• Protected Areas Network

• Project Tiger
• Project Elephant
• Wildlife Research

8 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
 National Wildlife Action Plan
(2002-2016)
Policy Imperatives
t Ecological security.
t Priority to conservation.
t National land use policy.
t Primacy for water and sustenance.
t In-situ conservation.
t People’s support for wildlife.
t Man-animal conflict.

Strategy for Action

l Strengthening and enhancing the protected area network.
l Effective management of protected areas.
l Conservation of wild and endangered species and their habitats.
l Restoration of degraded habitats outside protected areas.
l Control of poaching, taxidermy and Illegal trade in wild animal and plant species.
l Monitoring and research.
l Human resource development and personnel planning.
l Ensuring people's participation in wildlife conservation.
l Conservation awareness and education.
l Wildlife tourism.
l Domestic legislation and international conventions.
l Enhancing financial allocation for ensuring sustained fund flow to the wildlife sector.
l Integration of national wildlife action plan with other sectoral programmes.
Box: 15

Protected Areas Network

Post independence India saw a spurt in
developmental activities. As a result,
more and more forest land gave way
for agriculture, industry and
infrastructure development. Rapid
growth of human and livestock
populations and consequent pressures
on forest land took a heavy toll on the
country’s wilderness.
 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 108
Only a few PAs were set up in the late 1920s and 1930s, in the pre-independence
era. However, it was only in the late 1960s, and particularly after enactment of the
WPA, the PA network started taking shape in the country with growing concern
over the increasing environmental degradation. This network has now grown to
606 PAs comprising of 96 national parks and 510 wildlife sanctuaries. This covers
an area of 15.59 mha, making up about 4.8 percent of the geographical area of the
country. Although in numerical terms, the PA network in India is reasonably
large, the size-class distribution of PA network presents a different picture. Only
22 PAs are larger than 1000 km2 whereas 189 PAs or nearly 31 percent of the
network is less than 10 km2. The mean size of the PA is 262 km2, which is
extremely small compared to PAs in Africa and North America. The top five
states in terms of PA numbers are Maharashtra (41), Madhya Pradesh (34),
Himachal Pradesh (34), Rajasthan (28) and Andhra Pradesh (26). The top states in
terms of PA coverage are Gujarat (16,902.8 km2), Maharashtra (15,426.3 km2),
Jammu and Kashmir (14,242.5 km2), Andhra Pradesh (12,972.4 km2) and Madhya
Pradesh (10,814.8 km2). The 28 tiger reserves which have a special focus on
protection extends over 37,761 km2 area and overlaps the area of PAs.
The PA network covers about 20.42 percent of the forest area of the country,
largely covering the forests with relatively larger populations of the target
species and associated ecological components. However, the PAs can still be
termed as discreet isolated patches of forests managed exclusively for wildlife/
biodiversity preservation. Many important habitats still exist in the rest of the
forests, which require special attention for conservation for ensuring
sustainability of the populations. Habitats of sandalwood, red sanders, shola
forests of southern tropical montane forests, alpine meadows in Himalayan
region, elephant habitats including corridors connecting PAs, southern tropical
rain habitats, tropical swamps, mangroves within forests in the Sundarbans, etc;
are some of such habitats existing in the forests outside PAs. Hence, a new
scheme is being launched for “Protection of Wildlife Outside Protected Areas” for
implementation in areas forming important corridors and habitat for wildlife.
The classification developed by the WII recognizes ten broad biogeographic
zones: Trans Himalayas, Himalayas, Indian Desert, Semi-arid, Western Ghats,

In-situ and ex-situ Conservation Areas

National Parks : 96
Wildlife Sanctuaries : 510
Tiger Reserves : 28 (37,761 km2 in 17 states)
Project Elephant Reserves : 25 (58,900 km2 in 13 states)
Biosphere Reserves : 14 (in 13 states)
Recognized Zoos (by CZA) : 165
Wetlands : 94 (in 24 states)
Mangrove areas : 38 (in 10 states/UTs)
Box: 16
109 INDIA’S FORESTS

Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic

Plains, North East India,
Islands and the Coasts.
Within these zones, there
are 26 biotic provinces.
Provinces are further sub-
divided into s maller units.
The PA network of the
country is aimed at
a d d r e s s i n g t h e
conservation requirements
and sensitivities of each
zone and is characterized
by endemic species of flora
and fauna.
Though the PA network
ranges from high altitude
Himalayan parks, deserts,
evergreen and deciduous
forests to mangroves and marine areas, there are still ‘unprotected’ areas of
biological values considered to be important from a conservation standpoint. The
declaration of NPs and WLSs is within the jurisdiction of the states. Due to the
growing human and livestock pressures on these lands, rationalization of
boundaries of PAs of the country is needed. The MoEF has initiated a series of
consultations for rationalizing the boundaries of the NPs and WLSs of the country
to make them more realistic in today’s context, but in no way compromising the
imperatives of conservation.
 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 110
PA network in India represents a range of climatic, geo-morphological and
geographical formations, harbouring rich biodiversity. Hence, wilderness
recreation has tremendous potential, be it the Great Himalayan NP in the
Himalayas, Namdapha NP and the Silent Valley NP amidst rich evergreen forests,
Wild Ass sanctuary in the Rann of Kutch and marine protected areas, etc. In
addition to unfolding a new India to the world, wilderness tourism has the
capability of bringing the local populace into the fold of conservation efforts by
making them direct and equal partners in eco-tourism. An eco-tourism policy of
the GOI is on the anvil.
Due to the ever increasing population pressure, these PAs are under tremendous
stress. Around 40 percent of the PAs are subject to severe livestock grazing,
fodder extraction, timber extraction, NTFPs collection, and more than 45 percent
have heavily used infrastructure like highways which fragment them into smaller
parts and aggravates man-animal conflicts. The Indian Board for Wildlife was
constituted in 1952 to advise the government on measures to be adopted for
conservation of wildlife resources. It was reconstituted as the National Board for
Wildlife in September 2003 as a statutory authority under the chairmanship of the
Prime Minister of India. The revised national wildlife action plan was adopted by
the country in 2002 chalking out the imperatives and strategies for meeting the
new challenges in wildlife conservation.
The subject matters of ‘forests and protection of wild animals and birds’ being in
the ‘Concurrent List’ of the Constitution of India, the management and
administration of the NPs and WLSs is the mandate of the respective state
governments. However, the MoEF provides financial and technical support for
the PAs to the state governments under various CSSs notably the ‘development of
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries’.
111 INDIA’S FORESTS

Project Tiger
‘Project Tiger’ one of the most ambitious conservation projects in the world,
hardly has any parallel in terms of its scale, magnitude and diversity of field
operations and challenges. Launched in 1973, based on the recommendations of
a Task Force, set up by the then Prime Minister, Smt. Indira Gandhi, initially nine
tiger reserves were identified to be covered under the project tiger. It has now
increased to 28 PAs falling in 17 states across the length and breadth of the
country. This encompasses almost 37,761 km2 of tiger habitat in the form of
forests, meadows, mountains and scrubland. In-principle approval has been given
for setting up of eight more tiger reserves (Mudumalai WLS (TN), Anamalai-
Perambikulam WLS (TN-Kerala), Sanjay-Dubzi WLS (MP), Achanakmar WLS
(Chattisgarh), Sitandai & Udanti WLS (Chattisgarh), Satkosia (Orissa), Dandeli-
Anshi WLS (Karnataka), Kaziranga NP (Assam). The distribution of tigers and
their density vary from state to state due to a number of ecological and human
factors viz. the forest cover, terrain, natural prey availability, presence of
undisturbed habitat and the quality of managerial efforts taken towards
protection. The Project Tiger’ adopts a holistic eco-system approach. Its
core–buffer strategy and protection and development initiatives gave a new
perspective to the concept of wildlife management in the country and have been a
‘role model’ for conservation.

