POLLUTION - Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: air emissions, noise, solid waste and
littering, releases of sewage, oil and chemicals, even architectural/visual pollution.
AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE - Transport by air, road and rail is continuously increasing in response to the rising number
of tourists and their greater mobility. The ICAO reported that from 1972 to 1994, the number of international air
passengers worldwide rose from 88 million to 344 milion. One consequence of this increase in air transport is that
tourism now accounts for more than 60% of air travel and is, therefore, responsible for an important share of air
emissions.
Transport emissions and emissions from energy production and use are linked to acid rain, global warming and
photochemical pollution. Air pollution from tourist transportation has had a significant impact globally, especially from
carbon dioxide emissions related to transportation energy use. It can also contribute to severe local air pollution. Some
of these impacts are quite specific to tourist activities. For example, especially in very hot or cold countries, tour buses
often leave their motors running for hours, while the tourists go out for an excursion, because they want to return to a
comfortably air-conditioned bus.
Noise pollution from airplanes, cars and buses, as well as recreational vehicles such as snowmobiles and jet skis, also
pose a problem. In addition to causing annoyance, stress and even hearing loss for humans, it causes distress to wildlife,
especially in sensitive areas.
SOLID WASTE, LITTERING AND SEWAGE - In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural
attractions, waste disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the natural
environment – rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. For example, cruise ships in the Caribbean are estimated to produce
more than 70,000 tons of waste each year. Today, some cruise lines are actively working to reduce waste-related
impacts. Solid waste and littering can degrade the physical appearance of the water and shoreline and cause the death
of marine animals.
Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to increased sewage pollution. Wastewater has
polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage run-off causes serious
damage to coral reefs because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering their
ability to survive. Changes in salinity and siltation can have wide-ranging impacts on coastal environments. Finally,
sewage pollution can threaten the health of humans and animals.
Mangrove Destruction: Mangroves are often seen as unsightly obstructions to tourist interests. They are viewed as
mosquito-infested, muddy swamps holding back progress and hindering tourism development. They may be vilified by
developers, lending agencies and governments alike, and allowed to be rapidly cleared without thorough environmental
impact studies in order to make way for the promise of great profits from industrial-scale developments. National,
regional and local governments have failed to adequately regulate the tourism industry to ensure the sustainability of
mangroves. At the same time, multilateral lending agencies have rushed headlong to fund these kinds of developments
without meeting their own stated ecological and social criteria.
MANGROVES ARE BEING CLEARED TO BUILD: golf courses. cruise ship ports and pleasure craft marinas. hotels, condos
and restaurants.
RESULTING IN THE FOLLOWING EFFECTS: Declines in fisheries due to habitat loss. Traditional fisher-folk populations
forcibly evicted from coastal areas. Mangrove greenbelt buffers are weakened or lost.
These areas are left more susceptible to tsunamis, cyclones, hurricanes, rough waves, etc. e.g. Negril

57
 ***Globalisation and Development – Organs, Functions, Impacts***
Globalisation is defined as the International integration of goods, labour, technology, and capital. (Slaughter and
Swagel, 1997). Globalisation embraces the concept of a ‘level playing field’. Therefore, globalisation as a process erodes
the distinction from one place to another. The process that results in the creation of a global market and economy is
characterised by :

 The world being one huge competitive marketplace.

 Uses of the most advanced technology to exploit/preserve resources.
 More state controlling power as technology advances.
 Large capitalist states control the world’s economy.
FORMS OF GLOBALISATION
ECONOMIC
 Manifested through gowth of global production, global markets & global finance.
 Facilitated by multinational firms & transnational corporations.
 Aided by removal of trading barriers and increased flow of information.
 Increased entrepreneurial drive and competitiveness.
POLITICAL GLOBALISATION
 Greater interconnectedness between countries, leading to more multilateral agreements.
 Faciliated through international and regional organisations, e.g. United Nations.
 Policy decisions reflect global ideologies on global issues.
CULTURAL
 Facilitated by advanced communication technologies which transmit globalised popular culture.
 Also facilitated through migration, as improvements in engineering allow for increased, quicker and more
affordable movement of people.
 Cultures have become commercialised; this creates an increased demand in consumption of foreign cultures.
 Hybrid cultures are created, due to increased interaction and the diaspora.
FACILITATORS OF GLOBALISATION
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)
Functions
 Managing trade agreements
 Facilitating trade liberalisation by providing a forum for trade negotiations
 Mediating and resolving trade disputes
 Monitoring national trade policies
 Providing technical assistance and training for developing countries
Impact on Globalisation
 Trade liberalization - by reducing barriers to trade of goods and services, there is increased inter-linkage
between countries and regions. Depending on the conditions and performance of products, economies may
grow or shrink.
 Competitiveness - increased global competition allows countries to expand into other markets.
Impact on Development
Fair trade:
 Based on the principles established by the WTO, economically disadvantaged producers should get increased
opportunities which will lead to poverty reduction.
 Fair trading practices ensure that suppliers of goods and services are paid at a fair price in order to increase their
income and to promote the notion of equal pay for equal work.
 Fair trade also ensures that goods are produced in good working conditions and are not produced by children or
slaves. This is important for development as it means that children’s well-being is not compromised.

ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT (EPA)

Functions
 Improving trade and investment between the CARIFORUM and European Union
 Providing stability (duty-free, quota-free) in EU market access
Impact on Globalisation : Increased trade
 seeks to maximise the exchange of goods and services, including those in the creative and entertainment
industries.
 Expands the market for products in both regions.
Impact on Development
 Increased investment in CARIFORUM countries and opportunities for expanding business in the EU markets
means greater productivity; hence, boost in GDP.
 Aid for trade aspect includes technical support and training, which equips the CARIFORUM population with skills
for development. It also improves the competitiveness of CARIFORUM member states.

58
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)
Functions
 Fostering global monetary cooperation
 Securing financial stability
 Facilitating the expansion and growth of international trade
 Providing resources to members experiencing balance of payments difficulties
Impact on Globalisation
 Promotes global economic stability by helping countries to implement appropriate policies to avoid economic
and financial crises and other unfavourable conditions like high inflation.
 Analyses global economic trends with a view to discussing and resolving issues and concerns that are common
to the 189 member countries.
Impact on Development
 The IMF seeks to avert instability through surveillance, technical support and lending.
 This increases confidence in the economy, encourages investment, promotes economic growth and improves
standards of living.

WORLD BANK - IBRD

Functions
 Assisting developing countries to reduce poverty
 Promoting economic growth through policy and institutional reforms, and facilitating access to financial markets
 Creating a favourable investment climate
Impact on Globalisation
Fundraising:
 The World Bank participates in the global financial market, to be able to earn money to provide funding for
projects as well as technical and advisory services to its 189 member countries.
Impact on Development
 Financing projects and providing technical assistance for project completion helps countries to become more
resilient to issues such as devaluation, inflation, high interest rates and even natural disasters.

TECHNOLOGY
Functions
 Generating, storing and retrieving information
 Standardising tasks for consistency and accuracy
 Using tools to reduce time spent on tasks
Impact on Globalisation
Transfer of information:
 advancements in telecommunications allow for faster sharing of information in larger quantities.
 The internet is the greatest facilitator of globalisation as it connects people and places instantly.
Monetary transactions:
 international transfer of funds is a reality facilitated by the internet and the expansion of money transfer
services.
 Buying goods and services online decreases time and space.
 Social media facilitates the transfer of cultures and creates a space for dialogue about cultural diversity.
Impact on Development
Internet penetration: the extent to which citizens have access to the internet impacts the degree of access to
information.
 Global online learning environments allow students to gain knowledge and expertise in specialised areas which
may be used to contribute to development.
 The internet also provides opportunities for citizens to gain employment by completing tasks assigned by
international companies. Countries may earn foreign exchange as these persons are usually paid in US dollars.

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 IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION – (ECONOMIC)

POSITVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION ON LABOUR

 International integration of goods, labour, technology, and capital. (Slaughter and Swagel,1997)
 International integration in commodity, capital and labour markets. (Bordo et al., 2003)
 A rise in worker remittances.
 Increased accessibility of employment in new areas.
 Rapid technological change may be responsible for a more abrupt price decline in skill-intensive industries
rather than in unskilled labor-intensive.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION ON LABOUR

 Difficulties of individuals integration into the host community.

 Increase in poverty as a result of the concentration of low skilled and low-paying jobs .
 Dramatic income inequality between the more and the less skilled in some countries.
 Unemployment among the less skilled in other countries.
 Limited employment protection

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON INDUSTRY

 The reduction of barriers to cross-border trade and capital flows, along with progress in transport and
communication, has made it easier for firms to move parts of their production to less costly foreign locations a
process referred to as offshoring.
 The location of production has become much more responsive to relative labor costs across countries.
 An actively trading country benefits from the new technologies that spill over to it from its trading partners,
such as through the knowledge embedded in imported production equipment.
 The productivity enhancing effect from trade in intermediates is large and trade in intermediates reduces the
costs of production.

COMMERCE - Trade can be viewed as effectively shipping from one country to another the services of the workers
engaged in the production of traded goods. (Matthew J. Slaughter and Phillip Swagel)

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON COMMERCE

 More and more output in the advanced economies consists of largely non-tradeable services: education,
government, finance, insurance, real estate, and wholesale and retail trade.
 Developing countries’ imports have been growing faster than those of advanced economies and the share
of advanced economies’ exports going to developing countries has been rising.
 Changes in product prices are the result of trade rather than other, purely domestic, influences.
 Global competition has brought down international trade prices.

RESPONSE OF LABOUR TO GLOBALISATION

 Decentralisation of labour market to industry hubs. Eg. Logistics Hub Project
 Persisting large cross-country differences.
 Reductions in the tax wedge.
 Deregulation of product markets

RESPONSE OF INDUSTRY TO GLOBALISATION

 Changes in product prices brought about by competition from imports.
 Firms shift resources toward industries in which profitability has risen and away from those in which it has
fallen exploiting their competitive advantage.*

GOVERNMENTS OFTEN
 Prohibit or reduce selected imports by introducing quotas
 Make imports more expensive and less competitive by imposing tariffs.

RESPONSE OF COMMERCE TO GLOBALISATION POLICIES SHOULD SEEK TO:

 Improve the functioning of labor markets
 Strengthen access to education and training;
 Ensure adequate social safety nets that cushion the impact on those adversely affected, without
obstructing the process of adjustment.

THE ADJUSTMENT COSTS CAN BE MINIMISED BY:

 Encouraging flexible labor markets and by reducing structural rigidities facing firms
 Staffing requirements, and hiring and firing costs.

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CONCLUSIONS - There is a common belief that globalisation harms the interests of workers, especially unskilled workers,
either directly through immigration or indirectly through trade and capital mobility. Moreover, the belief that
globalisation threatens wages and jobs is contradicted by the historical evidence that free trade along with labor and
capital mobility improve global welfare and tend to improve national welfare for all countries involved.

Finally, cheaper imports have increased the size of real total labor compensation, implying that workers have
participated in the benefits of the bigger economic pie, although their share of it has declined.

Theories associated with Globalisation – Neo-Liberalism

What is Neo-Liberalism - Neoliberalism, in theory, is essentially about making trade between nations easier. It is about
freer movement of goods, resources and enterprises in a bid to always find cheaper resources, to maximize profits and
efficiency.

Neo-Liberalism promotes –

 The rule of the market.

 Freedom for capital, goods and services, where the market is self-regulating allowing the “trickle down” notion
of wealth distribution. E.g. JLP’s 1.5Mil belief that the extra money gained from the tax break will ‘trickle down’
to the ‘small man’ in the economy ensuring that he gets his share of the pie in the cottage industry.
 It also includes the de-unionizing of labor forces and removals of any impediments to capital mobility, such as
regulations.
 The freedom is from the state, or government in other words as much government deregulation as possible.
 Reducing public expenditure for social services, such as health and education, by the government. E.g. No free
health-care or free education policies.
 Deregulation, to allow market forces to act as a self-regulating mechanisms.
 Privatization of public enterprise (things from water to even the internet). Continuous ‘divestment’ of state run
businesses and agencies.
 Changing perceptions of public and community good to individualism and individual responsibility. In other
words less charity and more concern for self.

