Introduction To Wastewater Treatment Processes PDF

Introduction to
Wastewater Treatment
Processes
R. S. Rama/ho
LAVAL UNIVERSITY
QUEBEC, CANADA
ACADEMIC PRESS New York San Francisco London 1977

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I N F O R M A T I O N STORAGE A N D RETRIEVAL S Y S T E M , W I T H O U T
P E R M I S S I O N IN W R I T I N G F R O M T H E P U B L I S H E R .
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Ramalho, Rubens Sette.

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o wastewater t r e a t m e n t processes.
Bibliography: p .
Includes index.
1. Sewage-Purification. I. Title.
TD745.R36 628.3 76-26185
ISBN 0 - 1 2 - 5 7 6 5 5 0 - 9
P R I N T E D I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S OF AMERICA
81 82 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Preface
This book is an introductory presentation meant for both students and
practicing engineers interested in the field of wastewater treatment. Most
of the earlier books discuss the subject industry by industry, providing
solutions to specific treatment problems. More recently, a scientific ap
proach to the basic principles of unit operations and processes has been
utilized. I have used this approach to evaluate all types of wastewater
problems and to properly select the mode of treatment and the design of
the equipment required.
In most cases, the design of specific wastewater treatment processes,
e.g., the activated sludge process, is discussed following (1) a summary
of the theory involved in the specific process, e.g., chemical kinetics,
pertinent material and energy balances, discussion of physical and chemi
cal principles; (2) definition of the important design parameters involved
in the process and the determination of such parameters using laboratory-
scale or pilot-plant equipment; and (3) development of a systematic design
procedure for the treatment plant. Numerical applications are presented
which illustrate the treatment of laboratory data, and subsequent design
calculations are given for the wastewater processing plant. The approach
followed, particularly in the mathematical modeling of biological treat
ment processes, is based largely on the work of Eckenfelder and as
sociates.
Clarity of presentation has been of fundamental concern. The text
should be easily understood by undergraduate students and practicing
engineers. The book stems from a revision of lecture notes which I used
for an introductory course on wastewater treatment. N o t only engineering
students of diverse backgrounds but also practicing engineers from
various fields have utilized these notes at the different times this course
was offered at Laval University and COPPE/UFRJ (Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil). Favorable acceptance of the notes and the encouragement of
many of their users led me to edit them for inclusion in this work.
I wish to express my appreciation to the secretarial staff of the Chemi
cal Engineering Department of Laval University, Mrs. Michel, Mrs.
Gagne, and Mrs. McLean, and to Miss Enidete Souza (COPPE/UFRJ)
for typing the manuscript. I o w e sincere thanks to Mr. Alex Legare for
the artwork, to Dr. and Mrs. Adrien Favre for proofreading the manu
script, and to Mr. Roger Theriault for his assistance in the correction of
the galleys. The valuable suggestions made by Dr. M. Pelletier (Laval
University) and Dr. C. Russo (COPPE/UFRJ) are gratefully acknowledged.
R. S. Ramalho
ix
1
Introduction
1. Introduction 1
2. The Role of the Engineer in Water Pollution Abatement 2
2.1. The Necessity of a Multidisciplinary Approach to the Water
Pollution Abatement Problem 2
2.2. A Survey of the Contribution of Engineers to Water Pollution
Abatement 2
2.3. A Case History of Industrial Wastewater Treatment 3
2.4. The Chemical Engineering Curriculum as a Preparation for the
Field of Wastewater Treatment 4
2.5. "Inplant" and " E n d - o f - P i p e " Wastewater Treatment 4
2.6. A N e w Concept in Process D e s i g n : The Flowsheet of the Future 7
3. Degrees of Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Standards . . 8
4. Sources of Wastewaters 9
5. Economics of Wastewater Treatment and Economic Balance for
Water Reuse 10
6. Effect of Water Pollution on Environment and Biota 14
6.1. Oxygen S a g Curve 14
6.2. Effect of Light 16
6.3. Decomposition of Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Organic
Matter 17
6.4. Sludge Deposits and Aquatic Plants 18
6.5. Bacteria and Ciliates 19
6.6. Higher Forms of Animal Species 20
7. Eutrophication 22
8. Types of Water Supply and Classification of Water Contaminants . 22
References 25
1. Introduction
I t w a s o n l y d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e o f t h e 1960's t h a t t e r m s s u c h a s " w a t e r a n d
air p o l l u t i o n , " " p r o t e c t i o n of the e n v i r o n m e n t , " a n d " e c o l o g y " b e c a m e
household words. Prior to that time, these terms would either pass un
r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e a v e r a g e citizen, o r a t m o s t , w o u l d c o n v e y h a z y i d e a s t o h i s
m i n d . Since t h e n m a n k i n d h a s b e e n b o m b a r d e d b y t h e m e d i a ( n e w s p a p e r s ,
r a d i o , television), w i t h t h e d r e a d f u l i d e a t h a t h u m a n i t y is effectively w o r k i n g
for its s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s o f p o l l u t i o n o f t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t , for t h e s a k e o f a c h i e v i n g m a t e r i a l p r o g r e s s . I n s o m e c a s e s ,
people have been a r o u s e d nearly to a state of m a s s hysteria. A l t h o u g h pollu
t i o n is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m , a n d it is, o f c o u r s e , d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e c i t i z e n r y b e
c o n c e r n e d a b o u t it, it is q u e s t i o n a b l e t h a t " m a s s h y s t e r i a " is i n a n y w a y
justifiable. T h e i n s t i n c t o f p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e species is a v e r y b a s i c d r i v i n g
1
2 1. Introduction
force of humanity, and man is equipped to correct the deterioration of his

environment before it is too late. In fact, pollution control is not an exceedingly
difficult technical problem as compared to more complex ones which have
been successfully solved in this decade, such as the manned exploration of the
moon. Essentially, the basic technical knowledge required to cope with
pollution is already available to man, and as long as he is willing to pay a
relatively reasonable price tag, the nightmare of self-destruction via pollution
will never become a reality. Indeed, much higher price tags are being paid by
humanity for development and maintenance of the war-making machinery.
This book is primarily concerned with the engineering design of process
plants for treatment of wastewaters of either domestic or industrial origin.
It is only in the last few years that the design approach for these plants has
changed from empiricism to a sound engineering basis. Also, fundamental
research in new wastewater treatment processes, such as reverse osmosis and
electrodialysis, has only recently been greatly emphasized.
2. The Role of t h e Engineer in

Water Pollution Abatement
2.1. T H E N E C E S S I T Y O F A M U L T I D I S C I P L I N A R Y
A P P R O A C H TO THE WATER POLLUTION
ABATEMENT PROBLEM
Although it has been stated previously that water pollution control is not
an exceedingly difficult technical problem, the field is a broad one, and of
sufficient complexity to justify several different disciplines being brought
together for achieving optimal results at a minimum cost. A systems approach
to water pollution abatement involves the participation of many disciplines:
(1) engineering and exact sciences [sanitary engineering (civil engineering),
chemical engineering, other fields of engineering such as mechanical and
electrical, chemistry, physics]; (2) life sciences [biology (aquatic biology),
microbiology, bacteriology]; (3) earth sciences (geology, hydrology, oceanog
raphy); and (4) social and economic sciences (sociology, law, political
sciences, public relations, economics, administration).
2.2. A S U R V E Y O F T H E C O N T R I B U T I O N O F
E N G I N E E R S TO WATER POLLUTION
ABATEMENT
The sanitary engineer, with mainly a civil engineering background, has
historically carried the brunt of responsibility for engineering activities in
water pollution control. This situation goes back to the days when the bulk of
wastewaters were of domestic origin. Composition of domestic wastewaters
does not vary greatly. Therefore, prescribed methods of treatment are rela
tively standard, with a limited number of unit processes and operations
2. Engineer's Role in Water Pollution Abatement 3
involved in the treatment sequence. Traditional methods of treatment in

volved large concrete basins, where either sedimentation or aeration were
performed, operation of trickling filters, chlorination, screening, and occa
sionally a few other operations. The fundamental concern of the engineer
was centered around problems of structure and hydraulics, and quite naturally,
the civil engineering background was an indispensable prerequisite for the
sanitary engineer.
This situation has changed, at first gradually, and more recently at an
accelerated rate with the advent of industrialization. As a result of a new
large variety of industrial processes, highly diversified wastewaters requiring
more complex treatment processes have appeared on the scene. Wastewater
treatment today involves so many different pieces of equipment, so many unit
processes and unit operations, that it became evident that the chemical
engineer had to be called to play a major role in water pollution abatement.
The concept of unit operations, developed largely by chemical engineers in
the past fifty years, constitutes the key to the scientific approach to design
problems encountered in the field of wastewater treatment.
In fact, even the municipal wastewaters of today are no longer the "domestic
wastewaters" of yesterday. Practically all municipalities in industrialized
areas must handle a combination of domestic and industrial wastewaters.
Economic and technical problems involved in such treatment make it very
often desirable to perform separate treatment (segregation) of industrial waste
waters, prior to their discharge into municipal sewers.
Even the nature of truly domestic wastewaters has changed with the advent
of a whole series of new products now available to the average household,
such as synthetic detergents and others. Thus, to treat domestic wastewaters
in an optimum way requires modifications of the traditional approach.
In summary, for treatment of both domestic and industrial wastewaters,
new technology, new processes, and new approaches, as well as modifications
of old approaches, are the order of the day. The image today is no longer
that of the "large concrete basins," but one of a series of closely integrated
unit operations. These operations, both physical and chemical in nature, must
be tailored for each individual wastewater. The chemical engineer's skill in
integrating these unit operations into effective processes makes him admirably
qualified to design wastewater treatment facilities.
2.3. A C A S E H I S T O R Y O F I N D U S T R I A L
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
An interesting case history, emphasizing the role of the chemical engineer
in the design of a wastewater treatment plant for a sulfite pulp and paper mill,
is discussed by Byrd [ 2 ] . This pulp and paper plant was to discharge its waste
waters into a river of prime recreational value, with a well-balanced fish
population. For this reason, considerable care was taken in the planning and
4 1. Introduction
d e t a i l e d d e s i g n o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities. A s t u d y o f a s s i m i l a t i v e
c a p a c i t y o f t h e river w a s u n d e r t a k e n a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s w e r e d e v e l o p e d .
Design of the t r e a t m e n t p l a n t involved a study to determine which waste
w a t e r effluents s h o u l d b e s e g r e g a t e d f o r t r e a t m e n t , a n d w h i c h o n e s s h o u l d b e
c o m b i n e d . F o r t h e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a selection o f a l t e r n a t i v e s is d i s c u s s e d
[ 2 ] . S o m e o f t h e u n i t o p e r a t i o n s a n d p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t , o r c o n s i d e r e d a t first b u t after f u r t h e r s t u d y r e p l a c e d b y o t h e r a l t e r
natives, were the following: sedimentation, dissolved air flotation, equaliza
t i o n , n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , filtration ( r o t a r y filters), c e n t r i f u g a t i o n , r e v e r s e o s m o s i s ,
flash drying, fluidized bed oxidation, multiple hearth incineration, wet
oxidation, adsorption in activated c a r b o n , activated sludge process, aerated
lagoons, flocculation w i t h p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s , c h l o r i n a t i o n , landfill, a n d s p r a y
irrigation.
I n t e g r a t i o n of all t h e s e u n i t o p e r a t i o n s a n d p r o c e s s e s i n t o a n o p t i m a l l y
d e s i g n e d t r e a t m e n t facility c o n s t i t u t e d a v e r y c h a l l e n g i n g p r o b l e m . The
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t involved a capital cost of over $10 million a n d a n o p e r a t i n g
c o s t i n excess o f $1 m i l l i o n p e r y e a r .
2.4. T H E C H E M I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G C U R R I C U L U M
A S A P R E P A R A T I O N F O R T H E FIELD O F
W A S T E W A T E R T R E A T M E N T [5]
C h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r s h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e b a c k g r o u n d t h a t is a p p l i c a b l e t o
water pollution problems. Their knowledge of m a s s transfer, chemical
k i n e t i c s , a n d s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s is specially v a l u a b l e in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
a n d c o n t r o l . T h u s , t r a i n i n g in c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g r e p r e s e n t s g o o d p r e p a r a
t i o n f o r e n t e r i n g t h i s t y p e of a c t i v i t y . I n t h e p a s t , t h e m a j o r i t y o f e n g i n e e r s
w o r k i n g in t h i s field h a v e b e e n s a n i t a r y e n g i n e e r s w i t h a civil e n g i n e e r i n g
background.
T h e m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e of t h e field s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d . C h e m i c a l
e n g i n e e r i n g g r a d u a t e s e n v i s i o n i n g m a j o r a c t i v i t y i n t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r
treatment are advised to complement their b a c k g r o u n d by studying micro
biology, owing t o the great i m p o r t a n c e of biological wastewater t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s e s , a n d a l s o h y d r a u l i c s [ s i n c e t o p i c s s u c h a s o p e n c h a n n e l a n d stratified
flow, m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l i n g o f b o d i e s of w a t e r ( r i v e r s , e s t u a r i e s , l a k e s ,
i n l e t s , etc.) a r e n o t e m p h a s i z e d in fluid m e c h a n i c s c o u r s e s n o r m a l l y offered t o
chemical engineering students].
2.5. " I N P L A N T " A N D E N D - O F - P I P E "

W A S T E W A T E R T R E A T M E N T [6]
2.5.1. Introduction
F r e q u e n t l y o n e m a y b e t e m p t e d t o t h i n k of i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
in t e r m s o f a n " e n d - o f - p i p e " a p p r o a c h . T h i s w o u l d i n v o l v e d e s i g n i n g a p l a n t
without m u c h regard to water pollution abatement, and then considering

s e p a r a t e l y t h e d e s i g n o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities. S u c h a n a p p r o a c h
s h o u l d n o t b e p u r s u e d since it is, in g e n e r a l , h i g h l y u n e c o n o m i c a l .
T h e right a p p r o a c h for a n industrial wastewater pollution abatement
p r o g r a m is o n e w h i c h u n c o v e r s all o p p o r t u n i t i e s for i n p l a n t wastewater
treatment. This m a y seem a m o r e complicated a p p r o a c h t h a n handling waste
w a t e r s a t t h e final o u t f a l l . H o w e v e r , s u c h a n a p p r o a c h c a n b e v e r y p r o f i t a b l e .
2.5.2. W h a t Is Involved in Inplant W a s t e w a t e r

Control
Essentially, inplant wastewater control involves the three following steps:
Step 1. P e r f o r m a d e t a i l e d s u r v e y o f all effluents i n t h e p l a n t . A l l p o l l u t i o n
sources m u s t be a c c o u n t e d for a n d cataloged. T h i s involves, for each polluting
s t r e a m , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f (a) flow r a t e a n d (b) s t r e n g t h o f t h e p o l l u t i n g
streams.
(a) Flow rate. F o r c o n t i n u o u s s t r e a m s , d e t e r m i n e flow r a t e s (e.g., g a l / m i n ) .
F o r intermittent discharges, estimate total daily (or hourly) outflow.
(b) Strength of the polluting streams. T h e " s t r e n g t h " of the polluting
s t r e a m s ( c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o l l u t i n g s u b s t a n c e s p r e s e n t i n t h e s t r e a m s ) is
e x p r e s s e d i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s , w h i c h a r e d i s c u s s e d in l a t e r c h a p t e r s . F o r
organic c o m p o u n d s which are subject to biochemical oxidation, the bio
c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d , B O D ( w h i c h is defined in C h a p t e r 2, S e c t i o n 2.3)
is c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d . I n t h e c a s e h i s t o r y s u m m a r i z e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 5 . 3 o f
t h i s c h a p t e r , B O D is u s e d t o m e a s u r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c s .
Step 2. R e v i e w d a t a o b t a i n e d in S t e p 1 t o find all p o s s i b l e i n p l a n t a b a t e
m e n t t a r g e t s . S o m e o f t h e s e a r e (1) i n c r e a s e d r e c y c l i n g in c o o l i n g w a t e r
s y s t e m s ; (2) e l i m i n a t i o n of c o n t a c t c o o l i n g f o r off v a p o r s , e.g., r e p l a c e m e n t o f
barometric condensers by shell-and-tube exchangers or air-cooling systems;
(3) r e c o v e r y o f p o l l u t i n g c h e m i c a l s : Profit m a y o f t e n b e r e a l i z e d b y r e c o v e r i n g
such chemicals, which are otherwise discharged into the plant sewers. A by
p r o d u c t s p l a n t m a y b e d e s i g n e d t o r e c o v e r t h e s e c h e m i c a l s ; (4) r e u s e o f w a t e r
from overhead accumulator drums, vacuum condensers, and p u m p glands.
D e v i s e m o r e c o n s e c u t i v e o r m u l t i p l e w a t e r u s e s ; (5) d e s i g n a h e a t r e c o v e r y
u n i t t o e l i m i n a t e q u e n c h i n g s t r e a m s ; a n d (6) e l i m i n a t e l e a k s a n d i m p r o v e
housekeeping practices. A u t o m a t i c monitoring a n d additional personnel
training might be profitable.
Step 3. E v a l u a t e p o t e n t i a l s a v i n g s i n t e r m s o f c a p i t a l a n d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s
for a p r o p o s e d " e n d - o f - p i p e " t r e a t m e n t , if e a c h o f t h e s t r e a m s c o n s i d e r e d in
S t e p s 1 a n d 2 a r e e i t h e r e l i m i n a t e d o r r e d u c e d ( r e d u c t i o n i n flow r a t e s o r in
terms of strength of polluting streams). T h e n design the " e n d - o f - p i p e " treat
m e n t facilities t o h a n d l e t h i s r e d u c e d l o a d . C o m p a r e c a p i t a l a n d o p e r a t i n g
c o s t s o f s u c h t r e a t m e n t facilities w i t h t h a t o f a n " e n d - o f - p i p e " facility d e s i g n e d
6 1. Introduction
t o h a n d l e t h e o r i g i n a l full l o a d , i.e., t h e p o l l u t a n t s t r e a m s f r o m a p l a n t w h e r e
i n p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r c o n t r o l is n o t p r a c t i c e d . T h e t w o c a s e h i s t o r i e s d e s c r i b e d
in Ref. [ 6 ] a r e q u i t e r e v e a l i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t .
F o r practicing i n p l a n t wastewater control, a d e e p k n o w l e d g e of the process
a n d a b i l i t y t o m o d i f y it, if n e c e s s a r y , a r e r e q u i r e d . T h e c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r is
a d m i r a b l y well s u i t e d t o h a n d l e t h i s j o b .
2.5.3. C a s e Histories of Inplant W a s t e w a t e r

Control
T w o interesting case histories are discussed by M c G o v e r n [ 6 ] . O n e of these,
p e r t a i n i n g t o a p e t r o c h e m i c a l p l a n t , is s u m m a r i z e d n e x t .
A p e t r o c h e m i c a l p l a n t a l r e a d y in o p e r a t i o n c o n d u c t e d a n effluent a n d
inplant survey while evaluating a t r e a t m e n t p l a n t t o be designed a n d built,
which w o u l d h a n d l e 20 million gal/day of wastewater with a B O D load of
52,000 lb/day. T h e plan called for a n activated sludge unit t o r e m o v e over
9 0 % of t h e B O D l o a d . T h i s i n c l u d e d v a c u u m filtration a n d i n c i n e r a t i o n o f t h e
s l u d g e , a n d c h l o r i n a t i o n of t h e t o t a l effluent.
C a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t facility w a s e s t i m a t e d a t $ 1 0 m i l l i o n . O p e r a t i n g
a n d maintenance costs were also estimated. All cost d a t a were converted t o
a n a n n u a l b a s i s , u s i n g a 2 0 - y e a r p r o j e c t life a n d 1 5 % i n t e r e s t r a t e .
T h e n a s t u d y of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e d u c i n g b o t h t h e flow a n d t h e s t r e n g t h o f
the wastewaters was u n d e r t a k e n . This study followed the steps outlined u n d e r
S e c t i o n 2.5.2, w i t h a n u m b e r o f c h a n g e s b e i n g p r o p o s e d f o r t h e p r o c e s s flow
sheet. T h e r e d u c t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e d in flow r a t e a n d s t r e n g t h r e s u l t e d in s u b
s t a n t i a l s a v i n g s in t h e t o t a l c o s t o f t h e p r o p o s e d t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . F i g u r e 1.1
s h o w s a g r a p h , p r e p a r e d for t h i s c a s e h i s t o r y , i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e effect o f r e d u c t i o n
100 1 1
Flow
8 80
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- BOD
8 60
ο -
-£ 4 0
ο . Vc lid ran je
-
§ 20
Q. -
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent reduction in BOD or flow
Fig. 1.1. Effect of waste load reductions on capital cost of treatment
plant [6]. (Excerpted by special permission from Chemical Engineering, May 14, 1973.
Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 10020.)
T A B L E 1.1
Savings from Inplant Wastewater
Reductions 8
Inplant savings $/year

F l o w reduction (1424 gal/min) $410,000
B O D reduction (2000 lb/day) 302,000
Water use reduction
Treated water (0.24 M G D ) 34,000
River water (1.37 M G D ) 14,000
Product recovery 14,000
Total inplant saving $774,000
Cost o f inplant control $/year
Engineering $ 15,000
Capital investment 150,000
Operating and maintenance 33,000
Total cost o f inplant control $ 198,000
N e t savings: $ 7 7 4 , 0 0 0 - $ 1 9 8 , 0 0 0 = $576,000/year
Excerpted by special permission from

a
Chemical
Engineering, May 14, 1 9 7 3 ; Copyright by M c G r a w -
Hill, Inc., N e w York, 10020.
in B O D o r flow r a t e u p o n t h e c a p i t a l c o s t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t facilities. T h i s g r a p h
is v a l i d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 % r e d u c t i o n in flow o r B O D . A n y f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n
p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e s a significantly different t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m .
S a v i n g s f r o m i n p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r c o n t r o l a r e t a b u l a t e d in T a b l e 1.1. W a s t e
w a t e r flow w a s c u t t o 8 5 % o f its v a l u e p r i o r t o i n p l a n t c o n t r o l a n d B O D l o a d
was cut to 50%. Moreover, the cost of these inplant controls was m o r e t h a n
offset b y e c o n o m i e s in t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . A s s h o w n in T a b l e 1.1 t h e p r o g r a m
realized a n e t s a v i n g o f $ 5 7 6 , 0 0 0 / y e a r .
2.6. A N E W C O N C E P T I N P R O C E S S D E S I G N :
THE FLOWSHEET OF THE FUTURE
T h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in S e c t i o n 2.5 a r e l e a d i n g e n g i n e e r s t o a n e w c o n c e p t i n
p r o c e s s d e s i g n . T h e flowsheet o f t h e f u t u r e will n o l o n g e r s h o w a line w i t h a n
a r r o w h e a d s t a t i n g " t o w a s t e . " E s s e n t i a l l y e v e r y t h i n g will b e r e c y c l e d , b y
p r o d u c t s will b e r e c o v e r e d , a n d w a t e r will b e r e u s e d . F u n d a m e n t a l l y t h e o n l y
s t r e a m s in a n d o u t o f t h e p l a n t will b e r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o d u c t s . T h e o n l y
p e r m i s s i b l e w a s t a g e s will b e c l e a n o n e s : n i t r o g e n , o x y g e n , c a r b o n d i o x i d e ,
w a t e r , a n d s o m e ( b u t n o t t o o m u c h ! ) h e a t . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , it is a p p r o p r i a t e
t o recall t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s F e d e r a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
A c t o f 1 9 7 2 : (1) b e s t practical c o n t r o l t e c h n o l o g y , b y J u l y 1, 1 9 7 7 ; (2) b e s t
available t e c h n o l o g y , b y J u l y 1, 1 9 8 3 ; a n d (3) z e r o d i s c h a r g e b y J u l y 1, 1985.
8 1. Introduction
3. Degrees of W a s t e w a t e r
Treatment and Water Quality
Standards
T h e d e g r e e of t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e d for a w a s t e w a t e r d e p e n d s m a i n l y on
d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e effluent. T a b l e 1.2 p r e s e n t s a c o n v e n t i o n a l
classification for wastewater treatment processes. Primary treatment is
e m p l o y e d for r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d solids a n d floating materials, a n d also
T A B L E 1.2
Types of Wastewater Treatment
Primary treatment
Screening
Sedimentation
Flotation
Oil separation
Equalization
Neutralization
Secondary treatment
Activated sludge process
Extended aeration (or total oxidation) process
Contact stabilization
Other modifications of the conventional activated
sludge process: tapered aeration, step aeration,
and complete mix activated sludge processes
Aerated lagoons
Wastewater stabilization ponds
Trickling filters
Anaerobic treatment
Tertiary treatment (or "advanced treatment")
Microscreening
Precipitation and coagulation
Adsorption (activated carbon)
Ion exchange
Reverse osmosis
Electrodialysis
Nutrient removal processes
Chlorination and ozonation
Sonozone process
c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r for e i t h e r d i s c h a r g e t o a receiving b o d y o f w a t e r
o r t o a s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t facility t h r o u g h n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d / o r e q u a l i z a
tion. Secondary treatment comprises conventional biological t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s e s . T e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t is i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y for e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o l l u t a n t s
n o t removed by conventional biological treatment.
4. Sources of Wastewaters 9
T h e s e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a r e s t u d i e d in f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s . T h e a p p r o a c h
utilized is b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t s o f u n i t p r o c e s s e s a n d o p e r a t i o n s . T h e final
o b j e c t i v e is d e v e l o p m e n t of d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s of g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o any
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o b l e m , l e a d i n g t o a p r o p e r selection o f p r o c e s s a n d
the design of required equipment. Consequently, description of wastewater
t r e a t m e n t s e q u e n c e s for specific i n d u s t r i e s , e.g., p e t r o l e u m refineries, steel
mills, m e t a l - p l a t i n g p l a n t s , p u l p a n d p a p e r i n d u s t r i e s , b r e w e r i e s , a n d t a n
n e r i e s , is n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s b o o k . F o r i n f o r m a t i o n o n specific w a s t e w a t e r
treatment processes, the reader should consult Eckenfelder [3] a n d N e m e r o w
[7].
W a t e r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s a r e u s u a l l y b a s e d o n o n e of t w o c r i t e r i a : s t r e a m
s t a n d a r d s o r effluent s t a n d a r d s . Stream standards refer t o q u a l i t y o f r e c e i v i n g
water d o w n s t r e a m from the origin of sewage discharge, whereas effluent
standards p e r t a i n t o q u a l i t y o f t h e d i s c h a r g e d w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m s t h e m s e l v e s .
A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f effluent s t a n d a r d s is t h a t it p r o v i d e s n o c o n t r o l o v e r
t o t a l a m o u n t o f c o n t a m i n a n t s d i s c h a r g e d in t h e r e c e i v i n g w a t e r . A l a r g e
i n d u s t r y , for e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h p r o v i d i n g t h e s a m e d e g r e e o f w a s t e w a t e r
treatment as a small one, might cause considerably greater pollution of the
receiving w a t e r . Effluent s t a n d a r d s a r e e a s i e r t o m o n i t o r t h a n s t r e a m s t a n d a r d s ,
w h i c h r e q u i r e d e t a i l e d s t r e a m a n a l y s i s . A d v o c a t e s o f effluent s t a n d a r d s
a r g u e t h a t a l a r g e i n d u s t r y , d u e t o its e c o n o m i c v a l u e t o t h e c o m m u n i t y ,
should be allowed a larger share of the assimilative capacity of the receiving
water.
Q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s selected d e p e n d o n i n t e n d e d u s e o f t h e w a t e r . S o m e o f
these standards include: concentration of dissolved oxygen ( D O , mg/liter),
p H , color, turbidity, hardness (mg/liter), total dissolved solids ( T D S , mg/liter),
s u s p e n d e d solids ( S S , m g / l i t e r ) , c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t o x i c ( o r o t h e r w i s e o b j e c
tionable) materials (mg/liter), odor, a n d temperature. Extensive tabulation of
w a t e r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s f o r v a r i o u s u s e s a n d f o r s e v e r a l s t a t e s in t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s is p r e s e n t e d b y N e m e r o w [ 7 ] .
4. S o u r c e s of W a s t e w a t e r s
F o u r m a i n s o u r c e s o f w a s t e w a t e r s a r e (1) d o m e s t i c s e w a g e , (2) i n d u s t r i a l
w a s t e w a t e r s , (3) a g r i c u l t u r a l runoff, a n d (4) s t o r m w a t e r a n d u r b a n runoff.
A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h i s b o o k is t h e s t u d y o f t r e a t m e n t o f
domestic and industrial wastewaters, contamination due to agricultural a n d
u r b a n runoffs is b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t . A g r i c u l t u r a l r u n o f f s
c a r r y i n g fertilizers (e.g., p h o s p h a t e s ) a n d p e s t i c i d e s c o n s t i t u t e a m a j o r c a u s e
of e u t r o p h i c a t i o n of l a k e s , a p h e n o m e n a w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 7 o f t h i s
c h a p t e r . S t o r m runoffs in h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d a r e a s m a y c a u s e significant
10 1. Introduction
p o l l u t i o n effects. U s u a l l y w a s t e w a t e r s , t r e a t e d o r u n t r e a t e d , a r e d i s c h a r g e d
i n t o a n a t u r a l b o d y o f w a t e r ( o c e a n , river, l a k e , etc.) w h i c h is r e f e r r e d t o a s
the receiving water.
5. E c o n o m i c s of W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t a n d E c o n o m i c Balance
for W a t e r R e u s e
I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a v e r a g e c o s t p e r t h o u s a n d g a l l o n s o f w a t e r is a p p r o x i
m a t e l y $0.20, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o $ 0 . 0 5 / t o n . I t is a relatively c h e a p c o m
m o d i t y , a n d a s a r e s u l t t h e e c o n o m i c s o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t is v e r y c r i t i c a l .
I n p r i n c i p l e , b y utilizing s o p h i s t i c a t e d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s , o n e c a n o b t a i n
potable water from sewage. E c o n o m i c considerations, however, prevent the
practical application of m a n y available t r e a t m e n t m e t h o d s . I n countries
w h e r e w a t e r is a t a p r e m i u m (e.g., I s r a e l , S a u d i A r a b i a ) s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities, w h i c h a r e n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y justified i n N o r t h
A m e r i c a , a r e n o w in o p e r a t i o n . I n e v a l u a t i n g a specific w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s , it is i m p o r t a n t t o e s t i m a t e a cost-benefit ratio b e t w e e n t h e benefit
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t t o o b t a i n w a t e r o f a specified q u a l i t y , a n d t h e c o s t
for a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s u p g r a d i n g o f q u a l i t y .
R e u s e o f w a t e r b y recycling h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n p l a n t
w a s t e w a t e r c o n t r o l ( S e c t i o n 2.5). S e l e c t i o n of a n o p t i m u m recycle r a t i o f o r a
specific a p p l i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s a n e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e in w h i c h t h r e e f a c t o r s m u s t
b e c o n s i d e r e d [ 3 ] : (1) c o s t o f r a w w a t e r utilized in t h e p l a n t ; (2) c o s t o f w a s t e
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o s u i t a b l e p r o c e s s q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s (in E x a m p l e 1.1,
t h i s is t h e c o s t o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r e c e d i n g r e c y c l i n g t o t h e p l a n t for
r e u s e ) ; a n d (3) c o s t o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e i n t o a r e c e i v i n g
w a t e r , e.g., in a river.
T h i s e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 1.1.
E x a m p l e 1.1 [ 3 ]
A p l a n t u s e s 10,000 g a l / h r o f p r o c e s s w a t e r w i t h a m a x i m u m c o n t a m i n a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1 l b p e r 1000 g a l . T h e r a w w a t e r s u p p l y h a s a c o n t a m i n a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 0.5 l b / 1 0 0 0 g a l . O p t i m i z e a w a t e r r e u s e s y s t e m f o r t h i s p l a n t
b a s e d o n r a w w a t e r c o s t o f $ 0 . 2 0 / 1 0 0 0 g a l . U t i l i z e d a t a in F i g . 1.2 t o e s t i m a t e
c o s t s for t h e t w o w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d in t h e p l a n t . T h e c o n
t a m i n a n t is n o n v o l a t i l e .
T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y : (1) e v a p o r a t i o n a n d p r o d u c t loss ( s t r e a m
Ε in F i g . 1.3): 1000 g a l / h r of w a t e r ; (2) c o n t a m i n a n t a d d i t i o n ( s t r e a m Y
in F i g . 1.3): 100 l b / h r of c o n t a m i n a n t ; a n d (3) m a x i m u m d i s c h a r g e a l l o w e d
t o receiving w a t e r : 20 lb/hr of c o n t a m i n a n t .
5. Economics of Treatment and Reuse 11
50h
% Removal of contaminant
Fig. 1.2. Relationship between total cost and type of treatment [3].
SOLUTION A b l o c k flow d i a g r a m for t h e p r o c e s s is p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 1.3.

V a l u e s e i t h e r a s s u m e d o r c a l c u l a t e d a r e u n d e r l i n e d in F i g . 1.3. V a l u e s
n o t u n d e r l i n e d a r e b a s i c d a t a for t h e p r o b l e m . V o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s o f
s t r e a m s 9, 10, a n d 11 a r e negligible.
T h e p r o c e d u r e for s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a s s u m i n g several v a l u e s for t h e w a t e r

recycle R ( g a l / h r ) . F o r e a c h a s s u m e d v a l u e , t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is c o m p l e t e d
a n d t h e e c o n o m i c e v a l u a t i o n is m a d e .
Step 1. S t a r t a s s u m i n g a 7 0 % recycle, i.e., R/A = 0.7 (recycle r a t i o ) ,
w h e r e R is t h e recycle, i.e., s t r e a m 2 ( g a l / h r ) , a n d A is t h e c o m b i n e d feed, i.e.,
s t r e a m 3 (10,000 g a l / h r ) . T h e n , c a l c u l a t e t h e r e c y c l e :
R = (0.7)(Λ) = (0.7)(10,000) = 7000 gal/hr [stream 2]
T h u s , s t r e a m 5 in F i g . 1.3 a l s o c o r r e s p o n d s t o a flow r a t e o f 7 0 0 0 g a l / h r since

t h e v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t r e m o v e d [ s t r e a m 11] is negligible.
Step 2. F o r t h i s a s s u m e d recycle, t h e r a w w a t e r feed [ s t r e a m 1] is
F = A - R = 10,000 - 7000 = 3000 gal/hr

12 1. Introduction
Step 3. Effluent f r o m t h e p l a n t [ s t r e a m 4 ] is
A - Ε = 10,000 - 1000 = 9000 gal/hr
Step 4. F r o m t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e it follows t h a t since s t r e a m 4 is s p l i t
i n t o s t r e a m s 5 a n d 6,
Stream 6: 9000 - 7000 = 2000 gal/hr
Stream 7 : 2000 gal/hr
T h u s f o r 7 0 % recycle, v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s f o r all s t r e a m s in F i g . 1.3 a r e n o w
determined.
Step 5. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t in r a w w a t e r [ s t r e a m 1] is
F x (0.5/1000) = 3000(0.5/1000) = 1.5 lb/hr
Step 6. M a s s flow r a t e of c o n t a m i n a n t in s t r e a m 3 is
(1/1000) χ 10,000 = 10 lb/hr
Step 7. M a s s flow r a t e of c o n t a m i n a n t in t h e recycle [ s t r e a m 2 ] is
1 0 - 1 . 5 = 8.5 lb/hr
Loss-. lOOO g a l / h r
of water
Θ Contaminant
F- 3 0 0 0 gal/hr raw water addition
/ 0 . 5 lb contaminant per 100 lb/hr
/ 1000 gal; contaminant:
-Plant effluent:
\ \ 5 lb/hr
9 0 0 0 gal/hr
110 lb of contaminant
A = 10,000 gal/hr
I lb contaminant per 1000 gal
Contaminant
.·. 10 lb contaminant/hr
removed
Β lb/hr
R, recycle Β=4.5 lb/hr
R gal/hr
7 0 0 0 gal/hr 7000 gal/hr
contaminant: contaminant; Treatment
8.5 lb/hr Treatment 85.5 lb/hr-7 for discharge
for to receiving
2 0 0 0 gal/hr
reuse water
24.5 lb/hr of
contaminant
Contaminant Water d i s c h a r g e d — η
removed to river
D lb/hr W gal/hr
D=77 lb/hr W = 2 0 0 0 gal/hr
(20 lb/hr of contaminant)
Fig. 1.3. Flow diagram for Example 1.1. Encircled numbers are streams.
(Adaptedfrom Eckenfelder [3].)
5. Economics of Treatment and Reuse 13
Step 8. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t in t h e p l a n t effluent [ s t r e a m 4 ] is
10 [from stream 3] + 100 [from stream 9] = 110 lb/hr
Step 9. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t in s t r e a m s 5 a n d 6 is
Stream 5 : (7000/9000) χ 110 = 85.5 lb/hr

Stream 6: 110 - 85.5 = 24.5 lb/hr
Step 10. S i n c e t h e m a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t i n s t r e a m 7 is 2 0 l b / h r ,

t h a t f o r c o n t a m i n a n t in s t r e a m 10 is
24.5 - 20.0 = 4.5 lb/hr
Step 11. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t r e m o v e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t f o r

r e u s e [ s t r e a m 11] is
85.5 - 8.5 = 77.0 lb/hr
Step 12. T h e % r e m o v a l of c o n t a m i n a n t i n t h e t w o t r e a t m e n t s is
T r e a t m e n t for reuse: (77/85.5) χ 100 = 90%

T r e a t m e n t for discharge t o receiving w a t e r : (4.5/24.5) χ 100 = 18.4%
Step 13. T h e t y p e o f t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e d is e s s e n t i a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m
t h e s e % r e m o v a l s o f c o n t a m i n a n t ( F i g . 1.2). I n t h e t r e a t m e n t for r e u s e ( 9 0 %
r e m o v a l ) , i o n e x c h a n g e is i n d i c a t e d . F o r d i s c h a r g e t o r e c e i v i n g w a t e r ( 1 8 . 4 %
r e m o v a l ) , F i g . 1.2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t is sufficient. C o s t s f o r t h e s e
t r e a t m e n t s a r e r e a d f r o m F i g . 1.2.
T r e a t m e n t for reuse (90% r e m o v a l ) : $0.42/1000 gal

T r e a t m e n t for discharge to receiving water (18.4% r e m o v a l ) : $0.05/1000 gal
Step 14. D a i l y c o s t f o r 7 0 % r e c y c l e :
gal $0.20 hr
Raw water: 3000^— χ — — — - χ 2 4 — = $14.40/day
hr 1000 gal day
Cost
Effluent treatment for discharge to river:
gal $0.05 hr
2000f - χ — — χ 2 4 — = $ 2.40/day
hr 1000 gal day
gal $0.42 hr
T r e a t m e n t for reuse: 7 0 0 0 — χ — — — · χ 2 4 — = $70.56/day
hr 1000 gal day
Total: $87.36/day
Step 15. T h i s c o s t is p l o t t e d in F i g . 1.4 v s . 7 0 % reflux. A s i m i l a r series o f

c a l c u l a t i o n s is m a d e for f r e s h w a t e r i n p u t s v a r y i n g f r o m 10,000 t o 2 0 0 0 g a l / h r ,
14 1. Introduction
140
60 1
ι ι
20 40 60 80 100
Recycle, %
Fig. 1.4. Relationship between total daily water cost and treated waste
recycle for reuse [3].
w i t h recycles v a r y i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f r o m 0 - 8 0 % . F i g u r e 1.4 is o b t a i n e d , w h i c h
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o p t i m u m recycle is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 % f o r a c o s t o f a b o u t
$83.00/day.
6. Effect of W a t e r Pollution on
E n v i r o n m e n t a n d Biota
B a r t s c h a n d I n g r a m [ 1 ] m a d e a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t u d y o f t h e effect o f w a t e r
p o l l u t i o n o n e n v i r o n m e n t a n d b i o t a . T h e s e effects a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g s .
1.5-1.10, a n d a s u m m a r y o f t h e i r w o r k is p r e s e n t e d n e x t . T h e s o u r c e o f p o l
lution considered w a s r a w domestic sewage for a c o m m u n i t y of 40,000 people,
flowing t o a s t r e a m w i t h a v o l u m e flow o f 100 f t / s e c . L o w e r i n g o f t h e c o n
3
c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n ( D O ) a n d f o r m a t i o n of s l u d g e d e p o s i t s a r e t h e
most c o m m o n environmental disturbances which may damage aquatic biota.
6.1. O X Y G E N S A G C U R V E
T h e c u r v e in F i g . 1.5, r e f e r r e d t o a s d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c u r v e , is a p l o t o f
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) for a s t r e a m . I t is r e f e r r e d t o h e n c e
a s o x y g e n s a g c u r v e . S e w a g e is d i s c h a r g e d a t t h e p o i n t identified a s z e r o (0)
o n t h e a b s c i s s a axis. T h e v a l u e s t o t h e r i g h t o f p o i n t z e r o r e p r e s e n t m i l e s
d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e p o i n t o f s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e . C o m p l e t e m i x i n g is a s s u m e d ,
a n d t h e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e is 2 5 ° C . A n a l t e r n a t i v e scale f o r t h e a b s c i s s a , in
t e r m s o f d a y s o f flow, is s h o w n in F i g . 1.5.
Fig. 1.5. DO and BOD curves for a stream [1 ] .
O r d i n a t e o f t h e D O s a g c u r v e is in t e r m s o f m g / l i t e r o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n .
T h e shape of the D O sag curve, d o w n s t r e a m of the p o i n t of sewage discharge,
is u n d e r s t o o d f r o m e x a m i n a t i o n o f F i g . 1.6. T h e D O s a g c u r v e is t h e n e t
resultant of t w o c u r v e s : o n e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to depletion of dissolved oxygen
d u e t o its u t i l i z a t i o n for o x i d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e s e w a g e d i s
charge, and the other corresponding to oxygen gain by natural reaeration.
F i g u r e 1.5 s h o w s t h a t t h e D O s a g c u r v e r e a c h e s a l o w p o i n t a b o u t 2 7 m i l e s
d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e p o i n t o f s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2\ d a y s o f
flow a n d a D O of a b o u t 1.5 m g / l i t e r .
Net oxygen-sag curve
Ε
Ο
Q
Miles (days)
Fig. 1.6. Oxygen sag curve.

16 1. Introduction
T h i s p r o c e s s o f d e o x y g e n a t i o n w o u l d r e d u c e t h e D O t o z e r o in a b o u t \ \
d a y s flow, if t h e r e w e r e n o f a c t o r s in o p e r a t i o n t h a t c o u l d r e s t o r e o x y g e n t o
w a t e r . T h e river r e a c h w h e r e D O w o u l d b e c o m p l e t e l y g o n e w o u l d o c c u r
a b o u t 18 m i l e s d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e d i s c h a r g e o f s e w a g e . A f t e r r e a c h i n g its
m i n i m u m , D O level rises a g a i n t o w a r d a r e s t o r a t i o n , e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h i n g a
v a l u e n e a r l y e q u a l t o t h a t f o r t h e u p s t r e a m u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r , i.e., a D O of
approximately 7 mg/liter.
If p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e city r e m a i n s fairly c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r , a n d
flow r a t e is relatively c o n s t a n t , t h e l o w p o i n t o f t h e D O s a g c u r v e m o v e s u p
o r d o w n t h e s t r e a m w i t h fluctuations i n t e m p e r a t u r e . D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r t h e
r a t e o f o x i d a t i o n is l o w e r a n d g a i n o f o x y g e n b y r e a e r a t i o n is g r e a t e r , a s
solubility of oxygen in water increases at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e s e t w o
factors c o m b i n e d cause the low p o i n t of the oxygen sag curve t o m o v e farther
d o w n s t r e a m . D u r i n g t h e s u m m e r , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r a t e of o x i d a t i o n is
h i g h e r a n d g a i n o f o x y g e n b y r e a e r a t i o n is less p r o n o u n c e d . T h e s e t w o f a c t o r s
c o m b i n e d c a u s e t h e l o w p o i n t of t h e o x y g e n s a g c u r v e t o m o v e u p s t r e a m .
T h e r e a c h o f a n y s t r e a m w h e r e t h e D O s a g c u r v e a t t a i n s its l o w p o i n t
r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r e a m e n v i r o n m e n t p o o r e s t in D O r e s o u r c e s . L i v i n g s p e c i m e n s
t h a t n e e d a h i g h D O , s u c h a s c o l d w a t e r fish, suffocate a n d m o v e t o o t h e r
stream areas where the D O resources are greater.
T h e o t h e r c u r v e s h o w n i n F i g . 1.5 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e biochemical oxygen
demand ( B O D ) . T h i s i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2, S e c t i o n
2 . 3 . T h e b i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d is u s e d a s a m e a s u r e o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f
o x y g e n r e q u i r e d f o r o x i d a t i o n b y a e r o b i c b i o c h e m i c a l a c t i o n of t h e d e g r a d a b l e
o r g a n i c m a t t e r p r e s e n t in a s a m p l e o f w a t e r . T h e B O D is l o w in t h e u p s t r e a m
u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r ( a b o u t 2 m g / l i t e r ) , since t h e r e is n o t m u c h o r g a n i c m a t t e r
present to c o n s u m e oxygen. T h e n B O D increases abruptly at point zero
(sewage discharge), a n d gradually decreases d o w n s t r e a m from this point, as
o r g a n i c m a t t e r d i s c h a r g e d is p r o g r e s s i v e l y o x i d i z e d , u n t i l r e a c h i n g e v e n t u a l l y
a v a l u e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m g / l i t e r , i n d i c a t i v e of u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r . A t t h i s
p o i n t t h e r a w s e w a g e is stabilized. A s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 1.5, s t a b i l i z a t i o n is
a c h i e v e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m i l e s d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e .
B O D a n d D O a r e s o i n t e r r e l a t e d t h a t d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n is l o w
w h e r e B O D is h i g h , a n d t h e c o n v e r s e a l s o is t r u e .
F o u r d i s t i n c t z o n e s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 1.5 u n d e r n e a t h t h e D O c u r v e : (1)
c l e a n w a t e r z o n e ; (2) z o n e of d e g r a d a t i o n ; (3) z o n e of a c t i v e d e c o m p o s i t i o n ;
a n d (4) z o n e o f r e c o v e r y .
6.2. E F F E C T O F L I G H T
I n F i g . 1.6 t h e effects o f o x y g e n d e p l e t i o n b y o x i d a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s
a n d o x y g e n g a i n b y r e a e r a t i o n a r e t h e o n l y o n e s c o n s i d e r e d in e x p l a i n i n g t h e
s h a p e of t h e o x y g e n s a g c u r v e . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r o b l e m
o n e n e e d s , in a d d i t i o n , t o c o n s i d e r t h e effect of light.
A t a n y selected p o i n t in t h e s t r e a m , t h e r e is a v a r i a t i o n i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
dissolved oxygen d e p e n d i n g o n the time of day. D u r i n g daylight h o u r s , algae
a n d o t h e r p l a n t s give off o x y g e n i n t o t h e w a t e r t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f p h o t o
synthesis. This a m o u n t of oxygen m a y be so considerable t h a t the w a t e r
usually becomes supersaturated at some time during daylight h o u r s . In
a d d i t i o n t o g i v i n g off o x y g e n , t h e p r o c e s s o f p h o t o s y n t h e s i s r e s u l t s in t h e
m a n u f a c t u r e of s u g a r t o serve a s t h e b a s i s o f s u p p o r t f o r all s t r e a m life. T h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s h o w n in E q . (1.1).
6C0 + 6H 0
2 2 C H 6 i 2 0 6 + 60 2 (1.1)
W h i l e p h o t o s y n t h e s i s o c c u r s , s o d o e s r e s p i r a t i o n , w h i c h c o n t i n u e s for 2 4 h r
a d a y , i r r e s p e c t i v e of i l l u m i n a t i o n . D u r i n g r e s p i r a t i o n 0 2 is t a k e n in a n d C 0 2
is g i v e n off. D u r i n g d a y l i g h t , a l g a e m a y yield o x y g e n in excess o f t h a t n e e d e d

for r e s p i r a t i o n , a s well a s in excess of t h a t r e q u i r e d for r e s p i r a t i o n b y o t h e r
a q u a t i c life, a n d for s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a n y b i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d . T h i s
c o u l d b e t r u e in t h e r e c o v e r y z o n e p a r t i c u l a r l y . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , s u p e r -
s a t u r a t i o n of o x y g e n m a y o c c u r , a n d s u r p l u s o x y g e n m a y b e l o s t t o t h e
atmosphere.
D u r i n g t h e n i g h t , p h o t o s y n t h e s i s d o e s n o t o c c u r a n d t h e s u r p l u s D O is
g r a d u a l l y u s e d u p b y r e s p i r a t i o n of all f o r m s o f a q u a t i c life, a s well a s for t h e
satisfaction of biochemical oxygen d e m a n d . Therefore, concentration of
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is a t its m i n i m u m d u r i n g e a r l y m o r n i n g h o u r s . T o t a k e i n t o
a c c o u n t s u c h D O v a r i a t i o n s , s a m p l i n g o f s t r e a m s for s a n i t a r y s u r v e y s is c o n
ducted over a 24-hr period.
6.3. D E C O M P O S I T I O N OF C A R B O N A C E O U S
A N D NITROGENOUS ORGANIC MATTER
A c c e l e r a t e d b a c t e r i a l g r o w t h is a r e s p o n s e t o r i c h f o o d s u p p l i e s in t h e
d o m e s t i c s e w a g e . D u r i n g r a p i d u t i l i z a t i o n o f f o o d , b a c t e r i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n is
a t a n o p t i m u m , a n d u t i l i z a t i o n o f D O b e c o m e s fairly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t e
o f f o o d u t i l i z a t i o n . F i g u r e 1.7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e d o w n s t r e a m c h a n g e s
o f o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n t o a m m o n i a , n i t r i t e , a n d finally n i t r a t e . A h i g h initial
c o n s u m p t i o n of oxygen by bacterial feeding o n proteinaceous c o m p o u n d s
^ O r g a n i c nitrogen
2-
I -
0 L
2 1 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
24 0 24 48 72 96
Miles
Fig. 1.7. Aerobic decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter [1],

18 1. Introduction
a v a i l a b l e in u p s t r e a m w a t e r s t a k e s p l a c e d u e t o t h e freshly d i s c h a r g e d d o m e s t i c
s e w a g e . W i t h fewer a n d fewer o f t h e s e c o m p o u n d s left in d o w n s t r e a m w a t e r s ,
t h e D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n is p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e c o v e r e d , r e a c h i n g e v e n t u a l l y its
initial value of approximately 7 mg/liter.
A s i m i l a r p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e w i t h fat a n d c a r b o h y d r a t e foodstuffs. The
final p r o d u c t s o f a e r o b i c a n d a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n of n i t r o g e n o u s a n d
carbonaceous matter are
1. D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f n i t r o g e n o u s o r g a n i c m a t t e r
A e r o b i c (final p r o d u c t s ) : N 0 ~ , C 0 , H 0 , S O j "
3 2 2
A n a e r o b i c (final p r o d u c t s ) : m e r c a p t a n s , i n d o l e , s k a t o l e , H S , p l u s
2
miscellaneous products
2. D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t t e r
Aerobic: C 0 , H 0 2 2
Anaerobic: acids, alcohols, C0 , 2 H ,

2 CH ,
4 plus miscellaneous
products
N i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s i n s e w a g e p r o t e i n s c a u s e special p r o b l e m s in s o m e
r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s . H i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s in w a t e r c r e a t e c o n
d i t i o n s especially f a v o r a b l e for g r o w i n g g r e e n p l a n t s . If t h e w a t e r is free
flowing ( r i v e r s , b r o o k s ) , g r e e n velvety c o a t i n g s g r o w o n t h e s t o n e s a n d p o s s i b l y
l e n g t h y s t r e a m e r s , p o p u l a r l y k n o w n a s m e r m a i d ' s tresses, w a v e in t h e c u r r e n t .
T h e s e g r o w t h s a r e n o t u n a t t r a c t i v e a n d a l s o c o n s t i t u t e a m i n i a t u r e j u n g l e in
w h i c h a n i m a l life of m a n y k i n d s p r e y o n e a c h o t h e r , w i t h t h e s u r v i v o r s g r o w i n g
t o b e c o m e e v e n t u a l fish f o o d . If, h o w e v e r , t h e w a t e r is q u i e t (e.g., l a k e s ) ,
g r o w t h o f v e r y u n d e s i r a b l e t y p e s o f a l g a e is s t i m u l a t e d . T h e s e a l g a e m a k e t h e
w a t e r p e a g r e e n , smelly, a n d u n a t t r a c t i v e . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is d i s c u s s e d in
Section 7 of this chapter. Sometimes, these blue-green algae develop poisons
c a p a b l e of killing l i v e s t o c k , wildlife, a n d fish.
6.4. S L U D G E D E P O S I T S A N D A Q U A T I C PLANTS
A profile s h o w i n g s l u d g e d e p t h vs. d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e outfall of t h e s e w a g e
is s h o w n i n t h e b o t t o m p a r t o f F i g . 1.8. M a x i m u m d e p t h o c c u r s n e a r t h e
o u t f a l l , a n d t h e n t h e s l u d g e is g r a d u a l l y r e d u c e d b y d e c o m p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h
t h e a c t i o n o f b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s m s , u n t i l it b e c o m e s insignificant
a b o u t 30 miles b e l o w t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y .
A l s o a t t h e o u t f a l l t h e r e is g r e a t t u r b i d i t y d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f fine s u s
p e n d e d solids. A s t h e s e s o l i d s settle, t h e w a t e r b e c o m e s c l e a r a n d a p p r o a c h e s
t h e t r a n s p a r e n c y o f u p s t r e a m w a t e r , a b o v e t h e p o i n t of s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e .
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f a q u a t i c p l a n t s is i n d i c a t e d i n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f F i g . 1.8.
S h o r t l y after t h e d i s c h a r g e , m o l d s a t t a i n m a x i m u m g r o w t h . T h e s e m o l d s a n d
filamentous b a c t e r i a (Sphaerotilus) are associated with the sludge deposition
Fig. 1.8. Sludge deposits and aquatic plants [1 ] .
s h o w n in t h e l o w e r c u r v e . F r o m m i l e 0 t o m i l e 36, h i g h t u r b i d i t y is n o t c o n
d u c i v e t o p r o d u c t i o n o f a l g a e , since t h e y n e e d s u n l i g h t in o r d e r t o g r o w a n d
light c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e w a t e r effectively. T h e o n l y t y p e o f a l g a e t h a t m a y
grow are blue-green algae, characteristic of polluted waters. T h e y m a y cover
m a r g i n a l r o c k s in s l i p p e r y layers a n d give off foul o d o r s u p o n s e a s o n a l
decomposition.
A l g a e b e g i n t o i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r a t a b o u t m i l e 36. P l a n k t o n o r free-
floating f o r m s b e c o m e s t e a d i l y m o r e a b u n d a n t . T h e y c o n s t i t u t e a n e x c e l l e n t
f o o d s u p p l y for a q u a t i c a n i m a l s a n d a l s o p r o v i d e s h e l t e r f o r t h e m . T h u s , a s
p l a n t s r e s p o n d d o w n s t r e a m in d e v e l o p i n g a diversified p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e
recovery a n d clean water zones, a n i m a l s follow a parallel d e v e l o p m e n t ,
p r o d u c i n g a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f species.
6.5. BACTERIA A N D CILIATES
F i g u r e 1.9 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f
a n i m a l p l a n k t o n s u c h a s ciliated p r o t o z o a n s , r o t i f e r s , a n d c r u s t a c e a n s . T w o
die-off c u r v e s a r e s h o w n , o n e f o r t o t a l s e w a g e b a c t e r i a a n d t h e o t h e r f o r
c o l i f o r m b a c t e r i a o n l y . T h e t w o b e l l - s h a p e d c u r v e s p e r t a i n t o ciliated
p r o t o z o a n s a n d rotifers a n d c r u s t a c e a n s .
After entering the stream with the sewage, bacteria r e p r o d u c e a n d b e c o m e
a b u n d a n t , feeding o n t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r o f s e w a g e . C i l i a t e d p r o t o z o a n s ,
initially few in n u m b e r , p r e y o n t h e b a c t e r i a . B a c t e r i a p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e s
g r a d u a l l y , b o t h b y a n a t u r a l p r o c e s s o f "die-off," a n d f r o m t h e p r e d a t o r y
20 1. Introduction
Fig. 1.9. Bacteria thrive and finally become prey of the ciliates, which, in
turn, are food for the rotifers and crustaceans [1 ] .
f e e d i n g b y p r o t o z o a n s . A f t e r a b o u t 2 d a y s flow, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 m i l e s
d o w n s t r e a m o f p o i n t z e r o , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b e c o m e s m o r e s u i t a b l e for
ciliates, w h i c h f o r m t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p o f a n i m a l p l a n k t o n . A f t e r a b o u t 7
d a y s , 84 m i l e s d o w n s t r e a m of p o i n t z e r o , ciliates fall v i c t i m t o r o t i f e r s a n d
c r u s t a c e a n s , w h i c h b e c o m e t h e d o m i n a n t species. T h u s , t h i s s e w a g e - c o n
s u m i n g b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s d e p e n d s o n a closely i n t e r r e l a t e d s u c c e s s i o n o f
species o f a n i m a l p l a n k t o n , o n e k i n d o f o r g a n i s m c a p t u r i n g a n d e a t i n g a n o t h e r .
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b a c t e r i a e a t e r s a n d t h e i r p r e y is f o u n d in t h e
o p e r a t i o n o f a m o d e r n s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . I n fact, t h e s t r e a m c a n b e
t h o u g h t of a s a n a t u r a l s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t .
S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f s e w a g e in a p l a n t is m o r e r a p i d w h e n f e r o c i o u s b a c t e r i a -
e a t i n g ciliates a r e p r e s e n t t o k e e p t h e b a c t e r i a p o p u l a t i o n a t a l o w b u t r a p i d l y
g r o w i n g s t a t e . I n s o m e s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , m i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n is
m a d e r o u t i n e l y t o o b s e r v e t h e b a t t l e lines b e t w e e n b a c t e r i a e a t e r s a n d t h e i r
prey.
6.6. H I G H E R F O R M S O F A N I M A L S P E C I E S
F i g u r e 1.10 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s e t y p e s o f o r g a n i s m s a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n a l o n g
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s t r e a m . C u r v e (a) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v a r i e t y , i.e., t h e n u m b e r s o f
species o f o r g a n i s m s f o u n d u n d e r v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f p o l l u t i o n . C u r v e (b)
Fig. 1.10. Curve (a) shows the fluctuations in numbers of species; (b) the
variations in numbers of each species [1 ] .
r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h o u s a n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f e a c h species p e r
square foot.
I n t h e c l e a n w a t e r , u p s t r e a m of p o i n t z e r o , a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i s m s is
f o u n d w i t h v e r y few o f e a c h k i n d p r e s e n t . A t t h e p o i n t o f s e w a g e d i s c h a r g e ,
t h e n u m b e r o f different species is g r e a t l y r e d u c e d a n d t h e r e is a d r a s t i c c h a n g e
in t h e species m a k e u p of t h e b i o t a . T h i s c h a n g e d b i o t a is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a few
species, b u t t h e r e is a t r e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e in t h e n u m b e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f
each kind as c o m p a r e d with the density of p o p u l a t i o n u p s t r e a m .
I n c l e a n w a t e r u p s t r e a m t h e r e is a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f s p o r t s fish, v a r i o u s
m i n n o w s , c a d d i s w o r m s , mayflies, stoneflies, h e l l g r a m m i t e s a n d g i l l - b r e a t h i n g
snails, e a c h k i n d r e p r e s e n t e d b y a few i n d i v i d u a l s . I n b a d l y p o l l u t e d z o n e s
t h i s b i o t a is r e p l a c e d b y a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f r a t t a i l e d m a g g o t s , s l u d g e w o r m s ,
b l o o d w o r m s , a n d a few o t h e r species, r e p r e s e n t e d b y a g r e a t n u m b e r o f
individuals. W h e n d o w n s t r e a m conditions again resemble those of the u p
stream clean water zone, the clean water a n i m a l association tends t o r e a p p e a r
a n d the pollution-tolerant g r o u p of animals b e c o m e suppressed.
P o l l u t i o n - t o l e r a n t a n i m a l s a r e especially well a d a p t e d t o life in t h i c k
sludge deposits a n d to conditions of low dissolved oxygen. T h e rattailed
m a g g o t , for e x a m p l e , p o s s e s s e s a " s n o r k l e l i k e " t e l e s c o p i c a i r t u b e w h i c h is
p u s h e d t h r o u g h t h e surface film t o b r e a t h e a t m o s p h e r i c o x y g e n . T h u s , e v e n
in t o t a l a b s e n c e o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n it s u r v i v e s . T h e s e t y p e s of a n i m a l s a r e
found c o m m o n l y a r o u n d sewage treatment plants near the supernatant
sludge beds.
22 1. Introduction
The relationship between the number of species and the total population
is expressed in terms of a species diversity index (SDI), which is defined in
Eq. (1.2).
SDI = ( 5 - l ) / l o g / (1.2)
where 5, number of species; /, total number of individual organisms counted.
From the preceding discussion it is clear that the SDI is an indication of the
overall condition of the aquatic environment. The higher its value the more
productive is the aquatic system. Its value decreases as pollution increases.
7. E u t r o p h i c a t i o n [4]
Eutrophication is the natural process of lake aging. It progresses irrespective
of man's activities. Pollution, however, hastens the natural rate of aging and
shortens considerably the life expectancy of a body of water.
The general sequence of lake eutrophication is summarized in Fig. 1.11. It
consists of the gradual progression ("ecological succession") of one life stage
to another, based on changes in the degree of nourishment or productivity.
The youngest stage of the life cycle is characterized by low concentration of
plant nutrients and little biological productivity. Such lakes are called oligo-
tropic lakes (from the Greek oligo meaning "few" and trophein meaning "to
nourish," thus oligotropic means few nutrients). At a later stage in the succes
sion, the lake becomes mesotrophic (meso = intermediate); and as the life
cycle continues the lake becomes eutrophic (eu = well) or highly productive.
The final life stage before extinction is a pond, marsh, or swamp.
Enrichment and sedimentation are the principal contributors to the aging
process. Shore vegetation and higher aquatic plants utilize part of the in
flowing nutrients, grow abundantly, and, in turn, trap the sediments. The lake
gradually fills in, becoming shallower by accumulation of plants and sediments
on the bottom, and smaller by the invasion of shore vegetation, and eventually
becoming dry land. The extinction of a lake is, therefore, a result of enrich
ment, productivity, decay, and sedimentation. The effect of nitrogen- and
phosphorus-rich wastewater discharges on accelerating eutrophication has
been discussed in Section 6 of this chapter.
8. T y p e s of W a t e r S u p p l y a n d
Classification of W a t e r
Contaminants
According to their origin, water supplies are classified into three categories:
(1) surface waters, (2) ground waters, and (3) meteorological waters. Surface
waters comprise stream waters (e.g., rivers), oceans, lakes, and impoundment
24 1. Introduction
waters. S t r e a m waters subject t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n exhibit a variable quality

a l o n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s t r e a m , a s d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 6. W a t e r s in l a k e s a n d
i m p o u n d m e n t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e o f a relatively u n i f o r m q u a l i t y . G r o u n d
w a t e r s s h o w , i n g e n e r a l , less t u r b i d i t y t h a n s u r f a c e w a t e r s . M e t e o r o l o g i c a l
waters (rain) are of greater chemical a n d physical purity t h a n either surface
or ground waters.
W a t e r c o n t a m i n a n t s a r e classified i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : (1) c h e m i c a l ,
(2) p h y s i c a l , a n d (3) b i o l o g i c a l c o n t a m i n a n t s . C h e m i c a l c o n t a m i n a n t s c o m
prise b o t h organic and inorganic chemicals. The main concern resulting from
p o l l u t i o n b y o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s is o x y g e n d e p l e t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m u t i l i z a t i o n
o f D O in t h e p r o c e s s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s e c o m p o u n d s . A s d i s
c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 6, t h i s d e p l e t i o n o f D O l e a d s t o u n d e s i r a b l e d i s t u r b a n c e s o f
the environment a n d the biota. In the case of pollution resulting from t h e
p r e s e n c e o f i n o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s t h e m a i n c o n c e r n is t h e i r p o s s i b l e t o x i c
effect, r a t h e r t h a n o x y g e n d e p l e t i o n . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , c a s e s i n w h i c h i n
o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s e x e r t a n o x y g e n d e m a n d , so c o n t r i b u t i n g t o oxygen
d e p l e t i o n . Sulfites a n d n i t r i t e s , for e x a m p l e , t a k e u p o x y g e n , b e i n g o x i d i z e d
t o sulfates a n d n i t r a t e s , respectively [ E q s . (1.3) a n d ( 1 . 4 ) ] .
so|- + *o -> soj- 2

(1.3)
N0 - + ±0
2 2 -> N 0 -3 (1.4)
H e a v y metal ions which are toxic to h u m a n s are i m p o r t a n t c o n t a m i n a n t s .