Project Mode
The three key imperatives in tiger conservation which necessitate a ‘project
mode’ are: a focused approach to prioritize actions in the interest of tiger
conservation (within and outside the tiger reserves), eliciting the support of local
stakeholder communities and, ensuring necessary infrastructure for protection
and management. Tiger conservation being of national ecological significance
transcending state boundaries, the GOI provides financial support and technical
guidance through an ongoing CSS of ‘Project Tiger’ and other schemes for
wildlife conservation. Apart from the tiger reserves, tigers are also distributed in
other forest areas and the PAs.
 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 112
Despite three decades of conservation efforts of the GOI and the States, the tiger
continues to remain one of the most endangered large predators in the world. The
causative factors to name a few, include loss of habitat due to agriculture
expansion and development, revenge killings due to man- animal conflicts, and
above all, the demand for the body parts and derivatives of tiger in the illegal
international market which have been resulting in decimation of wild population.
Therefore, continuance of a focused, species-specific and multifaceted
ecosystem project like ‘Project Tiger’ becomes important and crucial at this
juncture to address the threats faced by the tiger and its habitat. Since tigers are
at the top of the ecological ‘food-chain’, their conservation results in the overall
conservation of all other species of plants and animals occupying the ecosystem.
In fact, the tigers are indicators of the well-being of an ecosystem.
The forest and forest fringe dwellers are dependent on forests for their
livelihood. The resource dependency of such people needs to be reckoned for
safeguarding the ecological viability of the habitats. The project tiger strategy of
“core-buffer” provides scope for eco-development inputs in the impact / buffer
zones of tiger reserves. A small investment, based on site-specific participatory
planning in consultation with the people, complimented by sectoral integration of
inputs in the larger surrounding landscape, is important to reduce the resource
dependency through providing livelihood opportunities to such people.
Since the inception of ‘project tiger’ in the early seventies, the GOI has invested
considerably in the protection and conservation of tiger. Recently, disappearance
of tiger from one of the tiger reserves, led to constitutions of a ‘Task Force’ to
look into the problems of tiger conservation in the country and to suggest
measures for improvement. The tiger task force has reviewed the work done over
these years and has advocated certain urgent measures to save the tigers. The
GOI is taking immediate steps to implement the major recommendations for
strengthening efforts towards protection of tiger, checking poaching, convicting
wildlife criminals and breaking the international trade network in wildlife body
parts and derivatives, expanding the undisturbed areas for tiger by reducing
human pressure, repairing the relationship with local people who share the
tigers’ habitat by fielding strategies for coexistence, regenerating the forest
habitats in the fringes of the tiger protective enclaves by investing in forest,
water and grassland economies of the people, and refining methodologies for
population estimation of wild animals for proper monitoring and planning.
The MoEF provides directives and funding support through a centrally sponsored
scheme of ‘Project Tiger’ to states for tiger conservation in designated reserves.
An independent assessment of tiger reserves based on 45 parameters designed
by the World Commission on Protected Areas under International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has also been carried out.
For strengthening the efforts for tiger conservation at the GOI level and efficient
monitoring of the management of project tiger reserves is the states, the GOI has
recently constituted a ‘National Tiger Conservation Authority’ replacing the
project tiger directorate.
Some of the new initiatives undertaken by the
MoEF include creation of a dynamic website,
the Arc IMS based tiger monitoring system, a
decision support system and habitat monitoring
system in collaboration with the WII, based on a
pilot project.
113 INDIA’S FORESTS

Project Elephant
Project Elephant (PE), a CSS, was launched in February 1992 to provide financial
and technical support to major elephant states in the country for protection of
elephants, their habitats and corridors. The project also envisaged addressing
the issues of human-elephant conflict and welfare of domesticated elephants.
Starting with a modest plan outlay of Rs 23 crores in the eight FYP, it was
enhanced to Rs 60 crores in the 10th FYP.