Neoliberalism requires the removal of various controls deemed as barriers to free trade, such as:
 Tariffs
 Regulations
 Certain standards, laws, legislation and regulatory measures
 Restrictions on capital flows and investment

Guiding principles of Neo-Liberalists/Globalisation are:

 Sustained economic growth is the way to human progress

 Free markets without government “interference” would be the most efficient and socially optimal allocation of
resources
 Economic globalization would be beneficial to everyone
 Privatization removes inefficiencies of public sector
 Governments should mainly function to provide the infrastructure to advance the rule of law with respect to
property rights and contracts.
 Freedom of trade in goods and services
 Freer circulation of capital
 Freer ability to invest globally

CURRENT OUTCOMES OF GLOBALISATION/NEO-LIBERALISM

 many innovative products and technologies.

 Growth and development for some countries have been immense.
 However, some 3 billion people — or half of humanity — live on under US $2 dollars a day
 86 percent of the world’s resources are consumed by the world’s wealthiest 20 percent

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 Divergent views of Globalisation/Neo-Liberalism –
Some - The underlying assumption then is that the free markets are a good thing.
Others - From a power perspective, “free” trade in reality is seen by many around the world as a continuation of those
old policies of plunder.

IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION/INDUSTRIALISATION – ENVIRONMENTAL

OBJECTIVES - Describe improper practices related to the sustainable development and use of natural resources and their
effects on the environment and the population.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GLOBALISATION/INDUSTRIALISATION:
 Species extinctions - As natural habitats are destroyed.
 Land resources - Deforestation refers to the removal, felling or clearance of forest areas to be used for alternate
purpose such as settlement activities. When this happens, top soil is eroded as there are no roots or trees to
reduce the flow of water or to allow the percolation of water underground.
 Destruction of wetlands.
 Desertification is the persistent degradation of dry-land ecosystems by variations in climate and human
activities.
 Soil erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that remove soil, rock or dissolved
material from one location on the Earth’s crust, then transport it away to another location.
 Declining oil and mineral supplies – excessive mining.
 Marine resources - Coastal degradation is when human actions, such as development, start to destroy
the natural coastline and the coastal habitat.
 Overfishing is excessive fishing around the coast. Premature fishing for commercial purpose.
 Freshwater resources Groundwater contamination and depletion. Surface water shortages, resulting in drought.
 Atmospheric resources Ozone depletion is largely a result of manmade substances. Humans have introduced
gases and chemicals into the atmosphere.
CAUSES
 Overpopulation
 Inefficiency in resource utilization
 Overconsumption
 Poverty
 Ineffective structures to deal with exploiters of the Earth. There is a lack of proper-working human institutions,
regulations and very poor attitudes.
OTHER FORMS OF MISUSE OF THE LAND POOR PLANNING METHODS
This is where land is used for the wrong purpose, for example, fertile land is used for animal grazing or for the
construction of houses or factories.
QUARRYING AND MINING - This results in the removal of vegetation and top soil with no re-afforestation done to
replace the soil or its vegetation.
OVERCROPPING - This occurs when a wide variety of crops is intensively cultivated for a number of years on
the same land without crop rotation. It leads to soil deterioration through the loss of mineral and organic matter.
FARMING TECHNIQUES SHIFTING CULTIVATION - This is done in order to get land that is fertile to cultivate, so there is a
constant clearing and change in the area used for cultivation. However, land left bare may be exposed to wind and
water, and this induces soil erosion.
MONOCROPPING - This is the cultivation of one crop over a long time period which usually results in soil deterioration
and, consequently, soil erosion.
OVERGRAZING - Animals, if left on an area for too long, tend to crop the grass indiscriminately to a short
level so that wind and water erosion remove the bare soil which is left exposed.
PLOUGHING - When cultivation is carried out on steep slopes, farmers must be careful not to plough hillside, forming
gullies and furrows which run from the top of the hill to the bottom. Instead, the ploughing of the hillside should be
done along the contour. This prevents the soil from being washed away easily by rain.
POLLUTION - Pollution is the deliberate or accidental disposing of unwanted material or substances in the water, in the
air or on the land. This can make the area unsightly or cause a health hazard. It may also prevent sustainable
development.
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AIR POLLUTION - Air pollution is the contamination of air by smoke and harmful gases, mainly oxides of carbon, sulfur
and nitrogen. Some examples of air pollution include:
 Exhaust fumes from vehicles.
 The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or gas.
 Harmful toxins from things such as paint and plastic production.
 Radiation spills or nuclear accidents.
Air pollution is linked to asthma, allergies and other respiratory illnesses.
LAND POLLUTION - Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth’s surface caused by a misuse of resources and
improper disposal of waste.
Some examples of land pollution include:
 Litter found on the side of the road.
 Illegal dumping in natural habitats.
 Oil spills that happen inland.
 The use of pesticides and other farming chemicals.
 Damage and debris caused from unsustainable mining and logging practices.
Land pollution is responsible for damage done to natural habitat of animals, deforestation and damage done to natural
resources.
NOISE POLLUTION - Noise pollution is loud sounds that are either harmful or annoying to humans and animals. Some
examples of noise pollution: Airplanes, helicopters and motor vehicles, Construction or demolition noise, Human
activities, such as sporting events or concerts.
THERMAL POLLUTION - Thermal pollution is the increase of temperature caused by human activity. A few examples of
this include: Warmer lake water from nearby manufacturing. The increase in temperatures in areas with lots of concrete
or vehicles, generally in cities.
VISUAL POLLUTION - Visual pollution is what you would call anything unattractive to the landscape. Some examples of
visual pollution: Skyscrapers that block a natural view. Graffiti or carvings on trees, rocks or other natural landscapes.
Billboards, litter, abandoned homes and junkyards could also be considered among three kinds of environmental
pollution.
WATER POLLUTION - Water pollution is the contamination of any body of water (lakes, groundwater, oceans, etc). Some
examples of water pollution:
 Raw sewage running into lakes or streams.
 Industrial waste spills contaminating groundwater.
 Radiation spills or nuclear accidents.
 Illegal dumping of substances or items within bodies of water.
 Farm runoff into nearby bodies of water.
These kinds of environmental pollution are linked to health issues in humans, animals and plant life.
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
 Oil spills from tankers and the washing of tankers destroys the breeding grounds for most fish.
 Deforestation increases surface run-off, posing a danger to coral reefs where a variety of fish thrive.
 Sewage discharge or untreated sewage destroys fishing areas.
 Acid rain, which makes water acidic, affects the habitat and the fish itself, causing a decrease in fish life. It
affects trees and buildings, too, by dissolving limestone.
 Use of pesticides and insecticides causes oxygen depletion in the water and the destruction of their habitat
as they become affected by the toxic substances.
 Waste emissions cause sicknesses as it results in respiratory ailments and diminution of life expectation.
 The exhaust from petrol-driven cars produces carbon monoxide, which is very dangerous as it causes lung
irritation.
GLOBAL WARMING - This term refers to a rise in the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere is made
up of layers of different gases (the greenhouse gases form part of these gases) which, when trapped in the air, act like a
greenhouse, trapping some of the warmth. It traps the rays of the sun in the Earth’s atmosphere, which should naturally
be reflected back. It is believed that an excessive amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will ultimately lead to:
a. Rising sea levels.
b. The flooding of most coastal cities.
c. Increase in hurricanes, evident in the Caribbean area.
d. Other weather condition such as drought.
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 ***Regional Integration – The Genesis***

REGIONAL INTEGRATION is the joining of individual countries within a region into a larger whole. The degree of this
integration will depend on the willingness and the commitment of independent sovereign states to share their
sovereignty. It is usually an association of states based upon location in a given geographical area. Regional integration is
usually a process, as countries negotiate and make plans and enter into a regional cooperation framework in order to
enhance cooperation and reduce tension.

Caribbean countries have come a long way, but they have seen the need and have always tried to cooperate and share
both their physical and human resources for the benefit of the region. Various organisations have been created to
promote economic integration and functional cooperation in the Caribbean, to date.
The establishment of regional cooperation in the Caribbean.

W.I. FEDERATION - Federation of the West Indies was the first attempt at integration. It was an attempt at a political
union. Established: 1958 - 1962
Objectives:
1. To obtain autonomy from Britain; one way of getting this was to achieve an integrated Caribbean community under a
federal government.
2. It was believed that there would be more opportunities for talented West Indians to have a say in government.
3. It would create a larger market and this would result in the free movement of goods and services.

Member states: Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St
Kitts-Nevis- Anguilla, St Lucia, and St Vincent.

THE CARIBBEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (CARIFTA) Established: 1968

Objective: To sponsor intra-regional trade by creating a free trade area by removing tariff and non-tariff barriers to
trade between them.
Member states: Antigua and Barbuda, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana, Dominica, Grenada,
Montserrat, St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, and British Honduras (Belize).

THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM) - The successor to CARIFTA. It has been described as a “strengthened
CARIFTA”. Established: Treaty of Chaguaramas in 1973
Objectives:
1. To support economic cooperation through the Caribbean Common Market:
 Advance standard of living and work.
 Improve levels of international competitiveness.
 Increased production and productivity, leading to growth.

2. To encourage the coordination of foreign policy among the independent member states:
 The attainment of a greater measure of economic control and efficiency of member states when dealing
with foreign entities.
 To augment the coordination of member states’ foreign and economic policies.

3. To endorse the establishment of common services and cooperation in functional matters:

 Strengthen activities in areas such as health, education and culture, transportation, telecommunications
and industrial relations.
 More proficient operation of common services and activities for the advantage of its people.
 Hasten promotion of greater understanding among its people and the advancement of their social, cultural
and technological development.
 Member states: Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana,
Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize,
Haiti and Suriname.

ORGANIZATION OF EASTERN CARIBBEAN STATES (OECS) Established: Treaty of Basseterre, July 4, 1981
Objectives:
 Encourage cooperation among the member states and at the regional and international levels.
 To promote harmony and team spirit among the member states and to defend their sovereignty, territorial
integrity and independence.
 To seek to realise the fullest possible harmonization of foreign policy among the member states.
 Promote economic integration among the member states.
Member states: Antigua and Barbuda, Commonwealth of Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia
and St Vincent and the Grenadines.

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ASSOCIATION OF CARIBBEAN STATES (ACS) - This is a grouping of Caribbean and Latin American states.
Established: Signed in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, on July 24, 1994.
Objectives:
1. To advance economic integration and functional cooperation among the states, countries and territories of the
Caribbean Basin.
Member states: Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana, Dominica,
Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, St Lucia, and St Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Haiti, Columbia, Costa
Rica, Cuba, The Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Suriname and
Venezuela.

THE CARICOM SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY – CSME - This arrangement came about as a result of the challenges
and opportunities which globalization and trade liberalisation will create for CARICOM member states. Established:
Revised February 2002
Objectives:
1. To deepen the integration process and strengthen the Caribbean community in all areas.
2. Improve standards of living and work.
3. Full employment of labour and other factors of production.
4. Enhanced levels of international competitiveness.
5. Organisation for the increased productivity and production, etc.

CARICOM MEMBERS AND THE YEAR THEY BECAME MEMBERS

Member State/Date of accession
 Antigua and Barbuda - 4 July 1974
 Bahamas – 4 July 1983
 Barbados - 1 August 1973
 Belize - 1 May 1974
 Dominica - 1 May 1974
 Grenada - 1 May 1974
 Guyana - 1 August 1973
 Haiti - 2 July 2002
 Jamaica - 1 August 1973
 Montserrat - 1 May 1974
 St. Kitts and Nevis - 26 July 1974
 St. Lucia - 1 May 1974
 St. Vincent and the Grenadines - 1 May 1974
 Suriname - 4 July 1995
 Trinidad and Tobago - 1 August 1973

The following countries are associate members:

Country/Date of accession
 Anguilla - July 1999
 Bermuda - 2 July 2003
 British Virgin Islands - July 1991
 Cayman Islands - 16 May 2002
 Turks and Caicos Islands - July 1991

ACTIVITIES:
1. Name three countries that are members of all the organisations noted above.
2. Identify the first 10 countries that became members of CARICOM.
3. Suggest three reasons why integration is necessary for the Caribbean. Explain each reason.