T h e y o c c u r in i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s f r o m p l a t i n g p l a n t s a n d p a i n t a n d p i g
m e n t industries. These include H g , A s , C u , Z n , N i , C r , P b ,
2 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 2 +
a n d C d . E v e n t h e i r p r e s e n c e in t r a c e q u a n t i t i e s (i.e., m i n i m u m d e t e c t a b l e
2 +
concentrations) causes serious problems.

C o n s i d e r a b l e p r e s s c o v e r a g e h a s b e e n given t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r b y
mercury. Microorganisms convert the mercury ion to methylmercury
( C H H g ) or dimethylmercury [ ( C H ) H g ] . T h e dimethyl c o m p o u n d , being
3 3 2
v o l a t i l e , is e v e n t u a l l y lost t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . M e t h y l m e r c u r y , h o w e v e r , is
a b s o r b e d b y fish tissue a n d m i g h t r e n d e r it u n s u i t a b l e f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n .
M e r c u r y c o n t e n t in fish tissue is t o l e r a b l e u p t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 5 - 2 0 p p m .
M e t h y l m e r c u r y p r e s e n t in fish is a b s o r b e d b y h u m a n tissues a n d e v e n t u a l l y
c o n c e n t r a t e s in c e r t a i n vital o r g a n s s u c h a s t h e b r a i n a n d t h e liver. I n t h e c a s e
o f p r e g n a n t w o m e n it c o n c e n t r a t e s in t h e fetus. R e c e n t l y in J a p a n , t h e r e w e r e
s e v e r a l r e p o r t e d c a s e s of d e a t h s f r o m m e r c u r y p o i s o n i n g , d u e t o h u m a n
c o n s u m p t i o n of m e r c u r y - c o n t a m i n a t e d fish. A n a l y s i s o f fish tissue r e v e a l e d
mercury concentrations of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 110-130 p p m . These high m e r c u r y
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e l a r g e fish i n t a k e in t h e t y p i c a l J a p a n e s e
diet, c a u s e d t h i s t r a g e d y .
References 25
C o n t a m i n a t i o n b y n i t r a t e s is a l s o d a n g e r o u s . F l u o r i d e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
s e e m a c t u a l l y beneficial, t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n p o t a b l e w a t e r s b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c t i o n in t h e e x t e n t o f t o o t h d e c a y . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , c o n
siderable controversy concerning fluoridization of potable water.
S o m e physical c o n t a m i n a n t s i n c l u d e (1) t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e (thermal
p o l l u t i o n ) . T h i s is t h e c a s e o f relatively w a r m w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d b y i n d u s t r i a l
p l a n t s after u s e in h e a t e x c h a n g e r s ( c o o l e r s ) ; (2) c o l o r (e.g., c o o k i n g l i q u o r s
d i s c h a r g e d b y c h e m i c a l p u l p i n g p l a n t s ) ; (3) t u r b i d i t y ( c a u s e d b y d i s c h a r g e s
c o n t a i n i n g s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ) ; (4) f o a m s [ d e t e r g e n t s s u c h a s a l k y l b e n z e n e
s u l f o n a t e ( A B S ) c o n s t i t u t e i m p o r t a n t c a u s e o f f o a m i n g ] ; a n d (5) r a d i o a c t i v i t y .
B i o l o g i c a l c o n t a m i n a n t s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e for t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d i s e a s e s b y
w a t e r s u p p l i e s . S o m e o f t h e diseases t r a n s m i t t e d b y b i o l o g i c a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n
of water are cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, a n d shistosomiasis.
References
1. Bartsch, A . F., and Ingram, W. M , Public Works 9 0 , 104 (1959).
2. Byrd, J. P., AlChE Symp. Ser. 6 8 , 137 (1972).
3. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w York, 1970.
4. Greeson, P. E., Water Resour. BuH. 5 , 1 6 (1969).
5. Klei, W. E., and Sundstrom, D . W., AlChE Symp. Ser. 67, 1 (1971).
6. M c G o v e r n , J. G., Chem. Eng. (N.Y.) 8 0 , 137 (1973).
7. N e m e r o w , N . L., "Liquid Wastes o f Industry: Theories, Practice and Treatment."
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1971.
2
Characterization of Domestic
and Industrial Wastewaters
1. Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewaters 26
2. Measurement of Organic Content: Group 1 — Oxygen Parameter
Methods 27
2.1. Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 27
2.2. Chemical Oxygen Demand ( C O D ) 28
2.3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand ( B O D ) 33
2.4. Total Oxygen Demand ( T O D ) 39
3. Measurement of Organic Content: Group 2—Carbon Parameter
Methods 44
3.1. Wet Oxidation Method for T O C 44
3.2. Carbon Analyzer Determinations 44
3.3. Oxygen Demand-Organic Carbon Correlation 46
4. Mathematical Model for the B O D Curve 47
5. Determination of Parameters k and L 0 48
5.1. Log-Difference Method 48
5.2. Method of M o m e n t s 51
5.3. Thomas' Graphical Method 56
6. Relationship between k and Ratio B O D / B O D 5 u 58
7. Environmental Effects on the B O D Test 58
7.1. Effect of Temperature 58
7.2. Effect of pH 59
8. Nitrification 59
9. Evaluation of Feasibility of Biological Treatment for an Industrial
Wastewater 61
9.1. Introduction 61
9.2. Warburg Respirometer 61
9.3. Batch Reactor Evaluation 65
10. Characteristics of Municipal S e w a g e 65
11. Industrial Wastewater Surveys 66
12. Statistical Correlation of Industrial Waste Survey Data 66
Problems · 68
References 69
1. M e a s u r e m e n t of C o n c e n t r a t i o n
of C o n t a m i n a n t s in W a s t e w a t e r s
C o n t a m i n a n t s in w a s t e w a t e r s a r e u s u a l l y a c o m p l e x m i x t u r e o f o r g a n i c
a n d i n o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s . I t is u s u a l l y i m p r a c t i c a l , if n o t n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e ,
to obtain complete chemical analysis of m o s t wastewaters.
26
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter Methods 27
F o r this reason, a n u m b e r of empirical m e t h o d s for evaluation of c o n

c e n t r a t i o n of c o n t a m i n a n t s in wastewaters h a v e been devised, t h e application
of which does n o t require knowledge of the chemical c o m p o s i t i o n of the
specific wastewater under consideration. The most important standard
m e t h o d s for a n a l y s i s of o r g a n i c c o n t a m i n a n t s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n s 2 a n d
3. F o r d i s c u s s i o n o f a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s f o r specific i n o r g a n i c c o n t a m i n a n t s
in w a s t e w a t e r s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s ( t o t a l s o l i d s , c o l o r ,
o d o r ) , a n d b i o a s s a y tests ( c o l i f o r m s , t o x i c i t y t e s t s ) , t h e r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d t o
Ref. [ 1 3 ] .
S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n is g i v e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r t o t h e b i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d
o f w a s t e w a t e r s ( B O D ) . A m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l f o r t y p i c a l B O D c u r v e s is
d i s c u s s e d , a s well a s t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f feasibility o f b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t f o r
a n industrial wastewater (Sections 4-9). Average characteristics of municipal
sewage a n d the procedure followed in industrial wastewater surveys are
d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n s 10 a n d 1 1 . S i n c e b o t h flow r a t e a n d s e w a g e s t r e n g t h m a y
follow a n a l e a t o r y p a t t e r n o f v a r i a t i o n , it m a y b e d e s i r a b l e t o p e r f o r m a
s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n o f s u c h d a t a . T h i s s u b j e c t is d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 12.
A n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s for o r g a n i c c o n t a m i n a n t s a r e classified i n t o t w o g r o u p s :
Group 1. O x y g e n p a r a m e t e r m e t h o d s
1. T h e o r e t i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ( T h O D )
2. C h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ( C O D ) [ s t a n d a r d d i c h r o m a t e o x i d a t i o n
m e t h o d ; permanganate oxidation test; rapid C O D tests; instrumental C O D
methods ("AquaRator")]
3. B i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ( B O D ) ( d i l u t i o n m e t h o d s ; m a n o m e t r i c
methods)
4. T o t a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ( T O D )
Group 2. C a r b o n p a r a m e t e r m e t h o d s
1. T h e o r e t i c a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n ( T h O C )
2. T o t a l organic carbon (TOC) (wet oxidation method; carbon
analyzer determinations)
2. M e a s u r e m e n t of O r g a n i c
C o n t e n t : G r o u p 1—Oxygen
Parameter Methods
2.1. THEORETICAL OXYGEN D E M A N D (ThOD)
Theoretical oxygen d e m a n d ( T h O D ) corresponds to the stoichiometric
a m o u n t of oxygen required to oxidize completely a given c o m p o u n d . Usually
e x p r e s s e d in m i l l i g r a m s o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e d p e r liter o f s o l u t i o n , it is a c a l
c u l a t e d v a l u e a n d c a n o n l y b e e v a l u a t e d if a c o m p l e t e c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e
w a s t e w a t e r is a v a i l a b l e , w h i c h is v e r y r a r e l y t h e c a s e . T h e r e f o r e , its u t i l i z a t i o n
is very l i m i t e d .
28 2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
T o illustrate t h e calculation of T h O D , consider the simple case of a n

a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n o f a p u r e s u b s t a n c e : a s o l u t i o n o f 1000 m g / l i t e r o f l a c t o s e .
E q u a t i o n (2.1)* c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c o m p l e t e o x i d a t i o n o f l a c t o s e .
(CH 0) + 0
2 2 - C0 2 + H 0
2 (2.1)
Molecular weight: 30 32
T h O D v a l u e is r e a d i l y o b t a i n e d f r o m a s t o i c h i o m e t r i c c a l c u l a t i o n , b a s e d
on Eq. (2.1):
30 (wt. lactose) _ 32 (wt. 0 ) 2
Ϊ000 ~ ThOD
.'. T h O D = (32/30)1000 = 1067 mg/liter
2.2. C H E M I C A L O X Y G E N D E M A N D ( C O D )
C h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d ( C O D ) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a m o u n t of o x y g e n
r e q u i r e d t o o x i d i z e t h e o r g a n i c f r a c t i o n of a s a m p l e w h i c h is s u s c e p t i b l e t o
p e r m a n g a n a t e o r d i c h r o m a t e o x i d a t i o n in a n a c i d s o l u t i o n . Since o x i d a t i o n
p e r f o r m e d i n a C O D l a b o r a t o r y test d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e
s t o i c h i o m e t r i c E q . (2.1), C O D v a l u e is n o t e x p e c t e d t o e q u a l T h O D .
S t a n d a r d C O D tests ( S e c t i o n s 2.2.1 a n d 2.2.2) yield v a l u e s w h i c h v a r y
T A B L E 2.1
Average Values of Oxygen Parameters
for Wastewaters as a Fraction of the
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Taken as
100)*
ThOD 100
TOD 92
C O D (standard method) 83
C O D (rapid tests) 70
BOD 2 0
With nitrification 65
Nitrification suppressed 55
BOD 5
With nitrification 58
Nitrification suppressed 52
a
F o r carbon parameters the T O C represents an
average o f about 95% o f the theoretical organic
carbon ( T h O C ) . Relationships between T h O D
and T h O C are discussed in Section 3 .
* For simplicity in Eq. (2.1), lactose was represented by o n e sugar unit (CH 0).
2
Multiplying this unit by a factor o f 12 o n e obtains Q 2 H 2 4 O 1 2 , which is the molecular

formula for lactose.
2. Organic Content Measurement: Oxygen Parameter M e t h o d s 29
f r o m 8 0 - 8 5 % of t h e T h O D , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e
w a s t e w a t e r b e i n g t e s t e d . R a p i d C O D tests, d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 3 , yield
v a l u e s e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 % of T h O D v a l u e .
A p p r o x i m a t e relationships between the various oxygen a n d c a r b o n p a r a m
eters a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 . 1 , a s e s t i m a t e d f r o m a g r a p h in E c k e n f e l d e r
a n d F o r d [ 4 ] . V a l u e s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2.1 a r e t y p i c a l a v e r a g e v a l u e s ; c o r r e c t
r e l a t i o n s h i p s s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d for t h e w a s t e w a t e r in q u e s t i o n , a s t h e y a r e
d e p e n d e n t u p o n its c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . T h u s , v a l u e s in T a b l e 2.1 a r e o n l y
u t i l i z e d f o r r o u g h e s t i m a t e s in t h e a b s e n c e o f a c t u a l d a t a . F o u r t y p e s o f C O D
tests a r e d e s c r i b e d n e x t .
2.2.1. S t a n d a r d D i c h r o m a t e Oxidation
M e t h o d [5, 8,13]
T h e s t a n d a r d d i c h r o m a t e C O D test is w i d e l y u s e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e c o n
c e n t r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r in w a s t e w a t e r s . T h e t e s t is p e r f o r m e d b y h e a t i n g
u n d e r t o t a l reflux c o n d i t i o n s a m e a s u r e d s a m p l e w i t h a k n o w n excess o f
p o t a s s i u m d i c h r o m a t e ( K C r 0 ) , in t h e p r e s e n c e o f sulfuric a c i d ( H S 0 ) ,
2 2 7 2 4
f o r a 2 - h r p e r i o d . O r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e s a m p l e is o x i d i z e d a n d , a s a r e s u l t ,
y e l l o w d i c h r o m a t e is c o n s u m e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y g r e e n c h r o m i c [ E q . ( 2 . 2 ) ] .
Silver sulfate ( A g S 0 ) is a d d e d a s c a t a l y s t .
2 4
C r 0 ? ~ + 14H+ + 6e ^
2 2Cr 3 +
+ 7H 0 2 (2.2)
M e a s u r e m e n t is p e r f o r m e d b y t i t r a t i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g d i c h r o m a t e o r b y
determining colorimetrically the green chromic produced. T h e titration
m e t h o d is m o r e a c c u r a t e , b u t m o r e t e d i o u s . T h e c o l o r i m e t r i c m e t h o d , w h e n
p e r f o r m e d w i t h a g o o d p h o t o e l e c t r i c c o l o r i m e t e r o r s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r , is
m o r e r a p i d , easier, a n d sufficiently a c c u r a t e for all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s .
If c h l o r i d e s a r e p r e s e n t in t h e w a s t e w a t e r , t h e y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e C O D test
since c h l o r i d e s a r e o x i d i z e d b y d i c h r o m a t e a c c o r d i n g t o E q . ( 2 . 3 ) .
6C1" + C r 0 ? ~ + 1 4 H 2
+
- 3 C l 4- 2 C r
2
3 +
+ 7H 0 2 (2.3)
T h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e is p r e v e n t e d b y a d d i t i o n o f m e r c u r i c sulfate ( H g S 0 ) t o t h e 4
mixture, as H g 2 +
combines with C I " to form mercuric chloride ( H g C l ) , 2
w h i c h is essentially n o n i o n i z e d . A 10:1 r a t i o o f H g S 0 : C l " is r e c o m m e n d e d . 4
This corresponds to the following chemical reaction [Eq. (2.4)].
Hg 2 +
+ 2C1- - HgCl j 2 (2.4)
T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e A g S 0 c a t a l y s t is r e q u i r e d for o x i d a t i o n o f s t r a i g h t -
2 4
c h a i n a l c o h o l s a n d a c i d s . If insufficient q u a n t i t y o f H g S 0 is a d d e d , t h e excess 4
Cl~ precipitates the A g S 0 catalyst, thus leading to erroneously low values

2 4
for t h e C O D test. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n
[Eq. (2.5)].
A g + C1" - A g C l i +
(2.5)
S t a n d a r d f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate [ F e ( N H ) ( S 0 ) - 6 H 0 ] 4 2 4 2 2 is u s e d
for t h e t i t r a t i o n m e t h o d . O r d i n a r i l y , s t a n d a r d f e r r o u s sulfate loses s t r e n g t h
with age, due to air oxidation. Daily standardization and mathematical
c o r r e c t i o n in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f C O D t o a c c o u n t for t h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e
r e c o m m e n d e d [ 1 3 ] . C a d m i u m addition to the stock bottle of ferrous sulfate
completely prevents deterioration. Ferrous sulfate available from Hach
C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y for t h e C O D t e s t is p r e s e r v e d in t h i s m a n n e r , s o t h a t n o
further standardization checks are required.
T h e r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e is t o c o o l t h e s a m p l e after t h e 2 - h r d i g e s t i o n
w i t h K C r 0 , a d d five d r o p s of f e r r o i n i n d i c a t o r , a n d t i t r a t e w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d
2 2 7
f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate s o l u t i o n u n t i l a r e d - b r o w n c o l o r is o b t a i n e d . T h e
e n d p o i n t is v e r y s h a r p . F e r r o i n i n d i c a t o r s o l u t i o n m a y b e p u r c h a s e d a l r e a d y
p r e p a r e d (it is a n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n of 1 , 1 0 - p h e n a n t h r o l i n e m o n o h y d r a t e a n d
F e S 0 - 7 H 0 ) . T h e r e d - b r o w n c o l o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e n d p o i n t is d u e t o
4 2
f o r m a t i o n of a c o m p l e x o f f e r r o u s i o n w i t h p h e n a n t h r o l i n e . E q u a t i o n (2.6)
c o r r e s p o n d s t o o x i d a t i o n o f f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate b y d i c h r o m a t e .
C r 0 ? " + 14H + 6 F e
2
+ 2 +
^ 2Cr 3 +
+ 6Fe 3 +
+ 7H 0 2
(2.6)
E q u a t i o n (2.7) c o r r e s p o n d s t o f o r m a t i o n o f t h e ferrous-phenanthroline
c o m p l e x , w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e a s s o o n a s all d i c h r o m a t e is r e d u c e d t o C r 3 +
, and
t h e r e f o r e f u r t h e r a d d i t i o n of f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate r e s u l t s in a n excess
of F e 2 +
(ferrous ion).
Fe(C 1 2 H N )i
8 2
+
+ e ^ Fe(C H N )§
1 2 8 2
+
(2.7)
phenanthroline-ferric phenanthroline-ferrous
(pale blue) (red-brown)
Details concerning preparation a n d standardization of reagents a n d cal

c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e a r e given in R e f s . [ 5 ] , [ 8 ] , a n d [ 1 3 ] . R e p r o d u c i b i l i t y o f
t h e C O D t e s t is affected b y t h e reflux t i m e . C O D v a l u e o b t a i n e d i n c r e a s e s
w i t h reflux t i m e u p t o a b o u t 7 h r a n d t h e n r e m a i n s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t [ 4 ] .
I n s t e a d o f refluxing f o r 7 h r o r m o r e , a p r a c t i c a l reflux t i m e o f 2 h r is r e c o m
m e n d e d in the standard procedure.
2.2.2. Permanganate Oxidation Test

R e c o m m e n d e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d m e t h o d u n t i l 1965, t h i s test h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d
b y t h e d i c h r o m a t e test j u s t d e s c r i b e d . T h i s t e s t utilizes p o t a s s i u m p e r m a n
ganate ( K M n 0 ) instead of d i c h r o m a t e as the oxidizing agent.
4
T h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e is b o i l e d w i t h a m e a s u r e d excess o f p e r m a n g a n a t e
in a c i d s o l u t i o n ( H S 0 ) f o r 3 0 m i n . T h e p i n k s o l u t i o n is c o o l e d a n d a k n o w n
2 4
excess o f a m m o n i u m o x a l a t e [ ( N H ) C 0 ] is a d d e d , t h e s o l u t i o n b e c o m i n g
4 2 2 4
c o l o r l e s s . E x c e s s o x a l a t e is t h e n t i t r a t e d w i t h K M n 0 s o l u t i o n u n t i l t h e p i n k
4
c o l o r r e t u r n s . O x a l a t e u s e d is c a l c u l a t e d b y difference, a n d permanganate
utilized is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m s i m p l e s t o i c h i o m e t r y . E q u a t i o n (2.8) c o r r e s p o n d s
t o o x i d a t i o n of t h e o x a l a t e .
5 C O i - + 2 M n 0 " + 16H
2 4
+
10CO + 2 M n
2
2 +
+ 8H 0 2 (2.8)
2.2.3. Rapid C O D Tests

S e v e r a l r a p i d C O D tests h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d i n v o l v i n g d i g e s t i o n with
d i c h r o m a t e for p e r i o d s o f t i m e s h o r t e r t h a n t h e 2 h r p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e s t a n d a r d
test. I n o n e of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s , t h e w a s t e w a t e r is d i g e s t e d w i t h t h e K C r 0 -
2 2 7
H S0 -AgS0
2 4 4 s o l u t i o n a t 165°C for 15 m i n . T h e s o l u t i o n is d i l u t e d w i t h
distilled w a t e r a n d t i t r a t e d w i t h f e r r o u s a m m o n i u m sulfate, a s in t h e s t a n d a r d
method.
I n t h i s test, C O D yield for d o m e s t i c s l u d g e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
6 5 % of the value obtained by the s t a n d a r d m e t h o d . F o r o t h e r wastewaters,
C O D yield r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e r a p i d a n d t h e s t a n d a r d test v a r i e s d e p e n d i n g o n
t h e n a t u r e of t h e w a s t e w a t e r .
2.2.4. Instrumental C O D M e t h o d s [ 1 1 , 1 4 , 1 5 ]
I n s t r u m e n t a l C O D m e t h o d s a r e v e r y fast a n d yield r e p r o d u c i b l e r e s u l t s . I n
this section, the Precision A q u a R a t o r developed by the D o w Chemical
C o m p a n y a n d licensed t o t h e P r e c i s i o n Scientific C o m p a n y is d e s c r i b e d . T h e
C O D measurement requires only a b o u t 2 min and d a t a are reproducible to
w i t h i n ± 3 % o r b e t t e r . R e s u l t s c o r r e l a t e well w i t h t h o s e of t h e s t a n d a r d C O D
m e t h o d a n d are m u c h m o r e consistent t h a n B O D tests, which typically vary
by ± 1 5 % .
T h e A q u a R a t o r is d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e o x y g e n d e m a n d in t h e r a n g e o f
1 0 - 3 0 0 m g / l i t e r . S a m p l e s of h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e h a n d l e d b y p r e l i m i n a r y
d i l u t i o n of t h e s a m p l e . A flow d i a g r a m o f t h e P r e c i s i o n A q u a R a t o r is s h o w n
in F i g . 2 . 1 .
A 20-μ1 s a m p l e (20 χ 1 0 " liter » 0 . 0 2 c m ) , h o m o g e n i z e d if n e c e s s a r y , is
6 3
injected b y a s y r i n g e i n t o t h e P r e c i s i o n A q u a R a t o r . (See s a m p l e i n j e c t i o n
p o r t , S I P . ) T h e s a m p l e is s w e p t t h r o u g h a p l a t i n u m c a t a l y t i c c o m b u s t i o n
furnace (SF) by a stream of dry C 0 , which oxidizes t h e c o n t a m i n a n t s t o C O
2
a n d H 0 . W a t e r is s t r i p p e d o u t in a d r y i n g t u b e ( D T ) , a n d r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s
2
are then passed through a second platinum catalytic treatment. T h e C O con

c e n t r a t i o n is m e a s u r e d b y a n i n t e g r a l n o n d i s p e r s i v e i n f r a r e d a n a l y z e r ( I A ) ,
sensitized for c a r b o n m o n o x i d e . T h e r e s u l t a n t r e a d i n g is d i r e c t l y c o n v e r t e d t o
C O D b y u s e of a c a l i b r a t i o n c h a r t .
C a r b o n d i o x i d e flow is set a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 130 c m / m i n b y t h e flow
3
c o n t r o l s y s t e m . A n y t r a c e of o x y g e n p r e s e n t in t h e feed g a s is r e d u c e d b y a
"purifying" c a r b o n furnace ( P C F ) , yielding a b a c k g r o u n d gas s t r e a m of C O
PCF
Regulator Gas "purifying" carbon furnace
set at
10 psig
SIP
Sample
Control Flow meter
valve injection
Check port with
Q F
ο , * valve purging
Sample furnace manifold
-Start
Differential
pressure
regulator
(preset)
J
Bone dry [Exhaust
C0 9
DT gas
Drying
tube
Connection
to external recorder
Fig. 2.1. Flow diagram of Precision AquaRator [ 1 1 ] . (Courtesy of Precision

Scientific Company.)
and C 0 2 w h i c h is i n d i c a t e d a s a n o r m a l b a s e l i n e o f t h e r e c o r d e r . T h e s a m p l e
is injected i n t o t h e s a m p l e f u r n a c e ( S F ) , w h e r e c o n t a m i n a n t s a n d C 0 2 react
to form a typical mixture of C O , C 0 , a n d H 0 . T h e infrared analyzer (IA)
2 2
d e t e r m i n e s t h e i n c r e a s e o f C O c o n t e n t in t h e g a s s t r e a m , w h i c h is d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o C O D o f t h e s a m p l e . E x h a u s t g a s is t h e n d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h a
s a m p l e inlet p u r g i n g m a n i f o l d .
T h e A q u a R a t o r t h e o r y is d i s c u s s e d in S t e n g e r a n d V a n H a l l [ 1 4 , 1 5 ] .
E q u a t i o n s (2.9) a n d (2.10) i n d i c a t e t h e t y p e s o f r e a c t i o n s t h a t t a k e p l a c e
w h e n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l is c o m b u s t e d in a t m o s p h e r e s o f o x y g e n a n d c a r b o n
d i o x i d e , respectively.
Ο,Η,,Ν,Ο, + (w/2)0 - 2 aC0 2 + (6/2) H 0 + ( c / 2 ) N

2 2 (2.9)
C H„N O
e c d + mC0 2 - (m + a ) C O + ( 6 / 2 ) H 0 + ( c / 2 ) N
2 2 (2.10)
If o x y g e n r e q u i r e d i n E q . (2.9) c o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d e x a c t l y , it w o u l d r e p r e
s e n t t h e T h O D of t h e s a m p l e . I d e a l l y , t h e d i c h r o m a t e C O D determination
a p p r o a c h e s t h i s v a l u e , b u t s o m e c o m p o u n d s a r e difficult t o o x i d i z e b y t h e
d i c h r o m a t e t r e a t m e n t . O x i d a t i o n w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e in t h e A q u a R a t o r is m o r e
vigorous than dichromate oxidation, a n d t h u s results represent a more
realistic level of o x y g e n d e m a n d of t h e c o n t a m i n a n t s p r e s e n t .
T h e o r i g i n a t o r s o f t h e m e t h o d u s e d in t h e A q u a R a t o r [ 1 4 , 1 5 ] d e m o n s t r a t e d
t h a t (m + a) in E q . (2.10) is e q u a l t o η in E q . ( 2 . 9 ) ; t h a t is, t h e n u m b e r of m o l e s
o f c a r b o n m o n o x i d e p r o d u c e d is t h e s a m e a s t h e n u m b e r of o x y g e n a t o m s
required. Therefore, instrument readings of c a r b o n m o n o x i d e formed are

d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d . C a l i b r a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t b y
injecting s t a n d a r d s o l u t i o n s of s o d i u m a c e t a t e t r i h y d r a t e , f o r w h i c h o x y g e n
d e m a n d in m i l l i g r a m s p e r liter c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . A g r a p h o f o x y g e n d e m a n d
vs. r e c o r d e r o u t p u t ( c h a r t d i v i s i o n s ) is all t h a t is r e q u i r e d for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
unknown contaminant demand.
2.3. B I O C H E M I C A L O X Y G E N D E M A N D ( B O D )
B i o c h e m i c a l o x y g e n d e m a n d is u s e d a s a m e a s u r e o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f o x y g e n
r e q u i r e d for o x i d a t i o n o f b i o d e g r a d a b l e o r g a n i c m a t t e r p r e s e n t in t h e w a t e r
s a m p l e b y a e r o b i c b i o c h e m i c a l a c t i o n . O x y g e n d e m a n d o f w a s t e w a t e r s is
e x e r t e d b y t h r e e classes o f m a t e r i a l s : (1) c a r b o n a c e o u s o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s
u s a b l e a s a s o u r c e o f f o o d b y a e r o b i c o r g a n i s m s ; (2) o x i d i z a b l e n i t r o g e n
d e r i v e d f r o m n i t r i t e , a m m o n i a , a n d o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n c o m p o u n d s w h i c h serve
a s f o o d for specific b a c t e r i a (e.g., Nitrosomonas a n d Nitrobacter). This type
o f o x i d a t i o n (nitrification) is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 8 ; a n d (3) c h e m i c a l r e d u c i n g
c o m p o u n d s , e.g., f e r r o u s i o n ( F e 2 +
) , sulfites ( S O 2 -
) , a n d sulfide (S ~),
2
which are oxidized by dissolved oxygen.

F o r d o m e s t i c s e w a g e , n e a r l y all o x y g e n d e m a n d is d u e t o c a r b o n a c e o u s
o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s a n d is d e t e r m i n e d b y B O D tests d e s c r i b e d in Sections
2.3.1 a n d 2.3.2. F o r effluents s u b j e c t e d t o b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t , a c o n s i d e r a b l e
p a r t o f t h e o x y g e n d e m a n d m a y b e d u e t o n i t r i f i c a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 8 of t h i s
chapter).
2.3.1. B O D Dilution Test

D e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d i l u t i o n t e s t a s well a s p r e p a r a t i o n of r e a g e n t s
is given in Ref. [ 1 3 ] . P r o c e d u r e is given b e l o w .
1. P r e p a r e several d i l u t i o n s o f t h e s a m p l e t o b e a n a l y z e d w i t h distilled
water of high purity. R e c o m m e n d e d dilutions depend on estimated concen
t r a t i o n o f c o n t a m i n a n t s r e s p o n s i b l e for o x y g e n d e m a n d . F o r h i g h l y contam
i n a t e d w a t e r s , d i l u t i o n r a t i o s ( m l of d i l u t e d s a m p l e / m l of o r i g i n a l sample)
m a y b e o f 1 0 0 : 1 . F o r river w a t e r s , t h e s a m p l e m a y b e t a k e n w i t h o u t dilution
for l o w p o l l u t i o n s t r e a m s , a n d in o t h e r c a s e s d i l u t i o n r a t i o s o f 4:1 m a y be
utilized.
2. I n c u b a t i o n b o t t l e s (250- t o 3 0 0 - m l c a p a c i t y ) , w i t h g r o u n d - g l a s s
s t o p p e r s a r e utilized. I n t h e B O D b o t t l e o n e p l a c e s (a) t h e d i l u t e d s a m p l e
(i.e., t h e " s u b s t r a t e " ) , (b) a seed of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ( u s u a l l y t h e s u p e r n a t a n t
l i q u o r f r o m d o m e s t i c s e w a g e ) , a n d (c) n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n for t h e m i c r o
organisms. This solution contains sodium and potassium phosphates and
a m m o n i u m chloride (nitrogen a n d p h o s p h o r u s are elements needed as
n u t r i e n t s for m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ) .
T h e p H of t h e s o l u t i o n in t h e B O D b o t t l e s h o u l d b e a b o u t 7.0 ( n e u t r a l ) .
P h o s p h a t e s o l u t i o n utilized is a buffer. F o r samples containing caustic

a l k a l i n i t y o r acidity, n e u t r a l i z a t i o n t o a b o u t p H 7 is m a d e w i t h d i l u t e H S 0 2 4
o r N a O H p r i o r t o t h e B O D test.
F o r each B O D bottle a control bottle, which does not contain the substrate,
is a l s o p r e p a r e d .
3. B o t t l e s a r e i n c u b a t e d a t 2 0 ° C . E a c h s u c c e e d i n g 2 4 - h r p e r i o d , a s a m p l e
bottle and a corresponding control bottle are taken from the incubator, a n d
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in b o t h is d e t e r m i n e d a s d e s c r i b e d a t t h e e n d of t h i s s e c t i o n .
T h e difference between concentrations of dissolved oxygen (mg/liter) in
c o n t r o l b o t t l e a n d i n s a m p l e b o t t l e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e o x y g e n u t i l i z e d in
biochemical oxidation of c o n t a m i n a n t s [ E q . (2.11)].
y (mg/liter) = D O (control bottle) - D O (sample bottle) (2.11)
V a l u e s o f y ( B O D , m g / l i t e r ) a r e p l o t t e d vs. i n c u b a t i o n t i m e t ( d a y s ) . A t y p i c a l
B O D c u r v e for o x i d a t i o n of c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l s is s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 2 .
C u r v e s for cases w h e r e nitrification t a k e s p l a c e a r e d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 8.
b-BODy
t: Incubation time (days)
Fig. 2.2. Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials.
O x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n in t h e B O D test is v e r y slow. A t y p i c a l c u r v e ( F i g . 2.2)

o n l y r e a c h e s t h e l i m i t i n g B O D in a b o u t 2 0 d a y s o r m o r e . T h i s v a l u e is called
ultimate BOD, d e n o t e d a s B O D . M
I t is i m p r a c t i c a l t o m o n i t o r c o n t i n u o u s l y a process stream in terms of B O D

b e c a u s e o f t h e t i m e f a c t o r i n v o l v e d in t h e test. I n p r a c t i c e , B O D is r e p o r t e d
i n t e r m s o f 5-day B O D , d e n o t e d a s B O D 5 ( F i g . 2.2). E v e n 5 d a y s is t o o l o n g
a p e r i o d of t i m e t o w a i t for t h e r e s u l t o f a test.
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t i c e t h a t t h e v a l u e o f B O D is n o t e q u a l t o T h O D ,
M
b e c a u s e in t h e B O D b o t t l e n o t all s u b s t r a t e is o x i d i z e d . R a t i o s o f v a l u e s o f
B O D (or B O D ) to T h O D depend o n the chemical composition of the waste
M 5
w a t e r . A v e r a g e v a l u e s a r e given in T a b l e 2 . 1 .
T h e ratio of B O D 5 to B O D M also varies according t o the substrate. F o r
domestic sewage, this ratio is approximately 0.77 [Eq. (2.12)].
BOD /BOD 5 M = 0.77 (2.12)
Considerable experience is required to obtain reliable results in the BOD

dilution test. In general, reproducibility of results is not better than ±15%.
Some of the difficulties involved in the BOD dilution test are discussed in the
next sections. Because of these fluctuations it is recommended that several
BOD bottles be taken from the incubator every 24 hr and that statistical
averaging of results be performed.
a. Ratio of COD and BOD u
It has just been stated that values of BOD and ThOD are not equal. M
Similarly, the value of BOD is generally lower than that for COD obtained
M
by the standard dichromate oxidation method, as indicated in Table 2.1. The

reasons are that (1) many organic compounds which are oxidized by K C r 0 2 2 7
are not biochemically oxidizable and (2) certain inorganic ions such as sulfides
( S " ) , thiosulfates ( S 0 3 ~ ) , sulfites ( S O 3 " ) , nitrites ( N 0 " ) , and ferrous ion
2
2 2
( F e ) are oxidized by K C r 0 , thus accounting for inorganic COD, which

2 +
2 2 7
is not detected by the BOD test.
b. Effect of Seeding and Acclimation of Seed on

the BOD Test
One of the most frequent reasons for unreliable BOD values is utilization
of an insufficient amount of microorganism seed. Another serious problem
for industrial wastes is acclimation of seed. For many industrial wastes, the
presence of toxic materials interferes with growth of the microorganism
population. BOD curves obtained exhibit a time lag period (Fig. 2.3).
Low BOD values are obtained if adequate corrective action is not taken.
It becomes necessary to acclimate the microorganism seed to the specific
t (days)
Fig. 2.3. Lag period in BOD test.

waste. This is achieved by starting with a sample of settled domestic sewage

which contains a large variety of microorganisms, and adding a small amount
of industrial effluent. Air is bubbled through this mixture. The operation is
performed in bench scale reactors of either continuous or batch type. These
reactors are described in Chapter 5, Section 6.1.
The process is repeated with gradual increase in the proportion of industrial
waste to domestic sewage, until a microbial culture acclimated to the specific
industrial waste is developed. This may be a long and difficult procedure for
very toxic industrial wastewaters. When an acclimated culture has been
developed, the BOD curve does not present a lag period, thus becoming a
typical BOD curve of the general shape shown in Fig. 2.2.
c. Effect of Presence of Algae on the BOD Test
Presence of algae in the wastewater being tested affects the BOD test. If
the sample is incubated in the presence of light, low BOD values are obtained
owing to production of oxygen by photosynthesis, which satisfies part of the
oxygen demand. On the other hand, if incubation is performed in darkness,
algae survive for a while. Thus, short-term BOD determinations show the
effect of oxygen on them. After a period in the dark, algae die and algal cells
contribute to the increase of total organic content of the sample, thus leading
to high BOD values. Therefore, the effect of algae on the BOD test is difficult
to evaluate.
d. Glucose-Glutamic Acid Check

The quality of dilution water, which if contaminated leads to incorrect
BOD values, the effectiveness of the seed, and the analytical technique are
checked periodically by using pure organic compounds for which BOD is
known or determinable. One of the most commonly used is a mixture of
glucose ( C H 0 ) and glutamic acid [ H O O C C H C H C H ( N H ) C O O H ] .
6 1 2 6 2 2 2
A mixture of 150 mg/liter of each is recommended. Pure glucose has an

exceptionally high oxidation rate with relatively simple seeds. When used with
glutamic acid, the oxidation rate is stabilized and is similar to that of most
municipal wastewaters. BOD of the standard glucose-glutamic acid solution
is 220 ± 1 1 mg/liter. Any appreciable divergence from these values raises
questions concerning quality of the distilled water or viability of the seeding
material. If a variation greater than ± 2 0 - 2 2 mg/liter occurs more frequently
than 5% of the time, this indicates a faulty technique.
e. Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The BOD dilution method requires determinations of the amount of dis
solved oxygen. These determinations are performed by either titration or
instrumental methods. The basic titration method is that of Winkler. Waste-
w a t e r s m a y c o n t a i n several i o n s a n d c o m p o u n d s w h i c h i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e
original D O determination. T o eliminate these interferences, several m o d i
fications of the basic m e t h o d have been p r o p o s e d [ 1 3 ] . A brief description
follows of the azide modification of W i n k l e r ' s m e t h o d , which effectively
r e m o v e s i n t e r f e r e n c e c a u s e d b y n i t r i t e s . T h i s is t h e m o s t c o m m o n i n t e r f e r e n c e
f o u n d in p r a c t i c e . O t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o r e m o v e i n t e r f e r e n c e s a r e d e s c r i b e d
in Ref. [ 1 3 ] .
W i n k l e r ' s m e t h o d is b a s e d o n o x i d a t i o n o f i o d i d e i o n ( I " ) , w h i c h is c o n
tained in the alkali-iodide-azide reagent, to iodine ( I ) by dissolved oxygen 2
of the sample, a n d titration of the iodine by s o d i u m thiosulfate ( N a S 0 ) , 2 2 3
utilizing s t a r c h a s i n d i c a t o r . O x i d a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d i n a c i d m e d i u m ( H S 0 ) 2 4
in t h e p r e s e n c e o f m a n g a n e s e sulfate ( M n S 0 ) . T h e 4 alkali-iodide-azide
r e a g e n t is a s o l u t i o n o f N a O H , N a l , a n d N a N 3 (sodium azide).
E q u a t i o n (2.13) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e o x i d a t i o n of I " t o I . 2
2 1 - -> I + 2e 2 (2.13)
I n t e r f e r e n c e o f n i t r i t e s is d u e t o t h e i r o x i d a t i o n t o N O w i t h f o r m a t i o n o f I 2
[Eq. (2.14)].
2 N 0 " + 21- + 4 H
2
+
- 2NO + I + 2 H 0
2 2 (2.14)
Titration of I 2 b y t h i o s u l f a t e c o r r e s p o n d s t o E q . (2.15) [ t h i o s u l f a t e (S 0|")

2
is o x i d i z e d t o t e t r a t h i o n a t e ( S 0 6 ) " ] .
4
2S 0§- + I
2 2 S Oi" + 21-
4 (2.15)
S t a r c h yields a b l u e c o l o r in t h e p r e s e n c e o f i o d i n e . T i t r a t i o n w i t h s o d i u m
t h i o s u l f a t e is c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e b l u e c o l o r d i s a p p e a r s .
A v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e utilizes a n e w r e a g e n t ( p h e n y l a r s i n e o x i d e ,
P A O ) instead of s o d i u m thiosulfate. This reagent h a s the a d v a n t a g e of being
stable, whereas s o d i u m thiosulfate deteriorates rapidly a n d should be re-
standardized before each determination. A description of this i m p r o v e d
p r o c e d u r e is f o u n d i n Ref. [ 8 ] .
I n s t r u m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is p e r f o r m e d b y D O
a n a l y z e r s . A d i a g r a m o f a t y p i c a l m o d e l o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t is s h o w n i n F i g .
2 . 4 . T h e D O a n a l y z e r is a g a l v a n i c s y s t e m w h i c h utilizes a c y l i n d e r - s h a p e d
l e a d a n o d e s u r r o u n d i n g a r o d - s h a p e d silver c a t h o d e . B o t h e l e c t r o d e s a r e
c o v e r e d b y a l a y e r o f K O H e l e c t r o l y t e c o n t a i n e d in a t h i n e l e c t r o l y t i c p a d . A
p l a s t i c m e m b r a n e c o v e r s t h e e l e c t r o d e s a n d e l e c t r o l y t e a n d serves a s a selective
diffusion b a r r i e r w h i c h is p e r m e a b l e t o all g a s e s , i n c l u d i n g m o l e c u l a r o x y g e n ,
b u t is v i r t u a l l y i m p e r m e a b l e t o i o n i c species w h i c h m a y b e p r e s e n t in t h e w a s t e
w a t e r s . T o m e a s u r e D O t h e p r o b e is d i p p e d i n t o t h e s a m p l e . A cell c u r r e n t
w h i c h is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s a m p l e is m e a s u r e d
directly in t e r m s o f m g / l i t e r o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n b y t h e n e e d l e in t h e o x y g e n
Fig. 2.4. Dissolved oxygen analyzer.
m e t e r . T h e s a m p l e is c o n s t a n t l y s t i r r e d d u r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t , since o n l y u n d e r
t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s is t h e c u r r e n t d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a
t i o n in t h e b u l k o f t h e t e s t s a m p l e . C a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e D O a n a l y z e r is p e r f o r m e d
b y m e a s u r i n g t h e D O of a s a m p l e o f k n o w n o x y g e n c o n t e n t , w h i c h is d e t e r
mined by standard analytical m e t h o d s (namely, the Winkler m e t h o d ) [ 1 3 ] .
2.3.2. B O D M a n o m e t r i c M e t h o d s
T h e m a n o m e t r i c a p p a r a t u s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n is t h e H a c h M o d e l
2173 [ 7 ] . T h e H a c h B O D a p p a r a t u s has been c o m p a r e d with the s t a n d a r d
dilution m e t h o d u n d e r controlled l a b o r a t o r y conditions. In routine analysis
it gives n e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t r e s u l t s a n d p r e c i s i o n . Since a p h y s i c a l c h a n g e is
o b s e r v e d , c h e m i c a l l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s is n o t r e q u i r e d . A d i a g r a m s h o w i n g
o n l y o n e b o t t l e is d e p i c t e d in F i g . 2 . 5 . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n is a s f o l l o w s :
A m e a s u r e d s a m p l e of s e w a g e o r w a s t e w a t e r is p l a c e d in a b o t t l e o n t h e
a p p a r a t u s , w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d t o a c l o s e d - e n d m e r c u r y m a n o m e t e r . A b o v e
t h e s e w a g e o r w a t e r s a m p l e is a q u a n t i t y of air ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2 1 % o x y g e n b y v o l u m e ) . O v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e b a c t e r i a in t h e s e w a g e utilizes
t h e o x y g e n t o o x i d i z e o r g a n i c m a t t e r p r e s e n t in t h e s a m p l e , a n d t h u s d i s s o l v e d
o x y g e n is c o n s u m e d . A i r in t h e c l o s e d s a m p l e b o t t l e r e p l e n i s h e s t h e utilized
o x y g e n , t h u s r e s u l t i n g in a d r o p of a i r p r e s s u r e in t h e s a m p l e b o t t l e . M e r c u r y
in t h e leg o f t h e m a n o m e t e r c o n n e c t e d t o t h e b o t t l e m o v e s u p w a r d , a s i n d i c a t e d
b y t h e a r r o w i n F i g . 2 . 5 . T h u s , t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p is r e g i s t e r e d o n t h e m e r c u r y
m a n o m e t e r a n d r e a d directly in m g / l i t e r B O D . P r i o r t o s t a r t i n g t h e test, set

screws o n t h e m a n o m e t e r scale a r e l o o s e n e d a n d t h e z e r o m a r k is set a t t h e t o p
of the mercury c o l u m n .
D u r i n g t h e t e s t p e r i o d (5 d a y s for B O D ) , t h e s y s t e m is i n c u b a t e d a t 2 0 ° C
5
a n d t h e s a m p l e c o n t i n u a l l y a g i t a t e d b y a m a g n e t i c s t i r r i n g b a r , w h i c h is
r o t a t e d b y a p u l l e y s y s t e m c o n n e c t e d t o a m o t o r . C a r b o n d i o x i d e is p r o d u c e d
b y o x i d a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r , a n d m u s t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s y s t e m s o t h a t
it d o e s n o t d e v e l o p a p o s i t i v e g a s p r e s s u r e w h i c h w o u l d r e s u l t in a n e r r o r .
T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a d d i t i o n o f a few d r o p s o f p o t a s s i u m h y d r o x i d e
s o l u t i o n in t h e seal c u p o f e a c h s a m p l e b o t t l e . B O D r e a d i n g s a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y
c h e c k e d b y utilizing t h e s t a n d a r d g l u c o s e - g l u t a m i c a c i d s o l u t i o n .
W h e n high oxygen d e m a n d s are encountered the sample m u s t be diluted.
A c c u r a c y o f t h e m a n o m e t r i c test is c l a i m e d a s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f t h e
d i l u t i o n test.
2.4. T O T A L O X Y G E N D E M A N D ( T O D ) [6, 9,17 ]

U s e f u l n e s s of t h e s t a n d a r d C O D m e t h o d is d u e t o t h e fact t h a t r e s u l t s a r e
o b t a i n e d in 2 h r , r a t h e r t h a n t h e 5 d a y s t a k e n f o r t h e c o m m o n B O D m e a s u r e
m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e C O D m e t h o d is k n o w n not t o o x i d i z e c o n t a m i n a n t s a s
p y r i d i n e , b e n z e n e , a n d a m m o n i a , a l t h o u g h for m a n y o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s
oxidation h a s been reported as 9 5 - 1 0 0 % of the theoretical.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e a r c h for i m p r o v e d a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s for d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f o x y g e n d e m a n d h a s f o c u s e d o n t e c h n i q u e s [ 6 ] w h i c h a r e (1) m e a n i n g f u l
a n d c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e a c c e p t e d p a r a m e t e r s for c o n t r o l a n d surveillance;
(2) r a p i d , s o r e s u l t s a r e k n o w n in m i n u t e s , n o t h o u r s o r d a y s ; a n d (3) t r u l y
adaptable to automation and continuous monitoring.
T h e Ionics m o d e l 225 T o t a l Oxygen D e m a n d ( T O D ) Analyzer determines
t o t a l o x y g e n d e m a n d w i t h i n 3 m i n . F i g u r e 2.6 s h o w s t h e f u n c t i o n a l e l e m e n t s
of the system which includes the injection system, the c o m b u s t i o n unit, the
oxygen sensor assembly, a n d the recorder.
CATALYST RECORDER
SCRUBBER-
DETECTOR CELL
ASSEMBLY
COMBUSTION
TUBE
Fig. 2.6. Flow diagram for the TOD analyzer [ 6 ] . (Reprinted with permission.
Copyright by The American Chemical Society.)
T h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e is t r a n s m i t t e d b y a n a i r - o p e r a t e d a s p i r a t o r t o t h e
l i q u i d i n j e c t i o n v a l v e . U p o n a c t u a t i o n , t h e v a l v e delivers a 20-μ1 (0.02 c m ) 3
s a m p l e i n t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h e s a m p l i n g s y s t e m is c o n t r o l l e d b y a n
adjustable p r o g r a m timer or by a m a n u a l pushbutton. A carrier gas (nitrogen)
c o n t a i n i n g a s m a l l a m o u n t o f o x y g e n o f t h e o r d e r o f 2 0 0 p p m is i n t r o d u c e d
simultaneously with the wastewater sample into the combustion chamber.
T h e s a m p l e is v a p o r i z e d a n d t h e c o m b u s t i b l e c o m p o n e n t s a r e o x i d i z e d in a
c o m b u s t i o n t u b e . T h e t u b e , c o n t a i n i n g a p l a t i n u m s c r e e n c a t a l y s t , is m o u n t e d
i n a n electric f u r n a c e w h i c h is m a i n t a i n e d a t 9 0 0 ° C . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e o x y g e n
u t i l i z a t i o n in t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s , a m o m e n t a r y d e p l e t i o n o f o x y g e n
o c c u r s in t h e i n e r t g a s s t r e a m . T h i s d e p l e t i o n is a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e d b y p a s s i n g
t h e effluent t h r o u g h a p l a t i n u m - l e a d fuel cell. Before e n t e r i n g t h e cell, t h e g a s
is s c r u b b e d a n d h u m i d i f i e d . S c r u b b i n g is d o n e b y p a s s i n g t h e g a s t h r o u g h a n
a q u e o u s caustic solution which removes carrier gas impurities harmful t o t h e
2. Organic Content Measurement: O x y g e n Parameter M e t h o d s 41
d e t e c t o r cell a n d h u m i d i f i e s t h e g a s e o u s s a m p l e . T h e fuel cell a n d s c r u b b e r

a r e l o c a t e d in a t h e r m o s t a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d a n d i n s u l a t e d c h a m b e r .
F u e l cell c u r r e n t o u t p u t is a f u n c t i o n o f o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s is
graphically m o n i t o r e d on a potentiometer recorder, with changes in current
t a k i n g the form of recorder peaks. T h e recorder system includes a n a u t o m a t i c
zero circuit to m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t baseline. Peaks recorded are linearly
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r e d u c e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e c a r r i e r g a s a n d t h e
s a m p l e t o t a l o x y g e n d e m a n d . T O D m e a s u r e m e n t f o r u n k n o w n s a m p l e s is
determined by c o m p a r i s o n of the recorded p e a k heights with a s t a n d a r d
calibration curve. A typical calibration curve for s t a n d a r d solution analysis
is s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 7 , w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e l i n e a r i t y o f p e a k h e i g h t vs. T O D .
CHART
DIVISIONS
·/
— % Or
ΛΓ
/
ONE hIV
/
/ C A L I B R A T I O N CUR>IE
/
<
T« 9 0 0 C e
N 2 »20 cmVmii
e
02 200 ppm
s
/
>
TOD-ppm
0
0 100 200 300
Fig. 2.7. Typical calibration curve for TOD analyzer [9]. (Courtesy of Ionics
Incorporated.)
T h e T O D m e t h o d measures the a m o u n t of oxygen c o n s u m e d based o n the

following chemical reactions for the catalytic c o m b u s t i o n process [Eqs.
(2.16-2.18)].
C + 0 2 - C 0 2 (2.16)
H 2 + K> - 2 H 0
2 (2.17)
Ν (combined) + ± 0 2 - NO (2.18)
S u l f u r o u s c o m p o u n d s a r e o x i d i z e d t o a s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f a fixed
r a t i o of S 0 2 to S 0 . Molecular nitrogen, normally used as the carrier gas,

3
does n o t react in the c o m b u s t i o n process.

E q u a t i o n (2.19) c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t y p i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l o x i d a t i o n (for t h e c a s e
of urea).
2NH CONH 2 2 + 50 2 2C0 2 + 4NO + 4 H 0 2 (2.19)
R e s u l t s o f T O D a n a l y s i s for a n u m b e r o f different c o m p o u n d s i n d i c a t e t h a t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO « 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
WEEK
Fig. 2.8. Weekly analyses of a raw wastewater [ 1 7 ] . (Reprinted with permission.

Copyright by The American Chemical Society.)
2. Organic Content Measurement: O x y g e n Parameter M e t h o d s 43
m e a s u r e d o x y g e n d e m a n d is u s u a l l y c l o s e r t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y c a l c u l a t e d t h a n
is t h e c a s e for c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in G o l d s t e i n
et al. [ 6 ] . N o n e of t h e c o m m o n i o n s n o r m a l l y f o u n d in w a t e r a n d w a s t e w a t e r s
causes serious interference with T O D analyses [ 6 ] .
C o r r e l a t i o n of T O D a n a l y s e s w i t h C O D h a s b e e n c h e c k e d f o r a n u m b e r o f
t y p i c a l w a s t e s t r e a m s [ 2 , 3 ] . F i g u r e 2.8 s h o w s c o r r e l a t i o n s o f T O D , C O D , a n d
B O D for a r a w w a s t e w a t e r . V a l u e s o f C O D v s . T O D f r o m F i g . 2.8 a r e p l o t t e d
5
in F i g . 2 . 9 , w h i c h s h o w s a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f T O D t o
C O D or B O D 5 depends entirely o n c o m p o s i t i o n of the wastewater. C o n
sequently, these ratios vary depending o n the degree of biological t r e a t m e n t
t o w h i c h t h e w a s t e w a t e r is s u b j e c t e d .
2,000
TOD(mg/| )
Fig. 2.9. The COD and TOD relationship of a raw wastewater [17]. (Reprinted
with permission. Copyright by The American Chemical Society.)
3. M e a s u r e m e n t of O r g a n i c
C o n t e n t : G r o u p 2—Carbon
P a r a m e t e r M e t h o d s [2, 3]
T o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n ( T O C ) tests a r e b a s e d o n o x i d a t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n o f
the organic m a t t e r t o c a r b o n dioxide, a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n of C 0 2 either by
absorption in K O H or instrumental analysis (infrared analyzer). Since
theoretical oxygen d e m a n d ( T h O D ) measures 0 2 and theoretical organic
c a r b o n ( T h O C ) m e a s u r e s c a r b o n , t h e r a t i o o f T h O D t o T h O C is r e a d i l y
calculated from the stoichiometry of the oxidation equation.
E q u a t i o n (2.20) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t o t a l o x i d a t i o n of s u c r o s e .
C H 0
1 2 2 2 1 1 + 120 2 -» 1 2 C 0 + 1 1 H 0
2 2 (2.20)
(12x12) (12x32)
Λ T h O D / T h O C = (12 χ 32)/(12 χ 12) = 2.67 (2.21)
T h e r a t i o of m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t s of o x y g e n t o c a r b o n is 2.67.
T h u s , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o of o x y g e n d e m a n d t o o r g a n i c c a r b o n c o r r e s p o n d s
t o t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o o f o x y g e n t o c a r b o n for t o t a l o x i d a t i o n o f t h e
organic c o m p o u n d under consideration. The actual ratio obtained from C O D
( o r B O D ) tests a n d T O C determinations varies considerably from this
t h e o r e t i c a l r a t i o ( S e c t i o n 3.3). E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f T O D is p e r
f o r m e d b y e i t h e r m a n u a l (wet o x i d a t i o n ) o r i n s t r u m e n t a l m e t h o d s .
3.1. W E T O X I D A T I O N M E T H O D F O R T O C
T h e m a n u a l o r w e t o x i d a t i o n m e t h o d for T O C c o n s i s t s of o x i d a t i o n o f t h e
s a m p l e in a s o l u t i o n o f p o t a s s i u m d i c h r o m a t e ( K C r 0 ) , f u m i n g
2 2 7 sulfuric
acid ( H S 0 ) , p o t a s s i u m iodate ( K I 0 ) , a n d p h o s p h o r i c acid
2 4 3 (H P0 ).
3 4
Oxidation products are passed through a tube containing K O H , where the

c a r b o n d i o x i d e c o l l e c t e d is d e t e r m i n e d b y w e i g h i n g t h e a b s o r p t i o n tube
b e f o r e a n d after t h e e x p e r i m e n t .
3.2. C A R B O N A N A L Y Z E R D E T E R M I N A T I O N S [1]
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e o f T O C a n a l y z e r s is c o m b u s t i o n o f
organic m a t t e r t o c a r b o n dioxide a n d water. C o m b u s t i o n gases are t h e n
p a s s e d t h r o u g h a n i n f r a r e d a n a l y z e r , sensitized f o r c a r b o n d i o x i d e , a n d t h e
r e s p o n s e is r e c o r d e d o n a s t r i p c h a r t . A d i a g r a m of t h e B e c k m a n m o d e l
9 1 5 - A T o t a l O r g a n i c C a r b o n ( T O C ) A n a l y z e r is s h o w n in F i g . 2.10. T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t permits separate m e a s u r e m e n t s for total c a r b o n a n d i n o r g a n i c
c a r b o n . T o t a l c a r b o n includes the c a r b o n of organic materials a n d i n o r g a n i c
c a r b o n in t h e f o r m of c a r b o n a t e s ( C 0 ~ ) , b i c a r b o n a t e s ( H C 0 ~ ) , a n d C 0
3 3 2
d i s s o l v e d in t h e s a m p l e . T h e r e a r e t w o s e p a r a t e r e a c t i o n t u b e s : o n e o p e r a t e d
a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( 9 5 0 ° C ) for m e a s u r e m e n t of t o t a l c a r b o n a n d a n o t h e r
operated at low t e m p e r a t u r e (150°C) for m e a s u r e m e n t of inorganic c a r b o n .
D e p e n d i n g o n r a n g e o f a n a l y s i s , a 2 0 - 2 0 0 μΐ w a t e r s a m p l e is s y r i n g e injected
i n t o a flowing s t r e a m o f a i r a n d s w e p t i n t o a c a t a l y t i c c o m b u s t i o n t u b e c o n
t a i n i n g a c o b a l t o x i d e - i m p r e g n a t e d p a c k i n g . T h e s o u r c e o f a i r w h i c h is u s e d
as carrier/oxidizer should be a low h y d r o c a r b o n , low C 0 content cylinder. 2
T h e c o m b u s t i o n t u b e ( h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e c o m b u s t i o n t u b e ) is e n c l o s e d in a n
e l e c t r i c f u r n a c e t h e r m o s t a t e d a t 9 5 0 ° C . W a t e r is v a p o r i z e d a n d all c a r b o n a
c e o u s m a t e r i a l is o x i d i z e d t o C 0 a n d s t e a m . A i r f l o w c a r r i e s t h i s c l o u d o u t
2
o f t h e f u r n a c e w h e r e t h e s t e a m is c o n d e n s e d a n d r e m o v e d . T h e C 0 is s w e p t 2
into the nondispersive infrared analyzer.