The PE has introduced the concept of Elephant Reserves (ERs) consisting of

areas, irrespective of the legal status, which are crucial for the conservation of
elephants. A given ER might consist of reserved forests, WLSs and NPs, etc. This
approach allows a working integration between territorial and wildlife wings of
the SFDs besides other agencies for a holistic habitat improvement including
facilitation to providing viable corridors to the vulnerable elephant populations.
Till now 25 ERs extending over about 58,900 km2. have been formally notified by
the various state governments and consent for establishment of Baitarini ER and
South Orissa ER in Orissa and Ganga-Yamuna (Shiwalik) ER in UP has been
accorded by the MoEF.
Initially an exclusive exercise for enumeration of wild elephants in the ERs was
undertaken during February-May 2005. This exercise also sought to experiment
with two sampling methods viz., ‘block sampling and line transact and dung count’
(with retrospective method of calculating dung decay rate). PE arranged training
 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 114
of trainers and also issued detailed guidelines to the CWLWs and the field
coordinators. The data is being analyzed and compiled and final results are likely
to be available shortly. Next All India enumeration of elephants will be carried out
in 2007, while an ER-specific enumeration will be repeated in 2010. As per the
previous estimates, the elephant population in the ERs is 20,000 plus.
PE has been formally implementing MIKE (Monitoring of Illegal Killing of
Elephants) programme of CITES in 10 ERs since 2004. These include Shiwalik
(Uttarakhand), Eastern Dooars (West Bengal), Mayurbhanj (Orissa), Ripu-
Chirang and Dehing-Patkai (Assam), Garo Hills (Meghalaya), Deomali (Arunchal
Pradesh, Wayanad (Kerala), Mysore (Karnataka) and Nilgiri (Tamilnadu).

Research and Consultancy Projects

PE has initiated a 36-month research project during 2003-04 with the help of the
Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Cuttack, for developing high yielding
varieties of paddy not relished by elephants; developing elephant-proof storage
bins for food grains; and developing elephant repellents. The project is being
carried out at the CRRI’s research stations in Orissa and Assam.
PE has initiated two 36-month research projects during 2003-04 with the help of
Assam Agricultural University on ‘disease management in captive elephants’ and
anatomical studies on the Asian elephant.
The WII is studying the impact of relocation of Gujjars on the flora and fauna of
Rajaji NP.
The Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata has carried out a sample-based
enumeration of elephants for the West Bengal FD.
PE has been organizing regular refresher courses for veterinarians dealing with
wild and domesticated elephants at Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur and
Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati.
PE has initiated a programme for registration of domesticated elephants by using
microchips. So far, more than 1,000 elephants have been micro-chipped in
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicobar and Delhi. PE
has organized necessary training for this purpose and also arranged for supply of
standard microchips and readers to all the states known to possess domesticated
elephants.
PE has produced a 58 minutes video-documentary ‘Living with the Giants’ on
elephant conservation in India with the help of the noted film-maker.
115 INDIA’S FORESTS