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 ***Regional integration – Contemporary Issues***
REGIONAL INTEGRATION is defined as the process by which two or more countries agree to cooperate and work
together to achieve peace, stability and wealth. It may be further seen as an arrangement that serves to enhance
cooperation through regional rules and institutions entered into by countries of the same region. Therefore, regional
integration happens when an economic alliance or trade agreement is formed among countries that are located
geographically close to one another, such as the Caribbean region.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
 REGION - A bloc or geographic region/area with things in common.
 INTEGRATION - Coming together for a common purpose – the idea of integration suggests unity and teamwork.
 CARICOM - Caribbean Community and Common Market
 BILATERAL AGREEMENT - Trade agreement between two companies or countries.
 MULTILATERAL AGREEMENT - Trade agreement among several companies or countries.
 MDC - More Developed Countries (Guyana, Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and The Bahamas.
 LDC - Less Developed Countries (Leeward and Windward Islands).
 WHY CARIBBEAN INTEGRATION?
 To bring about political unity
 The coordination of foreign policy among the independent member states.
 To bring about economic unity
 Economic cooperation through the Caribbean Common Market.
 To bring about functional cooperation
 Encourage cooperation among member states in areas of health, education, law, disaster relief, agriculture,
culture, communication, financing and industrial relations.
WHY IS INTEGRATION IMPORTANT? - Individual countries are too small. Resources of member states are limited.
Individual states encounter similar problem with trading partners. Similar background – historically, culturally and
people wise.
THE BEGINNING - In the Caribbean region, integration involves one or more written agreements that describe
the areas of cooperation in detail, as well as coordinating bodies that represent the countries that are involved. Regional
integration in the Caribbean began with an attempt at political integration and, as it continued, it broadened to include
economic integration. Integrating countries act in accord, seemingly like ‘one’ country.
Economic integration is described as the process by which different countries agree to remove the trade barriers
existing between them. These trade barriers includes tariffs, which are taxes imposed on imports to a country, quotas or
a limit on the amount of a product that can be imported within a country over a time, and border restrictions. The single
market is the integration between political and economic aspects of countries; this is the point at which the economies
of the cooperating countries become so integrated that all barriers to the movements of labour, goods and capital are
removed. At this stage, the integrating countries set a common external tariff on goods from other countries – this is
called a customs union. In the Caribbean, a further step in the process of economic integration is the adoption of a
common currency, which forms part of the Eastern Caribbean Community. Political integration: As countries begin to act
alike and work together, and the economies of these countries become completely alike, there appears a need for
common policies in social policy such as education, health care, unemployment benefits and pensions, and other
common political institutions.
THE ROLE OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION
To overcome some of the challenges that we face as a region, namely:
 The unevenness of resource distribution.
 The development of human resources. E.g. Improve literacy levels and access to tertiary education
 Provision of improved education and much-needed health services.
 Ensuring sustainable development by making the best use of our limited natural resources.
 Modernization of infrastructure, up-to-date technologies and efficiencies in government.
The purpose of regional integration is to achieve economic gains through free trade flow and investments between
neighbouring countries, often by lowering or eliminating tariffs against imports from another member countries.
Another purpose to the integration is to create institutions responsible for policy formulation concerning issues like
education, health, labour matters and foreign policy within the member nations. These actions increase duty-free trade,
tourism, movement of labour, and the flow of capital across national borders, reducing the possibility of conflict.
Regional integration promotes global business in that it removes, in stages or all together, previous barriers to foreign
investments and other business ventures. It also gives businesses the means to increase revenue significantly by
expanding globally.

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 MAJOR CHALLENGES TO INTRA-REGIONAL INTEGRATION
 They are small, developing countries that are at different stages of development. Some are seen as Lesser
Developed Countries (LDCs) and some as more More Developed Countries (MDCs).
 They possess small populations which struggle to find adequate human and resources in the quantity needed.
 Limited human resources, as there are still high rates of illiteracy which limit people’s access to their choices of
employment. There are also health issues (lifestyle diseases and HIV) which affect productivity.
 Almost annual and varied natural disasters, such as hurricane, floods and drought, preparation for and recovery
from which cost huge amounts of money rectify and bring with it psychological and many social problems. This is
so as natural disasters wreak havoc on housing and educational facilities, to name a few.
 Vulnerability to external economic changes, such as rapid rise in import costs or major fall in the value of an
export product.
 Environmental management shortcomings.
 High cost in the provision of transportation, energy and infrastructure development.
 Nations struggle to produce goods and services at competitive prices and fail to take advantage of new
technologies.
 There is a limited domestic market for products and services.
 Most countries in the Caribbean depend, to a large degree, on imports that have proven to be very expensive.

THE EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS

1958 The West Indies Federation

Established by the British Caribbean Federation Act (1956)
AIM: To establish a political union among member states
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts-Nevis, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent and Trinidad & Tobago
ACTIVITIES:
 Creation of a federal civil service and the West Indies Shipping Service (operated 2 ships donated by Canadian
government – Federal Maple & Federal Palm).
 Debated issues of direct taxation (not allowed to impose income tax for the first five years), constitutional
reform, establishment of a regional customs union
 Started negotiations to acquire the British West Indies Airways as a subsidiary of the British Overseas Airways
Corporation
The Federation collapsed in 1962 as a result of:
 Disagreements over taxation and administrative policies
 Refusal of most member states to give up national power for federal power
 Disagreement over the location of the federal capital (Trinidad & Tobago)
 Withdrawal of Jamaica – the largest member – after a national referendum in 1961, followed by the withdrawal
of Trinidad & Tobago

1968 -The Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA)

Established by the Dickenson Bay Agreement of December 1965. Fully operational in 1968
AIM: To foster balanced development among member states by increasing, diversifying and liberalising trade and
attempting to guarantee fair competition
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts-
Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad & Tobago
ACTIVITIES:
 Established the Caribbean Development Bank, Caribbean Broadcasting Union and the Council of Legal Education
 Removal of import duties and quotas
 Regulation of trade to ensure equity for both Less Developed and More Developed Countries through the Oils
and Fats Agreement, Agricultural Marketing Protocol and Guaranteed Marketing Scheme
ACHIEVEMENTS:
 90% removal of trade barriers for member states;
 increase in intra-regional trade from EC$95.7 million in 1967 to EC$298 million
in 1973
 CARIFTA evolved into the CARICOM

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1973 The Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM)
Established in 1973 by the Treaty of Chaguaramas
AIM: To promote economic integration, co-ordinate foreign policy, share common services through functional co-
operation in various areas among member states
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St.
Kitts-Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad & Tobago
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS: Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands
ACTIVITIES:
 Human and social development through: crime reduction strategies, promotion of cultural activities, health,
education and training.
 Regional trade and economic integration in the areas of: agriculture, CSME, industry, sustainable development,
tourism, transportation, finance, planning and monetary co-operation.
 Foreign and community relations planning and co-ordination.

1981 The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)

Established by the Treaty of Basseterre
AIM: To defend sovereignty, meet obligations to international community, foster economic integration and functional
co-operation among member states.
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts-Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines.
ACHIEVEMENTS: single currency, central bank, single sub-regional judicial system, functional co-operation in health,
education, environment and trade.

1994 Association of Caribbean States (ACS)

Established by convention signed July 29, 1994 (Cartagena de Indias –Columbia)
AIM: Economic integration through strengthening trade within the wider Caribbean context and functional co-operation
in sustainable development, tourism, transportation, science and technology, education, health and culture.
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, the Dominican
Republic, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, St. Kitts-Nevis, St.
Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago and Venezuela
ACTIVITIES: Address policy issues such as human trafficking, drug trafficking, equity in trade

CHALLENGES AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES (UWI)

Challenges
 University campuses are situated in larger member states (Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad and Tobago) which
places students in smaller territories at a disadvantage, due to increased travelling expenses (among other
issues). This led some territories to establish their own universities e.g. Belize and Guyana.
 The establishment of other universities and colleges in the region (e.g. University of Technology Jamaica, and
the University of Trinidad and Tobago) indicate that the UWI cannot meet the demand of all persons who wish
to pursue tertiary education.
 Internationalisation has created greater competition to the UWI: foreign institutions offer distance education.
They set up local sites or partner with national institutions to offer programmes that are not offered by the UWI
or which provide options for those who may not have qualified to go to the UWI.
Achievements
 Minimised cost of tertiary education to citizens of countries that are members of CARICOM, due to agreements
to subsidize the tuition fees.
 Wider availability of tertiary education, with expansion of campuses: e.g. opening of the Western Jamaica
Campus and the creation of the Open Campus (Online)
 All courses are accredited and the UWI implements new areas of study to keep up with global developments in
the educational sphere.
 Graduates of the UWI have become leading experts, professionals, politicians and leaders nationally, regionally
and globally.
 The UWI has been the centre of research contributing to regional development through the implementation of
programmes which are relevant to the Caribbean context; which helps to record, preserve and solve problems.

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CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL (CXC)
Challenges
 Competition due to internationalisation: e.g. numerous students take the SAT with the hope of gaining
scholarships to study in the USA.
 Transition from paper-based to online testing and marking may be slow, due to limited internet penetration in
some territories and lack of availability of tools and equipment in others.
Achievements
 Implemented a regional, culturally relevant curriculum.
 Qualifications are recognised regionally and internationally, due to quality standards established in curriculum
development and delivery as well as the structure and execution of examinations, which seeks to maintain
integrity.
 A wider variety of subject areas is offered from the primary to secondary levels.
 Transition from paper-based to online testing and marking
WEST INDIES CRICKET BOARD (WICB)
Challenges
 Insularity is an issue: some countries lament the selection process as biased (towards some countries) by
selectors selecting more players from one country than another.
 Limited resources have impacted performance and lowered the morale of cricketers.
 Opportunities to increase their earning capacity by playing in extra-regional tournament s limits cricketers ’
availability to play at their optimum for the West Indies team.
 Contention between cricketers and the governing WICB has emerged over selection and remuneration, which
has led to actions such as boycotts.
Achievements
 Globally recognised West Indian cricketers have set and shattered records, and received prestigious awards. For
example: Sir Curtly Ambrose, Sir Frank Worrell, Sir Garfield Sobers and Sir Vivian Richards.
 Fosters closer relationships between nationals of various member states, thus strengthening the integration
movement. The theme song, ‘Rally round the West Indies’ helped to support unity within the region.
 Establishment of special committees and a regional cricket conference to discuss and implement suggestions for
improving the quality of performance of the West Indies cricket team.
 Involvement of women, to form the West Indies cricket team for women.
 Implementation of Shell Cricket Academy for training and development of skills.
 Hosting international events: e.g. Cricket World Cup (2007)
CARIBBEAN INSTITUTE OF MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION (CARIMAC)
Challenges
 Initially the Institute trained small numbers of students, but has gradually expanded.
Achievements
 Provides training in most aspects of media and communication and offers various levels of qualifications.
 Graduates have become internationally renowned and display high levels of professionalism.
 Public awareness campaigns produced by students have had regional impact in terms of disaster preparedness,
HIV/AIDS and domestic violence.
REGIONAL SECURITY SYSTEM (RSS)
Challenges
 Limited resources (both financial and human) hamper efforts to achieve objectives of making the region more
safe and secure.
 Scope of operation needs to be expanded to policing waters beyond CARICOM states, if the RSS is to be
effective.
Achievements
 Negotiation and implementation of regional maritime agreement to combat illicit trade.
 Seeks to promote regional co-operation among member states to assist in: national emergencies and natural or
human-made disasters, search and rescue operations, immigration control, fisheries protection and in
combatting threats to national security.

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CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (CDB)
Challenges
 Although the CDB has provided financing for important projects and programmes, a financing gap exists. The
amount of funding the CDB is able to acquire (from Inter-American Development Bank, World Bank and
International Monetary Fund) is exceeded by the amount needed to adequately fund projects.
Achievements
 Promotes economic co-operation and economic growth and development among member states.
 Established the private sector development unit.
 Provides financing for special projects for development in: agriculture, marketing, forestry, manufacturing,
mining, tourism, transportation, housing, education, sewerage, etc.

REGIONAL INTEGRATION-ESSAY

Development is a multi-faceted issue and can be viewed from the perspective of human and economic development. In
order for holistic Caribbean development to take place, integration within the region is essential and there have been
efforts toward this since the pre-independence era.