T r a n s i e n t C 0 is i n d i c a t e d a s a p e a k o n a s t r i p c h a r t r e c o r d e r . P e a k h e i g h t
2
is a m e a s u r e of C 0 p r e s e n t , w h i c h is directly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c o n c e n t r a
2
t i o n o f t o t a l c a r b o n in t h e o r i g i n a l s a m p l e a n d i n c l u d e s o r g a n i c c a r b o n ,
inorganic carbon, and C 0 2 dissolved in the sample. By using s t a n d a r d
s o l u t i o n s , t h e c h a r t is c a l i b r a t e d in m i l l i g r a m s t o t a l c a r b o n p e r liter o f s a m p l e .
I n a s e c o n d o p e r a t i o n , a s a m p l e o f s i m i l a r size is a l s o s y r i n g e injected i n t o a
s t r e a m of a i r a n d s w e p t i n t o t h e s e c o n d r e a c t i o n t u b e (low t e m p e r a t u r e
reaction tube), containing q u a r t z chips wetted with 8 5 % p h o s p h o r i c acid.
T h i s t u b e is e n c l o s e d in a n electric h e a t e r t h e r m o s t a t e d a t 150°C, w h i c h is
b e l o w t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h o r g a n i c m a t t e r is o x i d i z e d . T h e a c i d - t r e a t e d
p a c k i n g c a u s e s release o f C 0 f r o m i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n a t e s , a n d t h e w a t e r is
2
vaporized. Airflow carries the cloud of steam a n d C 0 o u t of the furnace, 2
w h e r e s t e a m is c o n d e n s e d a n d r e m o v e d . B y p r e v i o u s r e p o s i t i o n i n g of a d u a l
c h a n n e l selector v a l v e , t h e C 0 is s w e p t i n t o t h e i n f r a r e d a n a l y z e r .
2
T h i s q u a n t i t y of C 0 is a l s o i n d i c a t e d o n t h e s t r i p c h a r t r e c o r d e r a s a
2
t r a n s i e n t p e a k . P e a k h e i g h t is a m e a s u r e of t h e C 0 p r e s e n t , w h i c h is p r o p o r
2
t i o n a l t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n a t e s p l u s C 0 d i s s o l v e d in t h e
2
o r i g i n a l s a m p l e . B y u s i n g s t a n d a r d s o l u t i o n s , t h e c h a r t is c a l i b r a t e d in milli
g r a m s i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n p e r liter of s a m p l e . S u b t r a c t i n g r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d in
t h e s e c o n d o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h o s e in t h e first yields t o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n in
m i l l i g r a m s T O C p e r liter of s a m p l e .
3.3. OXYGEN D E M A N D - O R G A N I C C A R B O N
CORRELATION
T h e r a t i o T h O D / T h O C , w h i c h t h e o r e t i c a l l y is e q u a l t o t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c
ratio of oxygen t o c a r b o n for total oxidation of the organic c o m p o u n d u n d e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n , r a n g e s in p r a c t i c e f r o m n e a r l y z e r o , w h e n t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r
is r e s i s t a n t t o d i c h r o m a t e o x i d a t i o n (e.g., p y r i d i n e ) , t o v a l u e s o f t h e o r d e r o f
6.33 for m e t h a n e o r e v e n slightly h i g h e r w h e n i n o r g a n i c r e d u c i n g a g e n t s a r e
p r e s e n t . T a b l e 2.2 p r e s e n t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n o x y g e n d e m a n d a n d t o t a l
c a r b o n for several o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s .
4. Mathematical Model for the B O D Curve 47
Table 2.2
Relationships between Oxygen Demand and
Total Carbon for Organic Compounds [3]
ThOD/ThOC COD/TOC
Substance (calculated) (measured)
Acetone 3.56 2.44

Ethanol 4.00 3.35
Phenol 3.12 2.96
Benzene 3.34 0.84
Pyridine 3.33 —
Salicylic acid 2.86 2.83
Methanol 4.00 3.89
Benzoic acid 2.86 2.90
Sucrose 2.67 2.44
C o r r e l a t i o n o f B O D w i t h T O C for i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s is difficult b e c a u s e
o f t h e i r c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n in c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e
w a t e r s a r e l a t i v e l y g o o d c o r r e l a t i o n h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d , w h i c h is r e p r e s e n t e d
b y t h e s t r a i g h t line r e l a t i o n s h i p given b y E q . ( 2 . 2 2 ) .
BOD 2 = 1 . 8 7 ( T O C ) - 17 (2.22)
4. M a t h e m a t i c a l Model for t h e
BOD Curve
It is d e s i r a b l e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e B O D c u r v e ( F i g . 2.2) b y a m a t h e m a t i c a l
m o d e l . F r o m k i n e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 3), t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
m o d e l utilized t o p o r t r a y t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n is t h a t o f a first-order
r e a c t i o n . F i g u r e 2.2 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n , given b y t h e
t a n g e n t t o t h e c u r v e a t a given i n c u b a t i o n t i m e , d e c r e a s e s a s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
organic matter remaining unoxidized becomes gradually smaller. Since there
is a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n a n d t h a t o f d e s t r u c
t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r b y b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n , r a t e e q u a t i o n [ E q . ( 2 . 2 3 ) ] is
w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( L ; m g / l i t e r ) .
dL/dt=-k L 1 (2.23)
w h e r e L is c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r ( m g / l i t e r ) a t t i m e t\ dL/dt r a t e o f
9
d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r b y a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n (dL/dt < 0 ) ;
r, t i m e o f i n c u b a t i o n ( d a y s ) ; a n d k r a t e c o n s t a n t ( d a y ) .
u
- 1
S e p a r a t i n g v a r i a b l e s L a n d /, a n d i n t e g r a t i n g f r o m t i m e z e r o c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r , L , t o a t i m e t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
0
concentration L [Eq. (2.24)]:

ln(L/L ) = - k t
0 1 (2.24)
C h a n g i n g t o d e c i m a l l o g a r i t h m s [ E q . (2.25)]
l o g ( L / L ) = - * i //2.303
0 (2.25)
let fci/2.303 = k. T h e n [ E q . (2.26)]
L/L0 = 10"*' (2.26)

or
L = L 0 · 10" k i
(2.27)
L e t j b e t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r o x i d i z e d u p t o t i m e r, i.e.,
y = L 0 - L (2.28)
Conversely, y also measures the oxygen c o n s u m p t i o n u p to time i.e., t h e
o r d i n a t e o f t h e B O D c u r v e in F i g . 2.2 a t t i m e C o m b i n i n g E q s . (2.28) a n d
(2.27),
y = LoO-10-*') (2.29)
w h i c h is t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for t h e B O D c u r v e . F r o m E q . (2.29) it
f o l l o w s t h a t f o r a v e r y l o n g o x i d a t i o n p e r i o d (i.e., t-> oo), y = L . 0 Therefore,
k and L 0 m e a s u r e , respectively, t h e r a t e of b i o c h e m i c a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d t h e
total a m o u n t of putrescible m a t t e r present.
F r o m E q . (2.27)
l o g L = logLo - kt (2.30)
E q u a t i o n (2.30) i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o n s t a n t s k a n d L 0 can be obtained from a

s e m i l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L vs. f. T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t k a r e
p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 5 for several t y p e s of w a s t e w a t e r s ( T a b l e 5.2, S e c t i o n 5).
5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of P a r a m e t e r s
k and L 0
I n a p p l i c a t i o n o f E q . (2.29) o n e u s u a l l y h a s a v a i l a b l e a series o f B O D
m e a s u r e m e n t s (y) a t a s e q u e n c e (n= 1,2, 3 , . . . ,x) d a y s . It is d e s i r e d t o d e t e r
m i n e t h e o p t i m u m v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s k a n d L w h i c h satisfy E q . (2.29) for
0
t h e set o f d a t a . T h u s , it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a curve-fitting p r o b l e m .
Several m e t h o d s for c a l c u l a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s k a n d L h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d .
0
T h r e e o f t h e s e , r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r [ 3 ] , a r e (1) log-difference
m e t h o d , (2) m e t h o d o f m o m e n t s [ 1 0 ] , a n d (3) T h o m a s ' g r a p h i c a l m e t h o d .
5.1. L O G - D I F F E R E N C E M E T H O D
T h i s m e t h o d is b a s e d o n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g E q .
(2.29) w i t h r e s p e c t t o / :
dyjdt = r = L ( - 1 0 - ) ( l n 10)(-A:)
0
ki
(2.31)
5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of P a r a m e t e r s k a n d L 0 49
or
dy/dt = r = l.mLok · IO"*' (2.32)
w h e r e r is t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n . T a k i n g d e c i m a l l o g a r i t h m s
l o g r = log(2.303L A:) - kt o (2.33)

E q u a t i o n (2.33) i n d i c a t e s t h a t k a n d L 0 c a n be obtained from a semilog plot
o f r vs. t.
Step 1. P l o t y ( o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n ) v s . / o n c a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e p a p e r .
D r a w a s m o o t h best-fit c u r v e t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t s , d i s c a r d i n g d a t a which
seem t o be in error.
Step 2. P l o t d a i l y differences, Ay/At vs. time (on semilog g r a p h paper).
T i m e i n t e r v a l s a r e u s u a l l y t a k e n a s 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . d a y s , s o t h a t Δ ί = 1. V a l u e s
of Ay's a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y p l o t t e d v s . t h e t i m e t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e m i d d l e
o f e a c h i n t e r v a l (e.g., t h e v a l u e o f Ay c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o i n t e r v a l 0 - 1 is p l o t t e d
vs. ? = 0 . 5 ) .
D r a w t h e best-fit s t r a i g h t line t h r o u g h t h e s e p o i n t s .
Step 3. C a l c u l a t i o n o f k a n d L . 0 F r o m t h e s t r a i g h t line d r a w n i n S t e p 2 ,
E q . (2.33) y i e l d s :
k = -(slope) (2.34)
Intercept = 2.303L A: 0 (2.35)
Λ L 0 = intercept/(2.303A:) = i n t e r c e p t / ( 2 . 3 0 3 ) ( - s l o p e ) (2.36)
Therefore, k a n d L 0 a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q s . (2.34) a n d (2.36), respectively.
E x a m p l e 2.1
T h e d a t a in T a b l e 2.3 o n o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m B O D tests
of a w a s t e w a t e r .
O b t a i n t h e v a l u e s o f k a n d L in t h e B O D e q u a t i o n .
0
T A B L E 2.3
B O D Tests of Wastewater
/ (days) >> ( m g / l i t e r of B O D )
0 0.0
1 9.2
2 15.9
3 20.9
4 24.4
5 27.2
6 29.1
7 30.6
SOLUTION
Step 1. D a t a a r e p l o t t e d in F i g . 2 . 1 1 . T h e c u r v e is fairly s m o o t h a n d t h e
r a w d a t a a r e u s e d i n S t e p 2. If n e e d e d , s m o o t h i n g is d o n e b y t h e b e s t s t r a i g h t -
line fit.
Ο 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (days)
Fig. 2.11. Plot γ vs. t (Example 2.1).
Step 2. C o n s t r u c t t h e difference t a b l e ( T a b l e 2 . 4 ) . V a l u e s in c o l u m n (3)

a r e p l o t t e d vs. t h o s e in c o l u m n (4) o n s e m i l o g p a p e r . T h i s p l o t is s h o w n in
F i g . 2.12.
T A B L E 2.4
Log-Difference Values from Table 2.3
(J) (4)
U) (2) Ay (mg/liter) = Ay/At; Mid-interval
t (days) y (mg/liter) since Δ / = 1 values o f t
0 0 — —
1 9.2 9.2 0.5
2 15.9 6.7 1.5
3 20.9 5.0 2.5
4 24.4 3.5 3.5
5 27.2 2.8 4.5
6 29.1 1.9 5.5
7 30.6 1.5 6.5
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (days); [Column ® , table 2.4]
Fig. 2.12. Calculation of k and L by the log-difference

0 method.
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e k a n d L . 0
(a) Calculation ofk. B a s e c a l c u l a t i o n s o n t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t w o p o i n t s

o n t h e s t r a i g h t line (7, 1.2; 0, 10.9) a n d E q . (2.34).
Slope = ( l o g l 0 . 9 - l o g l . 2 ) / ( 0 - 7 ) = - 0 . 1 3 7
.·. k = 0.137 d a y " 1
(b) Calculation of L .0 F r o m E q . (2.36)
L0 = 10.9/(2.303x0.137) = 34.5 mg/liter
5.2. M E T H O D O F M O M E N T S [10]
T h i s m e t h o d is of s i m p l e a p p l i c a t i o n o n c e d i a g r a m s o f - ^ d v s a n
Σ y/Σ ty vs. k a r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r a n « - d a y s e q u e n c e o f B O D m e a s u r e m e n t s .
E q u a t i o n s are derived next for c o n s t r u c t i o n of M o o r e ' s d i a g r a m s for a n «-day
s e q u e n c e o f B O D m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e s e e q u a t i o n s a r e a p p l i e d t o 7-, 5-, a n d
3-day sequences, yielding Figs. 2.13-2.15, respectively.
Consider B O D measurements taken over a n η-day sequence, as indicated
in T a b l e 2 . 5 . F i r s t , c a l c u l a t e r a t i o Σ y/ô- T h e s u m m a t i o n o f e n t r i e s in c o l u m n
(2) of T a b l e 2.5 is [ E q . (2.37)]
= L [ ( l + 1 + 1 + ··· + l ) - ( 1 0 - * + 1 0 -
0
2 f c
+10- 3 k
+ ·· -MO" *)] 1
(2.37)
or
= L [/i-(10- +10-
0
f c 2 k
+10- 3 f c
+..+10- n k
)] (2.38)
2. Characterization of Domestic and Industrial Wastewaters
T A B L E 2.5
B O D Measurements, /i-Day Sequence
(2)
Eq. (2.29);
U) / = 1,2,3,...,Λ; (J) = (7)x(2)
t (days) ^ = Lo(l-10-*0 ty
1 Lo(l-10-*) Lo(l-10-*)
2 Lo(l-10- ) 2 k
2L (l-10- )
0
2 f c
3 LoO-lO" *) 3
3L (l-10- )
0
3 f c
4 Lod-lO- *) 4
4L (l-10- )
o
4 k
5 LoO-lO" *) 5
5L (1-10- *)
0
5
6 LoO-lO" *) 6
6L (l-10- )
0
6 f c
7 Lo(l-10- *) 7
7L (l-10- )
0
7 k
L (l-10-
0
M f c
) nL (l-\0-" )
o
k
Zy/Zty|
0.240
0.235
0.230
0.225
k (day*) 1
Fig. 2.13. Moore's method (7-day sequence).

Zy/Zty|
0.310
0.300
0.290
0.280
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4'

k (day' ) 1
T h e t e r m s w i t h i n p a r e n t h e s e s in E q . (2.38) f o r m a g e o m e t r i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n
for w h i c h t h e s u m of t e r m s is [ E q . ( 2 . 3 9 ) ]
S = [ ( 1 0 - * ) ( 1 0 - * - 1 ) ] / ( 1 0 - * - 1)
n
(2.39)
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e in E q . (2.38) a n d s o l v i n g for t h e r a t i o Y,yjL :

0
Y^y/Lo = η — [10 - f c
(10 - n k
— l)/(10~ — 1)]fe
(2.40)
F r o m E q . (2.40) it follows t h a t for a g i v e n s e q u e n c e of η d a y s , t h e r a t i o

X y/L is o n l y a f u n c t i o n of k. T h u s for a fixed n, o n e a s s u m e s v a l u e s o f k a n d
0
p l o t s a c u r v e of Σ y/L vs. k.
0
N o w c a l c u l a t e r a t i o Σ y/Έ 0>· Σ y is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (2.40), a n d Σ ty

c o r r e s p o n d s t o s u m m a t i o n of e n t r i e s i n c o l u m n (3) o f T a b l e 2 . 5 .
X ty = L [ ( l + 2 + 3 + · · +n) - (10"* + 2 χ 1 0 "

0
2fc
+ 3 χ 1 0 " + ··· + Λ Χ 10" )]
3 Λ nfc
(2.41)
or
/ i = n i=n \
(2.42)
^y/L 0
0.440
0.434
T h e r e f o r e , f r o m E q s . (2.40) a n d (2.42), r a t i o Σ ^ / Σ ^ is
Λ-[ι0-*(10-"*-1)/(10-*-1)]
(2.43)
Σ!=ΐ''-Σί=ΐ''χ ιο-
F r o m E q . (2.43) it f o l l o w s t h a t f o r a g i v e n s e q u e n c e o f η d a y s , r a t i o Σ y/Έ ty
is o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f k. T h u s f o r a fixed n, o n e a s s u m e s v a l u e s o f k a n d p l o t s a
c u r v e o f Σ y/Σ ty v s . * f r o m E q . (2.43).
F o r specific c a s e s s u c h a s t h e 7 - d a y s e q u e n c e , E q s . (2.40) a n d (2.43) yield
E q . (2.44).
For η=7
Σγ/Lo = 7 - [10-*(10- *-l)/(10-*-l)]
7
(2.44)
v /v, 7-[io- (io- -i)/(io- -i)]

fc 7fc fc
Σ y/Σ ty = 2 8—- Σ^ ί r =: ϊ''*

~ — 10''* (2.45)
w h e r e , i n E q . (2.45)
i=7
X ι = Σ1=1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 28
and
£ ,· χ i o ~ ifc
= 10"* + 2 χ I O " * + 3 χ I O " * + 4 χ 1 0 " *
2 3 4
t= ι
+ 5 χ 10~ 5fc
+ 6 x IO" * + 7 χ 10"
6 7fc
- & d Σ^/ΣΟ - & f ° 7-,

7
Figures 2.13-2.15 present g r a p h s of Σ^/^ο v s a n v s r
5-, a n d 3-day s e q u e n c e s , respectively. T h e s e figures a r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m

E q s . (2.40) a n d (2.43), respectively, b y a s s u m i n g v a l u e s o f η ( 7 , 5, 3) a n d k a n d
calculating the corresponding ratios.
A p p l i c a t i o n of M o o r e ' s d i a g r a m for c a l c u l a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s k a n d L is 0
i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 2.2.
Example 2.2
D e t e r m i n e values of k a n d L 0 f r o m t h e set o f B O D d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f
Example 2.1.
SOLUTION
Step L C o n s t r u c t T a b l e 2.6.
T A B L E 2.6
Application of Moore's Method (Example 2.2)
t (days) y (mg/liter B O D ) ty
0 0.0 0.0
1 9.2 9.2
2 15.9 31.8
3 20.9 62.7
4 24.4 97.6
5 27.2 136.0
6 29.1 174.6
7 30.6 214.2
Ey= 157.3 Σ 0> = 726.1
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e r a t i o Σ.ν/ΣΟ'·
YjfLty = 157.3/726.1 = 0.217
Step 3. F r o m F i g . 2.13 (n = 7) r e a d for ΣyflLty = 0.217.
k = 0.140 d a y " 1
(Abscissa of lower curve)
F r o m the ordinate of u p p e r curve read
X^/L 0 = 4.62
•'· o = L W -
L 4 6 2
= 157.3/4.62 = 34.05 mg/liter
T h e s e v a l u e s of k a n d L 0 agree closely with those calculated by the log-

difference m e t h o d in E x a m p l e 2.1 (k = 0.137 d a y " 1
and L 0 = 34.5 m g / l i t e r ) .
5.3. T H O M A S ' G R A P H I C A L M E T H O D [16]

T h i s is a n a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d w h i c h is justified since p r e c i s i o n o f t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s is often l i m i t e d . T h e m e t h o d is b a s e d o n t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f
the function
(l-10" ) f t t
(2.46)
w h i c h is a f a c t o r o f E q . (2.29), a n d t h e f u n c t i o n
2.3A:/[l + ( 2 . 3 / 6 ) t o ] - 3
(2.47)
T h i s s i m i l a r i t y is seen in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e series e x p a n s i o n s , w h i c h a r e
(l-10- f c i
) = (2.3A:/)[l-(l/2)(2.3A:/) + ( l / 6 ) ( 2 . 3 A : 0 - ( l / 2 4 ) ( 2 . 3 / c r ) + ···]2 3
(2.48)
and
2.3A:/[l + ( 2 . 3 / 6 ) / c i ] - = (2.3kt)[l-(\/2)(23kt)
3
+ (\/6)(2.3kt) 2
-(l/21.6)(2.3A:r) + ···] 3
(2.49)
C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r s o f E q s . (2.48) a n d (2.49) r e v e a l s
t h a t t h e first t h r e e t e r m s in t h e t w o series w i t h i n b r a c k e t s a r e i d e n t i c a l , a n d
t h a t t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e f o u r t h t e r m s is s m a l l . R e p l a c i n g t h e f u n c t i o n
b e t w e e n p a r e n t h e s e s in E q . (2.29) b y its a p p r o x i m a t i o n given b y E q . (2.47)
yields E q . (2.50).
y = L (2.3A:/) [ 1 + (2.3/6) kt]~

0
3
(2.50)
f r o m w h i c h , t a k i n g t h e inverse a n d r e a r r a n g i n g ,
t\y = [1 + (2.3/6) kty/23kL 0 (2.51)
T a k i n g t h e c u b e r o o t of b o t h m e m b e r s o f E q . (2.51) a n d r e a r r a n g i n g ,
(t/yyt* = l/(2.3A:Lo) 1/3

+ [(2.3A:) /6L 2/3
0
1/3
] / (2.52)
F r o m E q . (2.52), a p l o t o f (t/y) 1/3

vs. t yields a s t r a i g h t line ( F i g . 2.16 for
E x a m p l e 2.3) f r o m w h i c h
Slope = Β = ( 2 . 3 A : ) / 6 L 2/3
0
1/3
(2.53)
Intercept = A = 1/(2.3A:L ) 0
1/3
(2.54)
F r o m E q s . (2.53) a n d (2.54) o n e o b t a i n s E q s . (2.55) a n d (2.56).
k = 6£/2.3Λ = 2.61 (£/Λ) (2.55)
L0 = \/(2.3kA ) 3
(2.56)
0.4
0.3
0 2 4 6 8
t (days)
Fig. 2.16. Application of Thomas' method [14].
A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s m e t h o d is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 2 . 3 .
Example 2.3 [16]
T h e B O D results tabulated below a r e observed o n a sample of r a w sewage

at 23°C. Calculate parameters k a n d L.
0
t (days) y ( B O D , mg/liter)
0 0
1 32
2 57
4 84
6 106
8 111
SOLUTION
Step 1. C o n s t r u c t T a b l e 2.7.
T A B L E 2.7
Application of Thomas' Method (Example 2.3)
(2) (5) = ( 7 ) - ( 2 ) (4)=[(5)]i/3

/ y r/y
0 0
1 32 0.03125 0.315
2 57 0.03509 0.327
4 84 0.04762 0.362
6 106 0.05660 0.384
8 111 0.07207 0.416
Step 2. P l o t (t/y) l/3

vs. u T h e p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 2.16. F r o m F i g . 2.16
obtain
A = 0.30 (intercept)
Β = ( 0 . 4 1 6 - 0 . 3 0 0 ) / ( 8 . 0 - 0 . 0 ) = 0.0145 (slope)
Step 3. F r o m E q s . (2.55) a n d (2.56), o b t a i n k a n d L.
0
k = 2.61(0.0145/0.30) = 0.13 d a y " 1
L Q = l / [ 2 . 3 x 0 . 1 3 ( 0 . 3 0 ) ] = 124 mg/liter
3
6. R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n k a n d
Ratio B O D / B O D „ 5
E q u a t i o n (2.29) is w r i t t e n a s in E q . (2.57) f o r / = 5 d a y s , l e t t i n g y = B O D 5
and L = BOD .
0 M
BOD 5 = BOD (l - 1 0 "

M
5 f c
) (2.57)
from which
BOD /BOD 5 u = 1 - 1/10 * 5
(2.58)
A s s u m i n g v a l u e s o f k, a c u r v e o f B O D / B O D vs. k is p l o t t e d f r o m E q .
5 M
(2.58). T h i s c u r v e rises w i t h i n c r e a s i n g &'s, r e a c h i n g a p l a t e a u c o r r e s p o n d i n g

t o a n o r d i n a t e B O D / B O D a p p r o a c h i n g u n i t y f o r v a l u e s o f k b e y o n d 0.3 [ 3 ] .
5 t t
F r o m E q . (2.58) f o r l a r g e v a l u e s o f k, B O D / B O D a p p r o a c h e s u n i t y . T h i s
5 M
m e a n s t h a t for a g i v e n s u b s t r a t e , if t h e r a t e o f b i o c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n is v e r y
h i g h , t h e v a l u e o f B O D is essentially e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e u l t i m a t e B O D .
5
7. Environmental Effects on
t h e BOD T e s t
T h e B O D test is affected b y t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p H .
7.1. E F F E C T O F T E M P E R A T U R E
T h e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t k is d i r e c t l y affected b y t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e t e m
p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f k is g i v e n b y t h e v a n ' t H o f f - A r r h e n i u s e q u a t i o n
[Eq. (2.59)].
d\nkldT= E/RT 2
(2.59)
w h e r e k is r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t ; Γ , a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e ; R u n i v e r s a l g a s
9
c o n s t a n t ; a n d E, a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y f o r t h e r e a c t i o n ( c o m m o n v a l u e s f o r
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a r e in t h e r a n g e o f 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 c a l / g m o l e ) .
I n t e g r a t i n g b e t w e e n limits [ E q . ( 2 . 6 0 ) ] :
InikJkJ = [EiK-TMKRT^) (2.60)

8. Nitrification 59
Since m o s t wastewater t r e a t m e n t processes t a k e place a t nearly r o o m

t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e t e r m EIRT T is n e a r l y c o n s t a n t . L e t it b e d e n o t e d a s C .
X 2
T h e n [ E q . (2.61)]
ln(* /*,)= C(r -r ) 2 2 (2.61) x
k /k 2 1 = e ^~ c T l )
(2.62)
L e t e = θ = t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient. T h e n
c
k /k2 1 = Θ ~^(Τ2 Τ
(2.63)
T h e m o s t usual application consists of estimation of c o n s t a n t k a t a tem

p e r a t u r e Τ f r o m its v a l u e d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y a t 20°C. F r o m E q .
(2.63) w e o b t a i n E q . (2.64).
k = £ 0 - T 2 O
( r
(2.64)
2 O )
w h e r e k is r e a c t i o n r a t e a t T°C; k , r e a c t i o n r a t e a t 20°C; a n d Γ, t e m p e r a
T 2 0
t u r e (°C). A l t h o u g h θ is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t , it v a r i e s slightly w i t h t e m
p e r a t u r e a n d its a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d . V a l u e s g i v e n b e l o w a r e
those r e c o m m e n d e d b y Schroepfer [12].
θ = 1.135 (4°-20°C)
θ = 1.056 (20°-30°C)
F r o m E q . (2.64) it follows t h a t f o r a 10° rise in t e m p e r a t u r e t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e
nearly doubles.
7.2. E F F E C T O F p H
T h e s t a n d a r d B O D test specifies a p H o f 7.2. If t h e p H is n o t 7.2, v a l u e s o f
B O D o b t a i n e d a r e l o w e r . I t is r e c o m m e n d e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o a d j u s t t h e p H t o
5
7.2. A t y p i c a l c u r v e o f p e r c e n t a g e o f n o r m a l 5-day B O D v s . p H is p r e s e n t e d
b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 4 ] ; its m a x i m u m (100%) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p H 7.2.
8. Nitrification
E q u a t i o n (2.29) d e s c r i b e s t h e o x i d a t i o n o f c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t t e r . O x i d a t i o n
o f n i t r o g e n o u s m a t e r i a l a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o o x y g e n d e m a n d if i n c u b a t i o n is
c a r r i e d o u t f o r a sufficiently l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h i s o x i d a t i o n (referred t o a s
nitrification) takes place in t w o steps:
1. A m m o n i u m i o n , N H , is o x i d i z e d t o n i t r i t e s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f
4
+
Nitrosomonas m i c r o o r g a n i s m s [ E q . (2.65)].
2NH + + 3 0
4 2
W
' " T 2 N 0 " + 2 H 0 + 4H+ 2 2 (2.65)
2. N i t r i t e s a r e t h e n o x i d i z e d t o n i t r a t e s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f Nitrobacter
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s [ E q . (2.66)].
2N0 - + 0 2 2 2N0 - 3 (2.66)

R a t e c o n s t a n t s , k, for nitrification a r e m u c h l o w e r t h a n t h o s e for o x i d a t i o n

of c a r b o n a c e o u s matter. A l t h o u g h oxidation of c a r b o n a c e o u s a n d n i t r o g e n o u s
m a t t e r m a y o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , nitrification n o r m a l l y d o e s n o t b e g i n u n t i l
t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d is p a r t i a l l y satisfied.
A t y p i c a l B O D c u r v e for a w a s t e w a t e r s h o w i n g c a r b o n a c e o u s o x i d a t i o n
a n d nitrification p h a s e s is s h o w n in F i g . 2.17. N i t r i f i c a t i o n is s u p p r e s s e d b y
γ=Ι_ο(Ι-Ι0- ) j Μ
/^Combined demand
. / curve-.(without
> l
n / suppression of
y
/ nitrification)
Ε f
" (Nitrification suppressed)
/^Carbonaceous!
/oxygen demand j
/ curve !
f ι
Fig. 2.17. Carbonaceous and nitrogenous BOD.
a d d i t i o n o f c e r t a i n c h e m i c a l s (e.g., m e t h y l e n e b l u e , t h i o u r e a ) . If t h i s is d o n e ,
the B O D curve thus obtained approaches a limiting ordinate L 0 (ultimate
c a r b o n a c e o u s d e m a n d ) , a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 2.17. B e y o n d t i m e f , t h e c a r c
b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d is e s s e n t i a l l y satisfied, s o t h e o r d i n a t e v a l u e
b e c o m e s c o n s t a n t a t L . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n i t r i f i c a t i o n is n o t s u p p r e s s e d
0
b e y o n d t = t , t h e effect o f n i t r i f i c a t i o n is s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s
c
o x y g e n d e m a n d t o yield t h e c o m b i n e d o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e ( c a r b o n a c e o u s +
nitrification d e m a n d ) .
T h e c a r b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e is d e s c r i b e d b y E q . (2.29). If a
t r a n s l a t i o n of c o o r d i n a t e a x e s is p e r f o r m e d s o t h a t t h e o r i g i n of t h e n e w s y s t e m
o f c o o r d i n a t e s c o i n c i d e s w i t h p o i n t C ( s y s t e m Ay v s . t'), t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e
nitrification o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e [ E q . ( 2 . 6 7 ) ] is w r i t t e n a s
Ay = L (\-\0- )
N
kNt
(t>t )
c (2.67)
w h e r e t' = t - t . c Thus
= L^l-lO-*""-^] (2.68)
where k N is t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t f o r n i t r o g e n o u s d e m a n d a n d L N the ultimate
n i t r o g e n o u s d e m a n d . T h e a b s c i s s a axis of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m Ay v s . t'
essentially c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e b e y o n d
t = t. c
9. Evaluation of Biological Treatment 61
E q u a t i o n s (2.29) a n d (2.69) for c o m b i n e d o x y g e n d e m a n d c u r v e a r e
F o r t < t (carbonaceous oxygen d e m a n d only)

c
y = L (l-10- 0
f c t
) (2.29)
For t > t c
y = L ( l - 1 0 - ) + L [1 - l()-*» -'<>]
fci (t
(2.69)
> for t > t ,
0 N
^
increment Ay
c
L ( l — IO *')
0
-
L 0 due to nitrogenous
demand
Values of p a r a m e t e r s k a n d L are d e t e r m i n e d by a n y of the m e t h o d s pre

N N
v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n e w s y s t e m o f c o o r d i n a t e s [i.e., E q .
(2.68)].
9. Evaluation of Feasibility of
Biological T r e a t m e n t for an
Industrial W a s t e w a t e r
9.1. INTRODUCTION
F r e q u e n t l y , it is n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t t r e a t a b i l i t y s t u d i e s f o r s t r e a m s o f
i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s , since t h e y m a y c o n t a i n t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h h a v e
a n a d v e r s e effect o n b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . T h e p r o b l e m o f a c c l i m a t i o n o f m i c r o
o r g a n i s m seed t o t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 1 . T w o t y p e s o f
t e s t s t o e v a l u a t e t h e feasibility o f b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t for i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e
w a t e r [ 4 ] a r e (1) m a n o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s (Warburg respirometer), a n d (2)
batch reactor evaluation.
9.2. W A R B U R G R E S P I R O M E T E R
A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f t h e W a r b u r g r e s p i r o m e t e r is s h o w n i n F i g . 2 . 1 8 .
T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n , w h i c h c o n s i s t s in r e s p i r i n g a w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e in
a c l o s e d a i r a t m o s p h e r e a t c o n s t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e , is i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f t h e B O D
m a n o m e t r i c a p p a r a t u s ( S e c t i o n 2.3.2). O x y g e n utilized is m e a s u r e d w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t i m e b y n o t i n g t h e d e c r e a s e in p r e s s u r e o f t h e s y s t e m a t c o n s t a n t
v o l u m e . T h e C 0 e v o l v e d is a b s o r b e d b y a s o l u t i o n o f K O H ; t h u s t h e d e c r e a s e
2
in p r e s s u r e is a m e a s u r e o f o x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n o n l y .
S t e p s in t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e a r e g i v e n b e l o w [ 4 ] .
1. T h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e is p l a c e d in t h e s a m p l e flask w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d
v o l u m e of b i o l o g i c a l seed. T h e s a m p l e flask is i m m e r s e d i n a c o n s t a n t t e m
perature bath and agitated by a shaking mechanism.
2. A 2 0 % s o l u t i o n o f K O H is p l a c e d i n t h e c e n t e r well ( a b o u t o n e - q u a r t e r
full). I n s e r t a s t r i p o f f o l d e d filter p a p e r i n s i d e t h e c e n t e r well t o e n h a n c e t h e
alkali a b s o r p t i o n of c a r b o n dioxide. T h e p a p e r soaks u p K O H solution a n d
in t h i s w a y a l a r g e r a l k a l i s u r f a c e b e c o m e s a v a i l a b l e f o r a b s o r p t i o n o f c a r b o n
dioxide.
Final level ^ \ Motion (shaking mechanism)

(by adjustment with the screw clamp)
Note: This is also the / I£
initial level of Brodie / ι
fluid in the inner a r m ; / h CO 2 evolved
thus volume of g a s e o u s / J
system is the same at / -t
the start of the / Sample
experiment as that / Brodie -
just before a / fluid -Center well filled
reading is taken. / with KOH solution
Outer
arm
Initial level of
Brodie fluid in
both arms of
manometer
Fig. 2.18. Schematic diagram of Warburg respirometer.
3. Set u p a r e f e r e n c e flask ( " t h e r m o b a r o m e t e r " ) b y a d d i n g t o a s a m p l e

flask o n l y distilled w a t e r . T h e v o l u m e o f distilled w a t e r e q u a l s t h e t o t a l w a s t e
seed v o l u m e in e a c h of t h e test flasks. T h i s r e f e r e n c e flask is u s e d for c o r r e c t i o n
d u e t o changes of a t m o s p h e r i c pressure d u r i n g the time of the experiment,
hence the n a m e " t h e r m o b a r o m e t e r . "
4 . S h a k e t h e s y s t e m * w i t h t h e g a s v e n t p o r t o p e n for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5
m i n . T h e level o f t h e m a n o m e t r i c fluid ( B r o d i e ' s fluid) is t h e s a m e in b o t h
a r m s o f t h e m a n o m e t e r w h e n e q u i l i b r i u m is r e a c h e d . A d j u s t t h e m a n o m e t e r
fluid t o t h e r e f e r e n c e m a r k in t h e i n n e r a r m o f t h e m a n o m e t e r , w i t h t h e g a s
v e n t p o r t o p e n . A d j u s t m e n t of t h e level of t h e m a n o m e t r i c fluid is m a d e b y
m e a n s of a screw c l a m p , thus p e r m i t t i n g adjustment of the height of m a n o
metric liquid within the t w o a r m s of the m a n o m e t e r . S t o p the shaking a n d
c h e c k all fittings.
5. C l o s e t h e g a s v e n t p o r t , t u r n o n t h e s h a k i n g a s s e m b l y , a n d t a k e r e a d i n g s
a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s . P r i o r t o a r e a d i n g , t u r n t h e s h a k e r off a n d a d j u s t
level o f B r o d i e ' s fluid in t h e i n n e r a r m t o t h e r e f e r e n c e m a r k . T h u s , t h e v o l u m e
o f t h e g a s e o u s s y s t e m is t h e s a m e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a s t h a t j u s t
b e f o r e a r e a d i n g is t a k e n .
6. T h e reference flask r e a d i n g s serve t h e p u r p o s e o f c o r r e c t i n g f o r a t m o
s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e c h a n g e s d u r i n g t h e test. If t h e fluid in t h e o u t e r a r m o f t h e
* Shaking is necessary because a film with a depleted oxygen concentration forms at the
interface between the gas phase and the liquid sample if there is n o agitation. This slows
d o w n the rate o f oxygen utilization. Shaking provides for film renewal s o that the liquor is
always in contact with a gas phase rich in oxygen.
9. Evaluation of Biological Treatment 63
m a n o m e t e r a t t a c h e d t o t h e t h e r m o b a r o m e t e r flask rises, t h e r e h a s b e e n a
d e c r e a s e in a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , a n d t h e o b s e r v e d r e a d i n g m u s t b e a d d e d t o
t h e test v a l u e . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e fluid in t h e o u t e r a r m o f t h e m a n o
m e t e r falls, t h e r e h a s b e e n a n i n c r e a s e in a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , a n d the
o b s e r v e d r e a d i n g m u s t b e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e test v a l u e .
Sample reading (h) = P at - Psi (2.70)
w h e r e P is t h e v a l u e o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a t s t a r t o f e x p e r i m e n t . D u r i n g
at
a n e x p e r i m e n t if t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ( P ) rises, t h e c a l c u l a t e d h [ E q .
a t
(2.70)] w o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h e t r u e v a l u e u n l e s s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n
is s u b t r a c t e d .
7. O n c e t h e s u b s t r a t e h a s b e e n utilized, o x y g e n u p t a k e stabilizes a n d t h e
test series is t e r m i n a t e d .
T h e c u m u l a t i v e o x y g e n u p t a k e s ( m i l l i g r a m s o f o x y g e n p e r liter o f s o l u t i o n )
a r e t h e n p l o t t e d vs. t i m e ( h r ) . A t y p i c a l g r a p h o b t a i n e d for a t o x i c w a s t e w a t e r
s t r e a m is s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 1 9 . T h i s s t r e a m is a d d e d t o d o m e s t i c s e w a g e ( i n d i
c a t e d a s " s e e d " in F i g . 2.19) in i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n s .
Seed" H O % waste
"Seed"*5% waste
Seed"*2% waste
Seed only
Seed" • more
than 10% waste
Time (hours)
Fig. 2.19. Oxygen uptakes at different wastewater concentrations.
F i g u r e 2.19 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s specific w a s t e w a t e r is t o x i c o r i n h i b i t o r y w h e n
its c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x c e e d s 10% in v o l u m e , in w h i c h c a s e t h e o x y g e n u p t a k e
suffers a l a r g e d r o p .
Calculation of Oxygen Uptake (mg Ο /Liter 2 of Sample) from the Reading

h (cm)
I n t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , it is a s s u m e d t h a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e h a s
n o t c h a n g e d d u r i n g t h e t i m e of e x p e r i m e n t [if it d o e s , c o r r e c t a s i n d i c a t e d in
S t e p 6, E q . ( 2 . 7 0 ) ] . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e i d e a l g a s l a w is
a p p l i e d t o t h e a i r in t h e c l o s e d s y s t e m , i.e.,
PiV = NiRT (2.71)

w h e r e P is t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a t s t a r t o f e x p e r i m e n t ( c m o f B r o d i e ' s
x
fluid)*; Κ t h e g a s v o l u m e in c l o s e d s y s t e m ( m l ) ; Γ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f c o n s t a n t
t e m p e r a t u r e b a t h ( ° K ) ; N t h e g m o l e s of a i r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t
t
in closed system; a n d R the universal gas c o n s t a n t . f
F r o m E q . (2.71) w e d e r i v e E q . (2.72).
Ni = Λ VIRT (2.72)
A t t h e t i m e a r e a d i n g (A) is t a k e n ( F i g . 2.18)
P V=N RT
2 2 (2.73)
w h e r e P is t h e s y s t e m p r e s s u r e (P < Λ ) ί f t h e v o l u m e o f g a s p h a s e in s y s t e m
2 2
(kept c o n s t a n t by adjustment with the screw c l a m p ) ; a n d N the g moles of 2
g a s p h a s e in c l o s e d s y s t e m a t t i m e of r e a d i n g . F o r N < N d u e t o o x y g e n 2 l
absorption, then
N = Ν,- χ2 (2.74)
w h e r e χ is g m o l e s of 0 2 adsorbed.
F r o m E q . (2.73)
N 2 = P VIRT 2 (2.75)
E q u a t i n g E q s . (2.74) a n d (2.75) a n d s o l v i n g for x:
χ = Νχ — (P VIRT) 2 (2.76)
S u b s t i t u t i n g in E q . (2.76) N x b y its v a l u e given b y E q . ( 2 . 7 2 ) :
x = (V!RT)(P -P ) Y 2 (2.77)
w h e r e {Ρχ-Ρ ) 2 e q u a l s t h e h e i g h t h of B r o d i e ' s fluid ( F i g . 2.18). T h e r e f o r e ,
x = (V/RT)h (g moles 0 ) 2 (2.78)

If V is t h e v o l u m e o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e in m l , o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n in
s
m g / l i t e r is
Oxygen utilization = (Vh/RT) g moles Q 2 x 1
(V x
s 1 0 - ) liter
3
3 2 g
x l O ^
gmole0 2 " g
* Specific gravity of Brodie's fluid is 1.001 at 0°C (with respect to water at 4°C). There
fore, normal atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a column of Brodie's fluid (at 0°C) of
height equal to
76.0 cm Hg χ 13.6 cm water/cm Hg χ cm Brodie's fluid/1.001 cm water
= (76.0 x 13.6)/(1.001) = 1032.6 cm Brodie's fluid at 0°C
(1032.6 cm Brodie) (22,412 ml/g mole)
t R = PoVolT =
273.2°K
0
= 84,709 (cm Brodie) (ml)/(g mole)(°K)

10. Characteristics of Municipal S e w a g e 65
or
Oxygen utilization = 32 χ \0 (VIV )(hlRT) 6
s (mg/liter) (2.79)
w h e r e Κ is t h e g a s v o l u m e in c l o s e d s y s t e m ( m l ) ; V t h e v o l u m e o f w a s t e w a t e r
s
s a m p l e ( m l ) ; h t h e r e a d i n g ( c m o f B r o d i e ' s fluid) ( F i g . 2 . 1 8 ) ; R t h e u n i v e r s a l
gas c o n s t a n t [84,709 (cm Brodie)(ml)/(g m o l e ) ( ° K ) ] ; a n d Τ the t e m p e r a t u r e
of b a t h (°K).
9.3. BATCH REACTOR EVALUATION

A series o f b a t c h b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s ( b e n c h scale) a r e u s e d t o a c c o m p l i s h
essentially the s a m e objective as t h e W a r b u r g respirometer. A b a t t e r y of
b a t c h r e a c t o r s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r t h i s t y p e o f w o r k is s h o w n i n F i g . 5.2 a n d
d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 3.1 o f C h a p t e r 5.
A n a c c l i m a t e d seed is a d d e d t o t h e series o f r e a c t o r s . V a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
of a wastewater are then a d d e d to each reactor. T h e mixed c o n t e n t s are aerated
f o r 2 - 3 d a y s . T h e a p p a r e n t t o x i c i t y is e v a l u a t e d , s a m p l e s a r e w i t h d r a w n a t
t h e e n d o f 1, 2, 4 , 8, 12, a n d 2 4 h r o f a e r a t i o n , a n d C O D o r B O D r e m o v a l
t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d . T y p i c a l B O D c u r v e s o b t a i n e d in t h i s m a n n e r a r e s i m i l a r
t o t h e o n e s s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 1 9 .
10. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
Municipal S e w a g e
M u n i c i p a l s e w a g e is c o m p o s e d m a i n l y o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r , e i t h e r in s o l u b l e
o r c o l l o i d a l f o r m o r a s s u s p e n d e d solids. E c k e n f e l d e r [ 3 ] r e p o r t s o f a n a l y s i s
o f d a t a o n m u n i c i p a l s e w a g e for a s u r v e y w h i c h i n c l u d e d 73 cities in 2 7 s t a t e s
of the United States. S o m e average per capita values from this survey are
F l o w : 135 gal/(capita) (day)
B O D : 0.2 lb/(capita)(day) = 90.7 g/(capita) (day)

5
Suspended solids: 0.23 lb/(capita) (day) = 104 g/(capita) (day)
F o r a city of o n e m i l l i o n p e o p l e , t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d b y p r o r a t i n g
this per capita data.
F l o w : 135 Mgal/day χ 8.34 lb/gal = 1126 M l b / d a y
B O D : 200,000 lb/day
5
o r in t e r m s o f m g / l i t e r
B O D : 200,000 lb/day χ day/1126 M l b = 178 l b / M l b = 178 p p m * 178 mg/liter*

5
* Since most wastewaters contain small concentrations of soluble (and/or insoluble)

matter, wastewater density is taken hence as equal to that for pure water, i.e., approximately
1 mg/liter. Consequently, mg/liter becomes essentially equivalent t o parts per million
(ppm), since 1.0 mg/liter « 1.0 m g / 1 0 g = 1.0 g/10 g = 1.0 p p m .
3 6
P r e s e n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s in a m u n i c i p a l s e w a g e s y s t e m m a y c h a n g e t h e s e
values considerably.
1 1 . Industrial W a s t e w a t e r S u r v e y s
T h e p r o c e d u r e t o b e f o l l o w e d in i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s u r v e y s h a s b e e n
d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 1 ( S e c t i o n 2.5.2, S t e p 1). A c o m p l e t e s e w e r m a p o f t h e
p l a n t is d e v e l o p e d . F o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s objective, s a m p l i n g a n d m e a s u r i n g
s t a t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d in t h e p l a n t , i n c l u d i n g all significant s o u r c e s o f w a s t e
w a t e r s . A n a l y s e s t o b e r u n a r e selected a n d s a m p l i n g a n d a n a l y s e s s c h e d u l e s
carefully p l a n n e d . M a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s , i n c l u d i n g b o t h p r o c e s s a n d s e w e r lines,
are written.
S t a t i s t i c a l p l o t s f o r all significant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e p r e p a r e d . W h e n e v e r
p o s s i b l e , t h e s e statistical p l o t s a r e r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i o n , t h a t is, g a l / t o n o f
p r o d u c t or lb B O D / t o n of product. This permits extrapolation to other
p r o d u c t i o n schedules. Sources for wastewater segregation, reuse, a n d re
c i r c u l a t i o n a r e identified.
F l o w measurements of wastewater streams are performed by a variety of
methods, which are summarized by Eckenfelder [ 3 ] .
1. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f w e i r s for flow in o p e n c h a n n e l s a n d p a r t i a l l y filled s e w e r s
2. B u c k e t a n d s t o p w a t c h m e t h o d , s u i t a b l e f o r l o w flow r a t e s a n d / o r
i n t e r m i t t e n t d i s c h a r g e s . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , flow r a t e a n d d u r a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n
are determined
3. P u m p i n g d u r a t i o n a n d r a t e . F l o w is e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
c u r v e s of t h e p u m p
4. T i m i n g a floating o b j e c t b e t w e e n t w o fixed p o i n t s a l o n g t h e c o u r s e .
T h i s m e t h o d is a p p l i e d t o p a r t i a l l y filled s e w e r s . D e p t h of flow in t h e s e w e r is
a l s o m e a s u r e d . A v e r a g e velocity is e s t i m a t e d f r o m s u r f a c e velocity, w h i c h is
t h e o n e directly m e a s u r e d . F o r l a m i n a r flow t h e a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y is a p p r o x i
m a t e l y 0.8 t i m e s t h e s u r f a c e velocity. F l o w is t h e n e v a l u a t e d f r o m t h e
k n o w l e d g e of t h i s a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y
5. E x a m i n a t i o n o f p l a n t w a t e r u s e r e c o r d s . T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t w a t e r
losses in p r o d u c t o r d u e t o e v a p o r a t i o n , t h i s m e t h o d l e a d s t o a p p r o x i m a t e
estimates
6. T i m i n g c h a n g e o f level in t a n k s o r r e a c t o r s , u s e d p r i m a r i l y for b a t c h
operation discharges
12. S t a t i s t i c a l C o r r e l a t i o n of
Industrial W a s t e S u r v e y Data
I n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e s a r e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e in v o l u m e a n d c o m
p o s i t i o n a n d a r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y t r e a t e d b y statistical a n a l y s i s . P r o b a b i l i t y
p l o t s a r e u s e d w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h statistics of e v e n t s w h i c h fall i n t o t h e b e l l -
shaped probability curve so familiar t o statisticians. A plot of d a t a o n p r o b -
12. Correlation of Industrial Waste Survey Data 67
ability-type g r a p h p a p e r straightens o u t the probability curve, leading t o a

s t r a i g h t line p l o t ( l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e d a t a ) . T h e s t r a i g h t line t h u s o b t a i n e d is
referred t o a s H e n r y ' s line. T h e r e f o r e , if a series o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a is p l o t t e d
o n t h i s p a p e r a n d t h e r e s u l t is a s t r a i g h t line, t h i s i n d i c a t e s a r a n d o m d i s t r i b u
tion of experimental d a t a .
P r o b a b i l i t y g r a p h p a p e r utilized in t h i s w o r k is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 2 . 2 0 .
T h e a b s c i s s a is a p r o b a b i l i t y scale a n d t h e o r d i n a t e is a l o g a r i t h m i c o n e .
20001 1 1 j j—ι—|—|—ι 1 1 1 1
I000-
- 8 0 0 1
Ξ 600-
£ 400 Γ
Q
Ο
CD
200 [
1001 I I I I ι 1 1 I I I I ι
2 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 98
% of time that BOD value is equal to or less than the one
indicated at ordinate
Fig. 2.20. Probability plot for Example 2.4 (Method f).
T w o m e t h o d s f o r statistical c o r r e l a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s u r v e y d a t a a r e
r e c o m m e n d e d by Eckenfelder [ 3 ] .
M e t h o d (1) is r e c o m m e n d e d for s m a l l a m o u n t s of d a t a (i.e., less t h a n 2 0
d a t u m points).
Step 1. A r r a n g e d a t a in i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e .
Step 2. L e t η b e t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p o i n t s a n d m t h e a s s i g n e d serial
n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o n. T a b u l a t e d a t a (in i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e ) vs. m.
Step 3. P l o t t i n g p o s i t i o n s ( a b s c i s s a s o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y p l o t ) a r e d e t e r
mined from
Frequency = (100//*) ( w - 0 . 5 )
T h i s q u a n t i t y is e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p e r c e n t o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e v a l u e p l o t t e d in
t h e o r d i n a t e , i.e., p e r c e n t o f t i m e t h a t t h e v a l u e in q u e s t i o n is e q u a l t o o r less
t h a n t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e o r d i n a t e . T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e best-fit line is j u d g e d b y
eye o r t h e l e a s t - s q u a r e s m e t h o d is u s e d . A p p l i c a t i o n o f m e t h o d (1) is i l l u s t r a t e d
b y E x a m p l e 2.4.
Example 2.4
T h e f o l l o w i n g B O D d a t a ( m g / l i t e r ) a r r a n g e d in i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f m a g n i
t u d e w a s o b t a i n e d for a n i n d u s t r i a l s t r e a m [ c o l u m n ( / ) o f T a b l e 2 . 8 ] . P l o t
H e n r y ' s line b y t h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d .
68 2. Characterization of D o m e s t i c and Industrial W a s t e w a t e r s
T A B L E 2.8
Calculations for Example 2.4
(2)
U) Step 2 (3)
Step 1, (/i = 8 , m = l , 2 , . . . , 8 ) , Frequency = ( 1 0 0 / / i ) ( m - 0 . 5 ) ,
B O D (mg/liter) values o f m % time equal to or less than
400 1 6.25
450 2 18.75
520 3 31.25
630 4 43.75
700 5 56.25
730 6 68.75
860 7 81.25
1100 8 93.75
SOLUTION The procedure is indicated in Table 2.8 and Fig. 2.20. The
probability of occurrence of any value is now estimated. For example,
from Fig. 2.20 the BOD is equal to or less than 1000 mg/liter 90% of
the time.
A statistical analysis of the various waste characteristics provides a basis
for choice of design values. For example, the hydraulic capacity of a plant is
selected in excess of the 99% frequency (here the ordinate is flow rate). On the
other hand, sludge-handling facilities are usually designed on the basis of
the 50% frequency.
Method (2) is employed when a large number of data (more than 20
datum points) have to be analyzed. Calculate the plotting position [column
(5) of Table 2.8] from
Frequency = m/(n+\)
Otherwise, the procedure is the same as in method (1).
Problems
I. T h e following B O D data are given:
t (days) B O D (mg/liter)
1 6.5
2 11.0
3 15.0
4 18.0
5 20.0
6 22.0
7 23.0
8 24.0
9 25.0
10 26.0
References 69
1. Plot the B O D curve.

2. Calculate the values o f parameters k and L by the following m e t h o d s :
0
(a) Log-difference method

(b) Moore's method o f m o m e n t s , utilizing 3 - , 5-, and 7-day sequences
(c) T h o m a s ' graphical method
Tabulate values obtained under (a), (b), and (c). C o m p a r e values o f L with that obtained
0
by visual extrapolation o f the curve.

II. F o r a wastewater, k = 0.1 (decimal log basis) and the 5-day B O D is 2 0 0 mg/liter.
Estimate the 1-day B O D and the ultimate demand ( L ) . What is the 5-day B O D if the in
0
cubation is at 30°C instead o f the conventional temperature o f 20°C?

ΙΠ. Determine T h O D for alanine [ C H C H ( N H ) C O O H ] (in g 0 / g m o l e o f alanine)
3 2 2
using the following assumptions:

1. Carbon atoms are oxidized t o C 0 while nitrogen is converted t o a m m o n i a .
2
2. A m m o n i a is then oxidized to H N 0 in the presence o f nitrite-forming bacteria.

2
3. Finally, H N 0 is oxidized t o H N 0 in the presence o f nitrate-forming bacteria.

2 3
T h O D is the s u m o f the oxygen required for these three steps.