Wildlife Research
Wildlife research in India has evolved from natural history of species to
systematic research fostered by many government institutions, universities and
NGOs. The earliest reference to our wild animals is found in Vedas (2,000-1,500
BC) which mention tigers, lions, wild pigs and 27 other species. In ancient period,
Ashoka the Great and then the medieval Mughal emperors laid down regulations
for wild animal hunting which were based on some understanding of sustainable
use and population management of species. We come across a large number of
publications of the British period by naturalist-hunters and biologists on the
status, behaviour and conservation requirements of wild flora and fauna of the
sub-continent. All these publications are of immense value for the present
biologists, wildlifers and professional foresters in understanding the natural
history and distribution of wild animals in India.
Institutionalization of wildlife research was ushered in 1883 with the
establishment of Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) by a group of seven
residents of Bombay. The first scientific journal by this organization was
published in 1886, which is considered as the foremost journal on oriental flora
and fauna today. BNHS is also credited with research publications on various
aspects of wildlife management. In modern times, the first systematic research on
Indian wildlife may perhaps be credited to George B. Schaller whose works
provide ecological understanding including behaviour of the tiger and hoofed
animals in Kanha National Park and wild ungulates and predators in the high
mountains of Himalayas.
Wildlife research in India got much needed fillip with the establishment of
Wildlife Institute of India in 1982. The Institute was subsequently granted
autonomous status under the MoEF in 1986. One of the notable contributions of
WII has been the bio-geographical classification of the country into ten zones.
Another important work relates to conservation status of the biota across the
country and identification of gaps in PA network. the recent developments in
technical approaches towards wildlife research and management relevant to India
and other countries in South Asia were reviewed by organising an international
workshop to develop perspective for applied and basic research suited to the
 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 116
conditions of this region. The outcome of this workshop in the form of a
publication “The Development of International Principles and Practices of
Wildlife Research and Management: Asian and American Application” continues
to be a landmark contribution in the field of wildlife research in the country. Other
notable achievements include ecological studies on snow leopard and formulation
of conservation plan for trans-Himalayan biogeographic zone. Telemetry studies
on lions and tigers have given new insights in ranging patterns and behaviour of
these species. Today WII is occupying a place of eminence in the field of wildlife
research and training in the world. The institute in association with the NTCA is
currently engaged in population estimation of tigers, co-predators, prey base and
habitat mapping in 17 states of the country. The work once completed shall
provide a dynamic monitoring tool for evolving policy options on conservation of
tiger and its habitat in the country.
Another leading organization in the field of wildlife research is ZSI which is also
the scientific Authority under CITES for India. The ZSI has documented species
diversity from the areas of high mountains through forests, deserts, wetlands,
and rivers to mangroves, coastal, marine, and island habitats. It has published
Red Data Book on mammals, butterflies, reptiles, birds, and amphibians. Apart
from this, the ZSI has conducted status surveys and published reports on a large
number of species namely chinkara, desert cat, golden langur, phyaris leaf
monkey and hispid hare. The BSI has contributed to understanding of floristic
diversity in 23 tiger reserves and select wildlife sanctuaries. The Sàlim Ali Centre
for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) also has made significant
contribution in the area of birds and their habitat, especially, in the wetlands.
Other organizations contributing in various areas of wildlife research include
WWF-India, Centre for Environmental Education (CEE), Ahmedabad, GEER,
Gandhinagar, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment (ATREE)
and Wildlife Trust of India (WTI). The Indian Institute of Science (IISC), Bangalore
has developed valuable information particularly on elephants. Apart from these
institutions, a large number of universities have contributed in their own way in
wildlife research in recent times. Notable among them are – Saurashtra (large
cates, ornithology, marine ecology), AMU (ornithology, carnivores and
ungulates), Jiwaji (reptiles), Sagar (plant ecology), Maharaja Sayaji (animal
ecology and behaviour), Jodhpur (primates and desert flora and fauna), Garhwal
(high altitude pheasants and ungulates), Calicut (birds), Osmania (ornithology and
ungulates), Madurai Kamraj (behavioral ecology), Sambalpur (crocodilians),
Guwahati (ornithology, wetlands, primates, rhino), and Amrawati (flora, wildlife
techniques, prey-predator relationships).
One of the major constraints in conducting effective wildlife research includes
lack of coordination among institutions as also absence of a long-term vision to
guide research activities in the country. Recognizing this inadequacy, the MoEF
has provided a framework for conducting research on wildlife. The NWAP (2002-
2016) envisages networking among various organizations like WII, ZSI, BSI, IISC,
BNHS, SACON, universities and other institutions for evolving integrated, multi-
disciplinary research in representative ecosystems. It also envisages focusing
on countrywide understanding of diversity indices, population indicators of
endangered species and their habitat conditions. With a view to ensure synergy
of efforts among various organizations, it envisages setting up of a National
Wildlife Research Coordination Committee to prioritize, monitor and coordinate
research needs. Recognizing the need to have a long-term perspective in view
while developing annual work plan for research, the institutions are developing
five year rolling research plans. This strategy would go a long way in reducing
duplication of efforts and bring synergy.