Throughout the years, Caribbean leaders have made repeated attempts at integration namely the West Indian
Federation, CARIFTA and lately CARICOM and CSME. However, each attempt has seen various setbacks along the way,
some of which are still experienced today. While each of these integration movements and the respective challenges will
be explained, this essay also attempts to discuss the view that a major challenge to regional integration, whatever name
it may take, is the wide disparity in levels of development among member countries of CARICOM.

Regional integration within the Caribbean has taken on many perspectives, namely political, economic and social. The
first movement toward integration, the West Indian Federation began in 1958, but subsequently failed by 1960.
Although some argue that this attempt was premature, it is an apt example of the way in which insular political,
economic and social perspectives hinder progress toward regional integration. Emanating from economic strife within
the Federation, were issues of political power and the allocation of resources. This is due to the fact that large
contributors expected equally as large levels of power, which caused internal tension and in turn put a strain on the
success of the Federation.

The economic disparity led to internal political struggle, as the two largest contributors and most developed territories
in the region, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago both vied for greater recognition. As such, the Federation was
immeasurably dependent on their membership and decisions. Of the ten members which comprised the federation, 85%
of the financial burden was carried in equal shares by Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. With relevance to their
economic worth and the vast disparity in levels of development, the other member states gained the nickname of the
“little eight”.

Rivalry between the two financial leaders was increased by the decision for the capital of the federation to be located in
Trinidad. In 1961, discussions about the grant of Independence to the Federation had begun, which created political
choice for Jamaica to either maintain its membership within the Federation or to withdraw and gain individual
independence. Choosing to withdraw in favour of their own independence, the Federation failed. In light of this failure
to integrate politically due to desires for indivudial control and recognition of power, the Caribbean shifted its focus to
economic integration.

This was done through the introduction of the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA) which was established with the aim
of achieving a viable economic community of Caribbean territories. However, this quickly evolved into the Caribbean
Community(CARICOM). At the core of its objectives were economic integration, co-ordination of foreign policy, and
functional co-operation in areas such as health, education and culture and other areas related to human and social
development.

Various institutions such as the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) and the Caribbean Environmental Health
Institute(CEHI) were setup to prioritise certain social and economic issues as well as the CARICOM Single Market and
Economy (CSME) to deepen the integration movement to better respond to the challenges and opportunities
presented by globalisation. These latter movements however, have been more successful and have brought about a
more ‘integrated’ Caribbean region in some aspects.

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It cannot be denied that one of the main aims of integration is development in various aspects of the lives of Caribbean
people. These movements have allowed “free” movement of human resources across borders of member countries.

That is, no legal documentation was needed for members of one country to enter the borders of another. This resulted
in mass migration into economically more developed countries (MDC’s) namely, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and the
Bahamas as scores of people from the less developed nations emigrated with the hope of improving their standard of
living.

This migration, placed a strain on the resources of the countries to which these persons migrated. However, all of these
difficulties did not negate the various socio-economic advancements that have been effected as a result of Caribbean
integration.

Institutions such as the…..:

(i) The Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM)

(ii) The University of the West Indies (UWI)
(iii) Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC)
(iv) West Indies Cricket Board (WICB)
(v) Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC)
(vi) CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME)
(vii) Regional Security System (RSS)
(viii) Caribbean Development Bank (CDB).

…are all successful and operational products of the integration movement. This shows regional co-operation and the
common view that education is essential to development. The success of West Indies Cricket Board shows the
importance of sports in development. For example through cricket, track and field and football the Caribbean has gained
international stature.

Therefore, to conclude, it cannot be denied that the journey toward regional integration within the Caribbean has been
long. Although considerable progress has been made, there are still challenges today which prevent integration within
the Caribbean from being optimally effective.

However, from this evidence, it may be just to say that the major challenge toward the integration movement is not just
the wide disparity in levels of development among member states but Instead a mixture of the desire for political power
and a tendency toward insular pride and economic recognition. Until it is realized that integration requires not insularity
on political, economic and social front but a sense of one Caribbean identity, regional development may never fully be
achieved.

ACTIVITIES
1. Define the following terms: Regional integration, economic integration, single market and political integration
2. Suggest three reasons why the Caribbean needs to integrate and explain each of your reasons.
3. State and explain five challenges being faced by Caribbean countries that support regional integration.
4. Research the various moves to integrate the Caribbean region since 1956.
5. Look up and define the following terms:

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 ***Contributions of Sports to Development***
Sports and Development
The economic importance of intellectual property (IP) and sports, and their potential contribution to development have
led to an increased focus on the issue among WIPO’s member states and throughout the wider United
Nations(UN)family. UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon has emphasized the commitment of the UN system to promote
sports as a tool for development. Sport is accessible to all. Sports can support development by:
 generating income from sports related sales and services
 boosting international trade
 supporting business-growth, entrepreneurship and job creation
 enhancing a country’s reputation
 transcending national differences
 and fostering universal values of fair-play, mutual respect and friendship
 improving health and social well-being
 encouraging discipline, team work and a competitive spirit.
The multi-billion dollar industry in sportswear and equipment fosters innovation and trade, and boosts foreign exchange
earnings. Staging sporting events, whether at grassroots, national or international levels, can enrich the social and
cultural fabric of communities, making them more attractive locations for investors and tourists. However, the business
of sport requires a solid legal framework to support the exploitation and trading of IP rights, as well as human and
organizational skills.
Under-development of Sports in Developing Countries
Research shows that investment into sports in developing countries is much less than in developed countries, as sports
development is usually not a top priority in the national budget or in the education system of most developing countries.
Studies show that a ‘vicious cycle’ is emerging as a result of the underdevelopment of sports in developing countries, in
which lower investment in sports decreases the potential for athletes to build their talent. It also means that there are
fewer prospects for athletes to continue their sports training or pursue professional sporting careers in a developing
country.
In turn, the lack of talent-building opportunities in a developing country leads to less return on the little investment put
into local talent, further debilitating local sports development structures and sport career pathways. Less developed
countries are unable to utilize the talent of their strong performers and/or tend to lose them to more powerful nations
in global sports. Sports regulated by global processes can thus contribute to the underdevelopment of a developing
country’s talent. The 'Muscle Drain' phenomenon - ‘Muscle drain’ has been deemed comparable to ‘brain drain’ –
athletes from developing countries supply the industrialised countries ’markets with talent. For example, in football, the
high transfer rates that European players can demand from clubs have created a much cheaper alternative– importing
players from developing countries.
In developing countries, players are either enrolled in official clubs linked to the national football association or they
play for non-affiliated sports associations. For non-affiliated players, their only chance of obtaining an international
transfer deal is through the informal and often clandestine networks of player agents, forming an underground labour
market in football. It is possible that the player’s situation does not improve upon arrival in a European country–in the
worst case, those players under the age of eighteen and who are unsuccessful in being recruited on to a European team,
often find themselves without a work contract or even a return ticket to their home country.
Football associations do not receive payment for the international transfer of non-affiliated players. The transfer fees for
foreign players from developing countries to European clubs are so low that they barely cover the education and
training costs of the transferred player in their country of origin.
The Transformational Power of Sports - Both formal studies and a wealth of anecdotal evidence have demonstrated
that participation in sport has countless benefits for individuals. Among the most obvious positive outcomes are
improvements in physical health, such as weight control, strength building, increased flexibility, enhanced coordination
and motor skills, improved cardiovascular health, and pain reduction. People who are physically active often tend to
develop healthier lifestyles and better eating habits. A second, but no less important, beneficial aspect of sport is the
impact that it has on psychological and emotional healing and well-being. Sport provides a positive outlet for stress and
aggression. Participation in sport can help alleviate depression or anxiety.
Physically active people also often experience enhanced self-confidence and improved self-image. There is also evidence
that participation in sport improves concentration and mental functioning. Beyond what it contributes to physical,
psychological and emotional well-being, sport also plays a significant role in healthy social development and interaction.
Sport helps people learn how to set and achieve goals through discipline and hard work. It nurtures the development of
decision-making and leadership abilities, while teaching people to manage both success and failure.

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 ***Caribbean Intellectual Traditions***

PAN-AFRICANISM
What is Pan Africanism? - A political, cultural and intellectual phenomenon which regards Africa, Africans and African
descendants as a unit. It seeks to regenerate and unify Africa and promote a feeling of oneness among the people of the
African world. It glorifies the African past and inculcates pride in African values. The concept of Pan-Africanism was
conceived by people of African descent mainly in the Caribbean and in the United States.
Different scholars have applied Pan-Africanism to:
 all black African people and people of black African descent
 to all people on the African continent, including non-black people or to all states on the African continent
Origins of Pan Africanism;
 Between 1450 and 1870 millions of Africans were forced to leave their homelands and work on plantations in
the Caribbean, North, Central and South America (the New World).
 This forced migration scattered African people in various regions. Descendants of these Africans now live and
work in these regions.
 Africans hated slavery and the colonial system.
 The Pan-African movement arose to combat the institutions of slavery and colonialism.
 It was also developed to overcome the obstacles facing the African Diaspora, which is a scattered, diverse, and
often disadvantaged population.
 The origins of Pan-Africanism began around the end of the First World War.
 Pan-African thinkers believe that, although they were dispersed, African people and people of African descent
were a unified people and should try to work together for the good of all.
 Poets, historians, sociologists, anthropologists, playwrights, journalists, and political scientists were part of the
movement.
Objectives of Pan-Africanism;
 To rehabilitate the valuable aspects of African culture
 To resuscitate pride in African descent
 To regenerate and unify Africa
 To promote a feeling of oneness among the African people of the world.

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Leaders of the Pan-Africanist movement;
Marcus Mosiah Garvey (1887-1940) - Garvey was born the youngest of 11 children in Saint Ann's Bay, Jamaica. He was a
black nationalist leader, who created a “Back to Africa” movement in the United States. He founded the Universal Negro
Improvement Association (UNIA) in 1914 to promote the improvement of living conditions for black Africans and people
of black African descent in North and South America, the Caribbean, and Europe.

In 1916 Garvey moved to the United States and settled in New York City. He founded an international movement. His
newspaper, the Negro World, achieved wide distribution. Branches of UNIA sprung up all over the Americas, as well as in
Europe, Australia, and South Africa. By 1919, his following had reached 2,000,000. 1919he established the shipping
company, the Black Star Line and the Negro Factories Corporation to encourage black economic independence. He
hoped both to enter international trade and to transport blacks to Africa. He also hoped to oversee the repatriation of
tens of thousands of American blacks to the West African nation of Liberia, which had been founded by freed American
slaves in the early 19th century.

He also opened a chain of restaurants, grocery stores, laundries, a hotel, and a printing press. The Garvey movement
declined when Garvey was arrested and imprisoned in 1925 on charges of mail fraud relating to the operation of the
Black Star Line. His repatriation scheme was never fulfilled. Garvey moved back to London, England, where he died in
1940. His body was returned to Jamaica in 1964.
W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) - One of the most influential early Pan-Africanists, helped found the National Association
for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and organized several Pan-African congresses.
Edward Wilmot Blyden (1832-1912) - Leading black intellectual and scholar of African culture. Born in the Virgin Islands.
Moved to the West African nation of Liberia in 1851 and promoted the repatriation of free American blacks to Liberia.
He hoped that Liberia, as an independent black-ruled nation, would become a beacon of Pan-Africanism, displaying the
great achievements of Africans and people of African descent.
Impacts of Pan Africanism (Garveyism):
 Garvey founded the first political party in Jamaica in 1929 (People’s Political Party?). His manifesto called for a
greater measure of self-government; an eight hour day; a minimum wage; workmen’s compensation; rent
control; land reform; rural electrification; industrialization and educational reforms.
 The Rastafarian movement (a black- consciousness movement), was influenced by the ideas of Garveyism. Major
actors such as Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, et al. used reggae music to amplify the message of freedom for Africans.
 The trade union movement was influenced by Garveyism.
 It stimulated liberation movements worldwide.
 The revival and stimulation of black pride.

Contemporary relevance of Pan-Africanism - At the start of the 21st century, Pan-Africanism retains its relevance,
because the historical dynamics, which produced it, remain a factor to this day. The conditions of poverty, under-
development and marginalisation of Africans are but one example. The challenges to Pan-Africanism today must include
generating an understanding of the political economy of the African predicament, and organising Africans on the
continent and in the diaspora.
Pan-Africanism remains an essential democratic vision, to deconstruct and uproot the inequalities of racism; to
challenge the unpopular capitalist "New World Order" represented by the IMF, the World Bank, and more recently by
the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Pan-Africanism remains vital as a political framework bringing
together the collective perspectives of people of African descent in our eternal struggle to assert and to affirm all
humanity. Our struggle for the empowerment of the African world is, as W.E.B. Du Bois wrote, "the last great battle of
the West."