IV. N i n e determinations o f suspended solids ( p p m ) in a waste stream yield the following
results, arranged in order o f increasing magnitude: 4 8 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 1 0 2 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 4 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 7 , and 180.
1. Linearize the distribution by a probability plot.
2. What is the probability o f occurrence o f a suspended solid (SS) value equal t o or less
than 200 p p m ?
References
1. Beckman Instruments Inc., Process Instruments Bull. 4 0 8 2 - D for M o d e l 9 1 5 - A ' T o t a l
Organic Carbon Analyzer." Beckman Instrum. Inc., Fullerton, California, 1975.
2. D o b b i n s , W . E., / . Sanit. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 9 0 , S A S , 53 (1964).
3. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w York, 1970.
4. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w York, 1970.
5. Gaudy, A . F . , and Ramanathan, M . , / . Water Pollut. Control Fed. 3 6 , 1470 (1964).
6. Goldstein, A . L., Katz, W . E . , Meller, F. H . , and Murdoch, D . M . , Pap., Div. Water,
Air Waste Chem., Am. Chem. Soc, Atlantic City, N.J., 1968.
1. H a c h Chemical Company, Laboratory Instrumentation M a n . 1M-12-1-72 for M o d e l
2173 "Manometric B O D Apparatus." H a c h C h e m . C o . , A m e s , I o w a , 1973.
8. H a c h Chemical C o m p a n y , "Procedures for Water and Wastewater Analysis," Manual,
2nd ed., p. 288. H a c h Chem. C o . , A m e s , I o w a , 1975.
9. Ionics Incorporated, "Total Oxygen Analyzer," Brochure for Ionics M o d e l 225. Ionics
Inc., Watertown, Massachusetts.
10. M o o r e , E . W . , T h o m a s , Η . Α . , Jr., and S n o w , W . B., Sewage Ind. Wastes 22,1343 (1950).
11. Precision Scientific Instruments, Precision A q u a R a t o r Bull. 644A. Precision Sci.
Instrum., Chicago, Illinois.
12. Schroepfer, G. S. et al, "Advances in Water Pollution Control," Vol. 2. Pergamon,
Oxford, 1964.
13. "Standard Methods for the Examination o f Water and Wastewater," 13th ed. A m .
Public Health Assoc., Yearbook Publ., Chicago, Illinois, 1971.
14. Stenger, V. Α . , and V a n Hall, C. E . , 21st Ann. ISA Conf., 1966 Reprint 53-4-66 (1966).
15. Stenger, V. Α . , and V a n Hall, C . E . , Anal. Chem. 3 9 , 206 (1967).
16. T h o m a s , Η . Α . , Water Sewage Works 9 7 , 1 2 3 (1950).
17. W o o d , E. D . , Perry, A . E . , Hitchcock, M . C , and Sadlier, Μ . E., Pap. 159th Am. Chem.
Soc. Meet., Houston, Texas, 1970.
3
Pretreatment and Primary
Treatment
1. Introduction 70
2. Screening 71
3. Sedimentation 71
3.2. Types of Settling 71
3.3. Theory of Discrete Settling 72
3.4. The Ideal Sedimentation Tank Concept 76
3.5. Flocculent Settling 84
3.6. Zone Settling 98
3.7. Types of Clarifiers 105
4. Flotation 107
4.2. Evaluation of Flotation Variables for Process Design 108
4.3. Design Procedure for Flotation Units without and with Recycle 112
5. Neutralization (and Equalization) 114
5.1. Neutralization in the Field of Wastewater Treatment 114
5.2. Methods for Neutralization of Wastewaters 114
5.3. Equalization 114
5.4. Direct pH Control M e t h o d s : Neutralization of Acidic Wastes
by Direct pH Control Methods 116
5.5. Limestone Beds 116
5.6. Slurried Lime Treatment 120
5.7. Neutralization of Alkaline Wastes 123
Problems 123
References 125
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Selection of a wastewater t r e a t m e n t process or sequence of processes
d e p e n d s o n a n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s , i.e., (1) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r ,
e.g., B O D , % of s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , p H , p r e s e n c e o f t o x i c m a t e r i a l s ; (2) r e q u i r e d
effluent q u a l i t y ; (3) c o s t a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l a n d , e.g., c e r t a i n b i o l o g i c a l
p r o c e s s e s ( s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s ) a r e o n l y e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible if l o w c o s t
l a n d is a v a i l a b l e ; a n d (4) c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a p o s s i b l e f u t u r e u p g r a d i n g o f w a t e r
quality s t a n d a r d s , necessitating design of a m o r e sophisticated type of treat
m e n t for future use.
P r e t r e a t m e n t of w a s t e w a t e r i m p l i e s r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s o r c o n -
70
3. Sedimentation 71
d i t i o n i n g o f w a s t e w a t e r for d i s c h a r g e i n t o e i t h e r a r e c e i v i n g b o d y o f w a t e r o r
a s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t facility t h r o u g h n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d / o r equalization.
T y p e s o f p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t d i s c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e (1) s c r e e n i n g , (2)
s e d i m e n t a t i o n , (3) flotation, a n d (4) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d e q u a l i z a t i o n .
2. S c r e e n i n g
S c r e e n i n g is e m p l o y e d for r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s o f v a r i o u s sizes.
S c r e e n o p e n i n g s r a n g e in size d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i r p u r p o s e , a n d c l e a n i n g o f
screens is d o n e e i t h e r m a n u a l l y o r m e c h a n i c a l l y . S c r e e n i n g s a r e d i s p o s e d o f
b y b u r i a l , i n c i n e r a t i o n , o r a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n . S c r e e n s a r e classified a s fine
and coarse.
F i n e s c r e e n s h a v e o p e n i n g s of 3/16 i n . o r s m a l l e r . T h e y a r e u s u a l l y m a d e o f
steel m e s h o r p e r f o r a t e d steel p l a t e s a n d s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f s e d i m e n t a
tion tanks. However, whereas they r e m o v e from 5 to 2 5 % of suspended solids,
4 0 - 6 0 % is r e m o v e d b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a n d a l s o b e c a u s e
c l o g g i n g is f r e q u e n t l y a p r o b l e m , u s e o f fine s c r e e n s is n o t v e r y c o m m o n .
C o a r s e s c r e e n s h a v e o p e n i n g s r a n g i n g f r o m 1.5 t o 3.0 in. T h e y a r e u s e d a s
p r o t e c t i n g devices s o t h a t l a r g e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s d o n o t d a m a g e p u m p s a n d
other equipment.
S o m e t i m e s shredders are used instead of coarse screens. These devices tear
d o w n suspended solids, which are then r e m o v e d by sedimentation.
3. S e d i m e n t a t i o n
3.1. INTRODUCTION
S e d i m e n t a t i o n is u t i l i z e d in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o s e p a r a t e s u s p e n d e d
solids f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s . R e m o v a l b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e difference
in specific g r a v i t y b e t w e e n solid p a r t i c l e s a n d t h e b u l k o f t h e l i q u i d , w h i c h
r e s u l t s in s e t t l i n g o f s u s p e n d e d solids.
I n s o m e c a s e s , s e d i m e n t a t i o n is t h e o n l y t r e a t m e n t t o w h i c h t h e w a s t e w a t e r
is s u b j e c t e d . S e d i m e n t a t i o n is a l s o utilized i n o n e o r m o r e s t e p s o f a t r e a t m e n t
s e q u e n c e . I n a t y p i c a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t , s e d i m e n t a t i o n is utilized in t h r e e
of t h e t r e a t m e n t s t e p s : (1) in grit c h a m b e r s , in w h i c h i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r (e.g.,
s a n d ) is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; (2) i n t h e p r i m a r y clarifier, w h i c h
p r e c e d e s t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r , solids ( o r g a n i c a n d o t h e r s ) a r e s e p a r a t e d ; a n d
(3) in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier, w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r , t h e b i o l o g i c a l
s l u d g e is s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e t r e a t e d effluent.
3.2. T Y P E S O F S E T T L I N G
T h r e e t y p e s o f settling a r e r e c o g n i z e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f s o l i d s
p r e s e n t in t h e s u s p e n s i o n .
72 3. Pretreatment and Primary Treatment
1. Discrete settling. P a r t i c l e s b e i n g settled k e e p t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y , i.e.,

they d o n o t coalesce with other particles. T h u s , the physical properties of the
p a r t i c l e s (size, s h a p e , specific g r a v i t y ) a r e u n c h a n g e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s .
T h e s e t t l i n g of s a n d p a r t i c l e s i n g r i t c h a m b e r s is a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e o f d i s c r e t e
settling.
2. Flocculent settling. A g g l o m e r a t i o n o f t h e s e t t l i n g p a r t i c l e s is a c c o m
p a n i e d b y c h a n g e s in d e n s i t y a n d s e t t l i n g velocity. T h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n o c c u r
r i n g i n p r i m a r y clarifiers is a n e x a m p l e .
3. Zone settling. P a r t i c l e s f o r m a lattice ( o r b l a n k e t ) w h i c h settles a s a
mass exhibiting a distinct interface with the liquid phase. Examples include
s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e in s e c o n d a r y clarifiers a n d t h a t o f a l u m
floes i n w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s .
3.3. T H E O R Y O F D I S C R E T E S E T T L I N G
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p for s e t t l i n g of d i s c r e t e p a r t i c l e s is N e w t o n ' s
l a w , w h i c h is b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p a r t i c l e s a r e s p h e r i c a l w i t h a
u n i f o r m d i a m e t e r . W h e n a p a r t i c l e settles, it a c c e l e r a t e s u n t i l t h e forces
p r o m o t i n g settling, i.e., t h e p a r t i c l e effective w e i g h t , a r e b a l a n c e d b y t h e d r a g
o r f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e l i q u i d . W h e n t h i s e q u a l i t y is a c h i e v e d , t h e
particle reaches a c o n s t a n t settling velocity called the terminal o r settling
velocity of the particle.*
C o n s i d e r t h e p a r t i c l e in F i g . 3 . 1 , w h i c h h a s r e a c h e d its t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y ,
a n d write the a p p r o p r i a t e force balance. T h e force p r o m o t i n g sedimentation,
i.e., t h e effective w e i g h t of t h e p a r t i c l e , is t h e difference b e t w e e n its a c t u a l
w e i g h t a n d t h e h y d r o s t a t i c lift:
F S = vp g s - vp gL = (ps-pdgv (3.1)
where F s is t h e p a r t i c l e effective w e i g h t ; p s the particle density; p L the liquid

d e n s i t y ; g t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f g r a v i t y ; a n d ν t h e p a r t i c l e v o l u m e , \nd , 3
where
d is t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e .
T h e d r a g f o r c e i m p e d i n g s e d i m e n t a t i o n is
FD — C A(p V /2)
D L
2
(3.2)
where F D is t h e d r a g f o r c e ; C D t h e d r a g coefficient; A t h e p r o j e c t e d a r e a o f
t h e p a r t i c l e , A = \nd ; 2
a n d V t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e a n d fluid.
F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n defining t h e t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y , e q u a t e E q s . (3.1) a n d (3.2).
(Ps-p )gv
L = C A(p Vs /2)
D L
2
where
V = v s = settling velocity
* This results from force = (mass) (acceleration). Thus zero acceleration corresponds t o
a net force of zero, i.e., a perfect balance o f forces.
3. Sedimentation 73
Fig. 3.1. Discrete settling of a particle.
S u b s t i t u t i n g ν = \nd , 3
A = bnd , 2
a n d solving for the t e r m i n a l velocity, V s
[Eq.(3.3)]:
1/2
Vs = (3.3)
PL
w h i c h is N e w t o n ' s l a w .
F o r s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s , t h e d r a g coefficient C D is r e l a t e d t o t h e R e y n o l d s
n u m b e r N defined in E q . (3.4).
R
N R = dVsp /p L L (3.4)
w h e r e d is t h e d i a m e t e r of s p h e r e , V t h e t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y ( s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y ) ,
s
and p L and p L t h e d e n s i t y a n d v i s c o s i t y of l i q u i d . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is s h o w n
in F i g . 3.2.*
10'
Sto ies* Trc nsition 1 Newtc n's
\ l a w i egion re^ |ion regior
io-
C =I8
D
iC =0 4 D
0.001 0.01 0.1 I 2 10 IOOSOOÔ 3

ΙΟ 4
ΙΟ 5
ΙΟ 6
N
R = d
W ^ L
Fig. 3.2. Correlation for drag coefficient for spherical particles.
* For nonspherical particles Fig. 3.2 is plotted as a family o f curves, each curve corre
sponding to specified value o f a parameter defined as sphericity [sphericity, φ = (surface
area o f a sphere having same v o l u m e as particle)/(surface area o f particle)]. See Waddel [8].
I n g e n e r a l , t h e d r a g coefficient C D is a p p r o x i m a t e d b y
C D = b/N R
n
(3.5)
w h e r e coefficients b a n d η for t h e different r e g i o n s of F i g . 3.2 a r e i n d i c a t e d in

Table 3.1. The approximate relationship between C D and N R given b y E q .
T A B L E 3.1
Drag Coefficient C i
Region b η CD = b/N R
n
Stokes' law
N <2
R 24 1.0 CD = 24/N R
Transition
2 < N R < 500 18.5 0.6 C =\$.5/N
D R
06
Newton's
N>R 500 0.4 0.0 C D = 0.4
(3.5) is w r i t t e n in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m for t h e t h r e e r e g i o n s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 3.2.
Stokes' region: C D = 24/N R
:. l o g C D = - l o g J V * + log 24
Transition region: C D = 18.5/JV ' K

0 6
.·. l o g C D = - 0 . 6 logiV + l o g 18.5 R
N e w t o n ' s region: CD = 0.4
.*. l o g C D = log 0.4 = 0 . 0 1 o g ^ / + log 0.4 K
T h u s t h e c u r v e in F i g . 3.2 is a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e p l a c e d b y t h r e e s e g m e n t s o f
s t r a i g h t line w i t h s l o p e s of, respectively, — 1, —0.6, a n d 0.0.
M a n y sedimentation p r o b l e m s i n w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t o c c u r in S t o k e s '
region. Substituting C D = 24/N R = 24p /dV p L in E q . (3.3) a n d s i m p l i f y i n g ,
s L
S t o k e s ' l a w is o b t a i n e d .
V s = 1/18- -±^-gd P 2
(3.6)
ML
F o r a specific p r o b l e m in S t o k e s ' r e g i o n ( p , p , a n d p s L L fixed) E q . (3.6) is

w r i t t e n a s [ E q . (3.7)]
Vs = Kd 2
(3.7)
( w h e r e AT is a c o n s t a n t ) , w h i c h i n l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m b e c o m e s [ E q . ( 3 . 8 ) ]
logKs = 2 log*/ + l o g # = 2 log*/ + C ( C is a constant) (3.8)

3. Sedimentation 75
T h u s , a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f V vs. d yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e e q u a l t o 2.0

s
for Stokes' region.

For a specific problem in N e w t o n ' s region, since CD is a constant
(C D = 0.4), E q . (3.3) yields E q . (3.9).
Vs = K'd 1/2
(3.9)
( w h e r e K' — a c o n s t a n t ) w h i c h in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m b e c o m e s E q . (3.10).
logKs = i l o g r f + l o g i T = i l o g < / + C (3.10)
where C is a c o n s t a n t . T h u s , a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t of V v s . d y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t
s
line o f s l o p e e q u a l t o \ for N e w t o n ' s r e g i o n .

For the transition region, C D = 18.5/iV^ = 6
(\%^ - )l(d ' V° ' p - ).
0
L
6 0 6
s
6 0
L
6
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e i n E q . (3.3) a n d s i m p l i f y i n g , o n e o b t a i n s E q . (3.11).
Vs = [ ( 4 ^ / 5 5 . 5 ) ( / 7 - / / / - ) ( / - / ) / / > J ^
L
0 6
L
0 6
? s ? L
1 1 1 4 3
= K*d l 1 4 3
(3.11)
w h e r e K" is a c o n s t a n t . I n l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m t h i s b e c o m e s [ E q . ( 3 . 1 2 ) ]
logKs = 1.143 \ogd+ l o g * " = 1.143 \ogd + C" (3.12)
w h e r e C " is a c o n s t a n t . T h u s , a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f V vs. d y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t s
line o f s l o p e 1.143 for t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n . T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f V v s . d s
for t h e t h r e e r e g i o n s is s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 3 . E v e n in t h e c a s e o f g r i t c h a m b e r s ,
t h e t h e o r y j u s t o u t l i n e d suffers f r o m t w o s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s : (1) g r i t p a r t i c l e s
a r e s e l d o m s p h e r i c a l , a n d (2) grit p a r t i c l e s d o n o t h a v e u n i f o r m d e n s i t y .
A g r a p h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o E q . (3.3) is p l o t t e d in F i g . 3.4, g i v i n g t h e r e l a t i o n
ship between particle d i a m e t e r a n d velocity V . s P a r t i c l e s o f specific g r a v i t i e s
1.001, 1.01, a n d 2.65 a r e c o n s i d e r e d in p l o t t i n g F i g . 3.4. V a l u e 2.65 c o r r e s p o n d s
t o t h e specific g r a v i t y of t y p i c a l s a n d . T h e l i q u i d u s e d is w a t e r a t t e m p e r a t u r e s
indicated, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to respective values of p , μ . Values of C L £ D are
o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g . 3.2 b y a trial a n d e r r o r p r o c e d u r e : (1) f o r specified p a r t i c l e
Stokes' iTransi- Newton's

region ,' tion region
log d
Fig. 3.3. Logarithmic plot of V s vs. d.

10 10"' K) 10
Velocity of fall, c m / s e c
Fig. 3.4. Relation between settling velocity and particle diameter [4].
d i a m e t e r a n d t e m p e r a t u r e (p a n d p fixed) a s s u m e a s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V ;
L L s
(2) C a l c u l a t e N b a s e d u p o n t h i s a s s u m e d v e l o c i t y ; (3) F r o m F i g . 3.2 r e a d

R
C ; a n d (4) F r o m E q . 3.3 r e c a l c u l a t e V . If it a g r e e s w i t h t h e v a l u e a s s u m e d
D s
in (1) c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c o n s i s t e n t . O t h e r w i s e , i t e r a t i o n is c o n t i n u e d u n t i l
a g r e e m e n t is o b t a i n e d .
F i g u r e 3.4 is c o n s t r u c t e d in t h i s m a n n e r . S i n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n is b a s e d u p o n
t h e a c t u a l c u r v e o f C vs. N (i.e., F i g . 3.2), t h e lines in F i g . 3.4 e x h i b i t s o m e
D R
c u r v a t u r e , b y c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e t h r e e s t r a i g h t line s e g m e n t s in F i g . 3.3 [ c o n
s t r u c t i o n o f w h i c h is b a s e d o n t h e a p p r o x i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s given b y E q s .
(3.8), (3.10), a n d ( 3 . 1 2 ) ] . A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , c u r v e s in F i g . 3.4
a r e r e p l a c e a b l e b y t h r e e s t r a i g h t line s e g m e n t s .
3.4. T H E I D E A L S E D I M E N T A T I O N T A N K C O N C E P T
T h i s c o n c e p t , d e v e l o p e d b y H a z e n [ 5 ] a n d C a m p [ 1 ] , is t h e b a s i s f o r
a r r i v i n g a t r e l a t i o n s h i p s utilized in t h e d e s i g n o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s . T h e
m o d e l c h o s e n f o r a s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k c o n s i s t s o f f o u r z o n e s ( F i g s . 3.5 a n d
3.6).
1. I n l e t z o n e . H e r e t h e flow b e c o m e s q u i e s c e n t . I t is a s s u m e d t h a t a t t h e
l i m i t of t h i s z o n e (i.e., a l o n g v e r t i c a l line xt) p a r t i c l e s a r e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
a c r o s s t h e influent c r o s s s e c t i o n .
2. S e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e . A p a r t i c l e is a s s u m e d t o b e r e m o v e d f r o m s u s
p e n s i o n o n c e it h i t s t h e b o t t o m o f t h i s z o n e ( h o r i z o n t a l line ty).
3. Sedimentation 77
t=0
x.
.
Inlet x_ __^r^_ Outlet
π
zone ^ ^ - ^ V zone
Sedimentation z o n e ^ - i ^ ^ Case
Case^ *-^. 1
t_
Sludge zone
_.
Η L ,
Fig. 3.5. Model of a sedimentation tank with discrete settling particles
(Cases 1 and 2).
|t=0
!x_ % /
Inlet j ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^
zone |
!
!
_
Sedimentation zone
'
sj ·
^^"""""•"•••^
V
V, ^ C a s e 3
^^^^^^
^Case 4
ΊI
^ t
Outlet
zone
y"
It y_
! Sludge zone
p- L *
Fig. 3.6. Model of a sedimentation tank with discrete settling particles

(Cases 3 and 4).
3. O u t l e t z o n e . W a s t e w a t e r is c o l l e c t e d h e r e p r i o r t o t r a n s f e r t o t h e n e x t
treatment.
4. S l u d g e z o n e . T h i s z o n e is p r o v i d e d f o r s l u d g e r e m o v a l .
S e t t l i n g p a t h s of p a r t i c l e s e n t e r i n g t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e a t p o i n t s χ a n d
x' f o r d i s c r e t e s e t t l i n g a r e i n d i c a t e d b y lines xy a n d x'y' i n F i g . 3.5 a n d lines
xy" a n d x'y in F i g . 3.6. T h e s e settling p a t h s a r e t h e n e t r e s u l t o f t w o v e l o c i t y
vector c o m p o n e n t s :
1. F l o w - t h r o u g h velocity V [ E q . (3.13)]
V = Q/A' = QIWH (3.13)
w h e r e Κ is t h e flow-through velocity (ft/sec); Q t h e flow r a t e ( f t / s e c ) ; A' t h e 3
v e r t i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e , n a m e l y A' = WH ( f t ) 2
(refer t o F i g . 3.7); W t h e w i d t h o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e (ft); a n d Η t h e d e p t h

o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e (ft).
2. Settling velocity, i n d i c a t e d b y e i t h e r v e c t o r s V o r V in F i g s . 3.5 a n d
s x
3.6, respectively.
F o r d i s c r e t e s e t t l i n g t h e settling velocity is c o n s t a n t f o r a n y specific s e t t l i n g
Fig. 3.7. Geometry of the sedimentation zone.
path, i.e., V and V do not vary along their respective paths. This is due to the
s t
fact that a discrete particle is unhindered by neighboring ones (no coales

cence), so it settles with a uniform velocity, read from Fig. 3.4, as a function
of the particle diameter.
For flocculent settling the situation is different. Figure 3.8 illustrates a
typical sedimentation path of flocculent settling (Section 3.5). As coalescence
Sludge zone
Fig. 3.8. Model of a sedimentation tank for flocculent settling.
with neighboring particles takes place, the effective diameter of the particle
increases, and thus its settling velocity V also increases. The net result is that
s
settling paths are curved in contrast with straight line paths for discrete
settling.
Consider the following cases with reference to Figs. 3.5 and 3.6, keeping
in mind that a particle is assumed to be removed from the suspension once it
hits the bottom of the sedimentation zone.
Case 1 (Fig. 3.5). A particle which at time zero (r = 0) is located at point
χ and possesses a settling velocity V (and diameter d read from Fig. 3.4).
s s
This particle is removed, since it touches the bottom of the sedimentation

zone at y (path xy).
Case 2 (Fig. 3.5). A particle which at t = 0 is located at x on the same f
vertical line as χ but below x, and has a settling velocity V (or greater than V ).s s
This particle is also removed since it hits the bottom of the sedimentation zone
3. Sedimentation 79
t o t h e left o f p o i n t y ( a t / ) - If t h e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y is g r e a t e r t h a n V t h e p a r t i c l e
s
t o u c h e s t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e t o t h e left o f y'. F i g u r e 3.6

p o r t r a y s t h e c a s e o f p a r t i c l e s w i t h a d i a m e t e r d (dx x < d ), p o s s e s s i n g a s e t t l i n g
s
velocity V (V < V ). ( S e t t l i n g velocity V

x t s l is r e a d f r o m F i g . 3.4 f o r d = d)
v
T h e s e p a r t i c l e s a r e s h o w n s e p a r a t e l y in F i g . 3.6 s i m p l y t o a v o i d o v e r c r o w d i n g
o f t h e d i a g r a m . I n fact t h e y a r e t o g e t h e r in t h e s l u r r y w i t h p a r t i c l e s o f s e t t l i n g
velocity V. s
Case 3 ( F i g . 3.6). A p a r t i c l e w h i c h a t t = 0 is l o c a t e d a t χ a n d h a s a
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V ( w h e r e V < V ). T h i s p a r t i c l e is n o t r e m o v e d since it d o e s
x t s
n o t r e a c h t h e b o t t o m of t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e (i.e., line ty) in t i m e f o r

removal (sedimentation path xy").
Case 4 ( F i g . 3.6). A p a r t i c l e w i t h s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V ( w h e r e V < V ) a n d
x t s
s i t u a t e d a t x' a t t = 0. T h i s p a r t i c l e is r e m o v e d ( s e d i m e n t a t i o n p a t h x'y).
C o n s i d e r n o w t h e settling velocity V . F r o m E q . (3.13)
s
Q = VA' = VWH (3.14)
F r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s in F i g . 3.5
V= Vs(L/H) (3.15)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f E q . (3.15) in E q . (3.14) a n d s i m p l i f i c a t i o n l e a d s t o
Q = V LW S = VA
S (3.16)
w h e r e A = LW= horizontal cross-sectional area of the sedimentation z o n e

( f t ) ( F i g . 3.7).
2
F r o m E q . (3.16)
Vs = QILW= Q/A (3.17)
F r o m E q . (3.17) it follows t h a t t h e s e t t l i n g efficiency is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , r a t h e r t h a n o f t h e d e p t h H. T h u s , in p r i n c i p l e ,
it is a d v i s a b l e t o utilize s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k s o f h i g h surface a r e a A a n d l o w
d e p t h s . T h e o n l y r e a s o n s for u s i n g a r e a s o n a b l e d e p t h a r e (1) t o satisfy d e p t h
r e q u i r e m e n t s in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f o r m e c h a n i c a l r a k e s u t i l i z e d f o r r e m o v a l
of settled s l u d g e , a n d (2) t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f v e l o c i t y ( f l o w - t h r o u g h
v e l o c i t y V) m u s t b e k e p t w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s t o p r e v e n t s c o u r i n g t h e p a r t i c l e s
w h i c h h a v e settled.
F r o m E q . (3.13) it follows t h a t Η s h o u l d n o t b e t o o l o w since Κ w o u l d rise
a b o v e t h e s c o u r velocity. T h e s u b j e c t o f s c o u r v e l o c i t y is d i s c u s s e d in t h i s
s e c t i o n . S c o u r o c c u r s w h e n flow-through v e l o c i t y V is sufficient t o s u s p e n d
p r e v i o u s l y settled p a r t i c l e s . S c o u r is n o t u s u a l l y a p r o b l e m in l a r g e s e t t l i n g
t a n k s , b u t it c a n b e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in g r i t c h a m b e r s a n d n a r r o w c h a n n e l s .
T h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l p r e m i s e s o f t h e i d e a l t a n k c o n c e p t a r e (1) u n i f o r m
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s a c r o s s t h e influent c r o s s s e c t i o n (i.e., a l o n g v e r t i c a l
line xt) a n d (2) a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a p a r t i c l e is c o n s i d e r e d r e m o v e d w h e n it

r e a c h e s t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n z o n e (i.e., h o r i z o n t a l line ty).
K e e p i n g in m i n d t h e s e t w o p r e m i s e s , t w o c o r o l l a r i e s f o l l o w : (1) A l l
p a r t i c l e s w i t h a s e t t l i n g velocity e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n V a r e r e m o v e d ; a n d
s
(2) all p a r t i c l e s w i t h a settling v e l o c i t y less t h a n V ( s u c h a s V i n F i g . 3.6) a r e

s x
r e m o v e d i n a p r o p o r t i o n given b y t h e r a t i o VJV . S
F r o m g e o m e t r i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e p a t h ( F i g s . 3.5 a n d 3.6)
t o u c h i n g point y at the b o t t o m of the sedimentation t a n k (particles with
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V in F i g . 3.5 f o l l o w i n g p a t h xy, a n d p a r t i c l e s w i t h s e t t l i n g
s
v e l o c i t y K i n F i g . 3.6 f o l l o w i n g p a t h x'y), o n e w r i t e s [ E q . ( 3 . 1 8 ) ]
x
Vi/Vs = h/H (3.18)
F o r e x a m p l e , if Η = 100 in. a n d h = 75 in., t h e n
VJVs = 75/100 = 0.75
o r 7 5 % o f t h e p a r t i c l e s w i t h a s e t t l i n g velocity V x a r e r e m o v e d , i.e., t h o s e
w h i c h a t t i m e t = 0 a r e a t a h e i g h t x' o r b e l o w . T h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t i c l e s w i t h
settling velocity V u i.e., t h o s e s i t u a t e d b e t w e e n χ a n d x' a t t i m e / = 0, a r e
not r e m o v e d .
T h e overflow r a t e defined a s
QjA = f t / ( f t ) ( h r ) = ft/hr
3 2
is defined a s t h e settling velocity V o f a p a r t i c l e t h a t settles t h r o u g h a d i s t a n c e

s
e x a c t l y e q u a l t o t h e effective d e p t h of t h e t a n k d u r i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e t e n t i o n
p e r i o d . T h i s r e s u l t s f r o m t h e definition o f d e t e n t i o n p e r i o d :
/ = detention period = (volume of t a n k ) / Q = HA/Q (A = LW) (3.19)
F r o m E q . (3.19) it follows t h a t a s e t t l i n g velocity V defined a s V = H/t s s is

e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e overflow r a t e , since
Vs = Hit = H/(HA/Q) = Q/A
w h i c h is E q . (3.17).
T h e scour velocity V is t h e v a l u e o f t h e
c flow-through velocity V [ E q . ( 3 . 2 0 ) ] ,
V = V c = Q/A' = QIWH (3.20)
for which "previously settled" particles are scoured away.*
* T h e words "previously settled" are placed in quotes because a particle which is scoured
away never actually settles. Mentally o n e separates the processes of settling and scouring
and imagines that a particle settles and subsequently is scoured away. This reasoning is
compatible with the hypothetical resolution of the velocity trajectory into vectors V (flow-
through velocity) and V (settling velocity).
s
3. Sedimentation 81
T h e s c o u r v e l o c i t y is e s t i m a t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n [ E q .
(3.21)] [ 1 ] :
V c = [8/fr</(5-l)//] 1 / 2
(3.21)
w h e r e V is t h e v e l o c i t y o f s c o u r ( m m / s e c ) ; i.e.,
c flow-through velocity required
t o s c o u r all p a r t i c l e s o f d i a m e t e r d o r s m a l l e r ; β t h e c o n s t a n t (0.04 f o r u n i -
g r a n u l a r s a n d , 0 . 0 6 for n o n u n i f o r m s t i c k y m a t e r i a l ) ; / t h e W e i s b a c h - D ' A r c y
f r i c t i o n f a c t o r (0.03 f o r c o n c r e t e ) ; g t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f g r a v i t y ( m m / s e c ) 2
( n o r m a l : 9 8 0 0 m m / s e c ) ; dthe
2
particle diameter ( m m ) (particles with diameter
d o r less t h a n d a r e s c o u r e d a w a y ) ; a n d s t h e specific g r a v i t y o f p a r t i c l e .
Example 3 . 1
C o n s i d e r a s u s p e n s i o n of s a n d (s = 2.65) i n w a t e r a t 2 0 ° C w i t h a u n i f o r m
p a r t i c l e size (d = 0.07 m m ) . F l o w is 1.0 M g a l / d a y .
1. C a l c u l a t e t h e s e t t l i n g t a n k s u r f a c e ( h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n ) for
obtaining removal of 70% of the particles.
2. S u p p o s e t h a t i n s t e a d of a u n i f o r m p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r , t h e r e is, b e s i d e s
p a r t i c l e s ofd= 0.07 m m , a n o t h e r set w i t h a u n i f o r m l y l a r g e r d i a m e t e r , w h i c h
are completely r e m o v e d in the settling t a n k designed for 7 0 % r e m o v a l of the
p a r t i c l e s w i t h d = 0.07 m m . D e t e r m i n e w h a t is t h e m i n i m u m p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r
for total removal.
3. F o r c a s e (2), d e t e r m i n e t h e flow-though v e l o c i t y V s o t h a t all p a r t i c l e s
c
of lower settling velocity t h a n those completely r e m o v e d are scoured a w a y .

W h a t c o m b i n a t i o n o f l e n g t h , w i d t h , a n d d e p t h for t h e s e t t l i n g t a n k m e e t s
these requirements ?
S O L U T I O N : Part 1
Step 1. F r o m F i g . 3.4 [ f o r d = 0.07 m m a n d s = 2.65 ( a t 2 0 ° C ) ] , r e a d
Vs = 0.45 cm/sec
or
V s = 0.45 cm/sec χ ft/30.48 cm χ 3600 sec/hr
V s = 53.1 ft/hr = 53.1 f t / ( f t ) ( h r )

3 2
T h e overflow r a t e i n g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) is 2
53.1 f t / ( f t ) ( h r ) χ 7.48 gal/ft χ 2 4 h r / d a y

3 2 3
Λ V = 9533 gal/(day)(ft )
s
2
Step 2. T h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is (for 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l )
1,000,000 gal/day
A
= Q' * V
= 9533 gal/(day)(ft ) 2 = 1 0 5
*
W i t h t h i s a r e a , 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l is o b t a i n e d . F o r 7 0 % r e m o v a l t h e r e s i d e n c e
t i m e ( a n d t h u s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ) is r e d u c e d b y 3 0 % . T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
a r e a is
A = 105 χ 0.7 = 73.5 ft 2
U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e settling v e l o c i t y for 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l is
1,000,000/73.5 = 13,605 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
Note: C h e c k o n p e r c e n t r e m o v a l . S i n c e t h e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y is 9 5 3 3
g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) , fixed b y t h e p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g . 3.4,
2
p e r c e n t a g e r e m o v a l is 9 5 3 3 / 1 3 , 6 0 5 = 0.70 ( 7 0 % ) . R e f e r r i n g t o F i g . 3.6 t h e
p a r t i c l e s r e m o v e d a r e t h o s e w h i c h a t t h e e n d o f inlet z o n e , a l o n g v e r t i c a l line
xt, a r e a l r e a d y a t d i s t a n c e h ( o r less t h a n h) f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e d i m e n
tation zone, where [from E q . (3.18)]
V s = 13,605 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
(100% removal)
Vi = 9533 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
(70% removal)
.·. h/H = 0.70
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 If t h e r e is a d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s i n s t e a d
o f u n i f o r m d i a m e t e r d = 0.07 m m , o n e r e a d s f r o m F i g . 3.4 t h e d i a m e t e r ,
w h i c h is l a r g e r t h a n 0.07 m m , for w h i c h t h e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y c o r r e s p o n d s
t o 13,605 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a b s c i s s a i n F i g . 3.4 is
2
(13,605/9533) χ 0.45 cm/sec = 0.45/0.7 = 0.642 cm/sec
F r o m F i g . 3.4 [ f o r V = 0.642 c m / s e c a n d s = 2.65 (t = 2 0 ° Q ] , r e a d d = 0.085

s
m m ( 1 0 0 % r e m o v a l ) . If d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r in t h e i n f l u e n t is
k n o w n , one can calculate the % removal corresponding to each g r o u p of
p a r t i c l e s for a g i v e n d i a m e t e r ( E x a m p l e 3.2).
S O L U T I O N : Part 3 T h e s c o u r v e l o c i t y t o s w e e p all p a r t i c l e s o f l o w e r
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y t h a n t h o s e t o b e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
E q . (3.21).
V c = [8 χ 0.04 x 9800 χ 0.07(2.65 - 1 ) / 0 . 0 3 ] 1/2

= 110 mm/sec
A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e s a n d c o n t a i n s o n l y t w o p a r t i c l e sizes, e.g., 0.07 a n d 0.085

m m , t h e s c o u r v e l o c i t y V = 110.0 m m / s e c s w e e p s a w a y all p a r t i c l e s
c of
d = 0.07 m m , l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h o s e o f d = 0.085 m m . T h e v a l u e o f V c in
p r a c t i c a l u n i t s is
Vc = 110 mm/sec χ ft/304.8 m m = 0.36 ft/sec
T h e v e r t i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (3.13).
__ 1,000,000 gal/day χ day/86,400 sec χ ft /7.48 gal 3
= 4 3 ft2
0.36 ft/sec
3. Sedimentation 83
A n y p r a c t i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n o f l e n g t h , w i d t h , a n d d e p t h is u s e d t o satisfy t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s A = 73.5 f t 2
= LW a n d A' = 4 . 3 f t 2
= WH.
Example 3.2
S u p p o s e t h a t for E x a m p l e 3.1 i n s t e a d o f a u n i f o r m p a r t i c l e size, t h e r e is a

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d i a m e t e r s . A s s u m e t h e s a m e specific g r a v i t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e
a s in E x a m p l e 3 . 1 , i.e., s = 2.65 a n d t = 2 0 ° C . A s s u m e t h a t f o r e a c h 100 l b o f
g r i t t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e sizes a p p l i e s (see t a b u l a t i o n b e l o w )
(2) (3)
lb o f each Particle size,
Group no. particle size d (mm)
1 50 0.085
2 20 0.070
3 20 0.060
4 10 0.050
TOO
T h e s e t t l i n g velocities for e a c h g r o u p o f p a r t i c l e s a r e r e a d f r o m F i g . 3.4.

T h i s is i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n (4) o f T a b l e 3.2. P e r c e n t r e m o v a l s a r e t h e n c a l
c u l a t e d [ c o l u m n ( 5 ) ] a n d e x p r e s s e d a s f r a c t i o n s o f u n i t y in c o l u m n (r5). T h e
T A B L E 3.2
(2)
lb o f (3) (6)
(/) each Particle (4) (5) Fraction (7)
G r o u p particle size, d V removed = lb r e m o v e d
x 100
s
no. size ( m m ) (Fig. 3.4) / 0 removal- 0 6 4 2

(5)-100 (7) = (2) χ (6)
1 50 0.085 0.642 (0.642/0.642)100 = 100" 1.00 50.0

2 20 0.070 0.450 (0.45/0.642)100 = 70 fl
0.70 14.0
3 20 0.060 0.350 (0.35/0.642)100 = 54.5 0.545 10.9
4 10 0.050 0.220 (0.22/0.642)100 = 34.3 0.343 3.43
100 78.3
" Already calculated in Example 3.1.
w e i g h t of s a n d r e m o v e d b y settling for e a c h g r o u p o f p a r t i c l e s is c o m p u t e d in
c o l u m n ( 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e 7 8 . 3 % o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c l e s is r e m o v e d
b y settling.
I n t h i s e x a m p l e , if t h e v e r t i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n A' is t a k e n e q u a l t o 4.3 f t ( v a l u e
2
c a l c u l a t e d in E x a m p l e 3.1), all p a r t i c l e s of < / = 0 . 0 7 m m a n d s m a l l e r a r e

s c o u r e d a w a y ( g r o u p s 2, 3, a n d 4). T h e r e f o r e , t h e n e t r e m o v a l is o f o n l y 50 lb
p e r 100 lb of t o t a l grit, i.e., t h e p a r t i c l e s w i t h d = 0.085 ( g r o u p 1). T h i s i n d i c a t e s
a net removal by weight of 50%.
If A' is t a k e n l a r g e r t h a n 4.3 f t t h e n e t r e m o v a l is g r e a t e r , since t h e r e is less
2
s c o u r i n g . E x a m i n i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s for E x a m p l e 3 . 1 , it follows t h a t if A' is t a k e n

a s 8.6 f t ( t w i c e 4.3 f t ) t h e v a l u e of V is 0.18 ft/sec ( i n s t e a d o f 0.36 ft/sec).
2 2
c
This corresponds to
V c = 55 mm/sec (instead of 110.0 mm/sec)
S i n c e f r o m E q . (3.21), V is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o d
c
l / 2
, it f o l l o w s t h a t d is 0 . 0 7 / 4 =
0.0175 m m , s o a s t o yield V = 55 m m / s e c ( h a l f o f 110.0 m m / s e c ) . T h e r e f o r e ,
c
o n l y p a r t i c l e s w i t h d = 0.0175 m m o r s m a l l e r a r e r e m o v e d b y s c o u r i n g . S i n c e
for t h e given d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e s m a l l e s t p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r is 0.05 m m , t h e r e is
n o r e m o v a l by s c o u r i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e n e t r e m o v a l is 78.3 lb f r o m e v e r y
100 lb of s a n d , o r 7 8 . 3 % b y w e i g h t .
If t h i s v a l u e is a d o p t e d ,
A = 73.5 ft 2
= LW
A' = 8.6 ft 2
= WH
S e l e c t i n g Η = 4 ft, t h e n
W = 8.6/4 = 2.15 ft
L = 73.5/2.15 = 34.2 ft
T h i s i n d i c a t e s specification o f a n a r r o w settling c h a n n e l 34.2 ft l o n g , 2.15 ft

w i d e , a n d 4 ft d e e p .
3.5. F L O C C U L E N T S E T T L I N G
F l o c c u l e n t s e t t l i n g t a k e s p l a c e w h e n s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e s in
c r e a s e s d u e t o c o a l e s c e n c e w i t h o t h e r p a r t i c l e s . A d i a g r a m o f flocculent
s e d i m e n t a t i o n profiles is s h o w n in F i g . 3.8. T h e s e t t l i n g p a t h s o f t h e p a r t i c l e s
a r e c u r v e s , r a t h e r t h a n s t r a i g h t lines a s for d i s c r e t e settling.
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a for s y s t e m s e x h i b i t i n g flocculent settling a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y
a l a b o r a t o r y settling a n a l y s i s . A t y p i c a l l a b o r a t o r y settling c o l u m n is s h o w n
in F i g . 3.9.
C o n c e n t r a t i o n of s u s p e n d e d solids is k e p t u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o l u m n
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e s t b y m e a n s of a p o r t a b l e stirrer. T h e d e p t h o f t h e
c o l u m n is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f t h e settling t a n k t o b e d e s i g n e d .
T e m p e r a t u r e is k e p t c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e test. A p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n o f a s e t t l i n g
c o l u m n ( F i g . 3.9) is 8 ft d e e p , w i t h s a m p l i n g p o r t s a t d e p t h s o f 2, 4, 6, a n d 8 ft.
3. Sedimentation 85
ι
r—ID—{
! 5-1/2" j
2'-0"
Depths
counted
in this
2'-0" direction
2'-0" Testing
..ajjap3 cylinder
(plexiglass)
Fig. 3.9. Laboratory settling column.
D a t a t a k e n a t 2-, 4-, a n d 6-ft d e p t h s a r e u t i l i z e d t o d e t e r m i n e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y

a n d d e t e n t i o n t i m e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . D a t a f r o m t h e 8-ft p o r t a r e u s e d f o r s l u d g e
concentration and compaction determinations.
Step 1. Fill t h e c o l u m n w i t h w a s t e w a t e r , m a i n t a i n i n g a u n i f o r m c o n
c e n t r a t i o n of s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s t h r o u g h o u t . A p o r t a b l e s t i r r e r is u s e d f o r t h i s
purpose.
Step 2. R e m o v e t h e s t i r r e r f r o m t h e c y l i n d e r . A t e a c h s a m p l i n g p o r t , t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of s u s p e n d e d solids a r e m e a s u r e d a t p r e d e t e r m i n e d t i m e s .
E x a m p l e s 3.3 a n d 3.4 i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r o c e d u r e f r o m d a t a t r e a t m e n t t o t h e
d e s i g n o f a clarifier.
Example 3.3
T h e s u s p e n s i o n b e i n g t e s t e d h a s a n initial s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f 4 3 0 m g / l i t e r ( S S ) . T h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( h e n c e a b b r e v i a t e d a s SS) c o n
0
c e n t r a t i o n s in T a b l e 3.3 a r e m e a s u r e d a t t h e i n d i c a t e d t i m e s a t t h e 2-, 4 - , a n d
6-ft s a m p l i n g p o r t s . P e r f o r m t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d a t a a r r i v i n g a t c u r v e s for
(a) % SS r e m o v a l vs. d e t e n t i o n t i m e ( m i n ) , (b) % SS r e m o v a l vs. o v e r f l o w r a t e
[ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] , a n d (c) % S S r e m a i n i n g ( f r a c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s w i t h less t h a n
2
s t a t e d velocity) vs. s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y ( f t / h r ) .
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e f r a c t i o n o f solids r e m a i n i n g in s u s p e n s i o n for e a c h
sample [Eq. (3.22)].
χ = SS/SSo
orin%
y = SS/SSo x 100 (3.22)
T A B L E 3.3
Laboratory Sedimentation Data (Example 3.3)
SS concentrations
at indicated depths
Time 2 ft 4 ft 6 ft
(min) (Tap 1) (Tap 2) (Tap 3)
5 356.9 387.0 395.6

10 309.6 346.2 365.5
20 251.6 298.9 316.1
30 197.8 253.7 288.1
40 163.4 230.1 251.6
50 144.1 195.7 232.2
60 116.1 178.5 204.3
75 107.5 143.2 180.6
T h e n calculate for each s a m p l e the fraction of solids removed
1 - x
o r in %
ζ = 100 - y (3.23)
A s a m p l e of t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s (for a 2-ft d e p t h ) is s h o w n in T a b l e 3.4. S i m i l a r

c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d f o r 4 - a n d 6-ft d e p t h s .
T A B L E 3.4
Calculation of Fraction of Solids Remaining and Removed for a 2-ft Depth
(2)
ω SS remaining (3) (4)
Time (mg/liter) Solids remaining (%) Solids removed (%)
(min) (Table 3.3) y = (SS/SSo) x 100 ζ = 100->>
5 356.9 83.0 17.0

10 309.6 72.0 28.0
20 251.6 58.5 41.5
30 197.8 46.0 54.0
40 163.4 38.0 62.0
50 144.1 33.5 66.5
60 116.1 27.0 73.0
75 107.5 25.0 75.0
Step 2. I n o r d e r t o s m o o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a c o n s t r u c t a g r a p h o f
% SS r e m o v e d v s . t i m e . T h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 3.10 for t h e 2-, 4 - , a n d 6-ft
depths.
3. Sedimentation 87
90
80
ο 11*
70
Iο
60!
Ε
;so
)
ϊ
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
t (min)
Fig. 3.10. Suspended solids (%SS) removed vs. time.
Step 3. F r o m F i g . 3.10 c o n s t r u c t a s e t t l i n g profile g r a p h ( F i g . 3.11). T h i s

is d o n e b y r e a d i n g f r o m t h e s m o o t h e d c u r v e s o f F i g . 3.10 t h e a b s c i s s a s (/, m i n )
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o selected v a l u e s o f % S S r e m o v e d (e.g., 5, 10, 2 0 , 7 0 , 7 5 % )
f o r e a c h o n e o f t h e t h r e e d e p t h s . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e t a b u l a t e d ( T a b l e 3.5) a n d
utilized f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f F i g . 3 . 1 1 .
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e % r e m o v a l o f SS a n d o v e r f l o w r a t e [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] . 2
Before t h e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e is fully u n d e r s t o o d , s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m u s t b e m a d e . A n effective s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V is defined a s t h e
s
effective d e p t h (6 ft in t h i s e x a m p l e ) d i v i d e d b y t h e t i m e ( d e t e n t i o n t i m e , t)
r e q u i r e d for a given p a r t i c l e t o t r a v e l t h i s d i s t a n c e , i.e. [ E q . ( 3 . 2 4 ) ] ,
Vs = Hit (3.24)
If a s u s p e n s i o n c o n t a i n s p a r t i c l e s w i t h different s e t t l i n g velocities, t h e
efficiency of r e m o v a l b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n is o b t a i n e d b y p e r f o r m i n g a s e t t l i n g
c o l u m n t e s t a s j u s t d e s c r i b e d . L e t SS b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l i d s r e m a i n i n g
for o n e specific s a m p l e a n d t i m e . T h u s
x 0 = SS/SSo = fraction of solids remaining
and
1 — * 0 = 1 - SS/SSo = yo = fraction of solids removed

40 60 80
t (minutes)
Fig. 3.11. Settling profile. Encircled numbers are % SS removed.
T A B L E 3.5
Values for Plotting Fig. 3.11
/ (min)
%SS
removed 2 ft 4 ft 6ft
5 1.2 2.5 3.7

10 2.5 5.0 6.5
20 6.7 11.0 14.5
30 11.7 19.0 25.0
40 18.0 30.0 39.0
50 27.0 44.0 56.5
60 38.5 61.5 77.5
70 55.0 87.5 —
75 75.0 — —
P a r t i c l e s w i t h a s e t t l i n g velocity V o r h i g h e r ( w h e r e V = H/t) a r e c o m
s s
p l e t e l y r e m o v e d . P a r t i c l e s w i t h a l o w e r settling velocity V (V < V ) a r e 1 t s
r e m o v e d a t a r a t i o g i v e n b y E q . (3.18).
A t y p i c a l g r a p h like t h e o n e in F i g . 3.12 is p l o t t e d b y a n a l y s i s o f d a t a
o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c o l u m n . T h e d e t a i l s for c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s u c h
3. Sedimentation 89
Fig. 3.12. Determination of overall removal.
a g r a p h from experimental d a t a are discussed later in Step 4(d). However,

for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d n e x t , it is c o n v e n i e n t
t o a s s u m e t h a t t h i s g r a p h is a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e .
F i g u r e 3.12 is a p l o t o f t h e f r a c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s w i t h less t h a n t h e s t a t e d
v e l o c i t y v s . t h e settling velocity in q u e s t i o n . N o t i c e t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n o f p a r
ticles w i t h less t h a n t h e s t a t e d v e l o c i t y (if V = Hjt) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e f r a c t i o n
s
o f p a r t i c l e s not c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d . F o r e x a m p l e , if 4 0 % o f t h e p a r t i c l e s in
a specific c a s e a r e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d , t h e n x = 0.6 is t h e o r d i n a t e c o r r e
0
s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e t t l i n g velocity V = Hjt. s
F o r p a r t i c l e s w i t h settling velocities b e t w e e n V a n d V +dV 1 (where

x
V < V ), t h e f r a c t i o n r e m o v e d is VJV . S i m i l a r l y , for p a r t i c l e s w i t h s e t t l i n g

1 s S
velocities b e t w e e n V + dVand V +2 dV, t h e f r a c t i o n r e m o v e d is

x x (Vi+dV)/V . s
T h e o v e r a l l r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s is
Overall removal = (1 - x ) + 0 J
'V/
P
i s) dx (3.25)
I n E q . (3.25) V is a v a r i a b l e (0 < V < V ) w i t h V = / ( * ) p o r t r a y e d b y t h e

x x s x
c u r v e in F i g . 3.12. T e r m (1 — x ) is t h e f r a c t i o n c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d , c o r r e
0
s p o n d i n g t o p a r t i c l e s w i t h velocities ^ V . T h e s e c o n d t e r m in E q . (3.25), i.e.,

s
(KIVs)dx=i/Vs\ Kdx
ο Jo
w h i c h is t h e f r a c t i o n o f r e m o v a l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p a r t i c l e s w i t h velocities less
t h a n V (calculated by graphical integration as indicated by the hatched a r e a
s
i n F i g . 3.12). T h e differential a r e a of w i d t h dx, i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 3.12, c o r r e

s p o n d s t o p a r t i c l e s w i t h s e t t l i n g velocities b e t w e e n V a n d t V -\-dV.
1
C o m b i n i n g E q s . (3.18) a n d (3.25) t h e final e x p r e s s i o n for t h e o v e r a l l r e m o v a l

is o b t a i n e d [ E q . ( 3 . 2 6 ) ] .
J
m
xo fxo
(Vi/Vs) dx = (1 - jc ) + (l/Vs)
0 Vi dx
0 Jo
= (l-*o) + J \h/H)dx
X
(3.26)
A f t e r t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e t u r n t o d i s c u s s i o n o f S t e p 4.
Step 4(a). F r o m F i g . 3.11 f o r a d e p t h o f 6 ft r e a d t h e v a l u e s t ( m i n )
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 5, 10, 2 0 , 30, 4 0 , 50, a n d 6 0 % r e m o v a l , a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e t t l i n g velocities V s (ft/hr). T h e s e v a l u e s a r e t a b u l a t e d in
T a b l e 3.6.
T A B L E 3.6
Settling Velocities (H = 6 ft)
Constant
% t (min) Settling velocity (ft/hr)
removal i / = 6 ft V = Hjt = 6/(//60) = 3 6 0 / /
s
5 3.7 97.2
10 6.5 55.2
20 14.5 24.8
30 25.0 14.4
40 39.0 9.2
50 56.5 6.35
60 77.5 4.64
Step 4(b). C a l c u l a t e % r e m o v a l o f S S . C a l c u l a t i o n s f o r % r e m o v a l o f S S
a n d overflow r a t e for a 2 5 - m i n s e t t l i n g t i m e ( f o u r t h e n t r i e s i n T a b l e 3.6) a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d n e x t . S i m i l a r c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e a l s o p e r f o r m e d for t h e o t h e r s e t t l i n g
t i m e s listed in t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n o f T a b l e 3.6. F o r t = 2 5 m i n f o r t h e s e t t l i n g
d e p t h Η = 6 ft, 3 0 % o f t h e s u s p e n d e d solids a r e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d . C o n
s i d e r n e x t t h e p a r t i c l e s i n e a c h a d d i t i o n a l 1 0 % r a n g e . S t a r t w i t h t h o s e in t h e
r a n g e 3 0 - 4 0 % r e m o v a l i n F i g . 3 . 1 1 . P a r t i c l e s i n t h i s r a n g e a r e r e m o v e d in t h e
p r o p o r t i o n VJV o r in t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f a v e r a g e settled d e p t h ( A ) t o t h e t o t a l
S t
settling d e p t h (H). T h e a v e r a g e settled d e p t h (h ) is e s t i m a t e d b y d r a w i n g ( b y

t
i n t e r p o l a t i o n ) a c u r v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 3 5 % c o n s t a n t r e m o v a l in F i g . 3 . 1 1 ,
a n d r e a d i n g f r o m it t h e d e p t h h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t = 2 5 m i n . T h e r e f o r e f o r
l
t h i s first i n t e r v a l , t h e % solids r e m o v a l is (hJH) χ 10 = (4.2/6) χ 10 = 7 . 0 % .

3. Sedimentation 91
In a similar m a n n e r for succeeding 10% intervals, t h e curves for c o n s t a n t

% r e m o v a l o f 4 5 , 5 5 , 6 5 , a n d 7 5 % a r e d r a w n a n d t h e a v e r a g e settled d e p t h s o f
2.4, 1.4, 0.84, a n d 0.28 ft a r e r e a d f o r t = 2 5 m i n . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t = 2 5
min are indicated below.
Settling velocity: V = Hjt = 6.0/(25/60) = 14.4ft/hr

s
Percent solids removal (for t — 25 min)

100% removal @ 30% 30.00%
1st interval (35%): (4.2/6.0) χ 10 = 7.00%
2nd interval (45%): (2.4/6.0) χ 10 = 4.00%
3rd interval (55%): (1.4/6.0) χ 10 = 2 . 3 3 %
4th interval (65%): (0.84/6.0) χ 10 = 1.40%
5th interval (75%): (0.28/6.0) χ 10 = 0.46%
45.19%
Total removed after 25 min 45.2%
B e y o n d t h e fifth i n t e r v a l t h e % r e m o v a l s a r e n e g l i g i b l e , s o c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
s t o p p e d a t t h a t p o i n t . I n g e n e r a l , if 1 0 % i n t e r v a l s a r e selected, t h e t o t a l %
r e m o v a l is given b y
Total % removal = X total + (hJH) χ 10 + (h /H)2 χ 10 + (h /H)3 χ 10 + · ·

(3.27)
E q u a t i o n (3.27) is s i m p l y a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f E q . (3.26). (\—x ) 0 corresponds

to X tolal a n d t h e i n t e g r a l Jg° (h/H) dx is r e p l a c e d b y a finite s u m m a t i o n o f
terms,
£ (h JH)
a χ Ax
where A a v e is t h e a v e r a g e settled d e p t h for e a c h selected i n t e r v a l . T h e Ax's i n

t h i s e x a m p l e a r e selected a r b i t r a r i l y a s a 1 0 % r a n g e . T h e s m a l l e r t h e Ax
selected, t h e c l o s e r t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e finite s u m m a t i o n a n d t h e
integral.
S i m i l a r c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d f o r t h e o t h e r r e s i d e n c e t i m e s listed i n
t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n o f T a b l e 3.6. T h e final r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 3.7.
T A B L E 3.7
S S (%) Removed vs. Detention Time
(/) (2)
t (min) % SS r e m o v a l
3.7 13.4
6.5 20.1
14.5 33.9
25.0 45.2
39.0 55.0
56.5 64.3
577.5 71.1
F r o m T a b l e 3.7 a g r a p h of % SS r e m o v e d vs. d e t e n t i o n t i m e is p r e p a r e d ( F i g .
3.13).
Step 4(c). P r e p a r e a p l o t of % SS r e m o v e d v s . overflow r a t e . C a l c u l a t i o n s
n e e d e d t o p r e p a r e t h i s p l o t a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 3.8.
80
70
ro
O) 60
.Ω
Ο
θ 50
C
Ε
Ο 40
,Ο,
oval
30
ε
α>
CO 20
CO
J
/\f
δ*
10
τ- H.5 mir
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Detention time (min) [Column®,table 3.7]
Fig. 3.13. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. detention time.
T A B L E 3.8
S S {%) Removed vs. Overflow Rate
(3)
gal
Overflow rate
(day)(ft ) 2
(2)
Settling _, Γ ft 24 hr 7.48 gal {4)
velocity, V s
F
4 h r X
day
*
X
ft 3
% SS removal
(ft/hr) [column (2) o f
t (min) (Table 3.6) Vs x 24 χ 7.48 = 179.5 V s
Table 3.7]
3.7 97.2 17,450 13.4

6.5 55.2 9,908 20.1
14.5 24.8 4,452 33.9
25.0 14.4 2,585 45.2
39.0 9.2 1,651 55.0
56.5 6.35 1,140 64.3
77.5 4.64 833 71.1
3. Sedimentation 93
90
ι
ile 3.8] 80
ο
-Ο
O
"-60 \V
©
| 50
ο
8
Ε
£ 30
</)
3*20
10
0 2000 6000 10000 14000

Overflow rate, gal/(dayKft ) [Column @ , t a b l e 3.8]
2
Fig. 3.14. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. overt low rate.
t (min)
Fig. 3.15. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. detention time for different
initial SS concentrations.
T h e p l o t of % SS r e m o v e d vs. overflow r a t e is p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 3.14. All

c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d f o r a n initial s u s p e n d e d solids c o n c e n t r a t i o n S S 0
o f 4 3 0 m g / l i t e r . If s i m i l a r c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d for o t h e r v a l u e s o f t h e s e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (Cl9 C , C , . . . ) , t h e d a t a p l o t t e d in F i g s . 3.13 a n d 3.14 yield
2 3
families of c u r v e s , a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g s . 3.15 a n d 3.16.
σ
remo>
en
«^1
c, <c <c 2 3
Overflow rate;gal/(day)(ft ) 2
Fig. 3.16. Suspended solids removal (% SS) vs. overflow rate for different
initial SS concentrations.
Fig. 3.17. Percentage of particles with less than stated velocity vs. settling
velocity.
3. Sedimentation 95
Step 4(d). P r e p a r e a p l o t o f p e r c e n t a g e o f p a r t i c l e s w i t h less t h a n s t a t e d

velocity (percentage n o t r e m o v e d ) vs. settling velocity (ft/hr). Calculations
n e e d e d t o p r e p a r e F i g . 3.17 a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 3.9. F i g u r e 3.17 is n o t
r e q u i r e d for t h e d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s ; it is s h o w n b e c a u s e a t y p i c a l g r a p h o f t h i s
t y p e w a s utilized in d e v e l o p i n g E q . (3.26). T h e p l o t is p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 3.17.
TABLE 3.9
Percentage of Particles with Less Than Stated Velocity
vs. Settling Velocity
(3) (4)
ω
(2)
Vs (ft/hr)
%ss Percentage
not r e m o v e d :
t (min) (Table 3.6) removal 1 0 0 - ( % SS removal)
(Table 3.7)
3.7 97.2 13.4 86.6

6.5 55.2 20.1 79.9
14.5 24.8 33.9 66.1
25.0 14.4 45.2 54.8
39.0 9.2 55.0 45.0
56.5 6.35 64.3 35.7
77.5 4.64 71.1 28.9
3.5.1. D e s i g n Calculations f r o m Laboratory Data

F o r p u r p o s e s o f s c a l e - u p , t h e fact t h a t t h e efficiency o f t h e p r o c e s s in a n
a c t u a l s e t t l i n g t a n k is r e d u c e d o w i n g t o t h e effect o f p a r a m e t e r s s u c h a s
t u r b u l e n c e , s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g , a n d i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e inlet a n d o u t l e t m u s t b e
t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e n e t effect o f t h e s e f a c t o r s r e s u l t s in a d e c r e a s e o f t h e
overflow r a t e a n d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e o v e r v a l u e s d e r i v e d f r o m
t h e l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s . F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , it is c u s t o m a r y t o d i v i d e t h e
overflow r a t e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s b y a f a c t o r r a n g i n g
b e t w e e n 1.25 a n d 1.75, a n d t o m u l t i p l y t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e b y a f a c t o r in t h e
s a m e r a n g e [ 3 ] . T a b l e 3.10 p r e s e n t s s o m e c o m m o n l y u s e d d e s i g n v a l u e s .
T A B L E 3.10
Design Values (Primary Clarifiers)
D e p t h : 7 - 1 2 ft
Detention time: 1-2 hr
Flow-through velocity, V= 1-5 ft/min
Overflow rate: 9 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
Efficiencies
SS removal: 4 0 - 6 0 %
B O D removal: 3 0 - 5 0 %
D e s i g n p r o c e d u r e o f a p r i m a r y clarifier is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 3.4.
E x a m p l e 3.4
I t is d e t e r m i n e d b y field o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t a r a w w a s t e w a t e r h a s a n a v e r a g e
o f 4 3 0 m g / l i t e r s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a t a flow o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y . D a t a s h o w n in
T a b l e 3.3 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y s e t t l i n g t e s t s .
1. D e s i g n a s e t t l i n g t a n k o f c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , i.e., c a l c u l a t e its d i a m
e t e r a n d effective d e p t h , t o r e m o v e 5 0 % o f t h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a t t h e flow
r a t e o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y .
2. F o r t h e t a n k d e s i g n e d in (1), w h a t is t h e r e m o v a l if flow is d o u b l e d
t o 2.0 M g a l / d a y ?
3. F o r t h e flow o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y , c a l c u l a t e t h e d a i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
s l u d g e in l b / d a y a n d t h e a v e r a g e p u m p i n g r a t e in g a l / m i n . S l u d g e c o n c e n t r a
t i o n is e s t i m a t e d a s 1.5% solids f r o m tests m a d e w i t h s a m p l e s w i t h d r a w n
f r o m T a p 4 of t h e l a b o r a t o r y settling c o l u m n ( F i g . 3.9). A p l o t o f % s o l i d s
for t h e c o m p a c t e d s l u d g e v s . settling t i m e is c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d
f r o m s a m p l e s w i t h d r a w n f r o m T a p 4 ( F i g . 3.9). A t y p i c a l p l o t o f t h i s t y p e is
s h o w n in F i g . 3.18.
Settling time (min)
Fig. 3.18. Typical plot of % so/ids in the sludge vs. detention time.
Step 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for SS (see F i g . 3.19).

Influent: 430 mg/liter
R e m o v a l : (0.50)(430) = 215 mg/liter
Effluent: 430 - 215 = 215 mg/liter
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e overflow r a t e . F r o m F i g . 3.14 r e a d o v e r f l o w r a t e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 5 0 % r e m o v a l , 2 0 0 0 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . U s i n g a 1.75 s c a l e - u p
2
f a c t o r , t a k e a d e s i g n overflow r a t e o f 2 0 0 0 / 1 . 7 5 = 1143 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . 2
3. Sedimentation 97
Influent: Effluent:
S e t t l i n g tank
S S = 4 3 0 mg/liter SS=2I5 mg/liter
j R e m o v a l of S S = 2 I 5 m g / l i t e r
Fig. 3.19. Material balance for primary clarifier (Example 3.4).
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e . F r o m F i g . 3.13 r e a d d e t e n t i o n
t i m e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 5 0 % r e m o v a l v a l u e , t = 3 1 . 5 m i n . * U s i n g a 1.75
s c a l e - u p f a c t o r , t a k e t = (31.5)(1.75) = 55.1 m i n o r t = 5 5 . 1 / 6 0 = 0 . 9 2 h r .
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n o f clarifier a n d its
d i a m e t e r . H o r i z o n t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n o f clarifier is
1 x 1 0 * gal/day _
1143gal/(day)(ft ) 2
a n d d i a m e t e r is
D = (4Λ/π) 1 / 2
= (874.9/0.785) 1/2
= 33.4 ft
Step 5. C a l c u l a t e effective d e p t h o f t h e clarifier.
Η = volume/^ = Qt/A
1 χ 1 0 gal/day χ ft /7.48 gal χ 0.92/24 day

6 3
H =
874^fV = 5
' 9 f t
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 R e m o v a l f o r a flow r a t e o f 2 M G D w i t h t h e s a m e
clarifier
T h i s a m o u n t s t o d o u b l i n g t h e d e s i g n o v e r f l o w r a t e , i.e.,
N e w design overflow rate (2)(1143) = 2286 gal/(day)(ft ) 2
F r o m F i g . 3.14 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a r e m o v a l o f 4 7 . 5 % o f t h e s u s p e n d e d
solids.
S O L U T I O N : P a r t 3 Daily accumulation of sludge a n d average p u m p i n g

r a t e f o r flow o f 1.0 M G D
Step 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e d a i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s l u d g e .
R e m o v a l of SS 215 mg/liter -> 215 χ 1 0 " lb SS/lb liquor 6
T h e r e f o r e , t h e d a i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s l u d g e i n l b / d a y is
1 χ 1 0 gal liquor/day x 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor χ 215 χ 1 0 ~ lb SS/lb liquor

6 6
= 1793 lb SS/day
* From this value of the residence time (/ = 31.5 min), the % solids in the sludge is estimated
as 1.5% from a curve of the type in Fig. 3.19.
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a g e p u m p i n g r a t e . N o t i c e t h a t 1.5% s o l i d s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o 1.5 g S S / 1 0 0 g o f l i q u o r = 15 g S S / 1 0 0 0 g o f l i q u o r « 15 g S S /
liter = 15,000 m g / l i t e r = p p m = 15,000 χ 1 0 " l b S S / l b l i q u o r = 15,000 χ 8.34
6
χ 10" 6
l b S S / g a l l i q u o r . S i n c e a c c u m u l a t i o n is 1793 l b S S / d a y , p u m p i n g r a t e
in g a l / d a y is
1793 lb SS/day
= 0.0143 χ 1 0 gal/day 6
(15,000 χ 8.34χ 1 0 ~ ) lb SS/gal liquor

6
or
(0.0143 χ 10 )/(24 χ 60) = 9.93 gal/min
6
Since p u m p i n g r a t e is l o w , i n t e r m i t t e n t p u m p i n g is u s e d .
3.6. Z O N E S E T T L I N G
Z o n e settling o c c u r s i n clarifiers o f a c t i v a t e d o r c h e m i c a l l y c o a g u l a t e d
s l u d g e w h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x c e e d s 500 m g / l i t e r . T h e s l u d g e blanket
e x h i b i t s several d i s t i n c t z o n e s . E a c h z o n e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a specific s l u d g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d s e t t l i n g velocity. C o n s i d e r w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n a s u s p e n s i o n
w h i c h initially h a s a u n i f o r m s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n C 0 ( m g / l i t e r ) is p l a c e d i n a
settling c y l i n d e r ( F i g . 3.20).
S l u d g e b e g i n s t o settle o u t a n d a n i n t e r f a c e ( i n t e r f a c e 1) is e s t a b l i s h e d
b e t w e e n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b l a n k e t o f s e t t l i n g s l u d g e a n d t h e clarified l i q u i d
a b o v e . T h e z o n e b e l o w t h e clarified l i q u i d is c a l l e d t h e i n t e r f a c i a l z o n e . C o n
c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e in t h i s z o n e is u n i f o r m , a n d it settles a s a b l a n k e t
w i t h a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y (V ). s Simultaneously with formation of interface 1
(b) (c) (d)
Clarified
Iwater zone
Interface I- Clarified Clarified
water zone water zone
4ftfer-focial Coalescence
- zaoe_. |of interfaces!
I and 2
TfonsEQon
-—zone
[Interface 2-fy~~ —,
l^mpactEn
t =0 t >t>0 2 t =t 2
Uniform sludge Beginning of End of

concentration C n compaction compaction
Clarification process Thickening process
Fig. 3.20. Zone settling.