NEGRITUDE
What is Negritude? - Negritude refers to a consciousness of and pride in the cultural and physical aspects of the African
heritage or the state or condition of being black. It was an ideology propounded by Caribbean scholars, influenced by
the black experience of slavery, imperialism and colonialism of the slavery era and after.
It is a literary and political movement founded in French Martinique and Paris in the 1930s by a group of students from
the French Caribbean and Africa. The founding members were, Aimé Césaire, Léopold Senghor, and Léon Damas.

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Views of Negritude –
 The founders of Negritude were in part inspired by their encounters with members of the Harlem Renaissance,
many of whom were living in France at the time to escape racism and segregation in the United States.
 Negritude was not only concerned with the cooperation between Blacks within the group (the French Colonies),
but also with the well-being and unity of the black race all over the world.
 Negritude therefore strives to be universal, encompassing all people of African descent. Yet, it is a complex
movement which denounces colonialism, rejects Western domination, and promotes acceptance of the black
self or the consciousness of belonging to the black race.
 It is through literature that both Césaire and Senghor begin to find their political voices, and each proceeds to
take on an important role in his respective region after the end of colonialism .
 The literature of Negritude therefore includes the writings of black intellectuals who affirm black personality and
redefine the collective experience of Blacks.
Objectives of Negritude –
 To eliminate the barriers between black students from the various French colonies and all people of black
decent.
 To reject the political, social and moral domination of the West and enlighten the black race such that there is
an acceptance of the black self.
 To rehabilitate Africans and all blacks from European ideology that holds the black inherently inferior to the
white -- the rationale for Western imperialism.
 To counteract the idea of black inferiority (black magic; black sheep; black market, white lie vs black lie etc.) with
black pride.
 To promote the concept of blackness through the arts and literature (for example the poems, novels and short
stories of Aime Cesaire, Leopold Senghor, Omafume Onoge and Gabriel Okara) Franz Fanon (The Wretched of
the Earth and Black Skins White Masks)
 To draw on the continent of Africa as a course of ethnic identity and cultural depth. However, Negritude does
not speak of a desire a return to outmoded African customs, only to the original spirit of the Black race.

Impact of Negritude –

 The philosophy of Negritude had an impact on many Caribbean writers such as Derek Walcott.
 Negritude was embraced with greater enthusiasm in Haiti and Cuba than in the Commonwealth Caribbean
RASTAFARI
The Rastafari movement (also known as Rastafarianism or simply Rasta) is a monotheistic, Abrahamic, new religious
movement that accepts Haile Selassie I, the former Emperor of Ethiopia, as the incarnation of God, called Jah or Jah
Rastafari. Haile Selassie is also seen as part of the Holy Trinity and as the returned messiah promised in the Bible. Other
characteristics of Rastafari include the spiritual use of cannabis, rejection of western society (called "Babylon"), and
various Afrocentric social and political aspirations, such as the teachings of Jamaican publicist, organizer, and black
separatist Marcus Garvey (also often regarded as a prophet of Rastafari), whose political and cultural vision helped
inspire Leonard Howell to develop the foundations of this new world view. The Rastafari movement predominantly
emerged in Jamaica in the 20th century, and it proclaims Africa as the original place where the body of the first man was
found, which established independence among blacks. The name Rastafari comes from Ras (literally "Head," an
Ethiopian title equivalent to Duke), and Tafari Makonnen, the pre-coronation name of Haile Selassie I. Rastafari is
commonly called "Rastafarianism", but this term is considered derogatory and offensive by Rastas themselves.

Zion vs. Babylon - Rastas assert that Mount Zion (i.e., Africa, especially Ethiopia) is a land that Jah promised to them. To
achieve this, they reject modern western "society", calling it Babylon, which they see as totally corrupt. "Babylon" is
considered to have been in rebellion against "Earth's Rightful Ruler" (Jah) ever since the days of the biblical king Nimrod.

Some Rastas claim themselves to represent the real Children of Israel in modern times, and their goal is to repatriate to
Africa, or to Zion. Rasta reggae is peppered with references to Zion; among the best-known examples are the Bob
Marley songs '"Zion Train," "Iron Lion Zion," and the Damian Marley song "Road to Zion,". Reggae groups such as Steel
Pulse and Cocoa Tea also have many references to Zion in their various songs. In recent years, such references have also
"crossed over" into pop music thanks to artists like, Propagandhi, Sublime, Ben Harper, Slightly Stoopid, Soldiers of Jah
Army SOJA, Jah Roots, H.I.M. Sound System, Zion I (reggae influenced hip-hop group), Matisyahu, Lauryn Hill, Boney M
("Rivers of Babylon"), Dreadzone with the reggae-tinged track "Zion Youth." and, more recently, Sinéad O'Connor.

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Afro-centrism and Black Pride - One of the key focuses of Rastas is on Afrocentrism and black pride. They teach that
Africa, in particular Ethiopia, is where Zion, or paradise, shall be created. As such Rastafari orients itself around African
culture. Rastafari holds that evil society, or "Babylon" has always been white dominated, and has committed such acts of
aggression against the African people as the slave trade. Despite this Afrocentrism and focus on people of the black race,
members of other races, including white, can be found among the movement.
Historical focus on Afrocentrism and black pride - Rastafari developed among poor Jamaicans of African descent who
felt they were oppressed and that society was apathetic to their problems. Marcus Garvey, who is viewed as a prophet
of Jah, was a keen proponent of the "back to Africa" movement, advocating that all people of the black race should
return to their ancestral homeland of Africa.
Many early Rastas for a time believed in black supremacy. Widespread advocacy of this belief was shortlived, at least
partly because of Haile Selassie's explicit condemnation of racism in an October 1963 speech before the United Nations.
Most Rastas now espouse the doctrine that racial animosities must be set aside, with world peace and harmony being
common themes. One of the three major modern houses of Rastafari, the Twelve Tribes of Israel, has specifically
condemned all types of racism, and declared that the teachings of the Bible are the route to spiritual liberation for
people of any racial or ethnic background. During his famous UN address (which provided the lyrics for the Carlton
Barrett and Bob Marley song "War"), Haile Selassie made the following statement:
“On the question of racial discrimination, the Addis Ababa Conference taught, to those who will learn, this further
lesson: that until the philosophy which holds one race superior and another inferior is finally and permanently
discredited and abandoned; that until there are no longer first class and second class citizens of any nation; that until
the collar of a man's skin is of no more significance than the colour of his eyes; that until the basic human rights are
equally guaranteed to all without regard to race; that until that day, the dream of lasting peace and world citizenship
and the rule of international morality will remain but a fleeting illusion, to be pursued but never attained. And... until
bigotry and prejudice and malicious and inhuman self-interest have been replaced by understanding and tolerance and
good-will; until all Africans stand and speak as free beings, equal in the eyes of all men, as they are in the eyes of
Heaven; until that day, the African continent will not know peace.”
He concluded this speech with the words, - "We must become members of a new race, overcoming petty prejudice,
owing our ultimate allegiance not to nations but to our fellow men within the human community."
Some Rastafari learn Amharic, which some consider to be the original language, because this was the language of Haile
Selassie I and in order to further their identity as Ethiopian. There are reggae songs written in Amharic.

Religious Views - Rastafari are monotheists, worshiping one, singular, God, whom they call Jah. Rastas, like Christians,
see Jah as being in the form of the Holy Trinity, that is, God being the God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy
Spirit. Rastas say that Jah, in the form of the Holy Spirit, lives within the human, and for this reason they often refer to
themselves as "I and I".
Rastas usually accept the Christian doctrine that God incarnated onto the Earth in the form of Jesus Christ, to give his
teachings to humanity. However, they often feel his teachings were corrupted by Babylon. Many Rastas, in accordance
with their assertion that "word, sound is power", also object specifically to the English pronunciation of his name as
impure, preferring instead to use the forms in Hebrew (Yehoshuah) or Amharic ('Iyesus). Integral to the basic Rastafari
world-view is that Jah, as the Messiah or Christ, was incarnated again, this time as the Ethiopian Emperor, Haile Selassie
(Ras Tafari). A few Rastas also claim that Melchizedek, an Old Testament figure, was a previous incarnation of Jah.
Rasta doctrines concerning the Holy Trinity are mostly related to the name Haile Selassie meaning Power of the Trinity in
Ge'ez, but the exact significance of this tends to vary. Many Rastas claim that Haile Selassie I represents God the Father
and God the Son/Yahoshua/Jesus and the Holy Trinity, while all human beings potentially embody the Holy Spirit.

INDUSTRIALISATION BY INVITATION

What is “Industrialisation by Invitation”? - A study produced by St. Lucian Economist Sir Arthur Lewis in 1949, following
a spate of Caribbean rebellions due to the prevailing high level of poverty in the region indicated by high employment,
poor housing and a narrow sector based on sugar.

Industrialisation by Invitation thesis was offered as a solution to the problems of Caribbean development, where an un-
limited supply of labour is ensured which will keep wages down and thus produce cheaper commodities.

The general idea was for Caribbean governments to encourage multi-national corporations to establish industrial
enterprises in the region by the provision of suitable physical plants equipped with utilities.

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Reasons for Industrialisation by Invitation were:

 Agriculture had reached its limits of internal and externally profitable cultivation.
 The growth rate of the population was faster than the growth of agriculture.
 A manufacturing base had to be established to absorb agricultural output and to create employment
opportunities.
Key Ideas of Industrialisation by invitation:

 A country should specialise in manufacturing products to which its resources are most appropriate and avoid the
others, (comparative advantage). E.g. Jamaica (Sugar and bauxite)
 "To start manufacturing in a new country is a formidable enough problem; therefore countries must seek
manufacturers who are already established in the market, and try to persuade them to set up branches in the
new country." These multinationals would bring with them the vital access to markets. E.g. MNCs such as Tate
and Lyle; Kaiser invited to manufature sugar products and mine bauxite
 These products could be sold to the dominant industrial markets and to nearby Latin America. E.g UK and
American markets
Concessions normally offered by LDC Governments
 Freedom from US income taxes
 Tax- free repatriation of profits
 Free construction of industrial plants equipped with utilities
 Duty- free importation of machinery
 10 -15 year tax holidays
 (silence on the issue of low wages paid to workers in the industrial sector)

Caribbean Examples of Industrialisation by Invitation –

 In 1947 Puerto Rico launched an industrial initiative called “Operation Bootstrap” (capital investment increased
from $1.4 billion to $24 billion by 1979)
 In the 1950’s Trinidad launched its industrialisation by invitation programme (natural gas manufacturing)
 In the 1950’s Barbados launched “Operation Beehive” (implemented garment factories)
 In the 1950’s Jamaica invited North American companies such as Reynolds, Alcan and Kaiser to mine bauxite

Advantages –

 Stimulated new investment in the region (e.g. Puerto Rico, Operation Bootstrap)
 Fueled a reduction of the high unemployment situation (e.g. Barbados garment sector)
 Stimulated the export sector and earned additional foreign exchange
 Encouraged the establishment of manufacturing industries by Caribbean entrepreneurs
 The industrialisation programme led to the full utilisation of physical resources.

Dis-advantages –
 It did not create the level of employment opportunities that were envisaged.
 MNC’s took advantage of the long tax holidays and low- wage regimes by moving to other destinations when the
holidays were over. For example the exit of Intel and Caribbean Data Services threw many workers into absolute
poverty.
 created a dependence on North American capital in the Caribbean.
 Problems for sustainable development.
 Most profits were repatriated to Northern parent companies.

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 MARXISM/NEO-MARXISM
What is Marxism? - The concept of Marxism was developed by the German philosopher, economist and sociologist Karl
Marx. He developed the concept based on his analysis of economic development during the Industrial Revolution of the
mid 19th century.
In his Communist manifesto (1848), Marx was critical of the capitalist mode of production and the consequences for the
working class in such societies.
Central Concept of Marxism – The central concept of Marxism is the nature of capitalism and its exploitative effects
 A capitalist society is one in which large investment of capital is made by a small group of persons for the
production of goods, with the aim of maximizing profit. Marx argues that the accumulation of this wealth comes
from the exploitation of the masses (proletariat)
 The exploitation comes in the form of low wages far below the value of the goods produced for the proletariat
while the capitalist obtains the difference between the wage and the value of the commodity (profits)
 Marx argued that the economic dominance of this small minority influences the political structure of these
societies. Therefore the Government, schools, churches, judiciary as well as beliefs and values will reflect the
ruling class (bourgeoisie) ideology.
 Marx argued that a class struggle is the outcome in such societies and this struggle will transform the capitalist
society into a communal or class-less society
 This struggle is peaked by the process of alienation and the difference in relationship between both classes and
the factors of production (land, labour, capital)

Marxist Manifestations in the Caribbean

Democratic Socialism in Jamaica 1972 – Michael Manley
 Manley rose to power in Jamaica in 1972 against the backdrop of social unrest and widespread call for welfare
reform.
 Manley therefore developed a deep- seated commitment to social justice and equality because of the stark
realities he faced as president of the National Worker’s Union (NWU), where he represented poor workers
against wealthy employers
 In keeping with the Marxist ideology that the masses should own the means of production, the Manley regime
embarked upon a nationalization programme of owning majority of the shares in the electricity and telephone
companies and transport system
 He also imposed a 7.5% Bauxite Levy on all bauxite companies operating in the country in an effort to increase
the revenue of the country. He passed legislations to protect the vulnerability of the society such as: The Family
Court Act, Maternity Leave Act and the Minimum Wage Act
Co-operate Socialism in Guyana –Linden Forbes Burnham
 After independence from Britain (1966), the Linden Forbes Burnham regime adopted a socialist type of
economic development.
 Burnham amended the constitution of 1966 to reflect the fundamental nature of Cooperative Socialism to the
Guyanese people.
 The principal objectives of the new political system was to extend socialist democracy such that citizens would
participate in the management and decision- making process of the state.
 Burnham started a process of nationalization in sugar, bauxite and communication sectors, with the aim of
redistributing wealth to the masses through social programmes such as health and education.
 However government’s lack of financial resources made it difficult to coordinate its activities and the increasing
debt burden of Guyana during this period led to the government turning to the IMF.
Socialism in Grenada – Maurice Bishop
 The aim of Maurice Bishop and the New Jewel Movement (NJM) was to rid the country from colonial political
thinking under the leadership of Eric Gairy.
 Bishop displayed selected socialist tendencies of nationalization of banks, transportation and the media.
 He sought to improve the conditions of work through progressive labour legislations, improvement in health as
well as education.
 He joined alliances with Cuba and other countries in the far east. Under such alliances, the Cubans gave
technical support in the building of the Pont Salines Airport in Grenada and the awarding of scholarships to
Grenadians to study in Cuba.

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  Unlike Jamaica and Guyana where the socialist experiment proved disastrous because of heavy debt burden, the
Grenadian socialist experiment was short- lived because of internal conflict.

CARIBBEAN DEPENDENCY THEORY

With the emergence of ‘independent’ states in the Caribbean throughout the late 1900s, a change in the economic
relations of hinterland/third world and metropole/first world states was expected. Caribbean Dependency Theory
(CDT) emerged at the University of the West Indies in the 1960s and became particularly influential as a critical
analytical response to evolving neoliberal policies in the 1970s. CDT was directed at terminating the external controls
over development imposed by institutions whose primary purpose was the enforcement of neo-colonial structures.

Closely associated with the rise of ideological and political radicalization in the Anglophone Caribbean, the emergence of
this theory occurred in response to “the influence of Rastafarianism, black power movements, the Cuban Revolution,
national liberation movements in Africa and Asia, Marxism-Leninism, and Third World economic nationalism”. Pioneered
by a “new generation of Caribbean economists, loosely known as New World economists” that challenged the prevailing
discourse, CDT originated with Lloyd Best and Kari Polanyi Levitt who initially argued that the unique circumstances of
the Caribbean require a separate theory to explain the functioning of their economies.

The theory they envisioned took place on two levels: Epistemic Dependency, which showed that the root of the
Caribbean development problem lay in the reliance on “imported” concepts and theories of limited relevance to actual
conditions in the region and Economic Dependency, the external controls which dominated and diminished the
domestic economy of the Caribbean states.

With Jamaica’s withdrawal from the colonial system, via the West Indian labour rebellion of 1937-1938, Jamaica was
granted a small level of democratic self-rule which expanded in scope until full independence in 1962. As full
independence was achieved, politics came to be dominated by two main political parties: the People’s National Party
(PNP), a more left-leaning party founded by Norman Manley, and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) headed by Alexander
Bustamante (the JLP under Bustamante won the first ‘free’ election with full suffrage, with 51% of votes). Following the
analysis of West Indian economist W.A. Lewis, the JLP government’s policymakers pursued “industrialization by
invitation” which consisted of import-substitution policies and the encouragement of foreign direct investment, as a
means of liberalizing their economy and producing competitively alongside the rest of the world. Initially, the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) rose an average rate of 7% per year, and per capita income increased by 4.4% per annum from
1950-1970, allowing the JLP to win the 1967 election with 51% of the vote, as the short-term growth of Jamaica looked
promising. However, these policies only reinforced the metropole domination of the hinterland plantation economy;
though GDP and GDP per capita were on the rise thanks to “industrialization by invitation”, the long-term effects of
these policies on actual conditions within Jamaica were not anticipated.

The increasing socio-economic issues aka impoverishment of the working class, brought the PNP into power in 1972
under Michael Manley which heralded a period of democratic socialism and regional solidarity, with the administration
explicitly opposing dependent development in the country, accepting the structural dependency critique of the
international economic system and its results in underdevelopment and subsequently made efforts to restructure the
national economy and infrastructure.26

The most predominant of the Manley government’s policies was the formation of an international bauxite producers’
cartel, the International Bauxite Association (IBA) in early 1974, which resulted in a unilateral tax levy of 7.5% of the
price, which yielded an estimated $170-$200 million in the period from January 1974 to March 1975 alone. Additionally
the government negotiated 51% ownership in the companies involved solely in bauxite mining and persuaded other IBA
member states to impose levies as well. The bauxite policy is an example of the Jamaican government asserting control
over its foreign and national economic policy and is an example of true development as understood by Caribbean
Dependency theorists.

This move by the government of a Caribbean state to improve its revenues and terms of trade unilaterally in order to
ensure its profit and (theoretically, in the long-term) create a national economy that would not be dependent on foreign
aid and loans and is one of the ways in which the government could prioritize and establish the interests of the Jamaican
people, while lessening its level of dependence and closing the gap (albeit slightly) between the metropole and the
hinterland, as the broad goal of the policy was to wrest control of the bauxite industry from the controlling interests of
the transnational corporations home states. Outside the capitalist state’ sphere of influence, the government, as a result

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of increased revenues, “indicated its seriousness over redistribution of income by introducing new progressive tax laws”
which focused on the wealthier portion of the population.

The administration’s understanding of development as being internally borne led to deteriorating economic conditions
in the country vis-à-vis the disapproval of the United States (as Jamaica developed a closer relationship with Cuba),
declining tourism and rocky interactions with the International Monetary Fund (IMF).29 These conditions, as well as
Jamaica’s historical development, led the Jamaican government to conclude that Jamaica could not sustain itself solely
based on internal production and necessitated a return to banks and institutions for assistance.30 The IMF responded to
this request for help by offering loans and conditioning acceptance on a set of austerity measures for the country;
changes to fiscal and monetary policy, that would ‘correct’ the Jamaican system and make their exports more appealing,
as increased production was presumed to generate growth in an economy.

FEMINIST THOUGHT IN THE CARIBBEAN

The intellectual tradition of feminism is based on the desire for equality between men and women in the workplace,
politics and the family or in leadership positions. It is not about rule by women. Feminist writers argue that in almost
every area of social life, men are able to exert influence and control over others which results in an imbalance of power.
There are several strands of feminism:
 Liberal feminism- they hold the view that men and women are equal and should both enjoy political, social and
economic equality. They believe that legislation and education can bring about gender equality
 Radical feminism- stress that the oppression of women by men is the root cause of inequality. Society is
organized based on a male system of power that encourages sexism.
 Marxist feminism- the view that by its nature, the system of capitalism oppresses women. The economic,
political, religious and education systems are all dominated by the patriarchal system of beliefs.
The issues concerning women in the Caribbean were seriously brought to the fore in the 1960’s and 1970’s and came
out of the feminist movement in the USA. Throughout the Caribbean, women’s organisations have been created to
promote the cause of women such as:
 The National Organization of Women (NOW)
 Sistren
 Caribbean Women’s Association (CARIWA)
What is the distinction between Caribbean Feminisms and Marxists or Womanist/Multicultural ideas? And what are the
leading ideas and notions explored by Caribbean feminisms
1) Centering Women’s Experiences - Caribbean women's experiences as mothers, community mothers, workers, reveal
that the mythical norm of a heterosexual, married couple, nuclear family with a non-working spouse and a husband
earning a "family wage" is far from being natural, universal and preferred but instead is deeply embedded in specific
race and class formations. Placing women in the center of analysis not only reveals much-needed information about
women's experiences but also questions Eurocentric masculinist perspectives on family.
 Race relations as interconnected
 Carib women are marginalised from other feminist theories – knowledge is not universal
2) Caribbean Feminist Thought is located within the Caribbean Political Economy:
 Understanding the legacy of race and colonial legacies on forming Caribbean feminisms – one must recognise
the difference here between Caribbean feminist thought vs. black feminist thought, in that race and racism
affect Caribbean people, particularly of African and Indian decent differently from women in North American
spaces.
 New versions of enduring colonial legacies have not been interrogated in cultural and economic spaces. The
Caribbean has a legacy of race, but rather than the day to day realities of racism that form the American
experience. There is a clear absence of state-sponsored racism in the post-independence Caribbean (although
there is evidence of racism in state practices in certain Caribbean countries). What this means essentially is that,
Antiguans and Barbudans would find racial discrimination in health services, education, transportation, housing
and public policy an alien experience while Trinidadians and Guyanese would not.
 Geographical and political locations are important for understanding Caribbean theorizing.
 The historical legacy of colonization is quite different between the American, European and Caribbean
experiences. In Antigua and Barbuda, we recognise that our country is estimated as approximately 90-95%
African-oriented population, therefore we did not confront the overt realities as in the US where African-

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 Americans are a statistical minority. The language of minority politics could not be appropriately applied to
Caribbean women of Afrian decent – although we will also explore the experiences of Indo-Caribbean women
 However, recognising the diversity of the Caribbean, (Dutch, French, Spanish, English speaking) there are varying
perspectives and ideas that emerge from various countries.
 A set of competing, complex realities and contradictions in everyday life
3) Corrects the falsity of gender hegemony and intellectual violence of patriarchal knowledge, and an overall structure of
patriarchy.
4) Centered on states, and state neglect of Caribbean women or complicity in issues negatively affecting women
patriarchal notions that the country’s independence/adult suffrage, was women’s independence. Highlights the
failure to investigate why institutional political projects such as independence took hegemonic precedence over
women’s liberation (see why Marxist feminism cannot speak to Caribbean experience)

5) The home, the family and sexuality (African and Indo Caribbean women)

Notable Caribbean Feminist Scholars - Eudine Barriteau, Peggy Antrobus, Rhona Reddock, Barbara Bailyey, Tracy
Robinson, Anaindye, Patricia Mohammed, Rawida Bash-Soodeen, Lucille Mair, Bridget Brerton.