3. Sedimentation 99
a n d interfacial zone, c o m p a c t i o n of s u s p e n d e d solids starts a t the b o t t o m of

t h e c y l i n d e r ( c o m p a c t i o n z o n e ) . I n t h i s z o n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f S S is a l s o
u n i f o r m , a n d t h e i n t e r f a c e b o r d e r i n g t h i s z o n e ( i n t e r f a c e 2) rises i n t h e c y l i n d e r
with a c o n s t a n t velocity (V).
B e t w e e n t h e i n t e r f a c i a l a n d c o m p a c t i o n z o n e s t h e r e is a t r a n s i t i o n z o n e .
T h e r e , t h e velocity of settling solids decreases o w i n g t o increase of viscosity
a n d density of the suspension. In this s a m e zone, sludge changes gradually
in c o n c e n t r a t i o n from t h a t of the interfacial z o n e t o t h a t of t h e c o m p a c t i o n
zone.
C o n s i d e r interfaces 1 a n d 2 in Fig. 3.20(b). Interface 1 m o v e s d o w n w a r d
with a c o n s t a n t velocity V , whereas interface 2 m o v e s u p w a r d with a c o n s t a n t
s
v e l o c i t y V. E v e n t u a l l y , i n t e r f a c i a l a n d c o m p a c t i o n z o n e s m e e t , a t w h i c h t i m e
( r ) the transition z o n e fades a w a y [ F i g . 3.20(c)]. A t this time, the settled
2
sludge exhibits a uniform concentration C , 2 w h i c h is t e r m e d t h e c r i t i c a l

concentration. C o m p a c t i o n starts a n d the sludge begins to thicken, eventually
reaching an ultimate concentration C u [Fig. 3.20(d)]. Sedimentation velocity
a t t i m e t c o r r e s p o n d s t o a v a l u e V , w h i c h is g i v e n b y t h e s l o p e o f t h e t a n g e n t
2 2
t o t h e s e t t l i n g c u r v e a t C , a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 3.21 w h e r e V
2 2 < V.s
P r o c e d u r e f o r d e s i g n i n g clarifiers o p e r a t i n g u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f zone
settling:
1. C a l c u l a t e t h e m i n i m u m s u r f a c e a r e a r e q u i r e d t o a l l o w for c l a r i f i c a t i o n
of sludge.
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e m i n i m u m s u r f a c e a r e a r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e f o r t h i c k e n i n g
of s l u d g e t o t h e d e s i r e d u n d e r f l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
3. T a k e t h e l a r g e r o f t h e s e t w o a r e a s a s t h e d e s i g n a r e a f o r t h e clarifier.
t, Β t 2
t,settling time (min)

Fig. 3.21. Sludge settling curve.
3.6.1. Laboratory M e a s u r e m e n t s
T o o b t a i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s n e c e s s a r y for d e s i g n o f t h e clarifier, a s e t t l i n g
t e s t f o r t h e s l u d g e is p e r f o r m e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y u s i n g a 1000-ml g r a d u a t e d
c y l i n d e r (a s t a n d a r d g r a d u a t e c y l i n d e r h a s a h e i g h t o f 1.12 ft). T h e c y l i n d e r is
filled w i t h t h e s l u r r y t o b e s t u d i e d . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t (/ = 0 ) ,
s l u r r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n is u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e c y l i n d e r . H e i g h t o f i n t e r f a c e 1
is r e c o r d e d a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s . T h i s yields t h e t y p e o f s e t t l i n g c u r v e
s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 2 1 .
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o stir t h e s u s p e n s i o n a t a r a t e of a b o u t 5 r p h . T h i s s t i r r i n g
s i m u l a t e s t h e a c t i o n of t h e m e c h a n i c a l r a k e s utilized i n s l u d g e r e m o v a l a n d
p r e v e n t s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s l u d g e .
F i g u r e 3.21 s h o w s t h a t f r o m t h e s t a r t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t u p t o a t i m e t l 9
i n t e r f a c e 1 falls w i t h a c o n s t a n t velocity V given b y t h e s l o p e of t h e t a n g e n t ,

s
w h i c h essentially c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e s e t t l i n g c u r v e f r o m t = 0 t o t = t v After
t = t x t h i s velocity d e c r e a s e s a p p r e c i a b l y . A t t i m e / = r , t h e velocity is V
2 2
given by the slope of the tangent at C . A t t 2 2 compaction starts a n d the

v e l o c i t y is f u r t h e r r e d u c e d u n t i l it b e c o m e s e s s e n t i a l l y z e r o , t h e t a n g e n t b e i n g
parallel t o the abscissa.
Z o n e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y ( Z S V ) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e velocity a t w h i c h the
s u s p e n s i o n settles p r i o r t o r e a c h i n g t h e critical c o n c e n t r a t i o n C , a n d is g i v e n
2
b y t h e s l o p e o f t h e t a n g e n t A B in F i g . 3.21 [ E q . ( 3 . 2 8 ) ] .
V s = O A / O B = H jt Q = 1.12ft/min (3.28)
3.6.2. Determination of M i n i m u m S u r f a c e Area

Required to A l l o w Clarification of the
Sludge
M i n i m u m surface area A c r e q u i r e d for clarification d e p e n d s o n v e l o c i t y
Vs a t w h i c h t h e s u s p e n s i o n settles b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e interfacial c r i t i c a l c o n
centration C . 2 U n d e r c o n t i n u o u s flow c o n d i t i o n s , velocity of t h e l i q u o r o v e r
t h e overflow w e i r c a n n o t e x c e e d V if c l a r i f i c a t i o n is t o t a k e p l a c e . T h i s f o l l o w s
s
d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t o f t h e i d e a l s e d i m e n t a t i o n t a n k [ S e c t i o n 3.4,
E q s . (3.17) a n d ( 3 . 1 9 ) ] .
Therefore,
Ac = QIV S (3.29)
w h e r e Q is t h e flow r a t e ( f t / m i n ) ; V t h e settling velocity ( f t / m i n ) ; a n d A t h e

3
s c
m i n i m u m surface a r e a r e q u i r e d for clarification ( f t ) . 2
T h e v a l u e o f t h e z o n e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y V is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g . 3.21 a n d
s
E q . (3.28). V a l u e o f t is r e a d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e a b s c i s s a o f F i g . 3.21 ( p o i n t B).

V is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (3.28) a n d A o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (3.29).
s c
3. Sedimentation 101
3.6.3. Determination of M i n i m u m S u r f a c e Area

Required for Thickening of the S l u d g e
C o n s i d e r settling of a sludge u n d e r z o n e settling c o n d i t i o n s in a cylinder
( F i g . 3.20). A t s t a r t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t , let C 0 be the uniform sludge concentra
t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c y l i n d e r . T o t a l w e i g h t of s o l i d s in t h e c y l i n d e r is C AH
0 09
w h e r e A is t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e c y l i n d e r . L e t t 2 be the time counted

from the beginning of the experiment, w h e n interfacial a n d c o m p a c t i o n zones
merge together [Fig. 3.20(c)]. Let C 2 b e t h e critical c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h i c h is
u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t this sludge z o n e f o r m e d by the merging of interfacial
and compaction zones.
A graphical procedure has been p r o p o s e d [ 7 ] for d e t e r m i n i n g t . 2 Con
sider t h e s e t t l i n g c u r v e in F i g . 3.22. D r a w t w o t a n g e n t s ( A B a n d C D ) t o t h e
t w o b r a n c h e s of the curve. T a n g e n t A B c o r r e s p o n d s to the c o n s t a n t velocity
A| 1
Settling time (t)
Fig. 3.22. Determination of t.

2
o f s e t t l i n g V for t h e i n t e r f a c i a l z o n e ( z o n e s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y , Z S V ) , a n d t a n g e n t
s
C D c o r r e s p o n d s t o the settling velocity for the c o m p a c t e d sludge. P o i n t C2
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t i m e t ) is o b t a i n e d b y b i s e c t i n g t h e a n g l e f o r m e d b y t a n g e n t s
2
A B a n d C D . T h e a b s c i s s a o f t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e b i s e c t i n g line c u t s t h e s e t t l i n g
curve c o r r e s p o n d s t o the desired value of t . 2
Consider n o w the thickening process.

1. S t a r t o f t h i c k e n i n g [ F i g . 3 . 2 0 ( c ) ] . T i m e , t \ c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f S S i n
2
s l u d g e z o n e , C ; h e i g h t of s l u d g e z o n e ,
2 H.2
2. E n d of t h i c k e n i n g [ F i g . 3 . 2 0 ( d ) ] . T h e c o m p a c t e d s l u d g e reaches
desired underflow concentration C . u T h e t i m e a t w h i c h t h i s o c c u r s is d e s i g
n a t e d a s t . H e i g h t of t h e s l u d g e z o n e is
u H. u
Consider separately the sludge zone at the start a n d e n d of thickening

( F i g . 3.23). S i n c e t h e t o t a l m a s s of s l u d g e in t h e c y l i n d e r is c o n s t a n t , t h e
{—Volume
i of water
squeezed out
H u
J
at t = t 2 M
at, .t = ,t„ u
Fig. 3.23. Thickening process.
f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n [ E q . ( 3 . 3 0 ) ] is w r i t t e n , n e g l e c t i n g t h e
a m o u n t o f s u s p e n d e d solids in t h e clarified w a t e r z o n e .
C 0 A H 0 = C 2 A H 2 = C U A H U (3.30)
or
CQHQ = C 2 H 2 — C U H U (3.31)
C o n s i d e r F i g . 3.23. T h e v o l u m e o f w a t e r w h i c h is s q u e e z e d o u t a n d d i s
c h a r g e d o v e r t h e o v e r f l o w w e i r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (3.32).
V = A ( H 2 - H U ) (3.32)
T h e t i m e i n t e r v a l r e q u i r e d t o d i s c h a r g e t h i s v o l u m e o f w a t e r is t — t . u 2
A v e r a g e r a t e o f flow Q' ( f t / m i n ) o v e r t h e w e i r is [ E q . 3.33)]

3
Q' = Vj(t -t ) u 2 = A(H -H )l(t -t )

2 u u 2 (3.33)
Solving for t — t , u 2
/.-fa = A(H -H )IQ 2 u

f
(3.34)
C o n s i d e r n o w t h e settling c u r v e a n d d e t e r m i n e g r a p h i c a l l y t h e s e t t l i n g
velocity V at time t
2 2 ( t a n g e n t a t p o i n t C ) . T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 3.24.
2
L e t H± b e t h e i n t e r c e p t o f t h i s t a n g e n t . S e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y a t t 2 is s h o w n in
E q . (3.35).
V 2 = t a n a = {H -H )lt Y 2 2 (3.35)
ι
S
r
H,-H 2
s J.. r
'2
Settling time (min)
Fig. 3.24. Determination of velocity V.

2
U n d e r c o n t i n u o u s flow c o n d i t i o n s t h e velocity o f t h e l i q u o r o v e r t h e w e i r
c a n n o t b e g r e a t e r t h a n V if t h i c k e n i n g is t o t a k e p l a c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
2 flow
r a t e Q' a t t i m e t w h e n t h i c k e n i n g s t a r t s is
2
Q = AV 2 = A\_(H -H )lt \ 1 2 2 = ft /min 3

(3.36)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Q' given b y E q . (3.36) in E q . (3.34) yields after s i m p l i f i c a t i o n

a n d r e a r r a n g e m e n t E q . (3.37).
(H - H )l(t
2 u u -1 )
2 = (H, - H )/t 2 2 (3.37)
T h i s e q u a t i o n is t h e b a s i s for t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t u
i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 3.25.
Settling time (min)
Fig. 3.25. Determination of t. u
T o s u m m a r i z e t h e s t e p s in t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t : u
1. D r a w t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e settling c u r v e a t C . 2
2. F r o m m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e [ E q . ( 3 . 3 1 ) ]
Hu = HoColC u (3.38)
C a l c u l a t e H f r o m E q . (3.38).
u
3. M a r k d i s t a n c e H o n t h e o r d i n a t e axis o f F i g . 3.25. D r a w t h e
u
h o r i z o n t a l d o t t e d line f r o m H u n t i l its i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e t a n g e n t t o C .
u 2
T h e a b s c i s s a o f t h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n is t h e v a l u e o f t . T h i s c a n b e s e e n b y i n s p e c t i o n
u
of E q . (3.37) a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t w o c r o s s - h a t c h e d s i m i l a r t r i a n g l e s in
F i g . 3.25.
M i n i m u m s u r f a c e a r e a r e q u i r e d for t h i c k e n i n g (A ) is o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e t
following considerations. Average rate at which the layer of c o n c e n t r a t i o n

C f o r m s (in l b / m i n ) is
u
C H A /t u u t u (3.39)
Since f r o m E q . (3.31) C H U U = CH 0 09 t h e n E q . (3.39) is r e w r i t t e n a s
Co Ho A /t t u (3.40)
U n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n t i n u o u s flow a n d s t e a d y s t a t e , t h e r a t e a t w h i c h t h e
l a y e r o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n C is f o r m e d m u s t e q u a l t h a t a t w h i c h s u s p e n d e d solids
u
e n t e r in t h e influent (QC ). 0 Therefore
QCo = C H A /t 0 0 t u (3.41)
Solving for A t
A t = QtJHo (3.42)
w h e r e i / = 1.12 ft.
0
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r clarifiers u n d e r z o n e s e t t l i n g c o n d i t i o n s is illus
t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 3.5.
Example 3.5
D e s i g n a s e c o n d a r y settling t a n k t o p r o d u c e a n u n d e r f l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f 10,900 m g / l i t e r f r o m a n influent c o n t a i n i n g 2 5 1 0 m g / l i t e r o f s u s p e n d e d
solids. W a s t e w a t e r flow is 1.2 M G D . C a l c u l a t e t h e clarifier a r e a r e q u i r e d .
T h e d a t a t a b u l a t e d b e l o w a r e o b t a i n e d in a l a b o r a t o r y test o f t h e s l u r r y .
Interface height
/ (min) Η (ml)
0 1000
1 850
2 725
3 600
5 450
8 350
12 280
16 240
20 220
25 210
SOLUTION
Step 7. S e t t l i n g c u r v e is p l o t t e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e d a t a ( F i g . 3.26).
Step 2. M i n i m u m surface a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r clarification (A ) is d e t e r m i n e d .
c
1. D r a w t a n g e n t A B . R e a d t = 7.5 m i n . T h e n V = H /t s 0 = 1.12/7.5 =
0.149 f t / m i n .
2. A r e a r e q u i r e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n :
ιοοο
\
900 \\
\
\\
800
_ 700
Ε \
- 600 /
CP /
v\
ω 500 /
\
/
•o
S> 400
'2
ω 300 )n \\
200
Η Τ
" V
!
100 \\ ι i
t =f. b nir t 2
h tu nr im
5 Β ΙΟ 15 20 25
Settling time (min)
Fig. 3.26. Graph for Example 3.5.
Step 3. M i n i m u m surface a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r t h i c k e n i n g (A ) is c a l c u l a t e d . t
1. D e t e r m i n e t b y t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e s t u d i e d . F r o m F i g . 3.26
2
read t = 2 8.0 m i n .
2. D e t e r m i n e t i m e t . D r a w t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e settling c u r v e a t C a n d
u 2
calculate H f r o m E q . (3.28).
u
H = (1000x2510)/10,900 = 230 ml
u
3. D e t e r m i n e t b y t h e g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d . F r o m
u Fig.
(3.26) r e a d t = 13 m i n .
u
4. C a l c u l a t e A f r o m E q . (3.42).
t
1,200,000 gal/day χ ft /7.48 gal χ day/1440 min χ 13 min

3
At = = 1293 ft 2
1.12 ft
Step 4. T a k e A = A = 1293 f t . R e q u i r e d d i a m e t e r for a s e d i m e n t a t i o n

t
2
t a n k of c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n is
d = (4Α/π) ί/2
= (1293/0.785) 1/2
= 40.6 ft
3.7. T Y P E S O F C L A R I F I E R S
Clarifiers a r e classified a c c o r d i n g t o g e o m e t r y o f t h e i r h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s
section a s (1) r e c t a n g u l a r a n d (2) c i r c u l a r : (a) c e n t e r a n d (b) p e r i p h e r a l feed.
S k e t c h e s of t y p i c a l clarifiers a r e s h o w n in F i g s . 3 . 2 7 ( a ) , ( b ) , a n d (c).
Rotary-hoe type scraping mechanism
|^J>*-Influent
T
— Clear zone
Baffle
Clear
solution Discharge of
overflow thickened
—sludge
(a) Rectangular clarifier
^Rotating mechanism
Feed Overflow
piping h-Baffle / weir
Blade
Plow-type
Discharge of thickened sludge
scraping mechanism
(b) Circular clarifier (center feed)
m
Clear solution • R o t a t i n g mechanism
outlet
" " " " L l ^ A S i l L ^ ^ ^ C o l l e c t i n g channel
Influent
Plow-type
scraping
mechanism
•Discharge of thickened sludge
(c) Circular clarifier (peripheral feed)
Fig. 3.27 Types of clarifiers (a), (b). and (c).

4. Flotation 107
1. R e c t a n g u l a r clarifier [ F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( a ) ]
I n t h e t y p e s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( a ) , s c r a p e d s l u d g e is m o v e d t o w a r d t h e
inlet e n d o f t h e t a n k . S o m e o t h e r d e s i g n s m o v e s l u d g e t o w a r d t h e effluent
end of the tank.
S c r a p i n g m e c h a n i s m s h o w n is o f r o t a r y - h o e t y p e , c o n s i s t i n g o f a series o f
short scrapers m o u n t e d on a n endless chain, which m a k e contact with the
b o t t o m of t h e t a n k . I t m o v e s slowly a t s p e e d s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 f t / m i n .
2 a . C i r c u l a r clarifier w i t h c e n t e r feed [ F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( b ) ]
F e e d is a t t h e c e n t e r a n d c l e a r s o l u t i o n o v e r f l o w s t o a c o l l e c t i n g c h a n n e l a t
t h e p e r i p h e r y . T h e b o t t o m o f t h e clarifier h a s a m i n i m u m s l o p e o f 1 in./ft.
S c r a p i n g m e c h a n i s m is o f p l o w t y p e t o o v e r c o m e i n e r t i a a n d p r e v e n t a d h e r e n c e
o f s l u d g e t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e t a n k .
2 b . C i r c u l a r clarifier w i t h p e r i p h e r a l feed [ F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( c ) ]
T h e feed is a t t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d t h e c l e a r s o l u t i o n overflows t o a c o l l e c t i n g
c h a n n e l a t t h e c e n t e r . T h e o t h e r d e t a i l s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e for t h e t y p e s h o w n
in F i g . 3 . 2 7 ( b ) .
T h e inlet s e c t i o n s h o u l d b e carefully d e s i g n e d for a u n i f o r m flow d i s t r i b u t i o n
across the width a n d d e p t h of the t a n k . Similarly, the outlet section should be
d e s i g n e d t o collect t h e effluent u n i f o r m l y .
A g o o d d e s i g n of inlet a n d o u t l e t s e c t i o n s r e d u c e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f flow s h o r t
c i r c u i t i n g , w h i c h l e a d t o p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e clarifier. P r o p e r p o s i t i o n i n g
of weirs a n d baffles, a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 3.27, p r e v e n t s s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g .
4. Flotation
4.1. INTRODUCTION
F l o t a t i o n is a p r o c e s s for s e p a r a t i n g l o w d e n s i t y solids o r l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s
f r o m a l i q u i d p h a s e . S e p a r a t i o n is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y i n t r o d u c t i o n o f g a s
( u s u a l l y a i r ) b u b b l e s i n t o t h e l i q u i d p h a s e . T h e l i q u i d p h a s e is p r e s s u r i z e d t o
a n o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e r a n g i n g f r o m 30 t o 6 0 p s i a ( 2 - 4 a t m ) in p r e s e n c e o f
sufficient a i r t o p r o m o t e s a t u r a t i o n o f a i r in t h e w a t e r . T h e n , t h i s a i r - s a t u r a t e d
liquid is d e p r e s s u r i z e d t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e b y p a s s a g e t h r o u g h a p r e s s u r e -
reducing valve. M i n u t e air bubbles are released from the solution because of
d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n . S u s p e n d e d s o l i d s o r l i q u i d p a r t i c l e s , e.g., oil, a r e floated b y
t h e s e m i n u t e a i r b u b b l e s , c a u s i n g t h e m t o rise t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e t a n k . C o n
c e n t r a t e d s u s p e n d e d solids a r e s k i m m e d off b y m e c h a n i c a l m e a n s f r o m t h e
t a n k surface. Clarified l i q u o r is w i t h d r a w n n e a r t h e b o t t o m , a n d p a r t o f it
m a y b e recycled [ F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( b ) ] . A flotation s y s t e m w i t h o u t recycle is s h o w n
d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( a ) .
In t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t , flotation is u s e d for t h e f o l l o w i n g
p u r p o s e s : (1) s e p a r a t i o n o f g r e a s e s , oils, fibers, a n d o t h e r l o w d e n s i t y s o l i d s
f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s ; (2) t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e s l u d g e f r o m t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
Air injection [Retention]

tank
Or
Pressurizing Thickened
pump Pressure sludge
Q.MGD reducing (negligible
Influent valve volume)
(wastewater) (C|,mg/liter
of dissolved air)
Q,MGD
Effluent
( C , m g / l i t e r of dissolved air)
2
(a) Flotation system without recycle
Air injection
Thickened
sludge
(negligible volume)
Gross effluent
(Q+R), MGD
Net effluent
Q, MGD
R; MGD
( C , mg/liter
2
of dissolved air)
(b) Flotation system with recycle
Fig. 3.28. Flotation systems (a) and (b).
p r o c e s s ; a n d (3) t h i c k e n i n g of flocculated c h e m i c a l s l u d g e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m
c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . S u p e r i o r effluent q u a l i t y , i.e., effluent c o n
t a i n i n g l o w e r p e r c e n t a g e o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a n d e c o n o m y in p o w e r a r e
a c h i e v e d b y flotation s y s t e m s w i t h recycle.
Basic c o m p o n e n t s of a flotation s y s t e m a r e (1) p r e s s u r i z i n g p u m p ; (2) a i r
i n j e c t i o n facilities; (3) r e t e n t i o n t a n k ( t o p r o v i d e a i r - l i q u i d c o n t a c t ) ; (4)
p r e s s u r e - r e d u c i n g v a l v e ; a n d (5) flotation tank.
4.2. E V A L U A T I O N O F F L O T A T I O N V A R I A B L E S
FOR P R O C E S S D E S I G N
4.2.1. Parameter A / S
F o r d e s i g n of flotation systems, a fundamental parameter commonly
utilized is a d i m e n s i o n l e s s a i r t o s o l i d s r a t i o (A/S) defined b y E q . (3.43).
^ ^ lb/day of air released by depressurization ^

lb/day of solids in the influent
4. Flotation 109
T h i s p a r a m e t e r is e s t i m a t e d f r o m s t u d i e s w i t h a l a b o r a t o r y - s c a l e flotation
cell o f p i l o t - p l a n t d a t a . T h e v a l u e o f A is o b t a i n e d f r o m d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f
d i s s o l v e d a i r ( m g / l i t e r ) a t s a m p l i n g l o c a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d a s (1) a n d (2) i n F i g .
3 . 2 8 ( a ) a n d (b). T h u s [ E q . (3.44)]
A = A, - A 2 (3.44)
w h e r e A is t h e l b / d a y o f a i r r e l e a s e d b y d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n ; A x t h e l b / d a y of
d i s s o l v e d a i r a t (1) [ F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( a ) a n d ( b ) ] ; a n d A 2 the lb/day of dissolved air
a t (2) [ F i g . 3 . 2 8 ( a ) a n d ( b ) ] .
For flotation s y s t e m s w i t h o u t recycle [ E q . ( 3 . 4 5 ) ] , *
Mgal liquor _ lb air lb liquor ^ ^„ η Λ ,„ . x

Ax = Q ~ ^ — x Ci — —
L L
x 8.34 — ? = 8.34QC! (lb air/day)
day M l b liquor gal liquor
(3.45)
S i m i l a r l y [ E q . (3.46)]
A2 = $34QC 2 (lb air/day) (3.46)
Therefore
A = A 1 - A 2 = 8.34G(Cj - C ) 2 (lb/day of air released) (3.47)
F o r flotation s y s t e m s w i t h recycle t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e q u a t i o n is
A = A, - A 2 = S34R(C 1 - C) 2 (lb/day of air released) (3.48)

If S is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( m g / l i t e r ) in t h e influent, t h e
t
v a l u e o f S [ d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . ( 3 . 4 3 ) ] is
Λ Mgal liquor 8.34 lb liquor lb SS o β / l f 0 , 0 / J

S = Q * A— x 7~r. x St —— = 8.34QS, (lb SS/day)
day gal liquor M l b liquor
(3.49)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f E q s . (3.47) [ o r E q . ( 3 . 4 8 ) ] a n d (3.49) in E q . (3.43) l e a d s t o
Flotation systems without recycle
A/S=(C -C )/S
l 2 l (3.50)
Flotation systems with recycle
AIS = {RIQKC -C )IS x 2 t (3.51)

4.2.2. Correlation of Flotation Variables
to Parameter A / S
B y u s e o f a l a b o r a t o r y flotation cell o r p i l o t - p l a n t d a t a , it is p o s s i b l e t o
c o r r e l a t e m g / l i t e r o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s c o n t a i n e d in l i q u i d effluent t o p a r a m
e t e r A/S. A t y p i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n c u r v e f o r a w a s t e w a t e r h a s t h e s h a p e i n d i c a t e d in
F i g . 3.29.
* N o t i c e that C x m g o f air/liter of liquor = C x lb o f air/Mlb o f liquor.

0.06
I ! ι I
0 50 I00
m g / l i t e r of S S in e f f l u e n t
Fig. 3.29. Typical correlation of parameter A/S vs. concentration of SS in
effluent.
For a given influent, the lb/day of suspended solids (term S in ratio A/S)
is fixed. Ratio A/S increases by operating at higher air rates, which results in
increase of air released (A). From Fig. 3.29 it follows that a higher quality
effluent is obtained.
Graphs like Fig. 3.29 permit selection of the A/S ratio for a required degree
of effluent clarification. These curves indicate that increasing the A/S ratio
beyond an optimum value does not result in substantial reduction in effluent
suspended solids.
Judicious selection of the A/S ratio involves an economical balance between
equipment and maintenance costs and desired effluent quality. Typical range
of A/S ratios for thickening of sludges in wastewater treatment is 0.005-
0.060.
4.2.3. Alternative Expressions for Parameter A / S [2]

Consider Eq. (3.46) for A , where C is the solubility of air in water in mg/
2 2
liter. Frequently, the solubility of air is expressed in terms of c m of air/liter of 3
water. It is assumed that conditions at (2) [Figs. 28(a) and (b)] are atmos
pheric pressure and ambient temperature. Solubility of air in water in c m of 3
air/liter of water [hence denoted as S J is presented in Table 3.11 for atmos

pheric pressure at several temperatures.
This concentration of dissolved air in c m of air/liter of water is converted 3
to the value C (mg air/liter of water) [Eq. (3.52)].

2
S cm air/liter water χ ρ mg air/cm air = C

0
3
α
3
2 (mg air/liter water)
(3.52)
4. Flotation 111
T A B L E 3.11
Solubility of Air in Water at Atmospheric
Pressure at Several Temperatures [6]
Temperature (°C) S (cm /liter)

a
3
0 29.2
10 22.8
20 18.7
30 15.7
U t i l i z e for t h e d e n s i t y o f a i r p 2l m e a n v a l u e o f 1.2 m g / c m . ( T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s
a
3
t o the value at 1 a t m a n d 20°C.) T h e n [ E q . (3.53)]
C 2 = \2S a (3.53)
C o n s i d e r n o w E q . (3.45), w h e r e C l is t h e s o l u b i l i t y o f a i r in m g / l i t e r . T h e
cm 3
o f a i r / l i t e r o f w a t e r a t t h e r e t e n t i o n t a n k [ p o i n t ( 1 ) ] is s h o w n i n E q . (3.54).
<pS a ( c m air/liter water)

3
(3.54)
w h e r e φ is t h e r a t i o o f s o l u b i l i t y o f a i r in w a t e r a t t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e r e t e n t i o n
t a n k [ a t ( 1 ) ] t o t h e s o l u b i l i t y a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e [ a t (2) in F i g s . 2 8 ( a ) a n d
(b)] [Eq. (3.55)].
<P=C ICl 2 (p>1.0) (3.55)
I t is f o u n d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t for a specific d e s i g n of t h e r e t e n t i o n t a n k ,
a n d w i t h i n o r d i n a r y p r e s s u r e r a n g e s u t i l i z e d in flotation o p e r a t i o n s , r a t i o φ is
proportional to the pressure
<P=fP (3.56)
w h e r e / is t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r a n d Ρ t h e p r e s s u r e in r e t e n t i o n t a n k i n
atmospheres.
A t 2 0 ° C f o r p r e s s u r e r a n g e 3 0 - 6 0 p s i a u t i l i z e d in m o s t flotation s y s t e m s a n d
f o r baffled r e t e n t i o n t a n k s , t h e v a l u e o f / i n E q . (3.56) is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 .
Consequently, values of φ vary from
30 psia ( = 30/14.7 = 2.04 a t m ) = 0.5 χ 2.04 = 1.02
60 psia ( = 60/14.7 = 4.08 a t m ) = 0.5 χ 4.08 = 2.04
Therefore for the pressure r a n g e from 30 t o 60 psia a t 20°C, solubility of air

in baffled r e t e n t i o n t a n k s v a r i e s f r o m 1.02 t o 2.04 t i m e s its s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e a t
2 0 ° C a n d 1 a t m . S i n c e f r o m E q . (3.55)
Ci = φ€ 2 (3.57)
substitution of φ a n d C 2 b y t h e i r v a l u e s g i v e n b y E q s . (3.56) a n d (3.53) yields
d = fP(\2S ) a (3.58)
S u b s t i t u t i o n of v a l u e s o f C a n d C given, respectively, b y E q s . (3.58) a n d

x 2
(3.53) in E q s . (3.50) a n d (3.51) l e a d s t o
Flotation systems without recycle
A/S = \2S (fP-\)/S

a l (3.59)
Flotation systems with recycle
A/S = (R/Q)\2S (fP- a (3.60)
4.3. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R F L O T A T I O N
UNITS WITHOUT A N D WITH RECYCLE
4.3.1. Flotation S y s t e m s w i t h o u t Recycle

F r o m E q . (3.59) it follows t h a t if a r a t i o A/S is s e l e c t e d , / b e i n g fixed for a
selected t y p e o f r e t e n t i o n t a n k a n d S f r o m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e influent, t h i s
t
a m o u n t s t o specification of o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e P, w h i c h is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
E q . (3.59) a s
P = (llf)[(A/S)S /\2S +\l l a (3.61)
D e s i g n o f flotation s y s t e m s w i t h o u t recycle i n v o l v e s c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e q u i r e d
o p e r a t i n g pressure [ E q . (3.61)] a n d d e t e r m i n i n g the cross-sectional area of the
flotation u n i t . T h i s a r e a is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m a selected v a l u e of t h e o v e r f l o w
r a t e , u s u a l l y a v a l u e b e t w e e n 2 a n d 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ( E x a m p l e 3.6).
2
Example 3.6
L a b o r a t o r y flotation tests for a given w a s t e w a t e r i n d i c a t e o p t i m u m air/
s o l i d s r a t i o (A/S) a s 0.04 l b a i r / l b solids. F l o w of w a s t e w a t e r is 1.0 M G D a n d
it c o n t a i n s 2 5 0 m g / l i t e r o f s u s p e n d e d solids. L a b o r a t o r y flotation tests ( w i t h o u t
recycle) i n d i c a t e for a r a t i o A/S = 0.04 a n o p t i m u m effluent c o n t a i n i n g 2 5
mg/liter of suspended solids. T a k e / = 0.50 for retention t a n k a n d a n o p e r a t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 2 0 ° C . D e s i g n a flotation s y s t e m w i t h o u t recycle f o r t h i s service.
SOLUTION
Step 1. Select A/S = 0.04, a s s t a t e d .
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e Ρ f r o m E q . (3.61).
Ρ = (l/0.5)(0.04 χ 250/1.2 χ 1 8 . 7 + 1 ) = 2.9 a t m
Step 3. Select a n overflow r a t e ,
OR = 3 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
4. Flotation 113
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d s u r f a c e a r e a ,
Q = 1.0 M G D
or
Q = 1,000,000 gal/day χ day/24 hr χ hr/60 min = 695 gal/min
Surface area (ft ) = Q/OR

2
= . ™\^ ™ ,m
= 2 3 2 ft
*
3.0 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
4.3.2. Flotation Systems w i t h Recycle
I t f o l l o w s f r o m E q . (3.60) t h a t for a specific a p p l i c a t i o n (i.e., for fixed v a l u e s

o f / a n d S ) o n e m u s t specify n o t o n l y t h e A/S r a t i o b u t a l s o t h e r e c y c l e b e f o r e
(
t h e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e Ρ b e c o m e s fixed. T h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e is t o specify
a n o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e Ρ a n d a n A/S r a t i o a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e r e q u i r e d recycle
f r o m E q . (3.60), w h i c h s o l v e d for R y i e l d s E q . (3.62).
R = (A/S) QSi/l.lSaUP- 1) (3.62)
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e for flotation s y s t e m s w i t h recycle is i l l u s t r a t e d b y

E x a m p l e 3.7.
Example 3.7
F o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n in E x a m p l e 3.6 d e s i g n a flotation system with recycle,
t a k i n g a n o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e o f 2.9 a t m .
SOLUTION
Step J. Select A/S = 0.04, as stated.

Step 2 . C a l c u l a t e R f r o m E q . (3.62).
R = (0.04)(1.0)(250)/1.2 χ 1 8 . 7 ( 0 . 5 x 2 . 9 - 1 ) = 0.99 M G D * 1.0 M G D
T h i s m e a n s t h a t recycle r a t i o R/Q is a p p r o x i m a t e l y u n i t y .
Step 3. Select a n overflow r a t e
OR = 3 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
Step 4. R e q u i r e d s u r f a c e a r e a is defined a s
Q + R « 2.0 M G D
or
2,000,000 gal/day χ day/24 hr χ hr/60 min = Q + R = 1390 gal/min
Surface area (ft ) = (Q + R)/OR

2
= 1390/3.0 = 464 ft 2
S u r f a c e a r e a is t w i c e a s l a r g e a s for t h e u n i t w i t h o u t r e c y c l e . H o w e v e r , a n
effluent o f s u p e r i o r q u a l i t y (i.e., SS < 2 5 m g / l i t e r ) is o b t a i n e d .
5. Neutralization (and Equalization)

5.1. N E U T R A L I Z A T I O N I N T H E FIELD O F
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
N e u t r a l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t is often utilized in t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s a r i s i n g i n
wastewater treatment:
1. P r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r i n t o a r e c e i v i n g w a t e r . T h e j u s t i
f i c a t i o n f o r n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is t h a t a q u a t i c life is sensitive t o p H v a r i a t i o n s
b e y o n d a n a r r o w r a n g e a r o u n d p H 7.
2. P r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e of i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s t o t h e m u n i c i p a l s e w e r
s y s t e m . Specification o f t h e p H of i n d u s t r i a l d i s c h a r g e s i n t o m u n i c i p a l s e w e r
s y s t e m s is f r e q u e n t l y m a d e . I t is m o r e e c o n o m i c a l t o n e u t r a l i z e i n d u s t r i a l
w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m s p r i o r t o t h e d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e m u n i c i p a l sewer, r a t h e r
t h a n attempting to perform neutralization of the larger volume of c o m b i n e d
domestic a n d industrial sewage.
3. P r i o r t o c h e m i c a l o r b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t . F o r b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t ,
p H o f t h e s y s t e m is m a i n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e r a n g e 6 . 5 - 8 . 5 t o e n s u r e o p t i m u m
b i o l o g i c a l activity. T h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s itself p r o v i d e s a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d
buffer c a p a c i t y a s a r e s u l t o f p r o d u c t i o n o f C 0 , w h i c h f o r m s c a r b o n a t e s a n d
2
b i c a r b o n a t e s in s o l u t i o n . T h e d e g r e e o f p r e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r b i o
l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t d e p e n d s o n t w o f a c t o r s : (1) t h e a l k a l i n i t y o r a c i d i t y p r e s e n t
i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r a n d (2) t h e m g / l i t e r B O D t o b e r e m o v e d in t h e b i o l o g i c a l
t r e a t m e n t . T h e l a t t e r is r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f C 0 , w h i c h m a y p r o v i d e
2
for partial neutralization of alkaline wastes.
5.2. M E T H O D S F O R N E U T R A L I Z A T I O N
OF W A S T E W A T E R S
M e t h o d s f o r n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s i n c l u d e (1) e q u a l i z a t i o n , w h i c h
c o n s i s t s o f m i x i n g a c i d i c a n d a l k a l i n e w a s t e s t r e a m s a v a i l a b l e in t h e p l a n t a n d
(2) d i r e c t p H c o n t r o l m e t h o d s , w h i c h c o n s i s t o f a d d i t i o n o f a c i d s ( o r b a s e s )
for neutralization of alkaline (or acidic) wastewater streams.
5.3. EQUALIZATION
W h e n utilized for p u r p o s e o f n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , e q u a l i z a t i o n i n v o l v e s m i x i n g
w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m s o f a c i d i c a n d a l k a l i n e n a t u r e in a n e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n .
E q u a l i z a t i o n is often u s e d f o r p u r p o s e s o t h e r t h a n n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s u c h a s
(1) t o s m o o t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l w a s t e w a t e r s t r e a m flow v a r i a t i o n s , s o t h a t a
c o m p o s i t e s t r e a m o f relatively c o n s t a n t flow r a t e is fed t o t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t ;
a n d (2) t o s m o o t h o u t v a r i a t i o n s in influent B O D t o t h e t r e a t m e n t facilities.
C o n s t a n t a n d v a r i a b l e level e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n s a r e utilized.
1. Constant level equalization basins. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t is i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g . 3.30. T h e level in t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n is h e l d c o n s t a n t . T h e r e f o r e a s
Influent Effluent
Qi = f(t)
Acid and alkaline streams
Fig. 3.30. Constant level equalization basin.
t h e r a t e of flow o f influent v a r i e s , t h a t o f effluent is e q u a l l y affected. C o n

s e q u e n t l y , t h i s is n o t a t e c h n i q u e o f flow e q u a l i z a t i o n , s i m p l y a m e t h o d o f
n e u t r a l i z a t i o n . If fluctuations in t h e flow r a t e a r e t o o g r e a t , t h e effluent f r o m
t h e c o n s t a n t level e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n is fed t o a n o t h e r e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n
h a v i n g a s o b j e c t i v e flow e q u a l i z a t i o n .
2. Variable level equalization basins. I n t h i s m e t h o d o f e q u a l i z a t i o n , t h e
effluent is t a k e n o u t a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e , a n d since t h e flow r a t e o f influent
v a r i e s w i t h t i m e , t h e level o f t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n is v a r i a b l e . T h i s m e t h o d is
a l s o utilized f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f flow e q u a l i z a t i o n , a s well a s p r o v i d i n g f o r
n e u t r a l i z a t i o n . A d i a g r a m o f a v a r i a b l e level e q u a l i z a t i o n b a s i n is s h o w n in
Fig. 3.31.
Influent Effluent
Γ
Τ
ΤΤ
Q, - f(t)
Acid and alkaline

streams
Fig. 3.31. Variable level equalization basin.
Influent
Excess
Holding pond
Bleed stream
Equalization tank
I
Fig. 3.32. "Holding pond" method of equalization.
A n o t h e r m e t h o d of e q u a l i z a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f d i v e r t i n g t h e " e x c e s s " o f t h e
i n c o m i n g s t r e a m t o a h o l d i n g p o n d , f r o m w h i c h a b l e e d s t r e a m is fed t o t h e
e q u a l i z a t i o n t a n k . T h i s m e t h o d is n o t u s e d for n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s , b u t
o n l y for e q u a l i z a t i o n o f B O D c o n t e n t o r flow r a t e . T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g .
3.32.
5.4. D I R E C T p H C O N T R O L M E T H O D S :
NEUTRALIZATION OF A C I D I C W A S T E S BY
D I R E C T pH C O N T R O L M E T H O D S
T h e f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d s o f d i r e c t n e u t r a l i z a t i o n of a c i d i c w a s t e s a r e t h e
m o s t c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d : (1) l i m e s t o n e b e d s , (2) s l u r r i e d l i m e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ,
(3) c a u s t i c s o d a ( N a O H ) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , (4) s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ,
a n d (5) a m m o n i a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n .
A few specific c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e s e m e t h o d s a r e a s f o l l o w s :
S l u r r i e d l i m e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d a n d is d i s c u s s e d
in S e c t i o n 5.6. D e s i g n of l i m e s t o n e b e d s is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 5.5.
C a u s t i c s o d a ( N a O H ) is m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n l i m e . It offers a n a d v a n t a g e
with respect t o uniformity of the reagent, ease of storage a n d feeding, r a p i d
r e a c t i o n r a t e , a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e e n d p r o d u c t s o f n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ( s o d i u m
salts) a r e s o l u b l e .
S o d i u m c a r b o n a t e ( N a C 0 ) is n o t a s r e a c t i v e a s c a u s t i c s o d a
2 3 and
presents frothing problems owing to release of c a r b o n dioxide.
A m m o n i a ( N H O H ) p r e s e n t s t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g a c o n t a m i n a n t ;
4
c o n s e q u e n t l y its u s e m a y b e r u l e d o u t b y p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s t a n d a r d s .
F a c t o r s g u i d i n g selection of a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e a g e n t a r e (1) p u r c h a s e c o s t ,
(2) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c a p a c i t y , (3) r e a c t i o n r a t e , a n d (4) s t o r a g e a n d d i s p o s a l o f
neutralization products.
5.5. L I M E S T O N E B E D S
5.5.1. Types of Equipment
B o t h upflow a n d downflow types of limestone beds are employed. F o r
w a s t e w a t e r s c o n t a i n i n g H S 0 , l i m e s t o n e b e d s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d if c o n
2 4
c e n t r a t i o n o f H S 0 e x c e e d s 0 . 6 % . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s l i m i t a t i o n is t h a t t h e
2 4
l i m e s t o n e b e c o m e s c o v e r e d w i t h a n i n s o l u b l e c o a t o f C a S 0 , r e n d e r i n g it
4
ineffective. I n a d d i t i o n , e v o l u t i o n o f C 0 c a u s e s f r o t h i n g p r o b l e m s .
2
U p f l o w t y p e a r r a n g e m e n t is p r e f e r a b l e t o d o w n f l o w t y p e since in u p f l o w
u n i t s , C a S 0 t e n d s t o b e flushed o u t b e f o r e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o n t h e l i m e s t o n e .
4
A l s o , e s c a p e o f C 0 g e n e r a t e d b y t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e a c t i o n is e a s i e r in
2
u p f l o w t y p e u n i t s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , m a x i m u m h y d r a u l i c r a t e for d o w n f l o w
s y s t e m s is l i m i t e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) .2
P r e s e n c e o f m e t a l l i c i o n s (e.g., A l 3 +
, Fe 3 +
) in t h e w a s t e w a t e r reduces
effectiveness o f t h e l i m e s t o n e b e d o w i n g t o c o a t i n g o f l i m e s t o n e w i t h p r e c i p i
t a t e d h y d r o x i d e s . F i n a l l y , if d i l u t i o n of t h e a c i d i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r is i n c r e a s e d ,
higher residence times are required for neutralization.
5.5.2. Design Procedure for Limestone Beds
In this section, the laboratory procedure r e c o m m e n d e d by Eckenfelder a n d

F o r d [ 3 ] for o b t a i n i n g t h e b a s i c d e s i g n d a t a is d e s c r i b e d . A n u m e r i c a l e x a m p l e
is p r e s e n t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e d e s i g n o f a n a c t u a l l i m e s t o n e c o l u m n . A m o d e l o f a
l a b o r a t o r y l i m e s t o n e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c o l u m n is s h o w n i n F i g . 3.33. B e n c h -
scale c o l u m n s o p e r a t e w i t h h e i g h t s o f l i m e s t o n e o f 1.0-5 ft, w h i c h is t h e a c t u a l
r a n g e o f h e i g h t s for p l a n t - s c a l e u n i t s . C o l u m n d i a m e t e r is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
6 in., a n d r a t e s o f flow [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] a r e c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e f o r p l a n t
2
operation.
Fig. 3.33. Laboratory model of limestone neutralization column.
Step 1. Fill n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c o l u m n s w i t h l i m e s t o n e (after w a s h i n g a n d

s c r e e n i n g ) t o d e p t h s o f 1, 2, 3 , 4 , a n d 5 ft (5 c o l u m n s ) .
Step 2. A d j u s t u p w a r d flow r a t e o f a c i d w a s t e w a t e r for e a c h c o l u m n .
F l o w r a t e s v a r y i n g f r o m 50 t o 1000 g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) a r e u s e d .
2
Step 3. C h e c k effluent p H f r o m e a c h c o l u m n a t e a c h flow r a t e u t i l i z e d

u n t i l it is s t a b i l i z e d .
Step 4. A f t e r e a c h r u n r e p l a c e l i m e s t o n e u s e d in t h e c o l u m n s .
Step 5. P l o t t e r m i n a l p H a s a f u n c t i o n o f r a t e o f flow [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] f o r 2
e a c h d e p t h o f l i m e s t o n e . A t y p i c a l p l o t o f t h i s t y p e is s h o w n i n F i g . 3.34.
P u r p o s e s o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e a r e (1) t o select t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l
h e i g h t o f c o l u m n for a specified p H o f t h e effluent. T h i s is t h e c o l u m n h e i g h t
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e flow r a t e , e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f
v o l u m e of l i m e s t o n e utilized, i.e., g a l o f l i q u o r / ( h r ) ( f t o f l i m e s t o n e ) ; a n d
3
(2) t o c a l c u l a t e a n n u a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f l i m e s t o n e u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
which corresponds to a m i n i m u m requirement of limestone.
II
IO
PH
9
4
Ο 500 I000 I500
Flow rate [gal/(hr)(f t )) 2
Fig. 3.34. Limestone neutralization data.
Example 3.8
I t is d e s i r e d t o n e u t r a l i z e a w a s t e w a t e r a c i d s t r e a m c o n t a i n i n g 0.1 Ν H C I
t o a p H o f 7.0 t h r o u g h a l i m e s t o n e b e d . L a b o r a t o r y tests w i t h t h e w a s t e w a t e r
yield d a t a p l o t t e d i n F i g . 3.34. D e s i g n a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s y s t e m f o r 100 g a l / m i n
(6000 gal/hr) of wastewater a n d estimate a n n u a l limestone r e q u i r e m e n t for
the most economical operation.
SOLUTION
Step 1. F o r p H 7 r e a d f r o m F i g . 3.34 r a t e s o f flow [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] c o r r e 2
s p o n d i n g t o each c o l u m n depth. T h e n calculate cross-sectional area, v o l u m e

o f l i m e s t o n e b e d r e q u i r e d , a n d flow r a t e i n g a l / ( h r ) ( f t 3
of limestone bed)
( T a b l e 3.12).
T A B L E 3.12
(2) (5)
F l o w rate (3) (4) F l o w rate
ω [gal/(hr)(ft )] 2
Cross section Volume o f [gal/(hr)(ft )]
3
Depth [ F r o m Fig. 6000 gal/hr limestone ( f t )3
6000 gal/hr
3.34 for p H 7 ] { )
~ (2) (4) = ( / ) x ( 5 ) ( )
~ (4)
(ft)
1.0 118 51 51 118

2.0 492 12.2 24.4 246
3.0 845 7.1 21.3 282
4.0 1047 5.73 22.9 262
5.0 1200 5.0 25.0 240
300
t 8; I)
•<
c
ο s
tn / ft 62 )
/ft w< >
I 250
>)
i/E Λ
Tt 7
/t
f/
to
Β 200
1
ο
ι
. o>.
φ I
o f
5 150 I
ο
©
LL
ι
L Hi )
I00
2 3
© D e p t h (ft)
Fig. 3.35. Determination of optimum bed depth.
Step 2. P l o t flow r a t e s [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] f r o m c o l u m n (5) o f T a b l e 3.12 vs.

3
d e p t h s [ c o l u m n ( 7 ) ] . T h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 3.35 a n d i n d i c a t e s t h a t a 3-ft
l i m e s t o n e b e d is t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a m a x i m u m o n t h e
c u r v e . T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a in t h i s c a s e (see T a b l e 3.12 for a d e p t h o f 3.0 ft)
is 7.1 f t , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d i a m e t e r o f 3.0 ft.
2
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t h e lb o f a c i d t o b e n e u t r a l i z e d p e r d a y ( a c i d c o n t a i n e d
in t h e 6 0 0 0 g a l / h r o f t h e 0.1 Ν s o l u t i o n o f H C I ) . S i n c e t h i s is a d i l u t e a c i d
s o l u t i o n , c a l c u l a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e d e n s i t y o f w a t e r , t a k e n a s 8.34 l b / g a l .
A 0.1 Ν s o l u t i o n o f H C I c o n t a i n s 3.65 g/liter o f H C I , o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3.65 lb
o f a c i d p e r 1000 l b o f s o l u t i o n . T h e r e f o r e
Mass flow r a t e : 6000 gal/hr χ 24 hr/day χ 8.34 lb/gal = 1.2 M l b / d a y
Acid c o n t e n t : 3.65 χ (1,200,000/1000) = 4380 lb/day
Step 4. Calculate limestone (CaC0 ) 3 required. The neutralization

e q u a t i o n is
2HC1 + C a C 0 -» C a C l + C 0 3 2 2 + H 0 2
Molecular weight: (2 χ 36.5 = 73) (100)
T h e r e f o r e l i m e s t o n e r e q u i r e d is
4380 χ 100/73 = 6000 lb/day of limestone
T h i s is t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a m o u n t o f l i m e s t o n e a s s u m i n g 1 0 0 % r e a c t i v i t y . F o r
d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , a s s u m e a n 8 0 % r e a c t i v i t y . L i m e s t o n e r e q u i r e d is t h e n
6000/0.8 = 7500 lb/day or 2.738 χ 1 0 lb/year 6

5.6. S L U R R I E D L I M E T R E A T M E N T
5.6.1. Equipment for Slurried Lime S y s t e m s

S l u r r i e d l i m e is t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d r e a g e n t for n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f a c i d
w a s t e w a t e r s , t h e l o w c o s t o f l i m e b e i n g t h e m a i n r e a s o n f o r its w i d e s p r e a d
utilization. A flowsheet o f a t w o - s t a g e s l u r r i e d l i m e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s y s t e m is
s h o w n i n F i g . 3.36.
Quicklime Water
Recirculation line Slurry

for slurried lime storage
tank
Slurried lime Λ
(agitated
vessel)
Recirculation pump'
pH controller^
pH controllerQ-ra rJ<H ;
^ I
By-pass line
Alkaline wastewater
Fig. 3.36. Flow diagram of a two-stage slurried lime neutralization system.
S t e p w i s e a d d i t i o n of l i m e is r e c o m m e n d e d . F o r h i g h l y a c i d i c w a s t e s a
m i n i m u m o f t w o stages is d e s i r a b l e , t h e first ( b u l k n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ) t o r a i s e p H
t o a v a l u e o f 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 , a n d t h e s e c o n d (fine t u n i n g ) t o a d j u s t p H t o d e s i r e d
effluent v a l u e . S o m e t i m e s a t h i r d s t a g e is d e s i r a b l e .
A u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l o f t h i s p r o c e s s is n o t s i m p l e b e c a u s e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n p H a n d a m o u n t o f l i m e a d d e d is h i g h l y n o n l i n e a r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e
vicinity o f t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p o i n t ( p H 7). T h i s is a p p r e c i a t e d b y i n s p e c t i o n o f
a t y p i c a l n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e o f a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r , s h o w n in F i g .
3.37.
I n t h e vicinity of t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p o i n t , t h e p H b e c o m e s e x c e e d i n g l y
sensitive t o s m a l l a d d i t i o n s o f l i m e , v a r y i n g in a n o r d i n a r y o p e r a t i o n o f s l u r
r i e d l i m e s y s t e m s a t a r a t e a s fast a s o n e p H u n i t p e r m i n u t e . A l s o , fluctuation
in flow r a t e o f influent c o m p l i c a t e s o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s . U s e o f a n e q u a l
i z a t i o n t a n k is i n d i c a t e d t o d a m p e n fluctuations, a s s h o w n in F i g . 3.36. A
relatively s m a l l a m o u n t o f r e a g e n t is t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d w i t h a l a r g e l i q u i d
v o l u m e in a s h o r t t i m e i n t e r v a l . M e c h a n i c a l m i x e r s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r t h i s
purpose.
14
PH
12
10
8 7
6
I
1
1
2 1 --3,600
Ο 2,000 V
4,000 6,000
mg of lime/liter of wastewater
Fig. 3.37. Typical neutralization curve for an industrial wastewater.
5.6.2. D e s i g n Procedure for Slurried Lime

Neutralization S y s t e m s
T h e p r o c e d u r e r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 3 ] is s u m m a r i z e d
in t h i s s e c t i o n a n d i l l u s t r a t e d b y a n u m e r i c a l e x a m p l e . B a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n
r e q u i r e d is (1) n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e f o r t h e w a s t e w a t e r (see F i g . 3.37), a n d
(2) p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n d a t a , i.e., a c u r v e o f level of a g i t a t i o n v s . d e t e n t i o n
t i m e for a d e s i r e d t e r m i n a l p H (see F i g . 3.38). T h i s b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n is o b t a i n e d
by simple laboratory procedures [ 3 ] .
P u r p o s e s o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 3.9 a r e (1) t o
select t h e n u m b e r o f stages o f n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a n d t o size n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e a c t o r s ,
a n d (2) t o select a p p r o p r i a t e m i x i n g e q u i p m e n t .
Example 3 . 9
2 0 0 g a l / m i n of a n a c i d i c i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r a r e n e u t r a l i z e d t o p H 7.0.
F r o m l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s , t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e is p l o t t e d ( F i g . 3.37). A l s o , a
c u r v e of level o f a g i t a t i o n vs. d e t e n t i o n t i m e is o b t a i n e d f o r t h i s n e u t r a l i z a t i o n
( F i g . 3.38). D e s i g n a l i m e s l u r r y n e u t r a l i z a t i o n s y s t e m .
SOLUTION
Step 1. F r o m t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n c u r v e in F i g . 3.37, l i m e s l u r r y r e q u i r e
m e n t for n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r t o a p H o f 7 is r e a d a s 3 6 0 0 m g / l i t e r .
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e l i m e s l u r r y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r 2 0 0 g a l / m i n w a s t e w a t e r
flow. S i n c e
3600 m g lime/liter waste = 3600 χ 1 0 " lb lime/lb waste 6

I.Or
~"Ί. 5 IO 50 I00
Residence time (min)
Fig. 3.38. Level of agitation vs. detention time.
then
200 gal waste/min χ 60 m i n / h r χ 24 h r / d a y χ 8.34 lb waste/gal waste
χ 3600 χ 1 0 " lb lime/lb waste = 8647 lb lime/day

6
Step 3. N e u t r a l i z e a c i d in t w o s t e p s a s i n d i c a t e d b y flow d i a g r a m in F i g .
3.36, t h e first s t a g e f o r b u l k n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e s e c o n d for fine t u n i n g .
Step 4. Select a d e t e n t i o n t i m e a n d size t h e r e a c t o r s .
Volume of reactor (gal) = Q (gal/min) χ / (min) (3.63)
S e l e c t i o n o f t h e o p t i m u m d e t e n t i o n t i m e is a r r i v e d a t b y a n economical
balance.
1. A s s u m e a r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( u s u a l l y a v a l u e b e t w e e n 5 a n d 10 m i n ) .
2. Size t h e r e a c t o r [ E q . ( 3 . 6 3 ) ] .
3. F r o m F i g . 3.38 f o r t h e a s s u m e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e , d e t e r m i n e power
level r e q u i r e d .
4 . Select m i x e r s (as s h o w n i n S t e p 5) f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f p o w e r level
[item (3)].
5. E s t i m a t e t o t a l c o s t s ( c a p i t a l a n d o p e r a t i n g ) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s
a s s u m e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e . M a i n i t e m s in t h e c o l u m n of c a p i t a l c o s t s a r e t h e
reactors themselves (and auxiliary equipment) a n d the mixers. Energy require
m e n t is t h e v a r i a b l e i t e m a m o n g o p e r a t i n g c o s t s .
Problems 123
6. R e p e a t i n g s t e p s ( l ) - ( 5 ) , a c u r v e o f t o t a l c o s t p e r y e a r v s . a series o f
selected r e s i d e n c e t i m e s is p l o t t e d . T h i s c u r v e p a s s e s t h r o u g h a m i n i m u m
which corresponds to the o p t i m u m detention time. Capital costs are expressed
o n a y e a r l y b a s i s b y e s t i m a t i n g e q u i p m e n t life a n d u t i l i z i n g t h e c u r r e n t v a l u e
for interest rate.
A s s u m e for E x a m p l e 3.9 t h a t o p t i m u m r e s i d e n c e t i m e is e s t i m a t e d b y t h i s
procedure as 5 min. Then
Volume of each reactor (gal) = 200 gal/min χ 5 m i n = 1000 gal
or
1000 gal χ ft /7.48 gal = 134 f t
3 3
S e l e c t i n g a r e a c t o r d e p t h o f 5 ft, r e q u i r e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is
A r e a = 1 3 4 f t / 5 ft = 26.8 ft
3 2
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a d i a m e t e r o f 5.84 ft.
Step 5. Select m i x e r s . F r o m F i g . 3.38, p o w e r level r e q u i r e d for 5 - m i n
d e t e n t i o n t i m e is
0.15 HP/1000 gal
Since e a c h t a n k h a s a v o l u m e o f 1000 g a l , specify o n e 0 . 1 5 - H P m i x e r for e a c h
tank.
5.7. NEUTRALIZATION OF ALKALINE W A S T E S

In principle, a n y strong acid c a n be used t o neutralize alkaline wastewaters.
Cost considerations limit choice t o H S 0 (the m o s t c o m m o n ) a n d H C I .
2 4
R e a c t i o n rates are essentially i n s t a n t a n e o u s . T h e basic design p r o c e d u r e for

a l k a l i n e w a s t e s is s i m i l a r t o t h a t for a c i d i c w a s t e s d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 5.6.
F l u e g a s e s c o n t a i n i n g 1 4 % o r m o r e o f C 0 a r e u s e d for n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f
2
alkaline wastewaters. W h e n bubbled t h r o u g h the wastewater the C 0 2forms

c a r b o n i c a c i d , w h i c h r e a c t s w i t h t h e b a s e . R e a c t i o n r a t e is s l o w b u t sufficient
if p H n e e d n o t b e a d j u s t e d b e l o w 7 o r 8. E i t h e r b u b b l i n g t h r o u g h a p e r f o r a t e d
p i p e o r u s i n g s p r a y t o w e r s is s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Problems
I. Sedimentation {discrete settling). A particle size distribution is obtained from a sieve
analysis of sand particles. For each weight fraction an average settling velocity is calculated.
D a t a [6] are presented in the following tabulation.
Settling velocity Weight fraction

(ft/min) remaining
10.0 0.55
5.0 0.46
2.0 0.35
1.0 0.21
0.75 0.11
0.50 0.03
1. Prepare a plot o f fraction of particles with less than stated velocity vs. settling velocity
(ft/min).
2. F o r an overflow rate of 100,000 gal/(day)(ft ), calculate overall removal utilizing
2
Eq. (3.26).
II. Sedimentation (flocculent settling). A laboratory settling analysis gave the results tab
ulated below.
% suspended solids removed

Time at indicated depth
T i m e (min) 2 ft 4 ft 6 ft
10 40 25 16
20 54 37 28
30 62 47 37
45 71 56 46
60 76 65 53
1. Perform analysis of the data and arrive at curves for % SS removal vs. detention time
(min), and % SS removal vs. overflow rate [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] .
2
2. If the initial concentration of the slurry is 430 p p m , design a settling tank (i.e., calculate
diameter and effective depth o f the tank) to remove 70% o f the suspended solids for a
1 Mgal/day flow.
3. What removal is attained if flow if increased to 2 M g a l / d a y ?
4. F o r the flow o f 1 Mgal/day calculate daily accumulation o f sludge in lb/day and
average pumping rate in gal/min. A s s u m e sludge concentration to be 1.5% solids
( « 1 5 , 0 0 0 mg/liter).
III. Sedimentation (zone settling). It is desired to design a secondary settling tank to produce
an underflow concentration o f 15,000 mg/liter from a mixed liquor solids content of 3750
mg/liter in the influent. Wastewater flow is 2.0 Mgal/day. Calculate clarifier area re
quired. D a t a below are obtained in a laboratory test o f the slurry.
/ (min) Interface height, Η (ml)
0 1000
2 920
4 840
6 760
8 690
10 600
15 400
20 300
25 280
30 270
IV. Flotation. A pilot-plant flotation operation indicated o p t i m u m air/solid ratio to be

0.04 lb air/lb o f solids.
References 125
1. If a wastewater to be treated has 250 p p m suspended solids, c o m p u t e the % recycle

to be pressurized to 60 psia at 20°C. Take / = 0.68.
2. F o r a wastewater flow o f 1.0 M g a l / d a y and an overflow rate o f 4.0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t )
2
c o m p u t e surface area required.