Indo-Caribbean Thought
THE EAST INDIANS - The Asians who came to the Caribbean as contract labour mainly from China and India in the 1800’s
experienced the restrictions of colonialism and the hardships within their contractual arrangements. Indo- Caribbean
thought was largely a response to these conditions and an expressions of their culture within the Caribbean. To date,
Guyana, Trinidad and Suriname have the largest concentrations of Indians in the region. Guyana and Trinidad have two
major ethnic groups (Indians and Africans); while Suriname has at least four ethnic groups (Hindustanis or East Indians,
the creoles or Africans, the Javanese or Indonesians, and the Bush Negroes or Maroons). Most whites who researched
and analysed Indian communities in Guyana and Trinidad centred their studies against the background of colonialism,
oppression and poverty (and how to reverse certain trends that emerged).
Themes in Indo- Caribbean thought emphasised:
Maintenance of Identity- which covers religion and rituals e.g. marriage
1. Indians have retained their religions of Islam and Hinduism. Although they have accepted Western dress,
religion still prescribes a code of conduct, rituals, food preparations etc.
2. Customs and religion also reinforces endogamy (choosing prospective wives or husbands for children from the
clan)
3. However, the caste requirement of their culture had to be abandoned as Hindus and Muslims begin to
intermarriage and the “mixed” population in Trinidad and Guyana begun to grow.
Citizenship - which covers such ideas such as who is a genuine citizen (Africans or the Asians) and also who has more
rights to the national “cake”.
 None of the groups felt upon independence, that they were equal as citizens
 The Africans felt that their long history of settlement and suffering gave them a prior claim as authentic citizens
of the land.
 Indians argue however, that they worked in building the agricultural sector and rescuing the colony in the
aftermath of emancipation.
 This situation grew as Africans believed they should have been awarded land upon emancipation as the Indians
were.
 This discourse led to increasing polarization between the two groups, who later both sought to form political
parties and governments where one ethnicity dominated. (Lead to fraud claims: Forbes Burnham repeatedly
returned to power even though Guyana has a majority Indian population)
 Indo- caribbean writers include: V.S. Naipaul, Samuel Selvon, Ismith Khan (Indo- Trinidadian), Clem Seecharan
and David Dabydean (Indo- Guyanese).
THE AMERINDIANS - For many years Amerindian groups were portrayed by Europeans as childlike (Arawaks) and vicious
cannibals (Caribs). Writings with an indigenous slant have rejected these ideas. Beginning in the first half of the 19th
century West Indian scholars sought to reverse this perception. One critical objective of indigenous perspective was to
correct the view that the natives did not have a history. Several writings or histories have sought to place indigenous
groups on the historical map. Examples: A history of the Guyanese Working People- Walter Rodney, The Black Jacobins-
C.L.R. James, The Slaves Who Abolished Slavery- Richard Hart and Black Rebellion in Barbados- Hilary Beckles

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The Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean have also sought to change the myth started against them by the Europeans
that they are extinct and that the small surviving populations are not “pure” Amerindians
Another objective of the writings was that Amerindian and African contributions must not be understood only in the
capacity of labour, but for their cultural contribution.
Issues of concern to Indigenous peoples especially in Dominica, Guyana and Belize relate to:
1. Marginalization - social, economic and political. e.g. Guyana is often said to be divided between the Indians
(Indo- Guyanese) and the Africans (Afro- Guyanese), the Amerindians are usually forgotten. They are seen as a
separate group located deep in the interior of the island and are referred to as just Amerindians. Amerindians in
the region live in poverty and isolation
2. Land Rights- Indigenous groups have been engaged in protracted struggles with national governments to
recognize and respect their ancestral claims to land e.g. in Dominica a Carib Chief tried to oust non- carib men
off their land and this became a politically sensitive issue.

In 1997, the Wai Wai and Makushi of Guyana were concerned that their lands were being infiltrated by mining and
timber companies. However, their cries were ignored by the government.

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 ***The Role of Media in Development***
Media - Media, as we know it, is based on Communication, the sending and receiving of meaning through messages.
Technology plays a big part in modern communication. Innovation, the creation of new technology and ways of looking
at the world, fuels change.
Communication-based technologies have been creating change in the techno-economic paradigm and affecting how
businesses and institutions operate and how humans across the globe relate to each other.
These technologies include:
 Television
 Radio
 Internet (Social Media Platforms)
 Newspapers & Magazines
 other
Cultural Imperialism – Cultural imperialism is defined as the cultural aspects of imperialism. Imperialism, here, is
referring to the creation and maintenance of unequal relationships between civilizations favoring the more powerful
civilization (Western Societies). Cultural imperialism can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population
(Caribbean), or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will.
In the Caribbean, an example of cultural imperialism would be Americanization of our culture (food, dress, speech,
music, mores etc) derived mainly from the processing of American television accessed through cable, movies, books and
magazines. In the field of Communications, culture is seen as a product that is produced and consumed.
Both cultural and media proponents of the Caribbean have noted the hegemony of American media content. The late
Professor Rex Nettleford was one such person who once defined American media as:
“the hijacking of the region’s media, the invasion of the Caribbean people’s intellectual space and the culural
bombardment of the entire region by every means possible from North America…’. (Nettleford, Rex . 1993. Inward
Stretch Outward Reach: A Voice from the Caribbean. London: MacMillan.)”
A 1995 study by Hilary Brown on the impact of American media on Jamaican youth revealed that while exposure to it
would result in a wider and deeper knowledge of different events and phenomena due to access to foreign cultures, the
exposure is also more likely to put a higher value on American living.
The study revealed that the youth investigated are seeking a better quality of life and alarmingly one in three believed
that either the U.S or other foreign option were the means to the self-actualization that they sought. The study
reinforced the need for local content that would help to preserve culture, language, religion, kinship patterns, ethnicity
and artistic patterns.”
Promotion of National, Regional and Diasporic Identity - The fight against cultural imperialism
 The development of local media independence and cultural products is important to the development of
identity.
 The development of technologies will more than likely remain in the hands of the core countries (First World)
and filter to the periphery nations, as usual.
 The place for difference is in content mainly creative imagination, generating Caribbean content to feed new
technologies which aid globalisation.
Feasability of creating regional content to counter Western media
 The Caribbean region has seen success in music, particularly in reggae, soca and calypso.
 Poets, novelists and playwrights such as Jamaica Kincaid, Earl Lovelace, V.S Naipaul and Nobel Laureate Derek
Walcott have received international success as well.
 Filmmakers have also had spurts of success throughout the years as well but the goal is to infiltrate as many of
the mass media classes as possible.
 The Caribbean is not alone in its goal of seeking to promote and preserve its identity
 India has taken the Hollywood format and created Bollywood, its own movie making enterprise that has
proliferated Indian culture and mores and promoted its own unique music and dance styles.
Promotion of Cultural Experience and Exchange
Globalization - Basically means the removal of borders. This mode of development characterizes international relations
at the moment. Without borders, different cultures will be mixing and without knowledge there will be mass
acculturation.

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The role of Caribbean media practitioners, artists and artistes is to facilitate knowledge of events and people of the
Caribbean so that regardless of religion, skin colour or values, the common human intricacies can unite us and make
globalization a process favorable to the Caribbean. This will lead to a promotion of our culture and eventually increase
earnings from tourism and other avenues.
THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN PROMOTING GOOD GOVERNANCE

The role of the independent media in a democratic society has been the subject of much debate and scholarly attention.
Today, despite the mass media’s propensity for sleaze, sensationalism and superficiality, the notion of the media as
watchdog, as guardian of the public interest, and as a conduit between governors and the governed remains deeply
ingrained.’
J.P. Shea, former Deputy Director of Information and Press at NATO, summarizes the basic roles of the media: ‘ Inform
the public on what is going on: inform democratic choices through the clarification of complex issues, particularly in an
age when information is the driving force of economic advancement and international events impact on people’s daily
lives as never before.’
 ‘The media provoke public debates leading to greater public participation in important decisions;
 uncover abuses, pressure for their rectification;
 alert and mobilize public opinion to humanitarian causes/injustices;
 allow political pluralism to express itself by advertising different views/ ideological approaches to certain issues;
 keep politicians attuned to public opinion while offering politicians a medium to explain policies/decisions to
public opinion and build the necessary support.’
He explains that the responsible media also has a responsibility to society. The media must ‘ maintain distinction
between facts and opinion, reporting and analysis; use only trained, professional reporters with knowledge of subject
and who check sources before reporting; set the political agenda: explain issues without trivializing or sensationalizing;
publish corrections; preserve state secrets/not use information likely to be harmful to national security or to endanger
individuals.’
The media, in all its various forms, must play a crucial role in giving the public a voice to counter corruption and for
letting people know the complaints mechanisms available and how they can use these effectively.
Yet, in too many countries, in their attempt to expose corruption, promote good governance, human rights and ensure
accountability and transparency in the management of public affairs, journalists are intimidated, harassed and even
killed.
Professor Shauer explains that the media plays two crucial roles in combating corruption. One is in exposing corruption
and fraudulent practices in government, private sector and even among civil society organisations. The other is to
promote good governance and human rights.
The media’s role is not only to inform the public about facts and statements, but it must be active in public education
and supporting the fight against corruption. They can support the anti-corruption agenda by reporting on corrupt
behaviours by public officials, putting corruption on the public agenda, and covering corruption from various
perspectives.
The Caribbean media must also push for action or reform, contribute to the promotion of anti-corruption efforts of civil
groups and prompt action by official bodies to investigate acts of corruption. Through investigative journalism,
irregularities both within the government and the private sector can be uncovered. The media have a role to warn and
educate the public, as frequently as possible, about the harm of corruption and how it undermines the moral standards
of society, endangers democracy, deprives citizens of their rights and blocks development.
‘The role of an independent media is essential, but for it to function effectively, there must be freedom from
harassment, freedom of information laws, for citizen and journalists alike, and a legal system which cannot be misused
to muzzle legitimate expression of concern.
When the media performs its role creditably in exposing corruption, it also acts as a deterrent in restricting the
possibilities of corruption. Of course, the media must not only focus on corruption within government but also
corruption within civil society, the media itself and the private sector.’
One should expect that where the state controls the media this renders the media ineffective as an anti-corruption
mechanism. The journalist who is true to her profession cannot afford to be partisan or to be working on her own
agendas but must affirm as a duty, the basic principles of Journalism- objectivity, accuracy, fairness and the public
interest.

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 ***Social Justice***
What is Social Justice? –
 Social justice is based on the premise that all people are entitled to the same basic rights and freedoms as
everybody else.
 Social justice is connected with issues of equality and equity.
 It refers to an ideal of society, where "justice" isn’t dependent on one’s economic status but by the strict
administration of the rule of law.
 It is based on the idea of a society which gives all individuals and groups fair treatment and a just share of the
benefits of society.
 It is giving people their due, what they deserve.
 It is equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet the needs if all.
Equality vs. Equity
Equality: efforts to treat everyone in a similar way.
Equity: attempts to ascertain that treatment is just and fair/refers to how fair the system is to persons who pass through
it.
The development of social justice in the Caribbean:
 Slavery and forced labour were not regarded as wrong by the colonialists.
 Slaves were regarded as both people and property.
 The fundamental principles of the colonial state were exploitation, inequality and injustice.
 The principle of equality did not apply to the colonial state.
 After emancipation in 1834, Caribbean people were no longer regarded as property.
 In 1944 and 1946 respectively, universal adult suffrage was introduced in Jamaica and Trinidad. Other countries
followed suit later.
 In 1962, Jamaica and Trinidad became independent. A Bill of Rights was included in the constitutions of both
countries.
 The Bill of Rights is a chapter in the constitution which outlines and protects the fundamental rights and
freedoms of individuals in society.
 All independent countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean have a Bill of Rights which is enshrined/entrenched
and protected in their constitutions.
 The Bill of Rights is designed to perpetuate and uphold equality and social justice
 Citizens have the power to redress any infringement of his/her constitutional rights in the courts.
APPROACHES TO SOCIAL JUSTICE

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Social Justice seeks to address:
 Gender equality e.g. women in politics, employment etc.
 Class discrimination (employment, education, justice)
 Racial discrimination. (Racial groups: White, Afro Caribbean, Indian, Chinese)
 Minorities - Rastafarians, Caribs, Maroons
 The elderly and disabled
 Street people/Vagrants
 AIDS victims, LGBT
 Rights of the child
 Cruel and unusual punishment (the death penalty)
 Delay of execution
Social Justice and Development:
 The human development model of development emphasizes that people are the means and end of
development.
 Development cannot be considered to be true development unless someone experienced good from it and not
at the expense of others.
ISSUES IN SOCIAL JUSTICE

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Social Justice Hot Topics
1. Equality of educational opportunity has been a social demand in the Caribbean. This means that all groups in
society would be able to access schools without any major obstacles directed at that group.
 Is there inequality in accessing secondary education?
 Do all groups have access to education (primary, secondary, tertiary)?
Obstacles to equality in secondary education
 Classroom space
 Entry requirements – primary and post-primary exam
 Inability to cater for a wide variety of needs/skills/competencies
 Inability to cater for different clientele.
 The inability to provide adequate education can impact a country’s development. It diminishes the quality of life
for the affected persons.
 Costs associated with education.

2. Social Justice and productivity: Individual rights may be infringed in the following situations:
 Supercession in the Civil Service. (workers with less experience are promoted ahead of those with more
experience)
 Less pay for women doing the same job as men.
 Wage levels below the minimum wage for workers.

Effects on productivity
 The worker who is promoted may not be able to perform the task. The aggrieved worker may refuse to
cooperate or may resort to strike action, a ‘sickout’, go slow.
 Women may become demotivated
 Workers may resort to stealing, sabotage or go slows

3. Quality of life and social Justice

 Failure to provide facilities (e.g. ramps, special schools, buses) and job opportunities for the physically
challenged, reduces quality of life for the physically challenged.
 Failure to provide adequate help, medicare and relief for the elderly results in increased morbidity and
mortality.
 Workers in low paying jobs are unable to improve their housing or standard of living.

END OF MODULE 2

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 MODULE 3

***RESEARCH METHODS***
Sociological theorizing is divided into two major categories, the macro perspectives and the micro perspectives. The
theoretical orientation of the sociologist would greatly influence the methodology and research methods used by
researchers in carrying out social research in society.
Quantitative Data - Macro theorists advocate the use of similar methods to those in the natural sciences. They are
positivist and believe that sociology is a science. They argue that social sciences are made up of facts which are
measurable and as such the collection of data should be done objectively and should be value free. They also emphasize
the need and importance of scientific verification and to carry out such measurement. They use quantitative methods.
Quantitative data are presented in the form of statistics and various methods of statistical analysis may be employed.
Qualitative Data - The qualitative approach is used by social action theorists who reject the idea that social sciences can
be studied with the same methods as the natural sciences. The quantitative approach is seen as inadequate for
collecting and explaining social reality since the subject matter involves the study of human beings. Qualitative research
is more personal and subjective in nature since theorists believe that to fully understand the phenomena being studied,
the researcher needs to experience it himself or herself.
Qualitative data takes the form of narratives and in-depth description of social phenomena being researched. Research
methods of the qualitative nature are observation, case studies and unstructured interviews.

Sources of Data
Different methods of data collection will yield different types of data depending on the subject matter that is being
investigated. The data source varies on the nature of the study. The data can be obtained in two ways, the use of
secondary or primary data.
Primary Data - This consists of data that are collected by the researchers themselves during the course of their study.
Examples include surveys, observation, case studies and longitudinal research.
Secondary Data - This is data that already exist and used by researchers in the course of their study. Examples include
official statistics, government reports and personal documents.
Factors influencing the choice of Research Methods:
1. The theoretical orientation of the researcher.
2. Practicality, that is, the amount of funding and time available.
3. The nature of the subject matter being studied. This plays a decisive role due to the fact that if one is investigating
criminal activity, participant observation would not be used as a result of the danger to the researcher.
4. The objectives of the study.
Process of Data Collection
Research Methods
These are ways in which sociologists gather data. Research Methods include:
 Surveys
 Observation
 Document Study
 Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Study
Surveys - A survey is a study that involves the collection of data from a large group of people. This method is useful
when the researcher wants to question a large number of individuals from the population.
The survey usually involves the use of questionnaires. The questionnaires can be given to the chosen respondents,
directly, to be completed or can be administered to the respondents in the form of a structured interview. Thus,
questionnaires and interviews can be used in a survey.
Questionnaire - Questionnaires comprise pre-set printed questions that are handed out or mailed to respondents to be
completed and returned to the researcher. The questions are administered to all the respondents in the same order.
Structured Interviews - Structured interviews involve the administration of questionnaires orally by an interviewer to
the respondents. The interviewers read the questions from the questionnaire to the respondents and record their
responses.

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Advantages of the Survey Method
 The survey is said to be very reliable. Reliability is easier to ascertain since the questions are standardized and
other researchers can easily check the findings of the research.
 Use of the survey allows for large quantities of data to be collected from a large sample in fairly short space of
time.
 Generalizations can be made from findings of the research since data are collected from a large representative
sample. This assists in theory building or formulation.
 Data collected can be easily quantified and coded and with the aid of computers, data can be analysed quickly
and efficiently.

Disadvantages of the Survey Method

 Validity of the findings from the survey is sometimes questioned. Respondents may give incorrect answers or
may interpret questions differently and thus introduce bias in the data.
 There is a low return rate for mailed questionnaires and many of the questionnaires when returned are
incomplete.
 There is little scope to give additional information by respondents especially in closed questions where there are
multiple choices from which a response must be selected.
 Interviewer bias is another strong criticism against this method. The presence of the interviewer may influence
the respondents’ answers since they attempt to impress the interviewer and thus bias the data.
 According to some theorists, the findings from surveys tend to reinforce the existing status quo in society. The
researcher determines the type of information being collected since they develop the questionnaires and the
findings from the research favours powerful groups in society since they fund the studies.

Observation - The role that the researcher, as an observer, adopts in the study depends on the type of observation
being undertaken in the study. The researcher must decide whether the research would be overt or covert and whether
it would be participant or non-participant in nature.

Covert observation
In covert observation, the researcher pretends to be a member of the group being studied without revealing his identity
as researcher. The group is unaware that the researcher is studying them.

Advantages of covert observation

 Researcher is able to collect data to which he would not have gotten assess if his identity as a researcher was
revealed to the group.
 Data would be reliable due to the fact that the group being studied is unaware that they are being studied and
thus would not modify their everyday behavior.

Disadvantages of covert observation

 The researcher’s life may sometimes be in danger if the false role is discovered during the course of the study.
 The researcher sometimes has to engage in immoral, illegal or distasteful activities since he/she must partake in
the activities of the group.
 Recording of the data is sometimes very problematic as a result of the need for secrecy by the researcher.
 It is seen as unethical to study individuals without their knowledge or consent.

Overt Observation - In overt observation, the researcher reveals his identity as an observer to the group being
investigated. Thus the group is aware of the researcher’s identity.

Advantages of overt observation

 The researcher is able to play an honest and clear role in conducting the study.
 It is seen as being ethical since access was requested from the group to conduct study.
Disadvantages of overt observation
 The researcher may be denied access to certain activities that occur in the group.
 The researcher may be unable to get valid information since his/her presence would influence people’s
behavior.

Participant Observation - The researcher joins the group being studied and participates in the activities of the group.
This can either be overt or covert observation, depending on the researcher.
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Advantages of participant observation
 It’s the least likely method that would result in sociologists imposing their reality on the social world they are
studying. Interactionists consider this the best means of obtaining a valid picture of reality.
 The researcher is better able to understand the group’s behavior or the phenomena being studied since he/she
goes through many of the experiences of the observed group.
 Participant observation provides in-depth information that helps in generating new hypotheses and in
challenging existing theories.
Disadvantages of participant observation
 The method is very time-consuming and demanding on the researcher. Participant observation can sometimes
take years to complete and it requires the physical presence of the researcher to proceed. The researcher,
therefore, has to give up his way of life and adopt the habits and behavior of the group being studied.
 The scope for use of this method is seen as limited since many areas cannot be studied using participant
observation, for example, criminal activities.
 The samples are too small and it is not recommended for generalizations to be made from the findings since
they only apply to the specific group that was studied.
 In some cases, validity may be questioned, especially where the overt method was used, since the presence of
the researcher would result in the group acting differently from the norm.
 The positivists view this method as being unscientific and non-systematic and take the position that findings
cannot be replicated. It is seen as being subjective rather than objective.
 The recording of the data is very problematic since the researcher cannot write notes or use recording devices
during group activities since this would influence the group’s behavior. The researcher in most instances relies
on memory since information is recorded later when the researcher is alone.
Non-Participant Observation - The researcher does not participate in activities of the group but merely watches and
records the activities of the group without interference.
Advantages of non-participant observation
 There is a greater chance of eliminating bias in the study as compared to the method of participant observation.
 Recording of data is easier since the researcher is not involved in the group’s activities but is at a distance.
 The researcher is less likely to get emotionally involved with the group and thereby lose objectivity.
Disadvantages of non-participant observation
 Similar criticisms to those of participant observation. However. some interactionists view this method as being
too objective claiming that the researcher needs to be more subjective if true reality is to be uncovered.
Sampling - In conducting a research study, it is not necessary to obtain data from the entire population. Researchers
select a sample that is manageable and yet gives the necessary information.
Sampling is of two types, random (probability) sampling and quota (non-probability) sampling.
Random Sampling
This is a sample which gives each member in the population an equal chance of being represented. This type of sampling
includes:
(a) Simple Random Sampling;
(b) Stratified Random Sampling;
(c) Systematic Random Sampling.
Quota Sampling - The necessary sample is chosen without any element of randomness being involved. The
characteristics of the population influence the size of the sampling. If the population is homogenous a very small sample
may be selected. If it is heterogeneous a bigger sample may be required.
Ethical Issues in Research - The term ‘ethics’ is normally used to refer to morals or values. In sociology, the term ethics is
used to refer to principles of human conduct and is of significance, especially when conducting research. Ethics may
generally differ from one culture to another. There are many ethical considerations, which guide the conduct of social
research. Informed consent is one of the basic principles that guide researchers in their investigations. In conducting
surveys or interviews, the researcher has a duty to identify himself or herself and inform the respondents about the
nature and purpose of the study. Sometimes the respondents are even informed about the results of the study in which
they participated.
In approaching potential respondents, the researcher should ensure that they are above the legal consent age; if not,
parental consent should be obtained, in order to allow the respondents the opportunity to

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participate. The researcher should not coerce or force anyone to participate in the study in question; participation
should be on a voluntary basis. Special populations such as prisoners, employees, and students require special
considerations such as approaching the gatekeepers of the community and obtaining authorization to conduct research.
Respondents must also be assured of anonymity and confidentiality, that is, the information that they have given,
should in no way be used against them. In addition to the promise of providing the respondent with a copy of the
findings, the researcher should outline the benefits or effects, which will accrue from the results of the study.
Ethical considerations also arise with regard to sponsors of research. Sponsors may include private firms or employers
who contract the researcher to conduct the research on their behalf. Sometimes such situations warrant the researcher
to compromise his standards and perform the research according to guidelines issued by the sponsor. The guidelines
may require the researcher to violate certain ethical considerations when conducting research. It is up to the researcher
to decide whether he or she would compromise his or her ethics and, therefore, quit the study.
In writing up the research, the researcher has a responsibility to the public and the academic world to report his/her
findings truthfully and honestly, without any bias. Subjective bias should be left out of the research process, so that the
research will not be invalidated. In addition, findings should not be distorted to suit the researcher’s purpose or that of
the sponsor’s. These findings should be reported without any distortion, especially since future research can depend on
such findings as a guide.

THE EXAM – TIPS – MUST READ!!!

The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) has changed the mode for marking the papers. The 2017 sitting will be
marked electronically, which means that written papers will be scanned and saved. Examiners will mark the papers
online.

The implications for students are that you will have to:
a. Pray!
b. improve your strategy for organising ideas d. label your responses properly
c. express your views clearly and concisely e. write clearly, using a BLACK ink ball point pen.
d. use the space provided wisely as it will be limited.
e. No extra paper will be given.

NO GEL PENS SHOULD BE USED TO WRITE THE EXAM!!!

STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER

Section A - MODULE 1 – CARIBBEAN SOCIETY & CULTURE - 20marks
 You are given TWO questions to choose ONE
 Usually asked to EXAMINE,EXPLAIN, COMPARE or DESCRIBE

Section B - MODULE 2 – ISSUES IN CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT - 20marks

 You are given TWO questions to choose ONE
 Usually asked to EXAMINE, EXPLAIN, COMPARE or DESCRIBE

Section C - MODULE 1 – CARIBBEAN SOCIETY & CULTURE – 30 marks

 You are given TWO questions to choose ONE
 Usually given a statement to DISCUSS, ASSESS, ARGUE, EVALUATE

Section D - MODULE 2 – ISSUES IN CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT – 30 marks

 You are given TWO questions to choose ONE
 Usually given a statement to DISCUSS, ASSESS, ARGUE, EVALUATE

THE END
©Anastasio Consulting 2017

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