V. Neutralization. F o r the 3-ft limestone bed designed in Example 3.8 prepare a plot o f
volume of limestone required vs. a range o f selected values o f p H for the effluent (select
p H = 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).
References
1. C a m p , T. R., Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. I l l , 909 (1946).
2. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., "Industrial Water Pollution Control." McGraw-Hill, N e w
Y o r k , 1966.
3. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w Y o r k , 1970.
4. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., and O'Connor, D . J., "Biological Waste Treatment." P e r g a m o n ,
Oxford, 1961.
5. H a z e n , Α . , Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 5 3 , 45 (1904).
6. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., "Wastewater Engineering." McGraw-Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1972.
7. Talmadge, W . P., and Fitch, Ε. B., Ind. Eng. Chem. 47, 38 (1955).
8. Waddel, H., J. Franklin Inst. 2 7 , 4 5 9 ^ 1 9 0 (1934).
4
Theory and Practice of Aeration
in Wastewater Treatment
1. Introduction 127
2. Steps Involved in the Oxygen-Transfer Process 128
3. Oxygen-Transfer Rate Equation 128
4. Determination of the Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficient K a L by
Unsteady State Aeration of Tap Water 129
5. Integration of the Differential Equation for Oxygen Transfer
between Limits 133
6. Unsteady State Aeration of Activated Sludge Liquor 133
7. Steady State Determination of K a for the Activated Sludge Liquor
L 134
8. Oxygenation Capacity (OC) 135
9. Corrections for K a and Oxygenation Capacity ( O C ) with Temper
L
ature and Pressure 135

9.1. Temperature Correction 135
9.2. Pressure Correction 135
10. Transfer Efficiency of Aeration Units 137
11. Effect of Wastewater Characteristics on Oxygen Transfer 138
12. Laboratory Determination of Oxygen-Transfer Coefficient α 140
13. Classification of Aeration Equipment—Oxygen-Transfer Efficiency 140
14. Air Diffusion Units 140
14.1. Type 1 . Fine Bubble Diffusers 140
14.2. Type 2. Large Bubble Diff users 141
14.3. Performance of Air Diffusion Units 142
14.4. Design Procedure for Aeration Systems Utilizing Air
Diffusion Units 143
15. Turbine Aeration Units 144
15.1. Description of Unit 144
15.2. Performance of Turbine Aeration Units 145
15.3. Power Requirements for Turbine Aerators 145
15.4. Design Procedure for Aeration Systems Utilizing Turbine
Aeration Units 147
16. Surface Aeration Units 149
16.1. Description of Unit 149
16.2. Correlation between Transfer Efficiency and Level of
Agitation 149
16.3. Design Procedure for Aeration Systems Utilizing Surface
Aeration Units 151
Problems 154
References 6
1 5
126
1. Introduction 127
T h i s c h a p t e r is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e t r a n s f e r o f o x y g e n f r o m a i r t o a w a s t e
water subjected to biological aerobic t r e a t m e n t . K n o w l e d g e of the rate of
o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is essential for specification of a e r a t o r s t o b e utilized in t h e
p r o c e s s . T h e o r y for o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is d i s c u s s e d , a n d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
t r a n s f e r coefficients f r o m l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s d e s c r i b e d . C o m m o n t y p e s
o f a e r a t o r s a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r specifying a e r a t o r s y s t e m s for aerobic
wastewater treatment processes are also described.
T h e b e s t k n o w n e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e m e c h a n i s m of g a s t r a n s f e r t o a l i q u i d
is g i v e n b y t h e two-film t h e o r y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , it is t h e p r e s e n c e o f
t w o films, o n e liquid a n d o n e g a s , a t t h e g a s - l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e w h i c h p r o v i d e s
the resistance to the passage of gas molecules from the bulk of the gas p h a s e
t o t h a t of t h e l i q u i d p h a s e .
F o r gases of h i g h s o l u b i l i t y in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e , e.g., a b s o r p t i o n of S 0 2 by
w a t e r , t h e m a j o r r e s i s t a n c e t o a b s o r p t i o n is t h a t offered b y t h e g a s film. F o r
g a s e s o f l o w solubility in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e , e.g., a b s o r p t i o n o f o x y g e n b y a n
a q u e o u s l i q u o r , t h e c o n t r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e resides in t h e l i q u i d film. F o r i n t e r
m e d i a t e solubilities, b o t h films offer significant r e s i s t a n c e .
O x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e s ( C ) for distilled w a t e r a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s
s
(1 a t m ) a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 4 . 1 . F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e t a b l e w i t h 1°C
i n c r e m e n t s , c o n s u l t Ref. [ 7 ] .
T A B L E 4.1
Oxygen Saturation Values ( C ) for Distilled $
Water at Standard Conditions (1 atm) [7]
Temperature Temperature o 2
(°Q (°F) (mg/liter)
0 32.0 14.6
5 41.0 12.8
10 50.0 11.3
15 59.0 10.2
20 68.0 9.2
25 77.0 8.4
30 86.0 7.6
35 95.0 7.1
40 104.0 6.6
45 113.0 6.1
50 122.0 5.6
128 4. Theory and Practice of Aeration
2. S t e p s Involved in t h e
Oxygen-Transfer Process
T h e p r o c e s s of o x y g e n t r a n s f e r f r o m a g a s e o u s t o a n a q u e o u s p h a s e o c c u r s
in t h r e e s t e p s .
Step 1. S a t u r a t i o n of t h e l i q u i d s u r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p h a s e s (let C b e s
t h i s s a t u r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o x y g e n ) . T h i s r a t e o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is v e r y
r a p i d since t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e g a s film is negligible, a n d t h u s S t e p 1 is n e v e r
the controlling one.
Step 2. P a s s a g e o f t h e o x y g e n m o l e c u l e s t h r o u g h t h e l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e
film b y m o l e c u l a r diffusion. A t v e r y l o w m i x i n g levels t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n
a b s o r p t i o n is c o n t r o l l e d b y S t e p 2. A t h i g h e r t u r b u l e n c e levels, t h e i n t e r f a c e
film is b r o k e n u p a n d t h e r a t e o f r e n e w a l o f t h e film c o n t r o l s t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f
o x y g e n . S u r f a c e r e n e w a l r a t e is t h e f r e q u e n c y a t w h i c h l i q u i d w i t h a n o x y g e n
concentration C L ( o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e b u l k o f t h e l i q u i d p h a s e )
replaces t h a t from the interface with a n oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n equal t o C. s
Step 3. O x y g e n is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b u l k of t h e l i q u i d b y diffusion a n d
convection.
3. O x y g e n - T r a n s f e r R a t e Equation
T h e b a s i c e q u a t i o n for o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r r a t e is
N= K A(C -C )
L S L (4.1)
w h e r e Ν is t h e m a s s o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d p e r u n i t t i m e ( l b 0 / d a y ) ; K 2 L the
l i q u i d film coefficient [ l b 0 / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( u n i t A C ) ] ; A t h e interfacial a r e a for
2
2
transfer ( f t ) ; C the saturation c o n c e n t r a t i o n of oxygen (mg/liter); a n d C

2
s L the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o x y g e n i n t h e b o d y of t h e l i q u i d ( m g / l i t e r ) .
E q u a t i o n (4.1) is u s u a l l y r e w r i t t e n in c o n c e n t r a t i o n u n i t s b y d i v i d i n g b y
v o l u m e V of t h e s y s t e m . T h e n [ E q . (4.2)]
N/V = dCJdt = K (A/V)(C -C )
L S L = K a(C -C )
L 5 L (4.2)
w h e r e a = A/V = interfacial a r e a p e r u n i t v o l u m e ( f t / f t ) ; a n d K a is t h e 2 3
L
o v e r a l l coefficient o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r [ l b 0 / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( u n i t A C ) ] .
2
3
I n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e m a s s - t r a n s f e r coefficient, t h e o v e r a l l coefficient
K a is o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g t o s e p a r a t e t h e f a c t o r s K a n d a. I t is
L L
a d m i t t e d l y i m p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e t h e interfacial a r e a A.
T h e difference (C — C ) b e t w e e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e a n d a c t u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n
S L
of o x y g e n ( C ) in t h e b o d y o f t h e l i q u i d p h a s e is called o x y g e n deficit ( h e n c e
L
d e n o t e d a s O D ) . F o r a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s d e s i g n e d for r e m o v a l o f
o r g a n i c B O D , t h e r a n g e for o p e r a t i n g d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n level C is b e t w e e n L
0.5 a n d 1.5 m g / l i t e r . W h e n nitrification is t o b e a c h i e v e d , d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n

level is in excess o f 2.0 m g / l i t e r .
4. Determination of Mass-Transfer Coefficient K a L 129
4. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e Overall
M a s s - T r a n s f e r Coefficient K a L
by U n s t e a d y S t a t e A e r a t i o n of
Tap W a t e r
S t u d i e s o f t h e t r a n s f e r coefficient a r e u s u a l l y m a d e o n t a p w a t e r a n d t h e n
c o r r e c t e d for t h e w a s t e w a t e r , a s d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 11 of t h i s c h a p t e r . T h e
p r o c e d u r e m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f K a is t h e u n s t e a d y L
s t a t e a e r a t i o n o f t a p w a t e r . T h e f o u r s t e p s i n v o l v e d in t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e
given below.
Step 1. D e o x y g e n a t e t h e w a t e r t o a n e s s e n t i a l l y z e r o c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n . T h i s is d o n e b y a d d i t i o n o f d e o x y g e n a t i o n c h e m i c a l s , t h e
m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d b e i n g s o d i u m sulfite ( N a S 0 ) . C o b a l t c h l o r i d e ( C o C l )
2 3 2
is a d d e d as a c a t a l y s t for t h e d e o x y g e n a t i o n r e a c t i o n .
coci 2
Na S0 2 3 + i02 > Na S0 2 4
T h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o is
Na S0 /±0 2 3 2 = 126/16 = 7.9

T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y 7.9 p p m o f N a S 0 a r e r e q u i r e d t o r e m o v e
2 3
1 p p m o f D O . B a s e d o n t h e D O o f t h e test t a p w a t e r , t h e a p p r o x i m a t e N a S 0 2 3
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e s t i m a t e d (a 1 0 - 2 0 % excess is u s e d ) . Sufficient c o b a l t
c h l o r i d e is a d d e d t o p r o v i d e a m i n i m u m C o c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1.5 p p m . A n
2 +
alternative deoxygenation p r o c e d u r e consists of r e m o v a l of dissolved oxygen

by purging with nitrogen gas.
Step 2. A f t e r D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e c o m e s e s s e n t i a l l y z e r o , s t a r t a e r a t i o n ,
m e a s u r i n g t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f D O a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s .
S i n c e D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e , t h i s m e t h o d is t e r m e d u n s t e a d y
s t a t e a e r a t i o n . S t e a d y s t a t e m e t h o d s , in w h i c h D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n is k e p t c o n
s t a n t , a r e d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 7. D i s s o l v e d o x y g e n m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e p r e f e r
a b l y p e r f o r m e d b y i n s t r u m e n t a l m e t h o d s . A p r o p e r l y c a l i b r a t e d g a l v a n i c cell
o x y g e n a n a l y z e r a n d p r o b e is t h e m o s t r e l i a b l e m e t h o d . E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r
m i n a t i o n of D O b y t h i s t e c h n i q u e is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 2.3.1 of C h a p t e r 2.
C h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s of d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n ( W i n k l e r m e t h o d ) is a l s o e m p l o y e d [ 7 ] .
T h e a e r a t i o n device is l o c a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e t e s t b a s i n . W h e n c i r c u l a r
b a s i n s a r e e m p l o y e d , baffles a r e p l a c e d a t t h e q u a r t e r p o i n t s o f t h e b a s i n , a s
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 4 . 1 , in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t v o r t e x i n g .
W h e n t e s t i n g is p e r f o r m e d in a c i r c u l a r t a n k for p i l o t o r full s c a l e t e s t s ,
s a m p l i n g d e p t h s for t h e D O d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a r e 1 ft f r o m t h e s u r f a c e a n d 1 ft
from the b o t t o m , at the mid- a n d end-points of the radii trisecting the basin.
T h i s yields a t o t a l o f 12 s a m p l i n g p o i n t s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 2 . S a m p l e s
f r o m v a r i o u s test l o c a t i o n s a r e a n a l y z e d for D O , a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r e a v e r a g e d
a n d recorded for the particular sampling time.
Aeration
device
Baffles
Fig. 4.1. Baffle arrangement.
(For each of the six locations Cross section of tank:

indicated by dots on cross section at right)
Fig. 4.2. Location of sampling points.
Step 3. R e s u l t s a r e t a b u l a t e d a s s h o w n b y s a m p l e d a t a in T a b l e 4 . 2 .
T A B L E 4.2
Data for Example 4.1
w (2) (3)
Test time (min) CL (mg/liter) C -C (mg/liter)
s L
e
0 0.2 10.0
10 2.6 7.6
20 4.8 5.4
30 6.0 4.2
40 7.1 3.1
50 7.8 2.4
60 8.5 1.7
α
C = 10.2 mg/liter.
s
4. Determination of Mass-Transfer Coefficient K a L 131
Step 4. F r o m E q . (4.2) it follows t h a t a p l o t o f (C - C ) v s . t i m e i n s e m i l o g

s L
scale yields a s t r a i g h t line, t h e s l o p e o f w h i c h e q u a l s ( — K a). L Take Eq.

(4.2),
dCJdt = K a(C -C )
L s L
Separating variables, integrating, a n d assuming K a L t o be i n d e p e n d e n t of

the time of sampling [ E q . (4.3)]:
In ( C - C ) = - K at + const.
s L L (4.3)
T h e p l o t o f l n ( C - C ) vs. t i m e is s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . 3 f o r d a t a i n T a b l e 4 . 2 . F o r
s L
a c c u r a c y t h e s t r a i g h t line is p l o t t e d b y t h e l e a s t - s q u a r e s m e t h o d .
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l m a s s - t r a n s f e r coefficient K a b y t h e m e t h o d
L
o f u n s t e a d y s t a t e a e r a t i o n o f t a p w a t e r is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 4 . 1 .
0 20 40 60
Time (min)
Fig. 4.3. Determination of K a L (Example 4.1).

Example 4.1
D a t a p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 4.2 a r e o b t a i n e d b y utilizing a n 8 - H P surface

a e r a t o r in a 150,000 gal c i r c u l a r t e s t t a n k u n d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s :
W a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e : 15°C
Atmospheric pressure: 28 in. H g
C : 10.2 mg/liter (at 15°C, Ρ = 28 in. Hg)

s
T e s t w a t e r is d e o x y g e n a t e d u s i n g s o d i u m sulfite a n d a c o b a l t c a t a l y s t .
Calculate
1. C h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb N a S 0 / l b l i q u o r ) t o d e o x y g e n a t e
2 3 test
w a t e r w i t h 9 p p m of D O a n d t o t a l l b N a S 0 2 3
2 . C o C l r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb)
2
3. V a l u e of K a l b 0 / ( h r ) ( f t ) Δ ( m g / l i t e r )
L 2
3
SOLUTION
Step 1. E s t a b l i s h t h e c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , 7.9 p p m o f
Na S0 2 3 are required to remove 1 p p m D O . Thus
7.9 χ 9.0 = 71.1 p p m of N a S 0 2 3
U t i l i z i n g a 2 0 % excess
20/100 χ 71.1 = 14.22 p p m (take 15 p p m excess)
Requirements
Theoretical 71.1 p p m
Excess 15.0 p p m
86.1 p p m o f N a S 0 2 3
Requirements = 86.1 p p m = 86.1 χ 1 0 " lb N a S 0 / l b liquor 6

2 3
Total required: 86.1 χ 1 0 " lb N a S 0 / l b liquor χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor

6
2 3
χ 150,000 gal liquor = 108 lb of N a S 0 2 3
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e C o C l r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b ) .
2
Basis: 1.5 p p m of C o 2 +
Molecular weight of C o C l : 130 2
A t o m i c weight of C o : 59
Thus
1.5 p p m C o 2 +
or 1.5 χ 130/59 = 3.3 p p m C o C l 2 = 3.3 χ 1 0 " lb C o C l / l b liquor
6
2
6. Unsteady State Aeration 133
T h e r e f o r e , t h e l b of C o C l 2 required are
3.3 χ 1 0 " lb C o C l / l b liquor χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor χ 150,000 gal liquor

6
2
= 4.13 lb C o C l 2 (minimum)
T a k e 5 lb C o C l . 2
Step 3. A s c e r t a i n t h e v a l u e of K a(hr~ ). L
l
By p l o t t i n g i n s e m i l o g scale
g r a p h c o l u m n (5) vs. c o l u m n (1) of T a b l e 4 . 2 o n e o b t a i n s F i g . 4 . 3 . T h e n a t 15°C
KaL = - ( s l o p e ) = - 2 . 3 0 3 [ ( l o g 1 0 - l o g 3 . 1 ) / ( 0 - 4 0 ) ] χ 60
= 1.761b0 /(hr)(ft )A(mg/liter)
2
3
5. I n t e g r a t i o n of t h e Differential
E q u a t i o n for Oxygen T r a n s f e r
b e t w e e n Limits
I n t e g r a t i o n o f E q . (4.2) b e t w e e n t i m e s t l and t , corresponding to
2 DO
concentrations C L > 1 and C L 2 , yields
ln[(C,-C L e a)/(C -C e L i l )] = -K a(t -h)

L 2
or
Ka L = 2.303 l a g [ ( C . - C L i l )/(C -C s L i 2 )]/(/ -/ ) 2 1 (4.4)
F r o m E q . (4.4) t h e v a l u e o f K a L is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m o n l y t w o e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f D O . H o w e v e r , it is p r e f e r a b l e t o utilize t h e s e m i l o g l i n e a r
p l o t m e t h o d with several experimental p o i n t s , since this p e r m i t s statistical
averaging of errors.
6. U n s t e a d y S t a t e A e r a t i o n of
A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e Liquor
In aeration of activated sludge liquor, oxygen utilization (respiration rate)
b y t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . E q u a t i o n (4.2) is m o d i f i e d a s
follows:
dCJdt = K a(C L sw -C )-r
L (4.5)
w h e r e r is t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n b y t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ; C s w the
s a t u r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o x y g e n for t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; a n d C L the operating
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n i n t h e a e r a t o r l i q u o r . V a l u e s o f dCJdt are
obtained by plotting C L ( m e a s u r e d by D O tests) vs. t i m e a n d d e t e r m i n i n g
slopes at selected t i m e intervals (Fig. 4.4).
E q u a t i o n (4.5) is r e a r r a n g e d t o yield
dCJdt = (K aC -r)
L sw - K aCL L
(4.6)
E q u a t i o n (4.6) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a p l o t o f dCJdt (values of slopes o b t a i n e d from

F i g . 4.4) v s . C L yields a s t r a i g h t line, a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 4 . 5 . T h e s l o p e o f t h i s
line yields K a, L a n d r e s p i r a t i o n r a t e r is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e i n t e r c e p t .
Time (t)
Fig. 4.4. Determination of dCJdt.
Fig. 4.5. Determination of K aL (unsteady state aeration of activated sludge

liquor).
7. S t e a d y S t a t e D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of K a for t h e A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e
L
Liquor
A c t i v a t e d s l u d g e l i q u o r is a e r a t e d a t a r a t e j u s t sufficient t o s u p p l y t h e
oxygen required for respiration of the microorganisms. In Eq. (4.5)
dCJdt = 0, a n d t h e r e f o r e
Ka L = rl(Csw-C ) L (4.7)
9. Corrections for K a and O C
L 135
R e s p i r a t i o n r a t e is m e a s u r e d (e.g., b y t h e W a r b u r g r e s p i r o m e t e r ) w h e n t h e
d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e c o m e s s t a b i l i z e d . E q u a t i o n (4.7) yields K a.
L
8. O x y g e n a t i o n C a p a c i t y (OC)
I n e v a l u a t i o n o f a n a e r a t o r t h e o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d is e s t i m a t e d under
s t a n d a r d conditions (SC), c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a t e m p e r a t u r e of 20°C a n d stan
d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . R a t e o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d b y t h e a e r a t o r is
r e p o r t e d a s its o x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y ( O C ) , w h i c h is defined a s t h e r a t e o f
o x y g e n t r a n s f e r dCjdt a t a n initial o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n C L = 0 and standard
c o n d i t i o n s . F r o m E q . (4.2)
O C [lb 0 / ( h r ) ( u n i t volume)] = dCJdt

2 = (K a) o°c(C -0)
L 2 5 = (K a) o C
L 20 C s
(4.8)
o r if V is t h e v o l u m e o f a e r a t i o n b a s i n ,
O C (lb 0 / h r ) = (K a) °c
2 L 20 C V 5 (4.9)
S i n c e t h e t e s t is p e r f o r m e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n s t a n d a r d , t h e v a l u e o f
Ka
L o b t a i n e d is c o r r e c t e d for t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
E q . (4.9). T h e s e c o r r e c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 9.
9. C o r r e c t i o n s for K a a n d L
O x y g e n a t i o n C a p a c i t y (OC) w i t h
Temperature and Pressure
9.1. T E M P E R A T U R E C O R R E C T I O N
T h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient K a L i n c r e a s e s w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e fol
l o w i n g t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n is u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e K a L at 20°C:
KaL iT) = Ka °
L i20 C) x 1.024 - > (T 2O
(4.10)
w h e r e Τ is t h e t e m p e r a t u r e in ° C .
9.2. P R E S S U R E C O R R E C T I O N
A b a r o m e t r i c c o r r e c t i o n for o x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e C s in E q . (4.8) o r
(4.9) is a p p l i e d a s i n d i c a t e d b y E q . (4.11), w h i c h a s s u m e s t h a t C is d i r e c t l y s
proportional to the barometric pressure.
C (corrected) = C (test) χ 29.92 in. Hg/(in. H g at test conditions)

s s (4.11)
S i n c e o x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n is r e l a t e d t o p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f o x y g e n i n t h e g a s
p h a s e ( H e n r y ' s l a w ) , a c o r r e c t i o n is m a d e for s a t u r a t i o n in s u b m e r g e d a e r a t i o n
devices (bubble aeration), where partial pressure a t t h e p o i n t of discharge

exceeds atmospheric pressure d u e t o hydrostatic pressure. Oldshue [ 5 ]
p r o p o s e d t h e following correction:
C ,
s w = C , . , [ ( f t / 2 9 . 4 ) + (O /42)] f (4.12)
where C s m is t h e s a t u r a t i o n o f o x y g e n a t a e r a t i o n t a n k m i d - d e p t h ( m g / l i t e r ) ;
C S5 the saturation of oxygen at standard conditions (mg/liter); P the pressure b
( p s i a ) a t t h e d e p t h o f a i r r e l e a s e ; a n d O t h e o x y g e n i n exit g a s ( % ) . t
F o r a e r a t i o n , O = 2 1 % o f 0 , a n d E q . (4.12) yields
t 2
C Stm = C StS χ [ ( Λ / 2 9 . 4 ) + 0.5] (4.13)
T h u s , t h e value for t h e oxygenation capacity for surface a e r a t o r s ( n o

h y d r o s t a t i c c o r r e c t i o n r e q u i r e d ) is g i v e n b y E q . (4.9), w h i c h is m o d i f i e d a s
follows [ E q . ( 4 . 1 4 ) ] :
O C = (K a) °c L 20 x C (corrected) χ V
s (4.14)
w h e r e (K a) °c
L 20 is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.10), a n d C ( c o r r e c t e d ) is g i v e n b y s
E q . (4.11). T h e r e f o r e , f o r s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s
OC = Ka L iT) χ 1.024< - > χ C (test) χ 20 τ

s ?* ' * 2 9
χ V i n H
(in. H g a t test conditions)

(4.15)
F o r b u b b l e a e r a t o r s , o n e utilizes E q . (4.16).
O C = (K a) ' L 20 C x C StS χ V (4.16)
w h e r e (K a) <>c
L 20 is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.10) a n d C 5S f r o m E q . (4.12) [ o r
Eq. (4.13)]. Therefore, for bubble aerators
O C = J W > x 1.024<—> x [ W 2 ^ ; + Q 5 ] χ V (4.17)
Example 4.2
F o r t h e surface a e r a t o r in E x a m p l e 4 . 1 , calculate
1. V a l u e o f K a c o r r e c t e d t o 2 0 ° C
L
2. V a l u e o f C c o r r e c t e d t o n o r m a l a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e
s
3. Oxygenation capacity (lb 0 / h r ) 2
SOLUTION
Step 1. (K a) o
L 20 C is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.10).
(K a) « L 20 c = 1.76 x ( 1 . 0 2 4 ) ( 2 0
- 1 5 )
= 1.98 h r " 1
Step 2. C ( c o r r e c t e d ) is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.11).
s
C (corrected) = 10.2(29.92/28.0) = 10.9 mg/liter = 10.9 χ 1 0 " lb 0 / l b liquor

s
6
2
10. Transfer Efficiency of Aeration Units 137
Step 3. O x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.14).
O C = 1.98 1/hr χ 10.9 χ 1 0 " lb 0 / l b liquor χ 150,000 gal χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal
6
2
= 27.0 lb 0 / h r 2
10. T r a n s f e r Efficiency of
Aeration Units
T r a n s f e r efficiency ( T E ) of a e r a t i o n u n i t s is c o m m o n l y e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s
o f m a s s of o x y g e n a c t u a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d p e r ( H P χ h r ) of w o r k e x p e n d i t u r e , i.e.
[ E q . (4.18)],
T E = lb 0 2 transferred/(HP χ hr) (4.18)
S o m e t i m e s , n o m i n a l H P ( n a m e p l a t e H P ) of t h e a e r a t o r is utilized for
s i m p l i c i t y in e v a l u a t i n g T E . I t is m o r e a c c u r a t e t o b a s e c a l c u l a t i o n upon
actual H P (blade H P ) m e a s u r e d d u r i n g the test b y a w a t t meter o r a n energy
c o u n t e r . W h e n t h e p o w e r f a c t o r (cos P F ) is k n o w n , b l a d e H P is c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m E q . (4.19) [ 2 ] .
Blade H P = (line voltage) χ (line amperage) χ [cos P F ( 3 ) J 1/2
(4.19)
χ (1/746) χ ( m o t o r efficiency) χ (gear efficiency)
w h e r e 1/746 is t h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r H P / W . V a l u e s o f T E u p t o 7 l b 0 / 2
( H P χ h r ) a r e r e p o r t e d for surface a e r a t o r s , a l t h o u g h f o r m o s t u n i t s t h e v a l u e s
o f T E r a n g e f r o m 2 t o 4 lb 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) . F o r t u r b i n e a e r a t o r s t h e u s u a l r a n g e
2
is 2 - 3 l b 0 / ( H P x h r ) .
2
E x a m p l e 4.3
F o r t h e a e r a t o r in E x a m p l e s 4.1 a n d 4 . 2 , r e p o r t a e r a t o r efficiency in t e r m s
of n a m e p l a t e H P a n d b l a d e H P . T h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e in a d d i t i o n
t o t h o s e f r o m E x a m p l e s 4.1 a n d 4 . 2 :
D r a w n voltage: 225 V (average)
A m p e r a g e : 20 A (average)
cos P F (measured): 0.85
M o t o r efficiency (estimated): 90%
G e a r efficiency (estimated): 90%
SOLUTION O x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d h a d b e e n d e t e r m i n e d in E x a m p l e 4 . 2 a s
27.0 lb 0 / h r . Therefore
2
T E = 27.0/8.0 = 3.38 lb 0 / Η Ρ χ hr 2 (nameplate)

F r o m E q . (4.19)
Blade H P = (225) (20) [0.85 χ (3) 1 / 2
] ( 1/746) (0.9) (0.9) = 7.19
Then
T E = (27.0/7.19) = 3.76 lb 0 / Η Ρ χ h r 2 (blade)
1 1 . Effect of W a s t e w a t e r
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on Oxygen T r a n s f e r
W h e n o x y g e n is s u p p l i e d for a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r ,
it is n e c e s s a r y t o define a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r w h i c h r e l a t e s o x y g e n t r a n s f e r t o
t h e n a t u r e of t h e w a s t e . T h i s c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r α r e l a t e s t h e o v e r a l l m a s s -
t r a n s f e r coefficient (K a) o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r t o t h a t o f t h e t a p w a t e r [ E q . ( 4 . 2 0 ) ] .
L
α = K a ( w a s t e w a t e r ) / ^ a (tap water)
L (4.20)
T h e r e a r e m a n y v a r i a b l e s w h i c h affect t h e m a g n i t u d e of oc. T h e s e i n c l u d e
(1) t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e m i x e d l i q u o r ; (2) n a t u r e o f t h e d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c a n d
m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s ; (3) level o f a g i t a t i o n o f a e r a t i o n b a s i n , u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d
in t e r m s of H P p e r 1000 gal of b a s i n v o l u m e ; (4) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e a e r a t i o n
e q u i p m e n t ; a n d (5) l i q u i d d e p t h a n d g e o m e t r y o f a e r a t i o n b a s i n .
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e effect is a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e
l i q u i d film coefficient K . F i g u r e 4.8 i l l u s t r a t e s t y p i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e effect o n
L
v a l u e s o f a.
Since t h e n a t u r e o f d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c a n d m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s affects a,
its v a l u e is e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n ,
b e c a u s e d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s affecting t h e t r a n s f e r r a t e a r e r e m o v e d i n
t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s . A t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n is s h o w n in F i g . 4.6. A s t h e final
effluent a p p r o a c h e s p u r i t y o f t a p w a t e r , t h e v a l u e o f α a p p r o a c h e s u n i t y
asymptotically.
Effect o f m i x i n g i n t e n s i t y in a e r a t i o n b a s i n ( u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f
H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l ) is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 7 , w h i c h is a t y p i c a l c u r v e for a w a s t e
w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g s u r f a c e - a c t i v e a g e n t s . A s e x p l a i n e d in S e c t i o n 2, a t l o w
m i x i n g i n t e n s i t i e s t h e r a t e o f o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e p a s s a g e o f
t h e o x y g e n m o l e c u l e s t h r o u g h t h e l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e film b y m o l e c u l a r diffusion.
T h e p r e s e n c e of s u r f a c e - a c t i v e a g e n t s i n h i b i t s m o l e c u l a r diffusion t h r o u g h
1.0
0.5
0 % B O D removed 100%
Raw waste
Fig. 4.6. Plot of a vs. % BOD removed.

11. Wastewater Effect on 0 2 Transfer 139
Low Moderate High

turbulence turbulence turbulence S
I.O
0.5
H P / I O O O gal
Fig. 4.7. Plot of a vs. mixing intensity.
the interface, a n d t h u s α decreases. A t high mixing intensities, however, the

o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e r a t e of s u r f a c e r e n e w a l , a n d t h u s a t c o n
ditions of high turbulence, α increases with the degree of mixing intensity.
F i g u r e 4.8 s h o w s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e effect o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d m i x i n g i n t e n
sity o n t h e v a l u e o f α for a t y p i c a l w a s t e w a t e r .
I.O
0.9
α
0.8
0.7
0.6
0 0.05 0.I5 0.25 0.35
Power level; HP/IOOO gal
Fig. 4.8. Plot of a vs. power level at two different temperatures [3].
A n i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e effect o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p
m e n t o n t h e v a l u e of α is b u b b l e a e r a t i o n (air diffusion o r t u r b i n e u n i t s ) in t h e
presence of surface-active agents. Presence of these agents decreases b u b b l e
size, a n d t h u s i n c r e a s e s interfacial a r e a p e r u n i t v o l u m e . * U n d e r t h e s e c o n
d i t i o n s t h e K a v a l u e o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r u s u a l l y i n c r e a s e s , b e c a u s e i n c r e a s e in
L
a e x c e e d s d e c r e a s e of K c a u s e d b y t h e s u r f a c e b a r r i e r . T h i s i n c r e a s e in K a
L L
of t h e w a s t e w a t e r r e s u l t s in a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e o f α [ E q . ( 4 . 2 0 ) ] .
* Since a — A/V= kir /k r 2
2
3
= K(\/r), thus as radius (r) o f the bubble decreases, a (and
therefore K a) increases.
L
12. L a b o r a t o r y D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of O x y g e n - T r a n s f e r Coefficient α
T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n is b a s e d d i r e c t l y o n t h e definition o f α g i v e n b y E q .
(4.20). V a l u e s o f K a o f w a s t e w a t e r a n d t a p w a t e r a r e d e t e r m i n e d a s d e s c r i b e d
L
in S e c t i o n 4. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o m a k e p a r a l l e l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s for w a s t e w a t e r
a n d t a p w a t e r a t different m i x i n g i n t e n s i t i e s a n d a t different t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
in o r d e r t o o b t a i n c u r v e s s u c h a s t h e o n e s s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 8 .
13. Classification of A e r a t i o n
E q u i p m e n t — O x y g e n - T r a n s f e r Efficiency
A e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t is
classified i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : (1) a i r diffusion u n i t s , (2) t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n
u n i t s , a n d (3) surface a e r a t i o n u n i t s . W h e n c o m p a r i n g a e r a t i o n devices o r
e v a l u a t i n g a b s o r p t i o n of o x y g e n in v a r i o u s w a s t e w a t e r s , it is useful t o c o n
sider t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency, w h i c h is defined a s [ E q . (4.21)]
weight of 0 absorbed/unit time

2
e = — , . .— x 1 0 0
(4.21)
weight of <J supplied/unit time
2
T h i s definition is n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o s u r f a c e a e r a t i o n u n i t s since t h e o x y g e n
s u p p l i e d c o m e s f r o m s u r r o u n d i n g air, a n d t h u s it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e
the weight of oxygen supplied per unit time. In aerobic biological processes,
a e r a t o r s p e r f o r m t w o b a s i c f u n c t i o n s : (1) p r o v i s i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e d o x y g e n
t r a n s f e r n e e d e d for o x i d a t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; a n d (2)
m a i n t e n a n c e of a n a d e q u a t e level o f a g i t a t i o n in t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r , in
o r d e r t o yield relatively u n i f o r m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n a n d
biological mass t h r o u g h o u t .
F o r the activated sludge process, m o s t of the p o w e r expenditure by the
a e r a t o r s is for t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o v i d i n g o x y g e n t r a n s f e r . F o r l a r g e v o l u m e
b i o l o g i c a l u n i t s ( n a m e l y , a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ) , t h e l a r g e r s h a r e of t h e p o w e r
e x p e n d i t u r e is f o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n a d e q u a t e level o f a g i t a t i o n . C h a r a c t e r
istics a n d specifications f o r t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t a r e
d i s c u s s e d i n d i v i d u a l l y in t h e n e x t t h r e e s e c t i o n s .
14. Air Diffusion U n i t s

14.1. T Y P E 1 . F I N E B U B B L E D I F F U S E R S
S m a l l orifice diffusion u n i t s s u c h a s p o r o u s m e d i a , p l a t e s , o r t u b e s a r e
c o n s t r u c t e d o f silicon d i o x i d e ( S i 0 ) o r a l u m i n u m o x i d e ( A 1 0 ) g r a i n s , h e l d
2 2 3
in a p o r o u s m a s s w i t h a c e r a m i c b i n d e r . O t h e r u n i t s e m p l o y e d c o n s i s t o f
Saran, Dacron, or nylon-wrapped tubes.
Small bubbles, having a high surface a r e a per unit v o l u m e , p r o v i d e g o o d

o x y g e n - l i q u i d c o n t a c t , l e a d i n g t o relatively h i g h v a l u e s o f t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r
efficiency. D i a m e t e r o f t h e b u b b l e s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s e diffusers a r e 2 . 0 - 2 . 5
m m , t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency d e p e n d i n g o n b u b b l e size, (e's f r o m 5 t o
1 5 % a r e c o m m o n . ) S t a n d a r d p o r o u s diffuser u n i t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o deliver
4 - 1 5 S C F M of air per unit.
A d i s a d v a n t a g e of s m a l l orifice diffusion u n i t s is t h e h i g h m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s
in s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s o w i n g t o orifice c l o g g i n g . A i r filters a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d
t o c l e a n a n d e l i m i n a t e d u s t p a r t i c l e s t h a t m i g h t c l o g t h e diffusers. A s k e t c h o f
a fine b u b b l e a i r diffusion s y s t e m is s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 9 .
Porous ceramic diffuser units (tubes)
Fig. 4.9. Sketch of a fine bubble air diffusion system consisting of a series
of porous ceramic diffusers.
14.2. T Y P E 2. L A R G E B U B B L E D I F F U S E R S
T h e s e u n i t s e m p l o y l a r g e orifice o r h y d r a u l i c s h e a r devices. L a r g e b u b b l e
u n i t s h a v e l o w e r o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency t h a n fine b u b b l e u n i t s , since t h e
interfacial a r e a for o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is c o n s i d e r a b l y less. T h e y h a v e t h e a d v a n
tage, however, of n o t requiring air filters a n d o f g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r i n g less
m a i n t e n a n c e . S k e t c h e s o f t w o t y p i c a l l a r g e b u b b l e a i r diffuser u n i t s a r e s h o w n
in F i g . 4.10.
Air
Fig. 4.10. Sketches of typical large bubble diffuser units.
14.3. P E R F O R M A N C E O F A I R D I F F U S I O N U N I T S
P e r f o r m a n c e d a t a for a i r diffusion u n i t s a r e a v a i l a b l e a s g r a p h s f o r t h e l b
of 0 2 t r a n s f e r r e d / h r p e r a e r a t i o n u n i t v s . t h e a i r flow p e r u n i t . A s a m p l e o f
t y p i c a l d a t a f o r a S a r a n - w r a p p e d t u b e ( s m a l l b u b b l e ) is s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . 1 1 .
2 5 10 20
Air f l o w / u n i t ( S C F M )
Fig. 4.11. Oxygen-transfer data from Saran tubes in water [2]. {Reprinted
with permission, copyright by the University of Texas Press.)
Eckenfelder [ 1 ] r e c o m m e n d s the following empirical equation for corre

l a t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f a i r diffusion u n i t s , a n d t a b u l a t e s v a l u e s o f c h a r a c t e r
istic c o n s t a n t s f o r s e v e r a l t y p e s o f diffusers.
Ν = CG^- (H IW ){C -C )
n) m p
sw L χ 1.024 - > χ a (Γ 20
(4.22)
w h e r e Ν is t h e l b o f 0 2 transferred/(hr)(aeration unit); G s the air flow

( S C F M / a e r a t i o n u n i t ; S C F M are m e a s u r e d at 1 a t m a n d 6 0 ° F ) ; Η the liquid
d e p t h (ft); Wthe a e r a t i o n t a n k w i d t h (ft); C s w the saturation concentration
o f D O in w a s t e w a t e r ( m g / l i t e r , a t t a n k m i d - d e p t h ) ; C L the operating concen
tration of D O (mg/liter, usually 0.5-1.5 mg/liter); Τ the t e m p e r a t u r e (°C);
α t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient of t h e w a s t e w a t e r [ d e f i n e d b y E q . ( 4 . 2 0 ) ] ;
a n d C,n,m,p t h e constants characteristic of the aeration device.
F r o m Eq. (4.2),
N= K aV(C w-C )
L S L (4.23)
B y c o m p a r i n g E q s . (4.22) a n d (4.23) t h e r e s u l t is
K aV
L = CG< - \H IW )
1 n m p
χ 1.024 - ( Γ 2 0 )
χ α (ft /hr)
3
(4.24)
Term Ka L has units of h r - 1

a n d Κ is t h e v o l u m e o f t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k i n f t . 3
If (C sw —C) L is g i v e n in m g / l i t e r it is m u l t i p l i e d b y a c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r t o
e x p r e s s it i n l b / f t , s o t h a t Ν is o b t a i n e d i n l b / h r .
3
(Csw-C ) L = mg/liter χ g/1000 m g χ lb/454 g χ 28.3 liter/ft 3
(C w-C )
S L χ 6.23 χ I O " 5
= lb/ft 3
F a c t o r 6.23 χ 1 0 " 5
is c o n v e n i e n t l y i n c l u d e d in c o n s t a n t C in E q . (4.22), s o
t h a t (C SW — C ) e n t e r s t h e e q u a t i o n d i r e c t l y in m g / l i t e r , a n d Ν is o b t a i n e d in
L
lb/hr.
14.4. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R A T I O N
S Y S T E M S UTILIZING AIR D I F F U S I O N U N I T S
F u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d is a s f o l l o w s :
1. V o l u m e o f a e r a t i o n t a n k (V), c a l c u l a t e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 7)
2. O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb 0 / h r ) , a l s o c a l c u l a t e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l
2
r e a c t o r r e q u i r e m e n t s ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 7)
3. O p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
4. Operating D O ( C , mg/liter), usually 0.5-1.5 mg/liter except
L for
nitrification u n i t s , w h e n v a l u e s a b o v e 2 m g / l i t e r a r e e m p l o y e d
5. O x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient α
6. P e r f o r m a n c e d a t a for t h e a i r diffuser u n i t s [ a v a i l a b l e a s g r a p h s , see
F i g . 4 . 1 1 , o r e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of v a l u e s f o r c o n s t a n t s C, n, m, a n d ρ in E q .
(4.22)]
Step I. Select a t a n k d e p t h Η u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 10 a n d 15 ft.
Step 2. C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is t h e n A = VjH.
Step 3. F o r a e r a t i o n t a n k s w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , select a w i d t h
W o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice t h e t a n k d e p t h . T h i s is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o m a i n
t a i n a d e q u a t e m i x i n g . T h e n t a n k l e n g t h L = A\W. F o r a e r a t i o n t a n k s w i t h
circular cross section, calculate diameter from D = (4Α/π) . ί/2
Step 4. Select a i r flow r a t e G p e r a i r diffusion u n i t . U s u a l r a n g e for v a l u e s

s
o f G is 4 - 8 S C F M / u n i t a n d 4 - 1 6 S C F M / u n i t for fine a n d l a r g e b u b b l e
s
diffusers, respectively.
Step 5. V a l u e C [ u s e d in E q . ( 4 . 2 2 ) ] is c o m p u t e d a t t a n k m i d - d e p t h
s w
f r o m E q . (4.12) [ o r E q . ( 4 . 1 3 ) ] , i.e., C = C . s w s > m
Step 6. O x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y p e r a e r a t i o n u n i t \_N = lb 0 2 transferred/

( h r ) ( u n i t ) ] is e s t i m a t e d f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s d a t a (e.g., F i g . 4.11) o r c o m p u t e d
f r o m E q . (4.22).
Step 7. F r o m o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s (lb 0 / h r ) c a l c u l a t e d in C h a p t e r 5,
2
S e c t i o n 7 a n d v a l u e o f Ν c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 6, c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r o f a e r a t i o n
u n i t s r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s f e r r e q u i r e d a m o u n t of o x y g e n .
lb 0 / h r (required)
2
N o . of units =
Ν
Step 8. P r e p a r e a l a y o u t of t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e s p a c i n g
b e t w e e n t h e a e r a t i o n u n i t s . M i n i m u m s p a c i n g is a b o u t 6 in. a n d m a x i m u m
b e t w e e n 2 4 a n d 3 0 in. T h i s is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n s o l i d s i n s u s p e n
s i o n a n d t o m i n i m i z e c o a l e s c e n c e of a i r b u b b l e s . If s p a c i n g s c a l c u l a t e d fall
o u t s i d e t h i s r a n g e , d o u b l e r o w s o r a d j u s t m e n t in t h e n u m b e r o f u n i t s (selection
o f different a i r flow r a t e G ) a r e m a d e .
s
Step 9. C o m p u t e t o t a l a i r flow.
Total air flow = G x (no. units) s (SCFM)
Step 10. C o m p u t e r e q u i r e d h o r s e p o w e r o f t h e b l o w e r .
H P = [(pressure d r o p , psi) χ ( S C F M ) χ 144]/(33,000)(ε ) Μ
w h e r e 33,000 a n d 144 a r e t h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s for ( f t l b f / m i n ) / H P and

i n . / f t , respectively, a n d e
2 2
m is t h e m e c h a n i c a l efficiency ( e s t i m a t e d ) . U s u a l l y
a 6 - 1 0 psi p r e s s u r e d r o p is a d o p t e d f o r t h e b l o w e r .
Step 11. C o m p u t e o x y g e n a t i o n efficiency f r o m E q . (4.21), w h e r e t h e
n u m e r a t o r w a s c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 6 a n d t h e d e n o m i n a t o r o b t a i n e d from
v a l u e s of G selected in S t e p 4 (it e q u a l s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 . 2 % o f t h e w e i g h t
s
o f a i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o G ). T h e w e i g h t o f a i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o G is c a l c u l a t e d
s s
from the ideal gas equation. F r o m
PV = NRT = (weight/molecular weight) χ RT

then
Weight of air = (molecular weight) (PV)jR Τ
w h e r e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t = 29 l b / l b m o l e ( a v e r a g e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f a i r )
Ρ = 1 a t m , V= G S9 R = 0 . 7 3 ( a t m ) ( f t ) / ( l b m o l e ) ( ° R ) , a n d T=
3
520°R (60°F).
Therefore
Weight of air = (29 χ 1 χ G )/(0.73 χ 520) = 0.076G, lb/min

s
a n d [ E q . (4.25)]
Weight of 0 / m i n = 0.232 χ 0.076G, = 0.0176G,
2 (4.25)
15. T u r b i n e A e r a t i o n Units
15.1. D E S C R I P T I O N O F U N I T
A s k e t c h of a t y p i c a l t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n u n i t is s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 1 2 . T h e s e u n i t s
entrain a t m o s p h e r i c oxygen by surface aeration a n d disperse compressed air
by a shearing action employing a rotating turbine or agitator. Air bubbles
discharged from a pipe or sparger below the agitator are broken d o w n by the
shearing action of the high speed rotating blades of the agitator. F o r systems
of l o w o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e , o x y g e n is s u p p l i e d b y t h e flow of a i r self-
i n d u c e d f r o m a n e g a t i v e h e a d p r o d u c e d b y t h e r o t o r ( s u c t i o n effect). F o r
s y s t e m s o f h i g h e r o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e a b l o w e r o r c o m p r e s s o r is n e e d e d .
Rotor-î, ι ^-Liquid level
Bottom
Fig. 4.12. Turbine aeration unit.
15.2. P E R F O R M A N C E O F T U R B I N E A E R A T I O N
UNITS
M a i n v a r i a b l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e a i r flow, d i a m e t e r (D), a n d s p e e d o f
i m p e l l e r . T h e s e v a r i a b l e s d e t e r m i n e b u b b l e size a n d d e g r e e o f a g i t a t i o n i n
t h e t a n k , t h u s affecting t h e o v e r a l l o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r coefficient K a. L Perform
ance data for turbine aeration units are available from manufacturer's
information taking these variables into consideration. Eckenfelder [1]
r e c o m m e n d s t h e following empirical equation for correlating p e r f o r m a n c e
of turbine aeration u n i t s :
Ν = CG S D (C
s
n x y
sw - C ) 1.024 "
L
(r 2 0 )
a (4.26)
w h e r e Ν is t h e l b 0 2 t r a n s f e r r e d / ( h r ) ( a e r a t i o n u n i t ) ; G t h e a i r flow ( S C F M /
s
a e r a t i o n u n i t ) ; S t h e peripheral speed of t h e impeller (ft/sec); D t h e impeller

d i a m e t e r (ft, see F i g . 4 . 1 2 ) ; C s w the saturation D O concentration in waste
water (mg/liter); C L t h e o p e r a t i n g D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; a n d C , n, x, y
the constants characteristic of t h e aeration device.*
C o m p a r i n g E q s . (4.23) a n d (4.26) t h e r e s u l t is E q . (4.27).
K aV L = CG S Ds
n x y
χ 1.024 - ( Γ 2 0 )
α (ft /hr) 3
(4.27)
where term K a L h a s u n i t s o f h r " *, a n d V is t h e v o l u m e o f t h e a e r a t o r t a n k i n

f t . If (C —
3
sw C ) in E q . (4.26) is g i v e n i n m g / l i t e r , its v a l u e is m u l t i p l i e d b y
L
f a c t o r 6.23 χ 1 0 " t o o b t a i n Ν i n l b / h r , a s s h o w n i n S e c t i o n 1 4 . 3 .
5
15.3. POWER R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR T U R B I N E

AERATORS
P o w e r is r e q u i r e d f o r t w o p u r p o s e s : ( 1 ) o p e r a t i o n o f r o t o r ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g
h o r s e p o w e r is d e s i g n a t e d h e n c e a s HP ) r 9 a n d (2) o p e r a t i o n o f c o m p r e s s o r o r
* Typical values for n, JC, and y (depending o n impeller geometry) [ 4 ] : n, 0 . 4 - 0 . 9 ; x,

1.2-2.4; and y, 0 . 6 - 1 . 8 .
blower (corresponding horsepower is d e s i g n a t e d h e n c e a s HP ).C Power

d r a w n b y t h e r o t o r is c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p [ 4 ]
HP r = C'D S m p
(4.28)
C , m, a n d ρ a r e c o n s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e a e r a t i o n d ev i ce. A c t u a l d r a w n
h o r s e p o w e r d e c r e a s e s a s a i r flow is i n c r e a s e d u n d e r t h e i m p e l l e r d u e to
d e c r e a s e d d e n s i t y of t h e a e r a t e d m i x t u r e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , h o r s e p o w e r c a l c u
l a t e d f r o m E q . (4.28) is r e f e r r e d t o a s u n g a s s e d h o r s e p o w e r . E q u a t i o n (4.28)
is r e w r i t t e n a s
HP r = C"D n*m
(4.29)
w h e r e η is e x p r e s s e d i n r e v o l u t i o n s / s e c . S i n c e S is t h e p e r i p h e r a l s p e e d i n
ft/sec, η a n d S a r e r e l a t e d a s [ E q . ( 4 . 3 0 ) ]
η = S/πϋ = (ft/sec)/(ft/rev) = rev/sec (4.30)
w h e r e %D is t h e p e r i m e t e r of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e r o t a t i o n of
the impeller.
Typical values of exponents m a n d ρ are [4]
4.8 ^ m ^ 5.3
2.0 < ρ ^ 2.5
U n g a s s e d h o r s e p o w e r is c o r r e l a t e d t o a c t u a l h o r s e p o w e r . A c o r r e l a t i o n is
p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 4 . 1 3 . P o w e r d r a w n b y t h e c o m p r e s s o r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
HP C = (pressure d r o p , psi) χ ( S C F M ) χ 144/(33,000)(e ) m (4.31)
w h e r e s is t h e e s t i m a t e d t u r b i n e efficiency.
m
Legend
HP a : actual HP
HP : ungassed HP
r
[equations (4.28),(4.29)]
G s : air flow, S C F M
A R : area of circle described

by the rotation of the
impeller = ( I / 4 ) T T D
2
0 20 40 60 80 100
G /AS R
Fig. 4.13. Effect of air rate on turbine horsepower [4],
N e x t d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m u m p o w e r split b e t w e e n r o t o r a n d c o m p r e s s o r .
A c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency [ e x p r e s s e d a s ( l b 0 2 trans
f e r r e d ) / ^ χ h r ) ] a n d a f a c t o r P defined a s [ E q . ( 4 . 3 2 ) ]
d
Pd = HP IHP
r c (4.32)
h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y Q u i r k [ 6 ] , a n d its u t i l i z a t i o n is s u m m a r i z e d by
E c k e n f e l d e r [ 1 ] . P r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o w e r split b e t w e e n r o t o r a n d c o m p r e s s o r .
d
A t y p i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n c u r v e is s h o w n in F i g . 4.14.
Maximum
(Optimum split)
/ High air Low air \

/ rates rates \
Γ Ρ3 = ..Ο
P =HP /HP
d r c
Fig. 4.14. Correlation for power split for turbine aeration units.
T h e v a l u e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 4.14 as P * is t h e o p t i m u m p o w e r s p l i t c o r r e
d
s p o n d i n g t o t h e m a x i m u m o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency. I n m o s t c a s e s P* is
approximately unity, this implying a n equal p o w e r expenditure by the turbine
a n d t h e c o m p r e s s o r . A t e x t r e m e l y h i g h a i r r a t e s ( h i g h v a l u e s o f HP ) valuesC 9
of P a r e less t h a n 1.0, i.e., HP > HP a n d P < 1.0. U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,

d C r d
large a i r b u b b l e s a n d flooding o f t h e i m p e l l e r yield p o o r o x y g e n a t i o n efficien

cies. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a t v e r y l o w a i r r a t e s P > 1.0 a n d t o o m u c h t u r b i n e
d
h o r s e p o w e r is s p e n t in m i x i n g t h e l i q u o r .
S Y S T E M S UTILIZING T U R B I N E A E R A T I O N
UNITS
F o r f u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d see i t e m s 1-5 for a i r diffusion u n i t s
( S e c t i o n 14.4), t h e n o b t a i n p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a for t h e t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n u n i t s
a v a i l a b l e f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n f o r m a t i o n , o r e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f v a l u e s
for t h e c o n s t a n t s in E q . (4.26).
Step I. Select a t a n k d e p t h / / , u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 15 a n d 2 0 ft. I n s o m e c a s e s
d e e p e r liquid d e p t h s a r e e m p l o y e d .
Step 2. C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is t h e n A = V/H.
Step 3. Select a r a t i o r = D/T, w h e r e D is d i a m e t e r of t h e t u r b i n e a n d Τ
t h e " d i a m e t e r " o f t h e t a n k . F o r t a n k s o f c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , t h e m e a n i n g of
r a t i o D/T is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F o r t a n k s w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r o r s q u a r e c r o s s
s e c t i o n s , select a v a l u e for Τ b a s e d o n g e o m e t r y o f t h e s y s t e m . S e l e c t i o n o f Τ
f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r t a n k w i t h t w o t u r b i n e a e r a t o r s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 1 5
(T e q u a l s t h e d i a m e t e r o f influence o f t h e a e r a t i o n u n i t ) . T y p i c a l D/T r a t i o s
are 0.1-0.2.
ι ι
ι I
Fig. 4.15. Ratio r = D/T for a rectangular tank with two turbine aerators.
Step 4. Select a t a n k w i d t h Τ a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice t h e t a n k d e p t h . T h e r e

f o r e t u r b i n e d i a m e t e r is D = Τ χ r.
Step 5. F r o m F i g . 4 . 1 4 ( m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s d a t a ) d e t e r m i n e o p t i m u m p o w e r
split P *.
d
Step 6. Select a i r flow r a t e p e r u n i t G ( S C F M / a e r a t i o n u n i t ) . T y p i c a l

s
v a l u e s a r e b e t w e e n 2 0 0 a n d 1500 S C F M .
Step 7. V a l u e C [ t o b e u s e d i n E q . (4.26)] is c o m p u t e d a t t a n k m i d -
s w
d e p t h f r o m E q . (4.12) [ o r E q . ( 4 . 1 3 ) ] , i.e., C = C . s w s > m
Step 8. O x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y p e r a e r a t i o n u n i t [N = lb 0 transferred/
2
( h r ) ( u n i t ) ] is e s t i m a t e d f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s d a t a o r c o m p u t e d f r o m E q . (4.26).
Step 9. F r o m o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b 0 / h r ) c a l c u l a t e d in C h a p t e r 5,
2
S e c t i o n 7 a n d v a l u e o f Ν c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 8, c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r o f a e r a t i o n
units needed t o transfer required a m o u n t of oxygen.
N o . of units = lb 0 / h r ( r e q u i r e d ) / ^
2
T h e r e s h o u l d b e o n e t u r b i n e u n i t for e v e r y 9 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 f t . By v a r y i n g a i r r a t e
2
p e r u n i t G , o n e a d j u s t s c a l c u l a t i o n s s o t h a t s p a c i n g falls w i t h i n t h i s r a n g e .
s
Step 10. C o m p u t e t o t a l a i r flow.
Total air flow = G χ (no. of units)s (SCFM)
Step 11. C o m p u t e o p e r a t i n g c o m p r e s s o r h o r s e p o w e r f r o m E q . (4.31).

Step 12. D e t e r m i n e turbine horsepower from optimum power split
e s t a b l i s h e d in S t e p 5.
HP r = (P *)(HP )
d c
Step 13. C o m p u t e o x y g e n a t i o n efficiency f r o m E q . (4.21), w h e r e n u m e r

a t o r w a s o b t a i n e d in S t e p 8. C a l c u l a t e d e n o m i n a t o r f r o m E q . (4.25).
16. S u r f a c e A e r a t i o n U n i t s
16.1. D E S C R I P T I O N O F U N I T
S u r f a c e a e r a t i o n u n i t s a r e b a s e d solely o n e n t r a i n m e n t o f o x y g e n from
a t m o s p h e r i c air. U n l i k e a i r diffusion a n d t u r b i n e a e r a t o r s t h e r e is no s t r e a m
o f a i r i n v o l v e d in t h i s s y s t e m .
I m p r o v e d d e s i g n o f s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s h a s r e s u l t e d in i m p r o v e m e n t o f o x y g e n -
t r a n s f e r c a p a c i t y , a n d t h e i r u s e h a s i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y in t h e p a s t few y e a r s .
T h e y a r e w i d e l y u s e d in a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s a n d a e r a t e d l a g o o n s .
T h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n of s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s k e t c h i n
F i g . 4.16. L i q u i d is d r a w n f r o m u n d e r n e a t h t h e u n i t a n d s p r a y e d u p w a r d a n d
o u t w a r d by a propeller inside a vertical t u b e .
Fig. 4.16. Cross-sectional diagram of a surface aerator.
M o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s a r e fixed t o p i e r s m o u n t e d a c r o s s t h e
aerating tanks. Floating units are also available, the whole unit being sup
p o r t e d o n a r e i n f o r c e d fiberglass float filled w i t h p l a s t i c f o a m t o m a k e it
unsinkable.
O x y g e n t r a n s f e r in s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s o c c u r s a c c o r d i n g t o t w o m e c h a n i s m s :
(1) t r a n s f e r a t t h e t u r b u l e n t l i q u i d s u r f a c e , a n d (2) t r a n s f e r t o d r o p l e t s s p r a y e d
b y t h e b l a d e s of t h e u n i t .
16.2. C O R R E L A T I O N B E T W E E N T R A N S F E R
EFFICIENCY A N D LEVEL OF A G I T A T I O N
A c o r r e l a t i o n h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d [ 1 ] b e t w e e n t r a n s f e r efficiency [ e x p r e s s e d
a s lb o f Ο t r a n s f e r r e d / ( H P χ h r ) ] a n d level o f a g i t a t i o n o f t h e b a s i n (in
2
H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l b a s i n ) . T h e r e is a n a p p r o x i m a t e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
t h e s e t w o p a r a m e t e r s , a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e s t r a i g h t line in F i g . 4 . 1 7 , w h i c h is a
t y p i c a l e x a m p l e o f t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n for a specific s u r f a c e a e r a t o r u n i t . C o r r e
l a t i o n b e t w e e n d i a m e t e r o f influence a n d u n i t h o r s e p o w e r , w h i c h is a l s o p l o t t e d
in F i g . 4 . 1 7 , is d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . O r d i n a t e N 0 equals the lb of 0 2
transferred t o t a p water at s t a n d a r d conditions (20°C a n d 1 a t m , with initial

zero dissolved oxygen) per ( H P χ hr). A correction t o o b t a i n oxygen transfer
(TV) f o r a w a s t e w a t e r u n d e r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s is p r e s e n t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n
[Eq. (4.34)].
T h e l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 4 . 1 7 is e x p r e s s e d b y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
[1]
No = KP V + N s (4.33)
w h e r e N * is t h e t o t a l o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o t a p w a t e r u n d e r s t a n d a r d c o n
0
d i t i o n s p e r u n i t [ l b 0 / ( H P x h r ) ] ; P t h e H P p e r 1000 g a l o f b a s i n l i q u i d ;
2 v
Κ t h e c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e a e r a t i o n device (in F i g . 4.17 t h i s c o r r e

sponds to slope of the straight line); a n d N the oxygen transferred to t a p s
w a t e r a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s p e r u n i t h o r s e p o w e r χ h r a t z e r o t u r b u l e n c e (in
F i g . 4.17 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o o r d i n a t e o f t h e s t r a i g h t line a t t h e o r i g i n ) .
I n E q . (4.33), N c o r r e s p o n d s t o o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e d a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s
s
(N ) for c o n d i t i o n s o f z e r o t u r b u l e n c e (i.e., P = 0 ) . F o r a g i v e n a e r a t o r t h i s
0 v
• F o r the specific surface aerator unit corresponding to Fig. 4.17, this relationship is
# 0 = 3APV + 2.65
c o r r e s p o n d s t o its o p e r a t i o n in a b a s i n o f infinite v o l u m e . I n s u c h c a s e s , all

o x y g e n t r a n s f e r is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t h e s p r a y m e c h a n i s m a l o n e , since t u r
b u l e n c e is negligible.
P e r f o r m a n c e of surface a e r a t o r s is r e l a t e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s : (1) s u b
m e r g e n c e o f i m p e l l e r , a n d (2) d i a m e t e r a n d s p e e d o f r o t o r . V a l u e s f o r t r a n s f e r
efficiency [ l b 0 2 transferred/(HP χ h r ) ] are 2 - 4 for m o s t surface aerators,
a l t h o u g h v a l u e s a s h i g h a s 7 a r e r e p o r t e d . T r a n s f e r efficiency r e m a i n s e s s e n
tially c o n s t a n t a t a n o p t i m u m s u b m e r g e n c e r e g a r d l e s s o f size o f t h e u n i t .
F o r d e s i g n of s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s y s t e m s , s t a n d a r d t r a n s f e r efficiency N 0
o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g . 4 . 1 7 , for e x a m p l e , is c o r r e c t e d f o r a c t u a l w a s t e w a t e r
c o n d i t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s is d o n e b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
relationship [ 1 ] :
Ν = N 0
C s w C l
χ 1.024 - al (T 20)
(4.34)
9.2
w h e r e Ν is t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency u n d e r field c o n d i t i o n s [ l b 0 / 2
(HPxhr)]; t h e o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s [ t a p
w a t e r a t 2 0 ° C w i t h initial z e r o d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ;
lb 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) ] ; C
2 t h e s a t u r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in
s w
t h e w a s t e w a t e r ; C t h e o p e r a t i n g D O level in a e r a t i o n b a s i n ; Γ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
L
of t h e b a s i n ( ° C ) ; a n d α = K a (wastewater)/AT a ( t a p w a t e r ) .
L L
I n E q . (4.34), C — C is t h e a c t u a l d r i v i n g force for o x y g e n t r a n s f e r u n d e r

SW L
field c o n d i t i o n s . D r i v i n g force a t s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n i t i a l z e r o d i s
s o l v e d o x y g e n is 9 . 2 — 0 . 0 = 9.2, w h e r e 9.2 is t h e o x y g e n s a t u r a t i o n v a l u e a t
2 0 ° C in m g / l i t e r ( T a b l e 4.1). T h u s , in E q . (4.34) a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y b e t w e e n Ν
a n d N a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d r i v i n g forces is a s s u m e d .
0
S Y S T E M S UTILIZING S U R F A C E
AERATION UNITS
F o r f u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d see i t e m s 1-5 for a i r diffusion u n i t s
( S e c t i o n 14.4). O b t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for t h e a e r a t o r . T h i s i n c l u d e s (1) c o r r e
l a t i o n o f N o v s . H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l , a n d (2) c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n u n i t h o r s e p o w e r
a n d d i a m e t e r o f influence for s o l i d s in s u s p e n s i o n (ft).
F o r t h e specific d e s i g n i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 4 . 5 , t h e s e t w o c o r r e l a t i o n s
a r e p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 4 . 1 7 . D e p t h s o f a e r a t o r b a s i n s f o r s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s
a r e u s u a l l y l o w e r t h a n for diffusion o r t u r b i n e a e r a t i o n , r a n g i n g f r o m 8 t o
12 ft.
Step 1. T a k e E q . (4.34) a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e t e r m b e t w e e n b r a c k e t s for s u m
m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h is the controlling one. N o t e
that [ C ] S f r < [C ]
s u m m e r [ t h u s (C -C )
S f r w i n t e r SW L is l a r g e r for t h e w i n t e r
conditions] whereas T > T s u m m e r[thus 1 . 0 2 4
w i n t e r
( r
~ is l a r g e r f o r s u m m e r
2 0 )
c o n d i t i o n s ] . Let the results of this calculation be
Ν = K &ummcr χ N 0 (4.35)
N= tfwinter χ N0 (4.36)
w h e r e K's a r e v a l u e s o f t h e t e r m b e t w e e n b r a c k e t s in E q . (4.34). T h e lower Κ

c o r r e s p o n d s t o controlling condition (lower transfer of oxygen).
Step 2. S i n c e p o w e r level ( a b s c i s s a of F i g . 4.17) is n o t k n o w n , a t r i a l a n d
e r r o r s o l u t i o n is n e c e s s a r y f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of N 0 ( a n d N) b a s e d o n c o r r e
lation of N 0 v s . p o w e r level.
(1) A s s u m e a p o w e r level H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l .
(2) F r o m F i g . 4.17 r e a d N.
0
(3) C a l c u l a t e Ν f r o m E q . (4.35) [ o r E q . ( 4 . 3 6 ) ] , w h i c h e v e r is t h e c o n
trolling one.
(4) P o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d for a s s u m e d p o w e r level f r o m
0 required (lb 0 / h r )
2 2
Power requirements = — ^ ——— = HP
JV(lb0 /HPxhr) 2
where the oxygen requirement has been previously calculated from biological
reactor requirements (item 2 o n "Fundamental information required,"
S e c t i o n 14.4)
(5) Select H P p e r u n i t a n d c a l c u l a t e n u m b e r o f u n i t s .
(6) R e c a l c u l a t e p o w e r level.
Power level = H P [Step 2(4)]/volume of aeration basin
w h e r e v o l u m e o f t h e a e r a t i o n b a s i n is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s ( i t e m 1 o n " F u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d , " S e c t i o n 14.4).
E x p r e s s r e c a l c u l a t e d p o w e r level in t e r m s of H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l a n d c o m p a r e it
w i t h t h e v a l u e a s s u m e d in S t e p 2 ( 1 ) . If a g r e e m e n t is w i t h i n 5 % , c a l c u l a t i o n s
a r e s t o p p e d . O t h e r w i s e , i t e r a t e S t e p s 2(1)—(6) u n t i l a g r e e m e n t is o b t a i n e d .
Step 3. S p a c i n g b e t w e e n a g i t a t o r s is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 4.17. T h e p r o c e d u r e for t h e a e r a t o r b a s i n l a y o u t is i l l u s t r a t e d
in E x a m p l e 4 . 5 .
Example 4.5
S u r f a c e a e r a t o r s a r e specified for a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t t r e a t i n g a n
i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r . O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d v o l u m e of t h e b i o l o g i c a l
r e a c t o r a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 7
( E x a m p l e 5.7), y i e l d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s .
Oxygen requirements: 665 lb 0 / h r 2
Volume of reactor: 1,200,000 gal

T h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e .
Wastewater temperature ( s u m m e r ) : 30°C, C = 7.4 mg/liter sw
Wastewater temperature (winter): 18°C, C w = 10.3 mg/liter S
T a k e t h e o p e r a t i n g D O level a t t h e b a s i n a s C L = 1.0 m g / l i t e r , a n d α = 0.72.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e surface a e r a t o r selected a r e given b y F i g . 4 . 1 7 . D e s i g n
t h e a e r a t i o n s y s t e m for t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n .
SOLUTION
Step 1. U t i l i z e E q . (4.34).
S u m m e r : t = 30°C, C sw = 7.4 mg/liter
W i n t e r : / = 18°C, C sw = 10.3 mg/liter
T h u s for s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s
a n d for w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s
T h e r e f o r e , s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r o l d e s i g n (lower o x y g e n - t r a n s f e r efficiency).
Step 2.
(1) A s s u m e a p o w e r level, e.g., 0.25 H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l .
(2) F r o m F i g . 4.17 r e a d N = 3.5 l b 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) .
0 2
(3) T h e n Ν = 0 . 6 3 5 ; N = 0.635 χ 3.5 = 2.22 l b 0 / ( Η Ρ χ h r ) .

0 2
(4) P o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e n c a l c u l a t e d .
Oxygen requirement: 665 lb 0 / h r 2
Power requirements: 665 lb 0 / h r χ ( H P χ hr)/ 2.22 lb 0

2 2 = 299.5 H P
(5) Select six u n i t s of 50 H P e a c h ( t o t a l H P = 6 χ 50 = 3 0 0 H P ) .

(6) P o w e r level is t h e n
300 HP/1200 t h o u s a n d s of gal = 0.25 HP/1000 gal
w h i c h a g r e e s w i t h a s s u m e d v a l u e . T h u s d e s i g n is s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Step 3. D i a m e t e r o f influence f o r 50 H P u n i t s (see F i g . 4.17) is 6 0 ft ( o r
r a d i u s of influence o f 3 0 ft). S p a c i n g d i s t a n c e o f 56 ft is selected t o p r o v i d e a
m i n i m u m o v e r l a p . A r r a n g e a e r a t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o l a y o u t in F i g . 4 . 1 8 .
C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e b a s i n is 168 χ 112 = 18,816 f t , a n d its v o l u m e
2
in f t is
3
1,200,000 gal χ ft /7.48 gal = 161,000 ft

3 3
T h e r e f o r e d e p t h is
161,000/18,816 = 8.6 ft
U 1|2'-0"
K28'-o~—56'-0"—~28'-ο'^
" T "
28'-0"
- Φ <£"
56'-0"
lee'-o" -Φ
56'-0"
-4>-
1
Ο Aerators
F/flr. 4.18. Layout of aerator tank (Example 4.5).
Several selections of a e r a t o r units are possible for a given application,

leading to various layouts. Engineering j u d g m e n t and economic considera
t i o n s d e t e r m i n e final s e l e c t i o n o f a e r a t o r u n i t s a n d t h e i r l a y o u t .
Problems
I. T h e following results are obtained in an unsteady state aeration test utilizing a 5 - H P
surface aerator. C = 9.2 p p m (measured at 2 0 ° C ; Ρ = 27 in H g ) . Aerator is a 100,000-gal
5
circular test tank.
T i m e (min) C L (ppm)
0 0
12 2.6
24 4.5
36 5.8
48 6.7
60 7.4
Calculate
1. Chemical requirements (lb N a S 0 / l b liquor) for deoxygenation o f test water with
2 3
8 p p m of D O
2. Value o f ^ ( h r " ) 1
3. If aeration tank has a capacity o f 100,000 gal, calculate the lb/hr o f oxygen transferred
at standard conditions
Problems 155
4. If a e r a t o r h a s a n o m i n a l H P of 5, r e p o r t a e r a t o r efficiency [lb 0 / ( h r ) ( H P ) ] in t e r m s
2
of n a m e p l a t e H P a n d b l a d e H P .
T h e following i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e for t h e a e r a t o r :
D r a w n v o l t a g e : 220 V (average)
A m p e r a g e : 13.5 A (average)
c o s P F ( m e a s u r e d ) : 0.8
M o t o r efficiency ( e s t i m a t e d ) : 8 5 %
G e a r efficiency ( e s t i m a t e d ) : 8 5 %
II. U n s t e a d y s t a t e a e r a t i o n d a t a is o b t a i n e d in a diffused a e r a t o r system for w a t e r at 6.5°C
a n d a w a s t e w a t e r at 0 ° C , a n d is t a b u l a t e d b e l o w . C a l c u l a t e coefficient α (at 2 0 ° C ) .
T A B L E 1a
Water at 6.5°C, C = 12.3 mg/liter
s
Time (min) CL (mg/liter)
3 0.6
6 1.6
9 3.1
12 4.3
15 5.4
18 6.0
21 7.0
T A B L E 1b
Wastewater at 0°C, C = 14.3 mg/liter s
Time (min) C L (mg/liter)
3 0.9
6 1.7
9 2.5
12 3.2
15 3.9
18 4.6
21 5.2
III. A t u b i n e a e r a t o r in a n a e r a t i o n t a n k 30 χ 50 χ 15 ft transfers oxygen a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

relationship
K aV = 2 5 G ° - S - / ) -
L S
4 5 1 5
(ft /hr)
1 8 3
w h e r e K a is in l i t e r / h r ; V is t h e t a n k v o l u m e ( f t ) ; G the air flow ( S C F M ) ; S t h e p e r i

L
3
s
p h e r a l speed of impeller (ft/sec); a n d D t h e impeller d i a m e t e r (ft). P o w e r d r a w n by t h e

t u r b i n e is defined by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
HP r = 0.02D 5 2 5
/? 2 7 5
w h e r e D is t h e impeller d i a m e t e r (ft) a n d η t h e r e v o l u t i o n s / s e c of r o t o r . F o r c a l c u l a t i o n of
c o m p r e s s o r h o r s e p o w e r , t a k e a p r e s s u r e d r o p of 5.55 psi a n d a n efficiency ε„, = 0.65 ( 6 5 % ) .
1. C o m p u t e K a(hr~ ).
L
l
Turbine is 4 0 in. in diameter, rotating at 15 ft/sec peripheral
speed, with an air flow o f 300 S C F M .
2. Calculate 0 transfer (lb/hr) under standard conditions. Saturation solubility of oxygen
2
in the sewage liquid at 20°C is 8.45 p p m .

3. Calculate turbine horsepower corrected from Fig. 4.13.
4. Calculate blower horsepower.
5. Calculate transfer efficiency in terms of lb of 0 transferred per H P χ hr.
2
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w York, 1970.
2. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., in "Advances in Water Quality I m p r o v e m e n t "
(E. F. G l o y n a and W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr., eds.), p. 226. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin,
1968.
3. Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
4. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and O'Connor, D . J., "Biological Waste Treatment." Pergamon,
Oxford, 1961.
5. Oldshue, J., "Biological Treatment o f Sewage and Industrial Wastes." Van N o s t r a n d -
Reinhold, Princeton, N e w Jersey, 1956.
6. Quirk, T. P., unpublished report, 1962 (mentioned in Eckenfelder [1]).
7. "Standard M e t h o d s for the Examination o f Water and Wastewater," 13th ed. A m .
Public Health A s s o c . , Yearbook Publ., Chicago, Illinois, 1971.
5
Secondary Treatment:
The Activated
Sludge Process
1. Introduction 158
2. Mathematical Modeling of Activated Sludge Process 163
3. Kinetics Relationships 164
3.2. Formulation of the Continuous Reactor 166
4. Material Balance Relationships 169
4.1. Design Parameters Corresponding to Net Yield of M L V S S and
Oxygen Requirements for Aerobic Biological Degradation of
Wastes 169
4.2. Material Balance for Determination of Oxygen Utilization . . . 179
4.3. Material Balance for Determination of Net Yield of Biological
Sludge ( M L V S S ) 181
4.4. Total Sludge Yield 183
4.5. Material Balances for XNVt0and X Vt0 184
4.6. Typical Values of Aerobic Biological Wastewater Treatment
Parameters for Different Types of Wastewaters 185
5. Relationship for Optimum Settling Conditions of Sludge 185
6. Experimental Determination of Parameters Needed for Design of
Aerobic Biological Reactors 189
6.1. Bench Scale Continuous Reactors 189
6.2. Experimental Procedure 191
6.3. Calculation of Design Parameters 193
6.4. Numerical Examples: Determination of Design Parameters for
an Activated Sludge System 198
7. Design Procedure for an Activated Sludge Plant 205
7.2. Material Balance for Determination of Recycle Ratio of
MLVSS 206
7.3. Material Balance for Calculation of S 0 207
7.4. Alternative Expressions for Net Yield of Biological Sludge and
Oxygen Utilization in the Aerator 208
7.5. Calculation of Residence Time in Reactor 208
7.6. Equations for Sludge Recycle Ratio r in Cases When Effluent
Quality and Organic Loading Control Residence Time 209
7.7. Neutralization Requirements 210
7.8. Nutrient Requirements 211
7.9. Design Procedure for Activated Sludge Plants 212
7.10. Numerical Example: Design of an Activated Sludge Plant. . . 213
157
158 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated Sludge Process
8. The Michaelis-Menten Relationship 219

8.1. Derivation of M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n Relationship 219
8.2. Corollaries of Michaelis-Menten Relationship 221
8.3. Significance of M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n Constant K s 223
8.4. Determination of V : The Lineweaver-Burk Plot
MAX 223
8.5. M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n Relationship W h e n Nonbiodegradable
Matter Is Present in the System 224
8.6. Michaelis-Menten Relationship in Terms of Specific G r o w t h
Rate of Sludge 225
9. The Concept of Sludge A g e 226
10. Kinetics of Continuous Treatment S y s t e m s : Plug Flow, Complete
M i x , and Arbitrary Flow Reactors 230
Problems 234
References 235
T h e h e a d i n g s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t e n c o m p a s s e s all b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t
processes of wastewaters, b o t h aerobic a n d anaerobic. In this c h a p t e r the
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is s t u d i e d in d e t a i l , a n d t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s
d e v e l o p e d a r e a p p l i c a b l e , w i t h m i n o r c h a n g e s , t o all a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s
d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 6.
T h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s h a s b e e n utilized for t r e a t m e n t o f b o t h
d o m e s t i c a n d i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s for a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a c e n t u r y . D e s i g n
of activated sludge plants was carried o u t to a large extent in a n empirical
m a n n e r . I t w a s o n l y after t h e e a r l y 1960's t h a t a m o r e r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o
the design of activated sludge systems was developed. This process originated
from the observation m a d e a long time ago that whenever wastewater, either
d o m e s t i c o r i n d u s t r i a l , is a e r a t e d for a p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e c o n t e n t o f o r g a n i c
m a t t e r is r e d u c e d , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a flocculent s l u d g e is f o r m e d .
M i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s s l u d g e r e v e a l s t h a t it is f o r m e d b y a
h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , w h i c h c h a n g e s c o n t i n u a l l y in
n a t u r e in r e s p o n s e t o v a r i a t i o n in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e w a s t e w a t e r a n d
environmental conditions. Microorganisms present are unicellular bacteria,
f u n g i , a l g a e , p r o t o z o a , a n d rotifers. O f t h e s e , b a c t e r i a a r e p o s s i b l y t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t , b e i n g f o u n d in all t y p e s o f b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s .
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r is t o d i s c u s s t h e d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e
activated sludge process a n d to apply t h e m to design of t r e a t m e n t plants. This
involves development of f u n d a m e n t a l design information from l a b o r a t o r y
scale r e a c t o r s . T h e a p p r o a c h u t i l i z e d is b a s e d m a i n l y o n t h e w o r k of E c k e n
felder a n d a s s o c i a t e s .
The activated sludge process has been developed as a c o n t i n u o u s operation
b y r e c y c l i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e . A flow d i a g r a m o f t h i s c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s
1. Introduction 159
Air
,01 Reactor
® ©
! Fresh | Combined Reactor Net
(Aerator)
feed ! feed effluent Secondary ! effluent
S e
clarifier Q'
X
v,a
S
F X
NV,a s X
NV,o
S e
X
V,F V
ία^β^Ν / / / / /
^
X
NV,F|
X
v,o NV,a Clarifi γ
Qu
X
NV,o underflow
Θ j© Xw.,
©
Recycled sludge Ί Wastage
NV,u j Q"
Or Recycle ΔΧ ν
S. and wastage ΔΧ Ν ν
pump ΔΧ,
S e
X ..u
Fig. 5.1. Conventional activated sludge process, (See Table 5.1 for a
definition of symbols.)
is s h o w n in F i g . 5 . 1 . A l l i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s a r e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 5.1
a n d defined in T a b l e 5 . 1 . T h e s e s h o u l d b e carefully e x a m i n e d b y t h e r e a d e r .
I n F i g . 5 . 1 , c o m p o s i t i o n s o f t h e different s t r e a m s ( n u m b e r e d 1-7) are
characterized by three types of concentrations:
1. Concentration of soluble BOD. D e n o t e d b y t h e s y m b o l S where i9
s u b s c r i p t i refers t o t h e specific s t r e a m u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a s i n d i c a t e d in
T a b l e 5 . 1 . S o l u b l e B O D c o m p r i s e s m a i n l y c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l s in s o l u t i o n .
2. Concentrations of volatile suspended solids (VSS). T h e s e a r e d e n o t e d
by s y m b o l X Vii9 w h e r e s u b s c r i p t ν s t a n d s for v o l a t i l e , a n d s u b s c r i p t / refers t o
t h e specific s t r e a m in q u e s t i o n ( T a b l e 5.1). V S S c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l
sludge, constituted by the heterogeneous p o p u l a t i o n of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f V S S is p e r f o r m e d b y m e a s u r i n g t h e loss o f
w e i g h t o f t o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( T S S ) , after i n c i n e r a t i o n in a l a b o r a t o r y o v e n
a t 6 0 0 ° C . T h i s loss of w e i g h t c o r r e s p o n d s m a i n l y t o v o l a t i l i z a t i o n o f b i o
logical s l u d g e . R e m a i n i n g solids after i n c i n e r a t i o n a t 6 0 0 ° C a r e r e f e r r e d t o
a s n o n v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s . T h e i r n a t u r e is d i s t i n c t f r o m t h o s e in t h e
biological sludge, being constituted of nonliving m a t t e r of b o t h inorganic a n d
organic nature.
3. Concentrations of nonvolatile suspended solids (NVSS). These are
denoted by symbol X , NVfi w h e r e NV s t a n d s for n o n v o l a t i l e , a n d / refers t o
t h e specific s t r e a m in q u e s t i o n .
Therefore
TSS = VSS + N V S S
Total suspended solids = Volatile suspended solids + Nonvolatile suspended solids

T A B L E 5.1
Definition of Symbols Used in Fig. 5.1
Key
For suspended solids double subscripts are utilized, e.g., X , X v,i> Vt t N
The first subscript (v or NV) designates volatile and nonvolatile suspended solids,
respectively. The second subscript (/) refers to the specific stream in question:
F, fresh feed [stream 1]
0, combined feed [stream 2 ]
a, reactor effluent [stream 3]
e, net effluent [stream 4 ]
u, underflow from secondary clarifier [stream 5]
Symbols
1. F l o w rates
Q , fresh feed; M G D (million gallons per day) [stream 1]
F
Q , recycle; M G D [stream 7]
R
r, recycle ratio; dimensionless (r = Q IQ ) R F
Q, combined feed; M G D ; Q = Q + Q = Q (l +/-) [stream 2 ] F R F
( M G D of combined feed = M G D o f reactor effluent, i.e., β [stream 2] = β

[stream 3])
β ' , net effluent; M G D [stream 4 ]
Q\ wastage; M G D [stream 6 ] ( N o t i c e that Q = β ' + β " ) F
β „ , clarifier underflow; M G D ; β „ = β " + β * = Q" + rQ [stream 5] F
2. Concentrations (mg/liter) o f soluble B O D

S soluble B O D o f fresh feed
Fi
S , soluble B O D o f combined feed

0
S soluble B O D o f effluent
ei
3. Concentrations (mg/liter) o f volatile suspended solids (VSS)

A V . F , VSS in fresh feed
XV TVSS in combined feed
0 9
Xv.a, V S S in reactor. This also is equal to concentration o f VSS in reactor effluent

X , , VSS in secondary clarifier underflow
v u
XVttt V S S in net effluent (take X , » 0) v e
4. Concentrations (mg/liter) o f nonvolatile suspended solids ( N V S S )

XHV.F, N V S S in fresh feed
XNV,o, N V S S in combined feed
Xsv.a, N V S S in reactor (X . = XNV.o)- This also equals concentration o f N V S S
NV a
in reactor effluent
XNV.u, N V S S in secondary clarifier underflow
XNV.O N V S S in net effluent
5. Wastage (lb/day)
AX , V net yield o f M L V S S in reactor (wastage o f M L V S S )
AX , wastage of N V S S
NV
AX , total sludge yield: AX = AX +AX

t t V NV + QX,
F V F
6. Reactor v o l u m e
K, reactor volume, M G (million gallons)
1. Introduction 161
A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e flowsheet i n F i g . 5.1 f o l l o w s , w i t h e m p h a s i s o n c o n c e n
t r a t i o n s o f (1) s o l u b l e B O D , (2) v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a n d (3) n o n v o l a t i l e
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s for t h e different s t r e a m s .
1. Soluble BOD. F r e s h feed, i.e., t h e w a s t e w a t e r t o b e t r e a t e d [ s t r e a m 1 ] ,
e n t e r s t h e p r o c e s s w i t h a v a l u e of s o l u b l e B O D d e n o t e d a s S . P u r p o s e o f t h e
F
t r e a t m e n t is t o r e d u c e t h i s v a l u e t o S (effluent B O D i n s t r e a m 4) b y o x i d a t i o n
e
t h r o u g h aerobic biological d e g r a d a t i o n of organic m a t t e r in the wastewater.

In the conventional activated sludge process, a reduction of soluble B O D
t o 5 - 1 0 % o f its v a l u e in t h e fresh feed is u s u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d , i.e., S = 5 - 1 0 %e
o f S . T h i s m e a n s a s o l u b l e B O D r e m o v a l efficiency o f 9 0 - 9 5 % .
F
F r e s h feed is c o m b i n e d w i t h r e c y c l e d s l u d g e [ s t r e a m 7 ] a n d e n t e r s t h e
a e r a t o r ( c o m b i n e d feed, s t r e a m 2). B i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e is c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r m e d
in t h e a e r a t o r . I t is u s u a l l y d e s i r a b l e t o o p e r a t e t h e r e a c t o r a t s t e a d y s t a t e a n d
u n d e r complete mixing conditions. These t w o a s s u m p t i o n s are m a d e in m o s t
mathematical models hence. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of soluble B O D in the reactor
l i q u o r is d e n o t e d a s S . U n d e r s t e a d y s t a t e a n d c o m p l e t e m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s
e
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D in r e a c t o r effluent [ s t r e a m 3 ] a l s o e q u a l s S . e
R e a c t o r effluent e n t e r s t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5 . 1 .
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D is t h e s a m e i n clarifier u n d e r f l o w [ s t r e a m 5 ]
a n d n e t effluent [ s t r e a m 4 ] , i.e., S . Clarifier u n d e r f l o w is split i n t o t w o
e
s t r e a m s : wastage [stream 6] a n d recycled sludge [ s t r e a m 7 ] . F o r b o t h these

streams, the concentration of soluble B O D has the same value, S . The
e
recycled s l u d g e s t r e a m is t h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h fresh feed t o f o r m t h e c o m b i n e d

feed. C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D in c o m b i n e d feed, d e s i g n a t e d a s S is 09
c a l c u l a t e d b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t o f s t r e a m s 1, 2, a n d 7.
T h i s b a l a n c e is w r i t t e n in S e c t i o n 7.3.
2. Volatile suspended solids (VSS). A t steady state, concentration of
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e in t h e r e a c t o r is k e p t c o n s t a n t a t all t i m e s . I n t h e c o n v e n
tional activated sludge process this concentration, designated as X va9 where
t h e s e c o n d s u b s c r i p t a refers t o t h e a e r a t o r , is u s u a l l y selected b e t w e e n 2 0 0 0
a n d 3 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . S i n c e c o m p l e t e m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e p o s t u l a t e d t o exist i n
t h e r e a c t o r , v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d solids in it a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s M L V S S ( m i x e d
l i q u o r v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d solids). S i m i l a r l y , n o n v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s in
the reactor, being also completely mixed, are referred t o as M L N V S S (mixed
l i q u o r n o n v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d solids). T o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s i n t h e r e a c t o r
are designated as M L T S S (mixed liquor total s u s p e n d e d solids).
Therefore
MLTSS = MLVSS + MLNVSS
Mixed liquor total suspended solids = mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
+ mixed liquor nonvolatile suspended solids

162 5. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: The Activated S l u d g e P r o c e s s
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n fresh feed ( X , F ) * negligible in m a n y c a s e s , since

V
s
n o a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of a e r a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e a t t h i s s t a g e . V S S is p r o
d u c e d c o n t i n u o u s l y in t h e a e r a t o r , o w i n g t o s y n t h e s i s o f b i o l o g i c a l m a t t e r ,
a n d w i t h d r a w n c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h r e a c t o r effluent.
I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e r e a c t o r ,
m o s t o f t h e clarifier u n d e r f l o w is r e c y c l e d b a c k . R e c y c l e r a t i o r is c a l c u l a t e d
b y m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e ( S e c t i o n 7.2) in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t selected
concentration X Vta o f M L V S S w i t h i n t h e r e a c t o r a t all t i m e s . O w i n g t o
s y n t h e s i s o f b i o l o g i c a l m a t t e r t h e r e is a net yield o f M L V S S in t h e r e a c t o r
(AX ,V lb/day). Therefore t o m a i n t a i n constant concentration of M L V S S in
t h e r e a c t o r a t all t i m e s , it is n e c e s s a r y t o r e m o v e f r o m t h e s y s t e m a m a s s o f
M L V S S ( l b / d a y ) e q u a l t o t h i s n e t yield AX . T h i s is d o n e b y w a s t a g e o f s l u d g e
V
[ s t r e a m 6 ] . A l t h o u g h c o n t i n u o u s w a s t a g e is i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 5 . 1 , i n p r a c t i c e
it is u s u a l l y a n i n t e r m i t t e n t o p e r a t i o n . I t is s i m p l e r t o w r i t e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s
for a s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n ; t h u s c o n t i n u o u s w a s t a g e is a s s u m e d i n t h e
r e m a i n d e r of this chapter. Intermittent wastage implies the a s s u m p t i o n of
u n s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n . Since t h e w a s t a g e s t r e a m is u s u a l l y s m a l l b y c o m
p a r i s o n w i t h t h e recycle, a s s u m p t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s w a s t a g e d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e ,
in g e n e r a l , a n a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r in t h e o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e . C o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r effluent [ s t r e a m 3 ] is a l s o X , since complete mixing
v$a
a n d steady state conditions are assumed.

R e a c t o r effluent flows i n t o t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. U n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e
l a t t e r [ s t r e a m 5 ] is a s l u r r y c o n t a i n i n g a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S d e s i g n a t e d a s
X ,u (Xv,u > X ,a)> T h e v a l u e o f X
v v VtU is selected b y t h e d e s i g n e r , w i t h clarifier
b e i n g sized t o yield t h i s specified v a l u e . U s u a l l y X is selected b e t w e e n 10,000
VtU
a n d 15,000 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f V S S in w a s t a g e a n d r e
cycled s l u d g e a r e a l s o e q u a l t o X . VtU I n t h e n e t effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y
clarifier, c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S (X ) Vt6 is n e g l e c t e d in d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a t e r i a l
b a l a n c e s in t h i s c h a p t e r . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t c o m p l e t e s e p a r a t i o n o f V S S is
a s s u m e d t o t a k e p l a c e in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier (i.e., X « 0). T h i s is u s u a l l y
VfC
a g o o d a s s u m p t i o n . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in c o m b i n e d feed, X , is c a l
Vt0
c u l a t e d b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e a t t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t o f s t r e a m s 1, 2, a n d 7. T h i s
b a l a n c e is w r i t t e n in S e c t i o n 4 . 5 .
3. Nonvolatile suspended solids (NVSS). C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L N V S S in
t h e a e r a t o r is d e n o t e d a s X a n d is e q u a l t o t h o s e in b o t h c o m b i n e d feed
NVta
a n d r e a c t o r effluent. T h i s is s o b e c a u s e c o m p l e t e m i x i n g is a s s u m e d a n d t h e r e
is n o p r o d u c t i o n o f N V S S i n t h e a e r a t o r ( u n l i k e t h e n e t yield o f V S S ) .
Thus
XNV,c =
XNV,o
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S in fresh feed is d e s i g n a t e d a s X NVtF a n d t h a t in t h e

recycled sludge as X , NV U ( s a m e a s in u n d e r f l o w f r o m s e c o n d a r y clarifier). I n
2. Mathematical Modeling of Activated Sludge Process 163
t h e c o m b i n e d feed t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n is d e n o t e d a s X N V T 0 a n d is c a l c u l a t e d b y
a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e w h i c h is w r i t t e n i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 .
S o m e o f t h e N V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r effluent is a l s o s e p a r a t e d b y s e d i m e n t a t i o n
in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S i n clarifier u n d e r f l o w is
denoted as X N V T U a n d t h a t i n n e t effluent a s X N V > E .
In wasted sludge, besides the A X V l b / d a y o f V S S t h e r e is a l s o s o m e n o n

volatile sludge ( A X N V lb/day) resulting from partial sedimentation of N V S S
in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is t h e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e i n t r o d u c e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h t h e fresh feed ( Q F X V , F ) - Frequently, term Q F X V , F * S
negligible since X V F is u s u a l l y v e r y s m a l l . T o t a l s l u d g e w a s t e d , A X T lb/day,

is[Eq.(5.1)]
AX T = AX V + A X N V + QF XV, F (5.1)
Respective concentrations of VSS, N V S S , a n d soluble B O D are the s a m e for

clarifier underflow, wastage stream, and recycle s l u d g e , b e i n g denoted,
respectively, as X V T U , X N V T U , and S E .
In s u m m a r y , c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of VSS, N V S S , a n d soluble B O D in c o m b i n e d
feed ( X V > 0 , X N V > 0 , and S 0 , respectively) are o b t a i n e d by material balances
a r o u n d t h e j u n c t i o n p o i n t o f fresh feed a n d r e c y c l e d s l u d g e s t r e a m s . T h e s e
m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s a r e w r i t t e n in S e c t i o n s 4 . 5 a n d 7 . 3 .
F r o m a n o v e r a l l b a l a n c e for t h e w a s t e w a t e r [ E q . ( 5 . 2 ) ] ,
QF = ΰ + β" (5.2)
W a s t e w a t e r flows a r e u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in m i l l i o n s o f g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( M G D ) .
R e c y c l e r a t i o r is defined a s
r = QR/QF = recycle wastewater, M G D / f r e s h wastewater, M G D (5.3)
Λ QR = rQ F (5.4)
S i n c e c o m b i n e d feed Q is e q u a l t o fresh feed plus recycle,
Q = QF + Q R = Q (\+r) F (5.5)
H e n c e , t h e d e n s i t y o f all l i q u o r s t r e a m s in F i g . 5.1 is a s s u m e d e q u a l t o t h a t
o f w a t e r a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e (8.34 l b / g a l ) . * T h i s is a g o o d a p p r o x i m a t i o n
since r e l a t i v e l y d i l u t e a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n s a r e i n v o l v e d .
2. M a t h e m a t i c a l M o d e l i n g of
Activated Sludge Process
I t is d e s i r a b l e t o p o r t r a y t h i s p r o c e s s b y a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l a n d t h e n t o
d e t e r m i n e p a r a m e t e r s utilized in m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l
d a t a o b t a i n e d u t i l i z i n g a series o f b e n c h s c a l e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r s . R e l a t i o n
s h i p s w h i c h a r e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l fall
* T h i s value is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10.0 lb/gal w h e n imperial gallons a r e utilized.

i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s : (1) k i n e t i c s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; (2) m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n
s h i p s — m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n a n d o f n e t
yield o f M L V S S ; a n d (3) r e l a t i o n s h i p for o p t i m u m s e t t l i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f
sludge.
3. Kinetics R e l a t i o n s h i p s
3.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
S t u d y o f k i n e t i c s o f a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t yields t h e r a t e a t w h i c h
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s d e g r a d e a specific w a s t e , a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c
i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d for sizing b i o l o g i c a l a e r o b i c r e a c t o r s . T h i s s t u d y is
c o n v e n i e n t l y p e r f o r m e d in a l a b o r a t o r y scale b a t c h r e a c t o r . F i g u r e 5.2 s h o w s
Fig. 5.2. Batch reactor.
a d i a g r a m of four units operating in parallel, each with a capacity of approxi

m a t e l y 2.0 liters [ 3 ] . R e a c t o r s a r e b u i l t o f p l e x i g l a s s . W a s t e w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g
a seed o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s * is i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e r e a c t o r s , a n d c o m p r e s s e d
a i r is b l o w n i n t o t h e s y s t e m . T h e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( M L V S S ) is k e p t in a s t a t e
of complete mixing d u e to agitation provided by air blown into the system.
* Seed is either a m a s s o f biological sludge taken from an operating activated sludge

plant, or settled sewage.
B O D o f w a s t e w a t e r ( o r C O D , T O D , T O C ) is d e t e r m i n e d a t selected t i m e
i n t e r v a l s b y w i t h d r a w i n g s a m p l e s for t h e a n a l y s i s . T h e m a s s o f a c c u m u l a t e d
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( M L V S S ) is a l s o d e t e r m i n e d a t t h e s e s a m e t i m e i n t e r v a l s b y
m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in w i t h d r a w n s a m p l e s a n d r e a d i n g
t h e v o l u m e o f l i q u o r in t h e r e a c t o r a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e v o l u m e scale. T y p i c a l
c u r v e s for d e c r e a s e o f B O D a n d v a r i a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f M L V S S w i t h t i m e
a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 5.3.
Fig. 5.3. Typical BOD and ML VSS curves for a batch reactor.
B O D o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r , w h i c h is a m e a s u r e o f o r g a n i c b i o d e g r a d a b l e
m a t t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e a s t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r is o x i d i z e d .
A p l a t e a u is e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a m o u n t o f n o n b i o
d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r (S ).
n
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S i n c r e a s e s a t first ( f r o m t i m e 0 t o t i m e i ) d u r i n g
x
t h e p e r i o d w h e n a s u b s t a n t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e (relativley h i g h B O D )
is p r e s e n t t o p r o v i d e a b u n d a n t f o o d t o s u s t a i n g r o w t h o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
T h i s g r o w t h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s y n t h e s i s o f n e w m i c r o o r g a n i s m cells,
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5.3 a s " s y n t h e s i s p h a s e . " A f t e r t i m e t w h e n s u b s t r a t e c o n
x
c e n t r a t i o n is c o n s i d e r a b l y d e p l e t e d , t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h f o o d left t o s u s t a i n
g r o w t h of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . A t this time, m i c r o o r g a n i s m s start c o n s u m i n g
their "fellow m i c r o o r g a n i s m s " as food. A s this "cannibalistic feast" proceeds,
concentration of M L V S S d r o p s w h e n the rate of destruction of micro
o r g a n i s m cells e x c e e d s t h a t o f s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cells. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
"endogenous respiration phase." T h e m a x i m u m on the M L V S S curve corre
sponds to time t l9 w h e n t h e s e t w o r a t e s a r e e x a c t l y e q u a l . D i s t a n c e AX
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e net r e d u c t i o n o f M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m t t o r -
x 2
T h e r e a r e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n o p e r a t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s
( F i g . 5.1) a n d b a t c h r e a c t o r s ( F i g . 5.2): (1) C o n t r a r y t o w h a t h a p p e n s in t h e
b a t c h reactor, B O D of the wastewater in the c o n t i n u o u s reactor o p e r a t i n g at

s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t (S ). T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s g e n e r a l l y t o
e
a l o w s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , since t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r is u s u a l l y d e s i g n e d
for r e m o v i n g m o s t o f t h e i n f l u e n t B O D . (2) C o n t r a r y t o w h a t h a p p e n s i n t h e
b a t c h r e a c t o r , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g
a t s t e a d y s t a t e is k e p t c o n s t a n t (X ) Vta a t a selected v a l u e . M a i n t e n a n c e o f t h i s
constant X v>a is o b t a i n e d b y p r o v i d i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d a m o u n t o f c o n c e n t r a t e d
r e t u r n sludge. T h e m a t e r i a l balance for M L V S S , necessary t o arrive a t r e q u i r e d
r e c y c l e r a t i o for t h i s p u r p o s e , is p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 7.2.
K i n e t i c d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e b a t c h r e a c t o r is p o r t r a y e d b y t h e M i c h a e l i s -
M e n t e n r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h is s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n 8. T w o i m p o r t a n t c o r o l l a r i e s
of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e p o s t u l a t e d n e x t , t h e s e c o n d o n e b e i n g utilized for
design of the c o n t i n u o u s biological reactor.
1. A t h i g h s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , B O D r e m o v a l follows z e r o - o r d e r
k i n e t i c s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e r a t e o f r e m o v a l is essentially c o n s t a n t , i n d e
p e n d e n t o f s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is f o u n d i n e a r l y s t a g e s o f
t h e b a t c h r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n , w h e n s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n is still v e r y h i g h
( h i g h B O D ) . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e B O D c u r v e ( F i g . 5.3) f r o m
time zero to approximately time Λ In this region, the tangent to the B O D
curve, which equals the rate of substrate removal, coincides essentially with
t h e c u r v e itself ( c o n s t a n t s l o p e ) .
2. B O D r e m o v a l a t l o w s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
B O D v a l u e s b e l o w 500 m g / l i t e r ) follows first-order k i n e t i c s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t
r a t e o f r e m o v a l is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o r e m a i n i n g s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e B O D c u r v e b e y o n d t i m e t'. S l o p e o f t h e B O D
curve (which equals rate of substrate removal) decreases with time as the B O D
v a l u e is l o w e r e d . A p l o t o f t h e s e s l o p e s v s . c o r r e s p o n d i n g B O D v a l u e s yields
a s t r a i g h t line r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 3.2. T h u s in t h i s
r e g i o n , r a t e o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o its c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(first-order k i n e t i c s ) .
3.2. F O R M U L A T I O N O F T H E C O N T I N U O U S
REACTOR
Since for t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (S ) e
a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y b e l o w 500 m g / l i t e r ( B O D ) , first-order k i n e t i c s is a s s u m e d
5
in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n . C o n s i d e r t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g u n d e r s t e a d y
s t a t e a n d c o m p l e t e m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 5.4.
A s s u m i n g t h a t r a t e o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l dS/dt follows first-order k i n e t i c s , *
dSjdt = -KS (5.6)
I t is c u s t o m a r y t o e x p r e s s s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e p e r m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S
* Minus sign in Eq. (5.6) is required since dS/dt < 0, whereas 5 > 0.
V
Q.S 0 Q,s e
* ~ - X
v,a ——
Fig. 5.4. Simplified diagram for continuous reactor.
p r e s e n t in t h e r e a c t o r . L e t Χυα b e t h i s M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n . E q u a t i o n (5.6)
is t h e n r e w r i t t e n
(\IX , )(dSldt)
v a = -kS (5.7)
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Κ a n d k is
Κ = kX v (5.8)
F r o m E q . (5.7)
dS/dt = -kX , S
v a (5.9)
k is t h e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t . F o r t i m e t e q u a l t o r e s i d e n c e t i m e in
t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r , c o n c e n t r a t i o n S c o r r e s p o n d s t o 5 , a n d E q . (5.9) e
becomes
(dS/dt) . cont factor = ~ kX S Vt a e (5.10)
T h e f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for s u b s t r a t e is w r i t t e n for t h e r e a c t o r in
F i g . 5.4.
Change of substrate in reactor = increase d u e to influent flow
- decrease d u e t o effluent flow
- decrease d u e t o reaction (5.11)
U n d e r steady state conditions,
C h a n g e of substrate in reactor = 0 (5.12)
Increase due to influent flow = QS Q (5.13)

and
Decrease due t o effluent flow = QS e (5.14)
A c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.10), t h e d e c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t o f s u b s t r a t e d u e t o t h e
r e a c t i o n is kX S va e [ m i n u s sign a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d in E q . ( 5 . 1 1 ) ] . B e f o r e s u b
s t i t u t i n g in E q . (5.11) t h i s v a l u e is m u l t i p l i e d b y r e a c t o r v o l u m e V since y
kX S r e p r e s e n t s d e c r e a s e p e r u n i t v o l u m e .
v a e
Decrease due to reaction = kX S V

Vta e (5.15)
168 5. Secondary Treatment: The Activated S l u d g e Process
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f v a l u e s g i v e n b y E q s . ( 5 . 1 2 ) - ( 5 . 1 5 ) in E q . (5.11) yields after

manipulation
(QIV)l(S.-S.)IX .J 9 = kS. (5.16)
However,
Mgal
t = VIQ = = day = residence time (/) in the reactor (5.17)
(Mgal/day)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , E q . (5.16) is
(S -S )IX t
0 e 0ta = kS e (5.18)
T e r m (S -~S )/X t
0 e Vta w h i c h a l s o a p p e a r s in o t h e r f o r m u l a t i o n s is t h e s u b
s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e . It c o r r e s p o n d s t o r a t e o f r e m o v a l o f s u b s t r a t e in t h e
continuous reactor per mg/liter of M L V S S present. Units are
mg/liter of B O D removed
(S -S )IX , t
0 e v a =
(mg/liter of MLVSS) (day)
= m g B O D removed/(day)(mg MLVSS)
= lb B O D removed/(day)(lb MLVSS)
Equation:
ω
co (VS )/X ,a t = k S
e (5.18)
5
e v
Reactor No. 2
•Reactor No. 3
-Reactor No. 4
S ;mg/liter (effluent)
e
Fig. 5.5. Graphical determination of k (four continuous lab scale reactors).

E q u a t i o n (5.18) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
substrate concentration S e (first-order k i n e t i c s ) . S u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n
stant k (day )- 1
is d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.18) f r o m a plot of
(S -S )/X t
0 e Vta vs. S . e F i g u r e 5.5 s h o w s a g r a p h o f d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m f o u r
continuous laboratory reactors operating at steady state conditions. A
n u m e r i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d in S e c t i o n 6.4 ( E x a m p l e 5.5).
D a t a p l o t t e d i n F i g . 5.5 yield a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r i g i n ,
a s s u m i n g a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l in E q . (5.18). T h e l e f t - h a n d
m e m b e r , (S — S )/X t,
0 e Vfa v a n i s h e s a s t a p p r o a c h e s infinity (infinite r e s i d e n c e
time). Consequently, term S e in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r a p p r o a c h e s zero
since k Φ 0. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o complete r e m o v a l o f s u b s t r a t e , w h i c h is n o t
a l w a y s t h e c a s e since s o m e s u b s t r a t e s c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y d e g r a d e d b y t h e
a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s , e v e n a t infinite r e s i d e n c e t i m e . I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e
s t r a i g h t line c u t s t h e a b s c i s s a a t a v a l u e o f S e > 0 corresponding to the con
c e n t r a t i o n o f n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n is s h o w n
i n F i g . 5.14 ( S e c t i o n 6.4, E x a m p l e 5 . 5 ) .
When nonbiodegradable m a t t e r is p r e s e n t , E q . (5.18) is m o d i f i e d to
E q . (5.19).
(S.-SJIX . t
9 m = k(S -S )
e n (5.19)
w h e r e S is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r .
n
4. Material B a l a n c e R e l a t i o n s h i p s
4.1. D E S I G N P A R A M E T E R S C O R R E S P O N D I N G
TO NET YIELD OF M L V S S A N D O X Y G E N
R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR A E R O B I C BIOLOGICAL
D E G R A D A T I O N OF W A S T E S
4.1.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n : M e c h a n i s m of A e r o b i c
Biological D e g r a d a t i o n
A c c u m u l a t i o n of M L V S S a n d utilization of oxygen are t w o i m p o r t a n t
e l e m e n t s n e e d e d for d e s i g n o f a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s . T o o b t a i n m a t h e
m a t i c a l m o d e l s w h i c h yield t h e s e t w o v a l u e s , s e v e r a l d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s
d e s i g n a t e d b y s y m b o l s a', a,a,b, a n d V a r e defined in t h i s s e c t i o n . T h e a p p r o a c h
f o l l o w e d is t h a t p r o p o s e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s [ 1 - 3 ] .
E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y u s i n g b e n c h scale
c o n t i n u o u s b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s ( S e c t i o n 6). I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s ,
n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s for t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e u t i l i z e d for c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f s o m e
c o n c e p t s . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d b y t e c h n i q u e s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 6.
T o a r r i v e a t t h e definition o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s , t h e b a s i c m e c h a n i s m o f
aerobic d e g r a d a t i o n of a substrate m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d . C o n s i d e r t h a t a s u b
s t r a t e is c h a r g e d t o a b a t c h r e a c t o r ( F i g . 5.2), a n d t h a t c u r v e s for B O D
r e m o v a l a n d M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e o b t a i n e d ( F i g . 5.3). F o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n ,
t a k e the hypothetical case of p u r e lactose as substrate. A s s u m e t h a t a lactose
s o l u t i o n is c h a r g e d t o t h e b a t c h r e a c t o r w i t h a s e e d o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m , a n d
t h a t c o m p r e s s e d a i r is b u b b l e d t h r o u g h t h e s o l u t i o n . L e t i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f l a c t o s e b e e q u a l t o 1050 m g / l i t e r . S u p p o s e t h a t after a t i m e t t h i s c o n c e n
t r a t i o n is r e d u c e d t o 50 m g / l i t e r . T h u s s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d is 1050— 50 = 1000
m g / l i t e r . A s s u m e t h a t T h O D is u t i l i z e d a s a m e a s u r e o f l a c t o s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . *
T h e c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o T h O D for l a c t o s e is [ E q . ( 5 . 2 0 ) ] f
(CH 0) + 02 2 -» C 0 2 + H 0 2 (5.20)
Molecular weight: 30 32
T h u s , t h e i n i t i a l T h O D o f t h e s o l u t i o n is ( 3 2 / 3 0 ) χ 1050 = 1120 m g / l i t e r .
A f t e r t i m e t, r e m a i n i n g T h O D is ( 3 2 / 3 0 ) χ 50 = 53.3 m g / l i t e r . T h e r e f o r e ,
T h O D r e m o v e d is
1 1 2 0 - 53.3 = 1066.7 mg/liter
or
(32/30) ( 1 0 5 0 - 5 0 ) = 1066.7 mg/liter (5.21)
Thus, T h O D and substrate removed are proportional, the proportionality

c o n s t a n t b e i n g 3 2 / 3 0 = 1.07. S i n c e T h O D is c o r r e l a t e d t o C O D , B O D , e t c . ,
o n e m a y also express substrate r e m o v a l in t e r m s of these p a r a m e t e r s .
Substrate oxidation End products:

C0 ,H 0,N ,P...
for energy production 2 2 2
, Design parameter : a*
Substrate
(e.g. lactose)
Synthesis Endogenous End products:

phase respiration C0 ,H 0,NH3,P
2 2
New cells nonbiodegradable

Design Design
products
parameters: parameters:
Fig. 5.6. Mechanism of aerobic biological degradation.
* A s discussed in Chapter 2, T h O D is only utilized in rare cases when complete analysis

of the wastewater is known.
t F o r simplicity in Eq. (5.20), lactose is represented by one sugar unit ( C H 0 ) . Multiplying 2
this unit by a factor o f 12 o n e obtains

12(CH 0) = C 2 1 2 H 2 2 0„ ·H 0 2
which is the molecular formula for lactose.

4. Material B a l a n c e Relationships 171
M e c h a n i s m o f a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f a s u b s t r a t e is r e p r e s e n t e d
d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y b y F i g . 5.6. D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s (α', a, a, b, a n d b') i n d i c a t e d
i n F i g . 5.6 a r e defined i n S e c t i o n s 4 . 1 . 2 - 4 . 1 . 9 . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a ( S e c t i o n 6).
F i g u r e 5.6 i n d i c a t e s t h a t s u b s t r a t e is r e m o v e d d u r i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s
in t w o w a y s .
1. P a r t o f t h e s u b s t r a t e , after b e i n g c o n s u m e d a s f o o d b y m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ,
is utilized t o s y n t h e s i z e n e w m i c r o o r g a n i s m cells. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
synthesis p h a s e . F o r the lactose example, this synthesis c o r r e s p o n d s to*
synthesis
5(CH 0) 2 > C H N0
5 7 2 (5.22)
113
Molecular weight: 5 χ 30 = 150 / W T , 7 0 0 .
(MLVSS)
I n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s in E q . (5.22) a r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d i r r e l e v a n t . T h e e m p i r i c a l
f o r m u l a C H N 0 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a v e r a g e c o m p o s i t i o n o f M L V S S cells.
5 7 2
N i t r o g e n is n e e d e d for s y n t h e s i s a n d m u s t b e p r o v i d e d . F r o m t h e a p p r o x i m a t e
e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a C H N 0 it follows t h a t % o f n i t r o g e n in t h e M L V S S cells
5 7 2
is ( 1 4 / 1 1 3 ) x 100 = 12.4%.
2. T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s u b s t r a t e is o x i d i z e d , t e r m i n a l p r o d u c t s b e i n g
CO a n d H 0 . I n t h e l a c t o s e e x a m p l e , t h i s s u b s t r a t e o x i d a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s
2 2
t o E q . (5.20). T h i s t e r m i n a l o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f c e l l u l a r e n e r g y utilized b y t h e cells t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r n o r m a l
functions, such as synthesis, reproduction, a n d mobility. A s s u m e t h a t 6 5 % of
t h e l a c t o s e r e m o v e d (i.e., 6 5 % o f 1000 m g / l i t e r = 6 5 0 m g / l i t e r ) is d i o x i z e d t o
p r o v i d e e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t h a t 3 5 % (i.e., 3 5 0 m g / l i t e r ) is u t i l i z e d i n
t h e s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cell m a t t e r . S i n c e t h e r e is a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o n s t a n t
r e l a t i n g s u b s t r a t e a n d T h O D r e m o v a l s [ f a c t o r (32/30) in E q . (5.20) f o r l a c t o s e ] ,
it f o l l o w s t h a t 6 5 % o f t h e T h O D r e m o v e d is u t i l i z e d for e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n
a n d 3 5 % for s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cells. S i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s a r e v a l i d in t e r m s o f
C O D a n d o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s defined in C h a p t e r 2 ( S e c t i o n s 2 a n d 3).
t Phosphorus is also utilized in the synthesis and b e c o m e s a constituent o f cell matter.

The % o f phosphorus in the M L V S S cells is approximately 2%, s o a more accurate empirical
formula for the M L V S S cells is C H N 0 / n where η is given by (atomic weight o f
5 7 2
>
phosphorus = 31)
31/i/(113 + 31/i) = 2/100
.·. η = 0.074
or C H N 0 P o . o 7 4 - Nitrogen and phosphorus needed are provided by addition o f a m

5 7 2
m o n i u m phosphate to the wastewater, if it d o e s not already contain the nitrogen and

phosphorus required.
4.1.2. Definition of Parameter a

( S y n t h e s i s Phase)
L e t α b e t h e f r a c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d t h a t is u t i l i z e d for s y n t h e s i s
( n a m e l y , α = 0.35 in l a c t o s e e x a m p l e ) . D u e t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y b e t w e e n
removal of substrate a n d those of T h O D , C O D , or B O D , α also represents
f r a c t i o n s o f T h O D ( o r C O D , B O D ) u t i l i z e d f o r s y n t h e s i s o f n e w cells.
Therefore,
α = lb of substrate removed utilized for synthesis/lb of total substrate

removed
= lb T h O D removed for synthesis/lb of total T h O D removed (5.23)
= lb C O D removed for synthesis/lb total C O D removed
= lb B O D removed for synthesis/lb total B O D removed
T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f α is i n d e p e n d e n t o f p a r a m e t e r s u t i l i z e d f o r e x p r e s s
i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l , since α r e p r e s e n t s t h e f r a c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d
utilized for s y n t h e s i s , a n d is t h e r e f o r e a d i m e n s i o n l e s s q u a n t i t y . T h e s a m e
c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r f o r c h a n g i n g p a r a m e t e r s i n w h i c h s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l is t o
be expressed appears simultaneously in the n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r of
E q . (5.23), a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n c e l s o u t .
P a r a m e t e r α does not a p p e a r in t h e final f o r m u l a t i o n o f a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s
d e v e l o p e d in S e c t i o n 6. I n s t e a d p a r a m e t e r a, w h i c h is r e l a t e d t o a , is u t i l i z e d .
4.1.3. Definition of Parameter a ' (Oxidation)

L e t a' b e t h e f r a c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d u t i l i z e d f o r e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n
( n a m e l y , a' = 0.65 in l a c t o s e e x a m p l e ) .
Therefore,
α + α'=1.0 (5.24)
where
a' = lb of substrate removed utilized for energy/lb of total substrate

removed
= lb T h O D removed for energy/lb total T h O D removed (5.25)
= lb C O D removed for energy/lb total C O D removed
= lb B O D removed for energy/lb total B O D removed
T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f a' defined b y E q . (5.25) is i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p a

r a m e t e r s utilized for e x p r e s s i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l . T h e s a m e observations
m a d e for a a r e applicable here.
SUMMARY F o r the lactose example
T o t a l s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d : 1000 m g / l i t e r
T o t a l T h O D r e m o v e d : 3 2 / 3 0 χ 1000 = 1066.7 m g / l i t e r . T h e s e r e m o v a l s t a k e
p l a c e in t w o w a y s :
(1) S y n t h e s i s :
5(CH 0) - 2 C H N0
5 7 2
Substrate r e m o v e d utilized for synthesis:
(0.35)(1000) = 350 mg/liter
T h O D r e m o v e d for s y n t h e s i s :
(0.35)(1066.7) = 373.3 mg/liter
[ R a t i o s , 3 5 0 / 1 0 0 0 = 3 7 3 . 3 / 1 0 6 6 . 7 = 0.35 = a]
(2) E n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n :
(CH 0) + 0
2 2 -> C 0 2 + H 0 2
Substrate r e m o v e d utilized for energy p r o d u c t i o n :
(0.65)(1000) = 650 mg/liter
T h O D r e m o v e d for e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n :
(0.65)(1066.7) = 693.4 mg/liter
[ R a t i o s , 6 5 0 / 1 0 0 0 = 6 9 3 . 4 / 1 0 6 6 . 7 = 0.65 = α ' ]
F r o m E q . (5.20) T h O D r e m o v e d for e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n e q u a l s t h e l b o f
o x y g e n u t i l i z e d for o x i d a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e . T h e r e f o r e t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a' (in
t e r m s o f T h O D ) given b y E q . (5.25) is r e f o r m u l a t e d a s
a' = 0THOD = lb of 0 2 utilized in oxidation of substrate/lb of total T h O D removed

(5.26)
i.e., a' is e q u a l t o t h e l b o f o x y g e n u t i l i z e d in e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n p e r l b o f t o t a l
T h O D removed.
T h e r e f o r e f r o m E q . (5.26),
lb 0 2 (for energy) = a'(lb total T h O D removed)
= flTho (lb
D total T h O D removed) (5.27)
W r i t i n g t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (5.27) in t e r m s o f C O D , B O D , a n d T O C
b y u t i l i z i n g r a t i o s T h O D / C O D , T h O D / B O D , e t c . , yields
lb 0 2 (for energy) = a\\b total C O D removed) ( T h O D / C O D )
= a\\b total B O D r e m o v e d ) ( T h O D / B O D ) (5.28)
D e f i n e s u b s c r i p t v a l u e s o f a' a s
acoo = a ( T h O D / C O D ) (5.29)
ΛΒΟΟ = a'(ThOD/BOD) (5.30)
( w h e r e a' w i t h o u t t h e s u b s c r i p t s t a n d s for v a l u e a' = a' ^).

Th0l
C o m b i n i n g E q s . (5.27) a n d (5.28) w i t h E q s . (5.29) a n d (5.30),
lb 0 2 (for energy) = flThooOb total T h O D removed)
= tfcoDOb total C O D removed)
= 0BOD(lb total B O D removed) (5.31)
H e n c e , w h e n e v e r p a r a m e t e r a' is utilized for c a l c u l a t i o n o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e

m e n t s , n o s u b s c r i p t s a r e i n d i c a t e d . A n a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e o f a' is c h o s e n t o b e
c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p a r a m e t e r s for e x p r e s s i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l . F r o m Eq.
(5.31) it follows t h a t a' e q u a l s t h e l b o f o x y g e n u t i l i z e d f o r e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n
p e r lb o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d ( r e m o v a l i n t e r m s o f T h O D , C O D , a n d T O D ) .
U t i l i z a t i o n o f s u b s c r i p t s C O D a n d B O D for a' m a y s e e m i n c o n s i s t e n t s i n c e
a! is t h o u g h t o f a s a r a t i o , a n d t h e r e f o r e its n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s h o u l d b e inde
pendent o f p a r a m e t e r s utilized f o r e x p r e s s i n g r e m o v a l . H o w e v e r , t h i s i n d e
p e n d e n c e a p p l i e s o n l y t o v a l u e s o f a' a s defined b y E q . (5.25). I n E q . (5.25) t h e
s a m e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r for p a r a m e t e r s e x p r e s s i n g r e m o v a l a p p e a r s s i m u l
t a n e o u s l y in t h e n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r , a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n c e l s o u t . F r o m
E q . (5.31), h o w e v e r , it f o l l o w s t h a t a m o d i f i e d definition o f a' is b e i n g u t i l i z e d ,
i.e.,
flThOD = a' = lb 0 2 (for energy)/lb total T h O D removed (5.32)
a'coD = lb 0 2 (for energy)/lb total C O D removed (5.33)
a oD = lb 0
B 2 (for energy)/Ib total B O D removed (5.34)
T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f t h e n u m e r a t o r s in E q s . (5.32), (5.33), a n d (5.34) is
t h e s a m e ( l b o f o x y g e n utilized for e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s ) . V a l u e s o f d e n o m i
n a t o r s , h o w e v e r , v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n c h o i c e o f p a r a m e t e r s for expressing
s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s o f a' f r o m E q s . (5.32),
(5.33), a n d (5.34) a r e different f r o m e a c h o t h e r . T h e r e f o r e , u t i l i z a t i o n o f
s u b s c r i p t s is justified.
F u r t h e r m o r e , only t h e v a l u e o f a' given b y E q . (5.32) is n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l
t o t h e r a t i o s defined b y E q . (5.25), i.e., a j h O D = ' · V a l u e s o f a' g i v e n b y E q s .
a
(5.33) a n d (5.34) a r e n o t o n l y different f r o m e a c h o t h e r , b u t a l s o n e i t h e r

e q u a l s t h e f r a c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v e d u t i l i z e d in e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n .
4.1.4. Definition of Parameter a

( S y n t h e s i s Phase)
P a r a m e t e r a, r e l a t e d t o a , is defined a s
a = lb of M L V S S produced/lb of total substrate removed (5.35)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , a r e p r e s e n t s yield o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e p e r l b o f t o t a l s u b s t r a t e
removed.
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a r a m e t e r s a a n d a is a r r i v e d a t b y c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f t h e l a c t o s e e x a m p l e [ E q . ( 5 . 2 2 ) ] . I t is a s s u m e d t h a t 3 5 0 m g / l i t e r ( 3 5 % o f t h e
t o t a l 1000 m g / l i t e r o f l a c t o s e r e m o v e d ) a r e u t i l i z e d for t h e s y n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e d
b y E q . (5.22). Y i e l d o f M L V S S is c a l c u l a t e d a s
M L V S S produced per 1000 m g of total substrate removed
= [(0.35)(1000)] (113/150)
= 263.7 mg/liter (5.36)
T h e r e f o r e , f r o m E q . (5.36) o n e o b t a i n s
a = lb M L V S S produced/lb of total substrate removed
= [(0.35)(1000)] (113/150)/1000 = 263.7/1000 = 0.2637 (5.37)
i.e., 2 6 3 . 7 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S a r e p r o d u c e d p e r 1000 m g / l i t e r o f l a c t o s e
r e m o v e d ; t h u s a = 263.7/1000 = 0.2637.
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a a n d ά f r o m E q . (5.37) for t h e l a c t o s e e x a m p l e is
a = a(l 13/150)
.'. a = fl(150/113)
w h e r e 113/150 is t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o for E q . (5.22). S u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h i s

v a l u e o f a i n E q . (5.24) yields
(150/113)fl + a ' = 1.0 (5.38)
P a r a m e t e r a m a y b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f t o t a l T h O D r e m o v e d . L e t a T H 0 D O E
t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f a e x p r e s s e d in t h i s m a n n e r .
tfThOD = lb M L V S S produced/lb of total T h O D removed (5.39)
R a t i o a/a ThOO f r o m E q s . (5.35) a n d ( 5 . 3 9 ) , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s t o i c h i o

m e t r i c r a t i o 3 2 / 3 0 in E q . (5.20), is
a/a DThQ = E q . (5.35)/Eq. (5.39)
= lb total T h O D removed/lb total substrate removed
= 32/30 (5.40)
or
a = flTho (32/30)
D (5.41)
E q u a t i o n (5.38) w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f % H 0 D D V
u t i l i z i n g E q . (5.41) is
(150/113)(32/30)a ThOD + a' = 1.0

a
or
1 . 4 2 f l o D + a' =
Th 1.0 (5.42)
a
M L V S S yield ( s y n t h e s i s ) is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.39).
lb M L V S S produced = a h O D ( l b total T h O D removed)

T (5.43)
E q u a t i o n (5.43) m a y b e r e w r i t t e n e x p r e s s i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l i n t e r m s o f
C O D , B O D , etc., by utilizing ratios T h O D / C O D , T h O D / B O D , etc.:
lb M L V S S produced = a h o ( l b total C O D removed) ( T h O D / C O D )

T D
= 0 T h o ( l b total B O D r e m o v e d ) ( T h O D / B O D )
D (5.44)
Define
flcoo = flxnoD (ThOD/COD) (5.45)
a oD =
B tfihOD (ThOD/BOD) (5.46)
Therefore
lb M L V S S p r o d u c e d = a D(\b CO total C O D removed)
= flBo (lb D total B O D removed) (5.47)
N o s u b s c r i p t s a r e u t i l i z e d for t h e p a r a m e t e r a h e n c e . I t is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e o f p a r a m e t e r a is c h o s e n t o b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e
p a r a m e t e r s for e x p r e s s i n g s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l .
4.1.5. A n Observation Concerning Factor 1.42

A l t h o u g h f a c t o r 1.42 i n E q . (5.42) is o b t a i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 4 f r o m c o n
s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e specific l a c t o s e e x a m p l e , it is s h o w n n e x t t h a t it a p p l i e s t o
all s u b s t r a t e s , p r o v i d e d t h e a v e r a g e e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a for t h e M L V S S is t a k e n
a s C H N 0 . C o n s i d e r t h e specific l a c t o s e e x a m p l e . W r i t e E q s . (5.20) a n d
5 7 2
(5.22), m u l t i p l y i n g t h e first o n e b y a f a c t o r o f 5, i.e.,
5(CH 0) + 2 50 2 -+ 5 C 0 2 + 5H 0
2 (5.48)
Molecular weight: 5 χ 30 5x32
R e c a l l t h a t f a c t o r 1.42 o r i g i n a t e d f r o m [ E q . ( 5 . 4 2 ) ] .
(150/113) (32/30) = 1.42
or (5.49)
[5(30)]/113 χ 32/30 = 1.42
T h e " m o l e c u l e " o f s u b s t r a t e is defined h e r e a s a s u g a r g r o u p ( C H 0 ) c o n

2
t a i n i n g one c a r b o n a t o m , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a " m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t " o f 3 0 .

N o t i c e t h a t in E q . (5.49), t h e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f s u b s t r a t e (30 i n t h i s c a s e ) is
c a n c e l e d o u t . F o r a n y s u b s t r a t e o f m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t Af, E q . (5.49) is
5A//113 χ 3 2 / M = ( 5 x 3 2 ) / 1 1 3 = 1.42 (5.50)

T h u s , E q . ( 5 . 4 2 ) is a n approximate equation for m o s t substrates, t h e only

restriction being t h e assumption t h a t t h e average empirical formula for
M L V S S is C H N 0 . I n S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 9 , i t is s h o w n t h a t v a l u e 1.42 c o r r e s p o n d s
5 7 2
to lb o f oxygen required t o oxidize 1 l b o f M L V S S d u r i n g t h e process o f

endogenous respiration.
4.1.6. Summary
Note: A p p r o x i m a t e values of the ratio between parameters for expressing

oxygen d e m a n d are taken from Table 2.1.
a. Parameter a' in Different Units

(See Tabulation Below)
a
ThOO lb 0 = axhOD ( l b total T h O D removed)
2
(energy)
where a' = a' = fraction o f substrate removed
ThOD
utilized for energy production
tfcOD lb 0 = flcoDGb total C O D removed)

2
(standard C O D test) (energy)

where αόοο = a ' ( T h O D / C O D ) = a'(10O/83) = 1.20a'
a
BOD lb 0 = a i o D f l b total B O D removed)
2
(5-day B O D ) (energy)
where a' = a ' ( T h O D / B O D ) = α'(1Ο0/58) = 1.72a'
BOD
Relationships for other oxygen a n d c a r b o n p a r a m e t e r s studied in C h a p t e r 2

are readily written.
b. Parameter a in Different Units

(See Tabulation Below)
#ThOD lb M L V S S produced = a D ( l b total T h O D removed)

T h 0
where a D = 5/1.42; a — fraction o f substrate removed

T h 0
utilized for synthesis
#COD lb M L V S S produced = a D ( l b total C O D removed)

C O
(standard C O D test) where a D = A t h o d ( T h O D / C O D ) = a D ( 1 0 0 / 8 3 )

C O T h O
= (α/1.42)(100/83) = 0.85a
lb M L V S S produced = a o ( l b total B O D removed)

B D
(5-day B O D ) where α = A t h o d ( T h O D / B O D ) = α ποο(100/58)

ΒΟΌ Τ
= (α/1.42)(100/58) = 1.21α
R e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r o t h e r o x y g e n a n d c a r b o n p a r a m e t e r s defined i n C h a p t e r 2
are readily written.
c. Equation (5.24) Written with Different Units for

the Parameters (See Tabulation Below)
a' = fraction of the total substrate removed utilized for energy = αχποο; o. = fraction o f
total substrate removed utilized for synthesis. Then a+a' = 1.0.
ThOD 1.42a + < i T h O D = 1.0

T h O D
or 1.42fl hOD + « = 1.0

T
/
COD flThoo = u t c o o ( C O D / T h O D ) = α«>ο(83/100)

(standard C O D test) « h o D = flcoo(COD/ThOD) = αόοο(83/100)
T
.·. 1 . 4 2 ( 8 3 / 1 0 0 ) a o D + (83/100)acoD = 1.0

C
1 . 1 8 a o D + 0.83acoD= 1 0
C
BOD tfrhOD = a o D ( B O D / T h O D ) = 0 O D ( 5 8 / 1 O O )
B B
(5-day B O D ) a' = flxhoo = ^BOD ( B O D / T h O D ) = O OD(58/100) B
.'. 1.42(58/100)flBOD + ( 5 8 / 1 0 0 ) f l o D = 1.0 B
0.82ΛΒΟΟ + 0 . 5 8 Λ Ο Ο = 1 0 Β
E q u a t i o n (5.24) is r e a d i l y w r i t t e n i n t e r m s o f o t h e r o x y g e n a n d c a r b o n p a
r a m e t e r s defined i n C h a p t e r 2 .
4.1.7. D e s i g n Parameters C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
E n d o g e n o u s R e s p i r a t i o n : Introduction
T w o d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s , b a n d b', a r e defined c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e n d o
genous respiration phase. E n d o g e n o u s respiration involves oxidation of
cellular m a t t e r in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e food for t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s w h e n t h e
concentration of substrate has decreased considerably. It corresponds t o the
"cannibalistic feast" described in Section 3.1.
A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l f o r m u l a f o r t h e M L V S S is C H N 0 , o x i d a t i o n
5 7 2
o f cells c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n is g i v e n b y E q . (5.51).
C H N0
5 7 2 + 50 -• 5 C 0
2 2 + NH + 2H 0 3 2 (5.51)
Molecular weight: 113 5 χ 32 = 160
4.1.8. Definition of Parameter b

( E n d o g e n o u s Respiration)
P a r a m e t e r b is defined a s f r a c t i o n o f M L V S S p e r u n i t t i m e ( d a y ~ \ h o u r " S
etc.) o x i d i z e d d u r i n g p r o c e s s o f e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a v a l u e
o f b = 0.1 d a y " 1
m e a n s t h a t 10% of t h e total lb of M L V S S present in t h e
r e a c t o r a t a n y t i m e is o x i d i z e d p e r d a y . T h e r e f o r e , e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n
b = lb M L V S S oxidized/(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor) (5.52)
Consequently, the lb of M L V S S oxidized per d a y are
lb M L V S S oxidized/day = b(\b M L V S S in reactor) (5.53)

(endogenous respiration)
M L V S S p r e s e n t i n r e a c t o r a t a n y t i m e a s s u m i n g s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n is
constant, being given b y
lb M L V S S in reactor = X , V v a (5.54)
where X Vtais t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S , i.e., l b M L V S S p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f
reactor; a n d Κ the reactor volume.
T h u s E q s . (5.53) a n d (5.54) yield
lb M L V S S oxidized/day = bX Vf a V (5.55)
4.1.9. Definition of Parameter b'

P a r a m e t e r V is defined a s t h e l b o f o x y g e n u t i l i z e d p e r d a y p e r l b o f M L V S S
i n t h e r e a c t o r f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n , i.e., [ E q . ( 5 . 5 6 ) ]
b> = lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S inreactor)
2 (5.56)
T h u s , o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n f o r e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n is
lb 0 / d a y2 = b'(\b M L V S S in reactor) (5.57)

o r f r o m E q . (5.54)
lb0 /day 2 = b'X^ V a (5.58)
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b a n d b' is w r i t t e n a s s u m i n g t h a t
a v e r a g e e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a for M L V S S is C H N 0 , a n d t h a t e n d o g e n o u s
5 7 2
r e s p i r a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n (5.51). F r o m E q s . (5.52) a n d
(5.56) r a t i o b'/b is [ E q . (5.59)]
b'\b = lb 0 / l b M L V S S oxidized
2 (5.59)
F r o m E q . (5.51) t h i s r a t i o is
b'\b = 1.42 (5.60)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , it t a k e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.42 l b o f o x y g e n t o o x i d i z e 1 l b o f
M L V S S . T h i s v a l u e is u s e d a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n for a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n o f
most substrates.
W h e r e a s p a r a m e t e r s a a n d a' a r e r a t i o s [ E q s . (5.25), (5.32), (5.33), a n d
(5.34) for a'; a n d E q s . (5.35) a n d (5.39) for a ] , b a n d b' a r e r a t e s . T i m e is n o t
i n v o l v e d i n t h e definitions o f a a n d abut it is i n t h o s e o f b a n d b'.
4.2. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E F O R D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF O X Y G E N UTILIZATION
K n o w l e d g e o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s t o effect a specified B O D r e m o v a l is
n e c e s s a r y for specification o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . F r o m d i s c u s s i o n s i n
S e c t i o n s 4 . 1 . 3 a n d 4 . 1 . 9 it f o l l o w s t h a t o x y g e n is r e q u i r e d for t w o p u r p o s e s :
(1) t o o x i d i z e s u b s t r a t e i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s for cells [ E q .

( 5 . 2 0 ) ] a n d (2) for t h e e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n p r o c e s s [ E q . ( 5 . 5 1 ) ] .
1. Oxygen required for energy. T h e lb o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e d p e r d a y a r e
c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.31). R e f e r r i n g t o F i g . 5.1 a n d s y m b o l s defined in T a b l e
5.1,
l b 0 / d a y = a\S -S )Q
2 0 e (5.61)
(for energy)
A p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s o f a' c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p a r a m e t e r s in w h i c h t o t a l s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v a l (S — S ) is e x p r e s s e d a r e utilized in E q . (5.61).
0 e
Example 5.1
C a l c u l a t e t h e o x y g e n r e q u i r e d for e n e r g y .
aBOD = 0.79 lb 0 2 (for energy)/lb total B O D 5 removed*
S 0 = 893 mg/liter
S e = 40 mg/liter
Q = 2.04 M G D (2.04 χ 1 0 gal/day) 6
Then
S - S
0 e = 893 - 40 = 853 mg/liter = S r (total substrate removed)
Therefore
5 o _ 5 e = 5 p = 8 5 3 i ^ = 853 m
'
g B O D
liter liquor 10 g liquor 3
g BOD. g BOD Λ r
853 * . = 853 p p m = 853 χ 1 0 ~ -

r
— 6
=
1 0 g liquor
6
g liquor
lbBOD _ lbBOD r o r
= 853 χ Ι Ο " — = 853- 6
lb liquor M l b liquor
F r o m E q . (5.61),
lb 0 lb B O D 2 r
l b 0 / d a y = 0.79
2 χ 853 χ 1 0 ~ — - - 6
, c \ lbBOD lb liquor r
(for energy) n
, liquor lb liquor
χ 2.04 χ 1 0 g a l - ~ — * 8 . 3 4 - — ^ 6
day gal liquor

= 11,500 lb 0 / d a y 2
* Experimental determination of parameter a' is described in Section 6.3.2. Example 5.1

is simply an illustration of unit conversion. Value a' = 0.79 is determined experimentally
(Example 5.5, Section 6.4).
If S is in m g / l i t e r a n d Q in M G D o w i n g t o c a n c e l l a t i o n o f f a c t o r s 10
r
6
a n d 1 0 , E q . (5.61) b e c o m e s E q . (5.62).
6
Ib0 /day 2 = a'S Q

r χ 8.34 (5.62)
(for energy)
2. Oxygen required for endogenous respiration. E q u a t i o n (5.58) is utilized

for t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 5.2.
Example 5.2
C a l c u l a t e t h e o x y g e n r e q u i r e d for e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n . L e t
b = 0.15 lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S in reactor)*
f
2
X Vt a = 300 mg/liter (of MLVSS)
V = 1.2 M G (1.2 χ 1 0 gal)

6
(reactor volume)
By a s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e t o t h a t in E x a m p l e 5.1 it follows t h a t [ E q . ( 5 . 6 3 ) ]
lb 0 / d a y 2 = b'X Vt a V χ 8.34 (5.63)
w h e r e V is t h e l b 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S in r e a c t o r ) , X
2 VyQ the mg/liter of M L V S S ,
and Κ the reactor volume ( M G ) .
Consequently,
lb 0 / d a y
2 = 0.15 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34 = 4500 lb 0 / d a y 2
SUMMARY T o t a l o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n is g i v e n b y t h e s u m o f E q s . (5.61) a n d
(5.58) a s
lb 0 / d a y = a\S
2 a -S )Q
e + b'X^ V = a'S Q
a r + b'x ,
v a V (5.64)
F o r E x a m p l e s 5.1 a n d 5.2,
lb 0 / d a y = 11,500 + 4500 = 16,000 lb 0 / d a y

2 2
4.3. MATERIAL BALANCE FOR DETERMINATION

OF NET YIELD OF BIOLOGICAL S L U D G E
(MLVSS)
F r o m S e c t i o n s 4.1.4 a n d 4.1.8 it follows t h a t (1) a f r a c t i o n o f t h e s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v e d is utilized in p r o d u c t i o n o f M L V S S , t h e lb of M L V S S p r o d u c e d
b e i n g given b y E q . (5.47), a n d t h a t (2) p a r t o f t h e s l u d g e p r o d u c e d is d e s t r o y e d
b y o x i d a t i o n ( e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n ) , t h e lb o f s l u d g e o x i d i z e d b e i n g g i v e n
b y E q . (5.55).
* Experimental determination of parameter b' is described in Section 6.3.2. Example 5.2

is simply an illustration o f unit conversion. Value b' = 0.15 is determined experimentally
1. Sludge produced from substrate removal. S l u d g e p r o d u c e d in l b / d a y

is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.47), w h e r e t o t a l s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l refers t o o n e - d a y
p r o d u c t i o n . R e f e r r i n g t o F i g . 5.1 a n d s y m b o l s defined in T a b l e 5 . 1 ,
lb/day of M L V S S produced = a(S -S )Q 0 e = aS Q

r (5.65)
A p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s o f a c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p a r a m e t e r s in w h i c h t o t a l s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v a l (S — S ) is e x p r e s s e d a r e utilized in E q . (5.65).
0 e
Example 5.3
Calculate M L V S S produced by substrate removal. Let
a = 0.575 lb M L V S S produced/lb total B O D 5 removed*
S 0 = 893 mg/liter
Se = 40 mg/liter
Q = 2.04 M G D (2.04 χ 1 0 gal/day)

6
C o n v e r s i o n o f u n i t s for E q . (5.65) is s i m i l a r t o t h a t for E q . (5.61) ( E x a m p l e

5 . 1 , S e c t i o n 4.2). T h e final r e s u l t is E q . (5.66).
lb/day M L V S S produced = aS Q r x 8.34 (5.66)
w h e r e .S is in m g / l i t e r a n d Q in M G D .
r
Therefore,
lb/day M L V S S produced = 0 . 5 7 5 ( 8 9 3 - 4 0 ) χ 2.04 χ 8.34
= 8342 lb/day of M L V S S
2. Sludge destroyed by endogenous respiration. Sludge destroyed by

e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.55). T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n is
i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 5.4.
Example 5.4
Calculate M L V S S destroyed by endogenous respiration. Let
b = 0.075 lb M L V S S oxidized/(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor) = d a y * 1
X Vt0 = 3000 mg/liter
V = 1.2 M G (1.2 χ 1 0 gal; reactor volume)

6
* Experimental determination o f parameter a is described in Section 6.3.4. Example 5.3

is simply an illustration o f unit conversion. Value a = 0.575 is determined experimentally
Experimental determination o f the parameter b is described in Section 6.3.4. Example
f
5.4 is simply an illustration o f unit conversion. Value b = 0.075 is determined experimentally

C o n v e r s i o n o f u n i t s for E q . (5.55) is s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r E q . (5.58) ( E x a m p l e

5.2, S e c t i o n 4.2). T h e final r e s u l t is E q . (5.67).
lb M L V S S oxidized/day = bX , V v a χ 8.34 (5.67)
where X VtQ is i n m g / l i t e r a n d K i n M G .
Therefore
lb M L V S S oxidized/day = 0.075 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34 = 2252 lb/day of M L V S S
SUMMARY N e t yield o f M L V S S is o b t a i n e d b y t h e difference b e t w e e n

MLVSS produced [ E q . (5.65)] and MLVSS oxidized (endogenous
r e s p i r a t i o n ) , g i v e n b y E q . (5.55). T h i s n e t yield i n l b / d a y is d e n o t e d a s
ΑΧ υ [ E q . (5.68)].
lb M L V S S / d a y = AX V = a(S -S )Q
0 e - bX Vta V = aS Q r - bX ,v a V (5.68)
(net yield)
F o r e x a m p l e s 5.3 a n d 5.4
ΑΧ υ = 8342 - 2252 = 6090 lb/day
4.4. T O T A L S L U D G E Y I E L D
S o far, o n l y t h e yield o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( M L V S S ) h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d .
N o w , e x a m i n e t h e d i a g r a m f o r t h e r e a c t o r s y s t e m i n F i g . 5 . 1 . T h e fresh feed
m a y contain nonvolatile suspended solids (NVSS). L e t X , F b e t h e c o n N V
centration (mg/liter) of these N V S S .

Reactor contents are under conditions of complete mixing, therefore n o
settling o f M L N V S S ( o r M L V S S ) t a k e s p l a c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f N V S S i n r e a c t o r effluent is t h e s a m e a s t h a t i n c o m b i n e d feed ( X ) . In N V T 0
t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier, h o w e v e r , p a r t o f t h e N V S S a s well a s m o s t o f V S S
settles. L e t X b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S i n u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e clarifier
N V T U
( s a m e a s i n w a s t a g e Q a n d recycle Q ) . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S i n n e t effluent R
f r o m clarifier (Q') is X . N V T B
Wastage of sludge corresponds t o

1. N e t yield o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( M L V S S ) f r o m t h e r e a c t o r . T h i s is A X V
[ E q . ( 5 . 6 8 ) ] . S i n c e t h e r e a c t o r o p e r a t e s a t s t e a d y s t a t e , t h i s w a s t a g e is e q u a l t o
n e t yield o f M L V S S , s o t h a t t o t a l l b o f M L V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r r e m a i n t h e s a m e
a t all t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n , w a s t a g e i n c l u d e s v o l a t i l e s o l i d s e n t e r i n g w i t h fresh
feed ( Q X , F ) 9
F V from a n o v e r a l l b a l a n c e o f v o l a t i l e s o l i d s ( l o o p
a s s e e n
in
F i g . 5.1). T h e r e f o r e , t o t a l w a s t a g e o f M L V S S is s h o w n i n E q . (5.69) [ u t i l i z i n g
E q . (5.68) f o r ΑΧ ~\. υ
AX +Q X v F VtF = a(S -S )Q-bX , V+

0 e v a QX,
F V F (5.69)
2. S e t t l e d N V S S d e n o t e d a s A X N V ( l b / d a y ) . T h i s v a l u e is d e t e r m i n e d b y
a n o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for N V S S o v e r l o o p in Fig. 5.1.
NVSS, I N : QFXNV,F
N V S S , O U T : Q'X , NV e + Q ' X N V T „ = Q'XNV, e + AX NV (since AX NV = Q"X , „)NV
(5.70)
T h u s t h e o v e r a l l b a l a n c e is [ E q . ( 5 . 7 1 ) ]
QFXNV,F = Q'XNV, e+ AX NV
AX NV = Q F X N V , F - Q'XNV, e (5.71)
E l i m i n a t i n g Q' a n d utilizing E q . (5.2),
AX vN — Q"XNV,u = QFXNV,F — (QF~ Q")XNV,e = QF(XNV, F ~ XNV, e) + Q"XNV, e

(5.72)
S u b s t i t u t i o n of AX a n d Δ Α ^ in E q . (5.1) b y t h e i r v a l u e s given b y E q s . (5.68)

V Κ
a n d (5.72) yields t o t a l s l u d g e yield AX [ E q . ( 5 . 7 3 ) ] . t
AX t = a(So-S )Q e - bX V+Q X , v>a F v F + Q (XNV,F~~XNV,e)

F + Q'X v,e
N
(5.73)
where
a(S Q -S )Q-
e bX Vt a V = AX V = net yield of M L V S S [Eq. (5.68)]
Q F X V , F = M L V S S in fresh feed
QF(XNV,F-Xsv,e) + Q'XNV, e = AX NV = net yield of sludge d u e t o settling

N V S S from influent [Eq. (5.72)]
4.5. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E S F O R X N V t 0 AND XVr 0
T h e v a l u e of X , i.e., c o n c e n t r a t i o n of N V S S in c o m b i n e d feed, is e s t a b
NVt0
lished b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e a r o u n d t h e j u n c t i o n of t h e fresh feed w i t h t h e

recycle t o f o r m c o m b i n e d feed ( F i g . 5 . 1 , l o o p ).
NVSS, IN = Q X F NVtF + Q X v,u

R N
NVSS, O U T = QX ,o NV
Then
QFXNV,F + QRXNV,u
U t i l i z i n g E q s . (5.4) a n d (5.5) a n d s o l v i n g for X N V < „ ,
Xsv, ο = (XNV. r + rX , „)/(l + r) NV (5.74)
A s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is w r i t t e n for X , vo t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of V S S in
c o m b i n e d feed. F i n a l r e s u l t is
Xv, ο = (Xv. F + rX , „)/(! + r) v (5.75)

5. Optimum Settling Conditions of Sludge 185
4.6. TYPICAL V A L U E S OF A E R O B I C BIOLOGICAL

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PARAMETERS
FOR DIFFERENT T Y P E S OF W A S T E W A T E R S
T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5.2.
T A B L E 5.2
Aerobic Biological Waste—Treatment Parameters*' *
Wastewater a a' b b'c

k
Domestic 0.73 0.52 0.075 0.106 0.017-0.03

Refinery 0.49-0.62 0.40-0.77 0.10-0.16 0.142-0.227 0.074
Chemical and
petrochemical 0.31-0.72 0.31-0.76 0.05-0.18 0.071-0.255 0.0029-0.018
Brewery 0.56 0.48 0.10 0.142 —
Pharmaceutical 0.72-0.77 0.46 — — 0.018
Kraft pulping
and bleaching 0.5 0.65-0.8 0.08 0.114 —
"Adapted from Ref. [ 2 ] .

" U n i t s : a, lb M L V S S produced/lb total B O D removed; b lb M L V S S oxidized/(day)
5 y
(lb M L V S S in reactor) = d a y ; a\ lb 0 (for energy)/lb total B O D r e m o v e d ; b\ lb 0 /

- 1
2 5 2
(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor) = d a y " ; k, d a y " .1 l
Values o f b' estimated from b' = 1.426.

c
5. R e l a t i o n s h i p for O p t i m u m
S e t t l i n g C o n d i t i o n s of S l u d g e
F o r a d e q u a t e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , M L V S S in t h e
r e a c t o r effluent s h o u l d b e r e a d i l y s e p a r a t e d in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. T h e
c o n d i t i o n o c c u r r i n g w h e n s l u d g e is light a n d fluffy a n d t h u s difficult t o settle
is t e r m e d b u l k i n g . B u l k y s l u d g e flakes o v e r s e p a r a t i n g w e i r s a n d c o m e s o u t
w i t h t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier effluent. S i n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e in t h e
effluent is s m a l l , t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h f o o d m a t e r i a l t o s u s t a i n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e
microorganisms which constitute the sludge. Therefore the microorganisms
are driven to endogenous respiration. O w i n g to the c o n s u m p t i o n of oxygen
for e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n , t h e effluent h a s a relatively h i g h B O D , w h i c h is
undesirable.
Settling characteristics of sludge are evaluated from sedimentation tests
p e r f o r m e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . F o r t h i s e v a l u a t i o n t w o p a r a m e t e r s a r e utilized.
1. Zone settling velocity (ZSV). T h i s p a r a m e t e r a n d its e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3 , S e c t i o n 3.6. A n easily s e t t l i n g s l u d g e
h a s a h i g h Z S V o f a b o u t 2 0 ft/hr.
2. Sludge volume index (SVI). S l u d g e v o l u m e i n d e x is defined a s v o l u m e

(in c m ) o c c u p i e d b y 1 g o f d r y s l u d g e s o l i d s after s e t t l i n g for 3 0 m i n . T h e
3
s m a l l e r t h e S V I , t h e e a s i e r is t h e s e t t l i n g o f t h e s l u d g e .
S e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e c o r r e l a t e d s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s l u d g e (in t e r m s
of Z S V or SVI) with a parameter designated as food to microorganism ratio
( h e n c e d e n o t e d a s F/M). T h i s p a r a m e t e r is defined a s [ E q . ( 5 . 7 6 ) ]
FjM = lb of substrate in influent/(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor) (5.76)
V a l u e s o f F a n d Μ a r e given b y
F = (QSo) χ 8.34 (lb/day) (5.77)
Μ = (X V) Vta χ 8.34 (lb) (5.78)
w h e r e Q is i n M G D a n d (S , X ) 0 va in mg/liter. Therefore
F/M = QS /X , V
0 v a (5.79)
S i n c e V/Q = t = r e s i d e n c e t i m e ,
F/M = S /X ,0 v a t ( d a y " *) (5.80)
I n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t c o r r e l a t i o n s for s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s l u d g e , a
series o f b e n c h scale c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r s a r e o p e r a t e d , e a c h a t a selected FjM
r a t i o . S l u d g e o b t a i n e d i n e a c h r e a c t o r is s u b j e c t e d t o s e t t l i n g t e s t s ( Z S V a n d
SVI). If t h e s e t w o p a r a m e t e r s , w h i c h a r e a m e a s u r e o f t h e ability o f t h e s l u d g e
t o settle, a r e p l o t t e d v s . t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g FjM r a t i o s , c u r v e s like t h e o n e s
s h o w n in F i g . 5.7 a r e o b t a i n e d .
S i n c e for o p t i m u m s e t t l i n g t h e s l u d g e s h o u l d h a v e a h i g h Z S V a n d a l o w
S V I , t h e o p t i m u m FjM r a t i o a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 5.7 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
m a x i m u m for t h e Z S V c u r v e a n d t h e m i n i m u m for t h e S V I c u r v e . F o r m o s t
w a s t e w a t e r s t h i s o p t i m u m v a l u e o f t h e FjM r a t i o falls b e t w e e n t h e f o l l o w i n g
limits [ E q . ( 5 . 8 1 ) ] :
0.6 > FjM > 0.3 (5.81)
w h e r e FjM is e x p r e s s e d in lb B O D 5 influent/(day)(lb MLVSS). A n explana

t i o n for t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n F/M ratio and sedimentation characteristics
o f t h e s l u d g e is given b e l o w .
1. A t l o w F/M r a t i o s (e.g., b e l o w F/M = 0.3) t h e a m o u n t o f f o o d ( s u b
s t r a t e ) p r e s e n t in t h e s y s t e m is insufficient t o m a i n t a i n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e
microorganisms. Therefore, they are driven to endogenous respiration. A
t y p i c a l b a c t e r i a l cell is s h o w n in F i g . 5.8. C y t o p l a s m i c m a t e r i a l is r i c h in
p r o t e i n s a n d r i b o n u c l e i c a c i d ( R N A ) , a n d it is t h e m a i n p o r t i o n o f t h e cell
w h i c h is m e t a b o l i z e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n . T h e
r e s i d u e left f r o m e n d o g e n o u s m e t a b o l i s m is c o n s t i t u t e d m a i n l y b y cell c a p s u l e s ,
w h i c h a r e very light a n d resist s e d i m e n t a t i o n . T h i s is w h y a t l o w F/M r a t i o s ,
Optimum Settling Conditions of S l u d g e 1
Dispersed floe Flocculating Bulking sludge

(cell capsules) sludge (filamentous organisms)
- poor — -optimum -poor settling-

settling settling
range
SVI zsv
i /-optilmum F / M ratio. ( F / M ) p 0 T
Ο 0.3
JL I
0.6
I
0.9
L
1.2
F/M = S / X 0 V | Q t = lb B O D 5 influent/(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor)
Fig. 5.7. Typical correlation of SVI and ZSV with F/M ratio.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell c a p s u l e
Fig. 5.8. Typical bacterial cell.

the sludge has p o o r settling characteristics. Sludge o b t a i n e d u n d e r these

c o n d i t i o n s is r e f e r r e d t o a s d i s p e r s e d floe, a n d a m i c r o s c o p i c view o f it is
s h o w n in F i g . 5.7 for t h e r e g i o n o f l o w F/M r a t i o s .
2. A t h i g h F/M r a t i o s (e.g., F/M > 0.6) t h e r e is p r e d o m i n a n c e o f a t y p e
o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m w h i c h is f i l a m e n t o u s in n a t u r e (Sphaerotilus). This type of
g r o w t h d o e s n o t settle well, r e m a i n i n g in s u s p e n s i o n a l m o s t indefinitely.
S l u d g e u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s is r e f e r r e d t o a s a b u l k i n g s l u d g e .
3. A t v a l u e s o f t h e F/M r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o e x t r e m e s , s l u d g e w i t h
g o o d s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is o b t a i n e d . S l u d g e u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s is
r e f e r r e d t o a s flocculating s l u d g e .
F r o m E q . (5.80) t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e t t o yield a n o p t i m u m flocculating s l u d g e
is o b t a i n e d . W r i t t e n for t h e o p t i m u m F/M r a t i o a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g . 5.7,
E q . (5.80) is
( F / M W = SJX t
9tU
(5.82)
S o l v i n g for /,
t = S /[X , (F/M) ]
0 v a OPT (5.83)
T h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h w a s t e w a t e r is fed t o t h e
a e r a t o r h a v e a n effect o n flocculating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s l u d g e . F o r
e x a m p l e , if t h e a e r a t o r is a l o n g r e c t a n g u l a r t a n k w i t h relatively p o o r m i x i n g ,
M L V S S is initially c o n t a c t e d a t t h e feed e n d w i t h e n t e r i n g s e w a g e , a n d t h e r e
fore a h i g h F/M r a t i o p r e v a i l s a t t h e e n t r a n c e . F i l a m e n t o u s g r o w t h d e v e l o p e d
u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s persists t h r o u g h o u t t h e a e r a t i o n p e r i o d , a n d s l u d g e
w i t h p o o r settling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is o b t a i n e d ( F i g . 5.9). T h e s a m e s i t u a t i o n
High F / M
c
""Effluent
Feed
Filamentous
growth
Fig. 5.9. Effect of geometry in settling characteristics of MLVSS (plug

flow model).
o c c u r s in a b a t c h r e a c t o r , since a h i g h F/M r a t i o p r e v a i l s a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e
o p e r a t i o n . T h e r e a c t o r d e p i c t e d in F i g . 5.9 is t h e p l u g flow c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r .
A general discussion of the kinetics of a c o n t i n u o u s t r e a t m e n t system (plug
flow, c o m p l e t e m i x , a n d a r b i t r a r y flow r e a c t o r s ) is p r e s e n t e d in S e c t i o n 10.
If t h e r e is c o m p l e t e m i x i n g in t h e s y s t e m , t h e F/M r a t i o is u n i f o r m t h r o u g h
o u t , p o s s i b l y falling w i t h i n t h e o p t i m u m r a n g e . U n d e r s t e a d y s t a t e a n d c o m
p l e t e m i x c o n d i t i o n s , s l u d g e is a l w a y s in c o n t a c t w i t h a B O D c o n c e n t r a t i o n
e q u a l t o t h a t in t h e effluent. T h e r e f o r e a d e n s e s l u d g e is likely t o b e o b t a i n e d .
6. Parameters for Design of Reactors 189
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o o b t a i n e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e g r a p h in F i g . 5.7 for t h e specific

s u b s t r a t e u n d e r s t u d y , since c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n o c c u r s d e p e n d i n g on
s u b s t r a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . S u b s t r a t e s w h i c h a r e easily d e g r a d a b l e (e.g., s o l u b l e
sugars) b e c o m e immediately available as food to the m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , a n d
t h e r e f o r e t h e r e s u l t is a fast g r o w t h r e s p o n s e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o m p l e x
o r g a n i c s u b s t r a t e s (e.g., w a s t e w a t e r s f r o m petroleum and petrochemical
plants) must u n d e r g o chemical b r e a k d o w n before being available as food to
the microorganisms, g r o w t h response being therefore slower.
6. Experimental D e t e r m i n a t i o n of
P a r a m e t e r s N e e d e d for Design of
A e r o b i c Biological R e a c t o r s
6.1. B E N C H S C A L E C O N T I N U O U S REACTORS
A b e n c h scale c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r utilized for t h e s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s is
d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . P a r a m e t e r s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d a r e defined in S e c t i o n s
4.1.2 t o 4 . 1 . 9 , i.e., for k i n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p : k; for m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e r e l a t i o n
s h i p s : a, a\ b a n d b'. A d i a g r a m o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s flow r e a c t o r is s h o w n in
9
F i g . 5.10. T h i s u n i t is d e s i g n e d a n d b u i l t b y B i o - D e v e l o p m e n t A s s o c i a t e s ,
A u s t i n , T e x a s . T h e r e a c t o r is m a d e of plexiglass a n d d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s e c t i o n s :
the aeration a n d settling c h a m b e r s . These simulate the reactor a n d the
s e c o n d a r y clarifier for a n a c t u a l p l a n t .
C a p a c i t y o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 liters. A i r is s u p p l i e d
a s i n d i c a t e d in t h e d i a g r a m . B u b b l i n g a i r k e e p s t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e a e r a t i o n
c h a m b e r in a c o m p l e t e l y m i x e d c o n d i t i o n . W a s t e w a t e r is fed c o n t i n u o u s l y
f r o m a c o n s t a n t h e a d feed r e s e r v o i r b y m e a n s o f a S i g m a m o t o r p u m p , a n d
overflows c o n t i n u o u s l y i n t o t h e effluent b o t t l e . T h e a e r a t i o n a n d s e d i m e n t a t i o n
c h a m b e r s a r e s e p a r a t e d b y a sliding baffle w h i c h c a n b e c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d if
desired.
S t a r t - u p is p e r f o r m e d b y p l a c i n g in t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a seed o f d o m e s t i c
activated sludge collected from a n o p e r a t i n g plant, a n d gradually acclimating
it t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r u n d e r s t u d y . F o r w a s t e w a t e r s o f i n d u s t r i a l o r i g i n c o n
taining c o m p o u n d s which are toxic to the microorganisms, mixtures of
i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r a n d d o m e s t i c s e w a g e a r e fed t o t h e r e a c t o r w i t h a
g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r . E v e n t u a l l y , feed is
100% i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r w i t h o u t d e l e t e r i o u s effects o n t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
F l o w r a t e is v a r i e d b y p r o p e r s e t t i n g o f t h e S i g m a m o t o r p u m p , a n d b y
utilizing different i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r s for t h e T y g o n t u b i n g . A S i g m a m o t o r
p u m p operates by "squeezing" the wastewater through the Tygon tubing by
m e a n s o f m e c h a n i c a l " f i n g e r s , " t h e s p e e d o f w h i c h is set. O n e p u m p p r o m o t e s
w a s t e w a t e r flow t h r o u g h several r e a c t o r u n i t s in p a r a l l e l , e a c h o n e p r o v i d e d
Fig. 5.10. Continuous flow reactor (bench scale model). Insert: detail of
Sigma pump setup for operation of five reactors in parallel.
w i t h its o w n T y g o n feed line [ F i g . 5.10 ( i n s e r t ) ] . T h e " f i n g e r s " s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

s q u e e z e t h e s e several T y g o n t u b i n g s , p r o m o t i n g different flow r a t e s for e a c h
line d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r o f e a c h t u b i n g . *
F l o w rates are determined by calibration, either weighing or measuring the
v o l u m e o f effluent o b t a i n e d d u r i n g a t i m e d p e r i o d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a selected
settling of t h e p u m p a n d a chosen internal d i a m e t e r of tubing. F l o w rates are
r e p r o d u c i b l e w i t h i n less t h a n 1% fluctuation.
F l o w r a t e s v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , e.g., f r o m 3 5 0 d o w n t o a b o u t 1.0 l i t e r / d a y .
F o r a n a e r a t o r c h a m b e r v o l u m e o f 7.0 liters, t h e s e r a t e s c o r r e s p o n d t o r e s i d e n c e
times of
Q = 350 liters/day, t = V/Q = 7/(350/24) = 0.48 h r * 30 min
Q = 1 liter/day, t = V/Q = 7/1 = 7 days
A s the section of T y g o n t u b i n g subjected t o this c o n t i n u o u s squeezing
* Sigmamotor p u m p model T-8 (manufactured by Sigmamotor Inc., H o u s t o n , Texas)

an be used to operate five units in parallel.
a c t i o n w e a r s o u t , it softens a n d flow r a t e s c h a n g e . I t is a d v i s a b l e t o slide t h e

t u b i n g a l o n g a t p e r i o d i c i n t e r v a l s , s o t h a t a n e w s e c t i o n o f it b e c o m e s e x p o s e d
t o t h e s q u e e z i n g a c t i o n . F r e q u e n t c a l i b r a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d t o e n s u r e c o n f i d e n c e
in t h e r e s u l t s . T u b i n g is r e p l a c e d after it is w o r n o u t .
T h e m a i n difference i n o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e b e t w e e n t h i s b e n c h scale r e a c t o r
a n d t h e o n e in p l a n t scale ( F i g . 5.1) is t h a t n o c o n t r o l l e d recycle o f s l u d g e is
p r o v i d e d in t h e b e n c h scale u n i t . S l u d g e is r e t u r n e d t o a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r f r o m
t h e s e t t l i n g c h a m b e r t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g b e t w e e n t h e baffle a n d t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e u n i t . T h i s r a t e o f r e t u r n c a n n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d . I t is d e s i r a b l e t o m a i n t a i n
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t
( a t a selected v a l u e u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 2 0 0 0 a n d 3 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r ) . I n o r d e r t o
a c h i e v e t h i s c o n s t a n t M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e p r o c e d u r e is
1. D e t e r m i n e p e r i o d i c a l l y t h e M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e aerator
l i q u o r f r o m s a m p l e s w i t h d r a w n t h r o u g h t h e d r a i n line.
2. W i t h d r a w c a l c u l a t e d w e i g h t s o f M L V S S in o r d e r t o k e e p t h i s c o n
c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e selected v a l u e for a given e x p e r i m e n t . F o r a r e a c t o r o p e r a t i n g
w i t h M L V S S u n d e r e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , it is n e c e s s a r y t o a d d
s l u d g e i n s t e a d o f w i t h d r a w i n g it, in o r d e r t o k e e p a c o n s t a n t MLVSS
concentration.
W h e n t h e s l i d i n g baffle is i n s e r t e d , t h e b e n c h scale r e a c t o r is u t i l i z e d t o
s i m u l a t e t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e u n i t a s d e s c r i b e d . By r e m o v i n g t h e s l i d i n g baffle,
s i m u l a t i o n o f a n a e r a t e d l a g o o n is o b t a i n e d ( C h a p t e r 6, S e c t i o n 5).
6.2. E X P E R I M E N T A L P R O C E D U R E
E a c h experiment requires 2 - 4 weeks before steady state conditions are
a c h i e v e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n it is c o n v e n i e n t t o o p e r a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o u r o r
five r e a c t o r s in p a r a l l e l .
S t e p s in t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e a r e [ 3 ]
1. E a c h u n i t is filled w i t h seed s l u d g e u p t o a p r e d e t e r m i n e d v o l u m e .
D i l u t i o n is m a d e w i t h w a s t e w a t e r in o r d e r t o o b t a i n a M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of 2000-3000 mg/liter.
2. A i r is t u r n e d o n a n d c o n t e n t s o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a r e c o m p l e t e l y
m i x e d b y t h e t u r b u l e n c e t h u s p r o d u c e d . T h e sliding baffle is a d j u s t e d t o l e a v e
a n o p e n i n g o f J t o i in. a t t h e b o t t o m . D u r i n g o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r e a c t o r ,
f u r t h e r baffle a d j u s t m e n t s a r e m a d e in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a d e s i r e d b l a n k e t
h e i g h t o f s l u d g e in t h e s e t t l i n g c h a m b e r a n d a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f s l u d g e b e t w e e n
t h e t w o c h a m b e r s ( F i g . 5.11).
3. S t a r t t h e S i g m a m o t o r p u m p a t a flow r a t e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n t h e
d e s i r e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r . A c c l i m a t i o n o f s l u d g e , if
r e q u i r e d , is p e r f o r m e d a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d .
4. O p e r a t e t h e r e a c t o r u n t i l s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a c h i e v e d . A t t a i n
m e n t o f s t e a d y s t a t e is a s s u m e d w h e n t w o c r i t e r i a a r e satisfied: ( a ) o x y g e n
'—Êffluent
Fig. 5.11. Side view (section) of aeration and settling chambers.
uptake rate of reactor contents remains unchanged (determination of oxygen

u p t a k e r a t e is d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 6.3.3) a n d ( b ) B O D o f effluent b e c o m e s
stable.
5. C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S is m e a s u r e d d a i l y a n d a d j u s t e d t o a n e a r l y
c o n s t a n t v a l u e for t h e d u r a t i o n o f a n e x p e r i m e n t . T o c h e c k n e t i n c r e a s e o f
M L V S S , p l u g overflow weir, r a i s e baffle, a n d w i t h d r a w a s a m p l e f r o m m i x e d
t a n k c o n t e n t s . If V is t h e t o t a l v o l u m e ( a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r p l u s s e t t l i n g c h a m b e r )
t
a n d t w o d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f M L V S S a r e m a d e , e.g., 2 4 h r a p a r t y i e l d i n g v a l u e s
Xl and X, 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e n e t i n c r e a s e o f M L V S S is
AX V =V X ~
t 2 VX t 1 = V (X -X )
t 2 x (24-hr growth) (5.84)
V a l u e s (X l9 X)2 r e p r e s e n t " a v e r a g e d " c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f M L V S S for t h e t o t a l

v o l u m e o f t h e t a n k , since t h e baffle h a s b e e n r a i s e d a n d t h e c o n t e n t s o f a e r a t i o n
a n d s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r s m i x e d . E s s e n t i a l l y , n o s l u d g e g r o w t h o c c u r s in
t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o d i r e c t a e r a t i o n t h e r e . T h e r e
f o r e , t h e v a l u e o f AX V c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.84) r e p r e s e n t s t h e n e t g r o w t h
occurring in the aerator.
F o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f E q . (5.68), it is r e c o m m e n d e d t o t a k e X as the M L V S S
VtU
c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d after t h e baffle is r a i s e d . T h i s m a y s e e m c o n t r o v e r
sial since i n E q . (5.68) Χ s t a n d s for M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in a e r a t i o n
υα
c h a m b e r d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n (V is t h e v o l u m e o f a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r ) . T h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S in t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r is p r o b a b l y different
f r o m t h a t in t h e a e r a t o r . A t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r t h e r e
is a s l u d g e b l a n k e t o f v e r y h i g h M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d a t t h e t o p a s u p e r
n a t a n t l i q u i d w i t h negligible M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n . A f t e r t h e baffle is r a i s e d ,
t h i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a s s in t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r is m i x e d w i t h t h e
c o n t e n t s o f t h e a e r a t o r . T h e w h o l e v o l u m e is t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d b y t h e b u b b l i n g
a i r b e f o r e t h e s a m p l e is t a k e n . T h e d e s i g n e r s o f t h i s l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r c l a i m
t h a t t h e r e is n o significant difference b e t w e e n M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e
aeration c h a m b e r during operation a n d t h a t in the whole mixed content of t h e
t w o c h a m b e r s . I n a n y e v e n t , it is p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o w i t h d r a w r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e s f r o m t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n for a n a l y s i s
of X . va R e c a l l a l s o t h a t t h e v o l u m e o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n c h a m b e r is m u c h
s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r ( r a t i o o f a b o u t 3/7). T h e r e f o r e ,
M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e m i x e d c o n t e n t s o f t h e t w o c h a m b e r s is n o t t o o
different f r o m t h a t o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n .
6. O n c e s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n is a t t a i n e d , t h e s a m p l i n g s c h e d u l e p r e
s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.3 is f o l l o w e d .
T A B L E 5.3
Sampling Schedule [3]
Analysis Frequency R a w waste" Mixed liquor* Effluent'
1. C O D , B O D , o r T O C
(mg/liter) (filtered and 3/week X — X
unfiltered c o m p o s i t e (So) OS.)

samples)
2. p H daily X X X
3. SS, M L V S S (mg/liter)
(also determine sludge
settling curves and 3/week — X X
sludge volume index o f (Xv.a) (keep low)

mixed liquor at the end
of test run)
4. D i s s o l v e d o x y g e n
( D O ) (mg/liter) daily — X —
5. Oxygen uptake rate 3/week — X —
6. Microscopic analysis
(gram stain) 1/week — X —
7. Color, turbidity 3/week — — X
8. Significant ions,
compounds 3/week X — X
a
Sample withdrawn from influent feed line or raw waste containers.
b
Sample withdrawn from the unbaffled tank.
c
Sample withdrawn from effluent bottle.
6.3. C A L C U L A T I O N O F D E S I G N P A R A M E T E R S
Calculation of parameters k 9 a, a', b, a n d V is m a d e f r o m o b t a i n e d d a t a .
P r o c e d u r e is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n s 6 . 3 . 1 - 6 . 3 . 4 .
6.3.1. Determination of S u b s t r a t e Removal

Rate (k)
T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n , b a s e d o n E q . (5.18) o r E q . (5.19), is d e s c r i b e d in
S e c t i o n 3.2.
6.3.2. Determination of O x y g e n Utilization

Parameters a ' a n d b'
T h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n is b a s e d o n E q . (5.64) in w h i c h t h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r is
w r i t t e n a s R V, r i.e.,
Rr V = a\S Q -S )Qe + b'X Vt a V (5.85)
where R r is t h e o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e , i.e., o x y g e n utilized p e r d a y p e r u n i t

volume of reactor; a n d Κ the reactor volume.
E x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f R is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 6 . 3 . 3 . D i v i d i n g E q .
r
(5.85) b y X v a K a n d l e t t i n g V/Q = t ( r e s i d e n c e t i m e ) yields
R /X , r v a = a'[(S 0 - S )/X ,
e v a t] + V (5.86)
E q u a t i o n (5.86) is t h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o x y g e n u t i l i z a
t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a' a n d V. N o t i c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t e r m (S — S )/X t 0 e va (sub
s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e ) , w h i c h a l s o o c c u r s i n E q s . (5.18) a n d (5.19) f o r d e t e r
m i n a t i o n o f k.
U n i t s for R r o b t a i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y scale d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a r e m e t r i c ,
i.e., m g 0 / ( d a y ) ( l i t e r ) . S i n c e
2
m g 0 / l i t e r liquor = lb 0 / M l b liquor
2 2 (Section 4.2, Example 5.1)
then
R r = lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( M l b liquor)
2
S i m i l a r l y , for XVta
X, v a = m g MLVSS/liter liquor = lb M L V S S / M l b liquor
T h e r e f o r e in E q . (5.86)
lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( M l b liquor)
2
RrlX ,a v = ΐ Κ ' T VQQ/MIK R = »> 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b MLVSS)
2
lb M L V S S / M l b liquor
T h u s R /X r Via is a m e a s u r e o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f o x y g e n p e r d a y a n d p e r l b o f
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e p r e s e n t in t h e r e a c t o r .
A s s h o w n in S e c t i o n 3.2,
(S -S )IX t
0 e Ota = l b B O D r e m o v e d / ( d a y ) ( l b MLVSS)
A c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.86) a p l o t o f R /X v s . (S -S )/X t yields a s t r a i g h t r Vta 0 e Vta
line f r o m t h e s l o p e a n d i n t e r c e p t o f w h i c h o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a'
a n d b' a r e o b t a i n e d . A t y p i c a l p l o t is s h o w n i n F i g . 5.16, a n d a n u m e r i c a l
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f its c o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a is p r e s e n t e d i n E x a m p l e
5.5 ( S e c t i o n 6.4).
6.3.3. Experimental Determination of the

O x y g e n Uptake Rate (R ) r
P o s s i b l y t h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e is b y g a l v a n i c
cell o x y g e n m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h i s is t h e o n l y m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
O t h e r m e t h o d s a r e p o l a r o g r a p h i c a n d W a r b u r g t e c h n i q u e s a n d off-gas
a n a l y s i s . O f all t h e s e m e t h o d s , g a l v a n i c cell m e a s u r e m e n t is t h e s i m p l e s t , a n d
its a c c u r a c y is u s u a l l y a d e q u a t e . T h e a p p a r a t u s for t h i s m e a s u r e m e n t is t h e
dissolved oxygen analyzer ( D O analyzer) described in C h a p t e r 2 (Section
2.3.1) a n d s h o w n i n F i g . 2 . 4 .
E x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e for m e a s u r i n g o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e (R ) is [ 6 ]
r
1. Fill B O D b o t t l e w i t h a e r a t e d m i x e d l i q u o r f r o m test s o l u t i o n .
2. I n s e r t p r o b e i n t o b o t t l e , a l l o w i n g d i s p l a c e d l i q u i d t o o v e r f l o w . C a r e
is t a k e n t o p r e v e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n o f a i r b u b b l e s i n s i d e b o t t l e .
3. M i x t h e c o n t e n t s u s i n g a m a g n e t i c s t i r r i n g a p p a r a t u s .
4. R e c o r d g a l v o n o m e t e r r e a d i n g s a t v a r i o u s t i m e i n t e r v a l s , u s u a l l y e v e r y
30 sec.
5. C o r r e c t r e a d i n g s b a s e d o n a p r e d e t e r m i n e d sensitivity f a c t o r (for
d e t a i l s refer t o [ 6 ] ) , a n d p l o t d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n level ( o r d i n a t e ) v s . t i m e
( a b s c i s s a ) ( F i g . 5.12).
12 I —
= - ( S lope )
II =-(2 5-8. )/(IC -2)= 0.7 rng/(l iter)( min)
= 0.7' x 6 C ) x 2 4 = I C >08r ng 0 / W ayXlit er) .
10 2
= I0(D8 lb 0 / (day (Μ I b liqijor)

2
9 V = 0 0 8 χ 10" l b 0 / ( day)( b liquor)

3
I 7
b 5
0 1 2 3 ~ 4 5 6_
7 8 9 Ϊ0
Time (min)
Fig. 5.12. Determination of oxygen uptake rate.

6. I n F i g . 5.12, t h e s l o p e o f t h e line is o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e in m g / ( l i t e r )
( m i n ) . A specific u p t a k e r a t e (R /X ) r va is t h e n d e t e r m i n e d b y d i v i d i n g t h i s
v a l u e b y M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e test s a m p l e . I n F i g . 5.12, t h e first d a t a
p o i n t s i m m e d i a t e l y after / = 0 a r e not t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in e v a l u a t i n g
t h e s l o p e . T h e h i g h e r s l o p e o f t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e line is d u e t o loss o f e n t r a i n e d
a i r f r o m t h e l i q u o r . A f t e r a few m i n u t e s t h e s l o p e b e c o m e s s t a b i l i z e d , a n d it
is t a k e n a s t h e u p t a k e r a t e .
A temperature correction available from n o m o g r a p h s furnished by the
m a n u f a c t u r e r is a p p l i e d t o t h e r e a d i n g s . P r o b e r e a d i n g s a r e i n a c c u r a t e a t
D O c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e l o w 0.5 m g / l i t e r . T r a n s f e r o f t h e m i x e d l i q u o r f r o m t h e
reactor to the D O analyzer bottle should be rapid, a n d the test started as
s o o n a s p o s s i b l e f o l l o w i n g s a m p l e w i t h d r a w a l . If o x y g e n d e p l e t i o n is t o o
r a p i d , t h e s a m p l e is d i l u t e d in o r d e r t o r e d u c e M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n . I t is
a d v i s a b l e t o c a l i b r a t e t h e p r o b e in a s a m p l e o f w a t e r s i m i l a r t o t h a t in w h i c h
t h e D O a n a l y z e r is u s e d , in o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e e r r o r s d u e t o t h e salt effect.
6.3.4. Determination of Parameters for

S l u d g e Yield (a and b)
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b is b a s e d o n E q . (5.73). F o r t h e b e n c h
scale r e a c t o r t h e r e is n o recycle o f s l u d g e , c o n t r a r y t o w h a t h a p p e n s for t h e
r e a c t o r in F i g . 5 . 1 , for w h i c h E q . (5.73) is w r i t t e n .
A simplified d i a g r a m o f t h e b e n c h scale r e a c t o r is s h o w n in F i g . 5.13. By
c o m p a r i n g F i g . 5.13 w i t h F i g . 5 . 1 , t e r m s in E q . (5.73) a r e m o d i f i e d for a p p l i c a
tion to the laboratory unit.
V Q
Q
X
v,o
X
v,e
1 X
NV,e
NV,o
1
X
So
S
e
(sludge deposited)
Fig. 5.13. Simplified diagram of the bench scale continuous reactor.
Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.13
QF Q
Q" zero
Xy,F Χν,ο
XNV, F XNV, ο
T h e r e f o r e , E q . (5.73) f o r t h e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r b e c o m e s
AX t = a(S -S )Q-bX , V+
0 e v a QX , V 0 + Q(X -X , )
NVt0 NV e
(5.87)
AX V AX N
E q u a t i o n (5.87) is r e a r r a n g e d a s
AX - Q(X v,o-X v,e

t N N + Xv,o) = AX = a(S -S )Q- V 0 e bX , V
v a (5.88)
Dividing through by Χ να V a n d n o t i c i n g t h a t V/Q = t ( r e s i d e n c e t i m e ) ,
AXt/V- (X , -X v,e + Xv,o)lt (AXJV)

NV 0 N
= a[(S -S )/X , t]-b
0 e v a (5.89)
Xv,
I n t h e n u m e r a t o r o f t h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . ( 5 . 8 9 ) , t e r m AXJV equals
t h e n e t yield o f t o t a l s l u d g e p e r u n i t v o l u m e [ i . e . , m g t o t a l s l u d g e / ( d a y ) ( l i t e r ) ] .
T e r m AXJV c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e n e t yield o f M L V S S p e r u n i t v o l u m e . I f c o n
c e n t r a t i o n s o f N V S S a n d M L V S S i n t h e i n f l u e n t a r e n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X NVt0 «
X N V t e « X Vf0 ~ 0), this e q u a t i o n reduces t o
AXJV AXJV
= a[(S -S )/X , t]-b
0 e v a (5.90)
Xv,
E q u a t i o n (5.89) [ o r E q . ( 5 . 9 0 ) ] is t h e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p for d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f s l u d g e yield p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b. N o t i c e a g a i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t e r m
(S — S )/X t
0 e Vta ( s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e ) , w h i c h a l s o o c c u r r e d i n E q s . (5.18),
(5.19), a n d (5.86) f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s k, a\ a n d b'.
Note on units for Eq. (5.89) lor Eq. ( 5 . 9 0 ) ] : F r o m l a b o r a t o r y d e t e r m i n a
t i o n s , t h e v a l u e o f AXJV is o b t a i n e d i n m e t r i c u n i t s , i.e., AXJV = m g total
s l u d g e y i e l d / ( d a y ) (liter o f l i q u o r ) . F r o m s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s t h o s e f o r
R r ( S e c t i o n 6.3.2), it f o l l o w s t h a t t h i s v a l u e is n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h a t
e x p r e s s e d i n E n g l i s h u n i t s , i.e., AXJV = lb sludge yield/(day)(Mlb liquor).
T h e r e f o r e t e r m (AXJV)/X Vta i n E n g l i s h u n i t s is
AXJV _ lb total sludge yield/(day)(Mlb liquor)

X0ta ~ lb M L V S S / M l b liquor
= lb total sludge yield/(day)(lb M L V S S )

Similarly,
AXt/V - (X y, ο - X , N NV e + X , )/t v 0
= lb M L V S S yield/(day)(lb M L V S S )
Xv, a
A c c o r d i n g t o E q . (5.89) [ o r E q . ( 5 . 9 0 ) ] a p l o t o f ( a c c o u n t i n g f o r p r e s e n c e o f
NVSS)
\ AX /V-(X v, -X ,
t N 0 NV e + X ,o)/t
v AXJV]
γ = — — vs. (S -S )IX at
0 e Vt
|_ -^ν,α -^υ,α J
o r s i m p l y (if N V S S is negligible)
AXJV
— — vs. (S -S )IX t
0 e Via
yields a s t r a i g h t line f r o m t h e s l o p e a n d i n t e r c e p t o f w h i c h d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s
a a n d b a r e o b t a i n e d . A t y p i c a l p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 5.17, a n d its c o n s t r u c t i o n
f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a is i l l u s t r a t e d in S e c t i o n 6.4, E x a m p l e 5.5.
T h e a b s c i s s a i n t e r c e p t in F i g . 5.17 c o r r e s p o n d s t o a z e r o v a l u e for t h e
o r d i n a t e . T h i s o c c u r s for a c o n d i t i o n o f n e t z e r o yield o f M L V S S , i.e.,
AX V = 0. R e f e r r i n g t o E q . (5.68), for AX V = 0 it f o l l o w s t h a t p r o d u c t i o n o f
M L V S S b y s y n t h e s i s , i.e., a(S 0 — S )Q
e 9 is e x a c t l y b a l a n c e d b y loss o f M L V S S
o x i d i z e d b y e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n , i.e., bX V. va Therefore
a{S -S )Q
0 e = bX , V
v a
T h u s , t h e l e n g t h o f a b s c i s s a i n t e r c e p t is (S -S )/X t
0 e va = b/a, a s i n d i c a t e d i n
F i g . 5.14.
I n s u m m a r y , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m b e n c h scale
s t u d i e s u s i n g t h i s l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r is t h e o r g a n i c r e m o v a l c a p a c i t y o f a n
a c c l i m a t e d b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e r e c e i v i n g a p r e d e f i n e d w a s t e w a t e r . F u l l scale
plants operating on design criteria developed using this reactor p r o d u c e a n
effluent w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e p r e d i c t e d q u a l i t y . M o r e o v e r , o x y g e n u t i l i z a
t i o n r a t e s a r e s c a l e d u p w i t h r e l a t i v e a c c u r a c y f r o m b e n c h scale r e a c t o r s t o
full scale u n i t s . T h e r e is s o m e difficulty, h o w e v e r , in s c a l i n g u p a n d a p p l y i n g
coefficients a a n d b d e v e l o p e d f r o m b e n c h scale r e a c t o r s t o a full scale u n i t
b e c a u s e o f l i m i t a t i o n s d u e t o l o w a c c u r a c y o f t h e V S S test, a n d t h e difficulty
o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a solids b a l a n c e in s m a l l scale s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s . U s i n g l a r g e r
r e a c t o r s o f p i l o t - p l a n t scale e n h a n c e s t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e coefficients.
F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e a c c u r a c y o f coefficients a a n d b is less i m p o r t a n t for t h e
d e s i g n e r t h a n t h o s e for r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t (k) and oxygen demand
coefficients (a\b').
6.4. N U M E R I C A L E X A M P L E S : D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF D E S I G N P A R A M E T E R S FOR A N
ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM
Example 5.5
A n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t is c o n s i d e r i n g a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m for t r e a t m e n t
o f t h e i r w a s t e w a t e r s . P r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n l a b o r a t o r y scale
c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r s ( F i g . 5.10). T h e v o l u m e o f t h e a e r a t i o n c h a m b e r in
l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r s is 7 liters. F o u r r e a c t o r s a r e o p e r a t e d in p a r a l l e l u n t i l
s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e o b t a i n e d . D a t a t a k e n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.4.
T h e influent c o n t a i n s a n a v e r a g e o f 3 0 m g / l i t e r o f N V S S . I n effluent, c o n -
Parameters for Design of Reactors
Ο Ο Ο Ο
CO >
h> νο ^ « Λ
00 ο οο ο\
60^ m οο m <Ν
Ό < So
3 -a
53 3
T3
(Ν Ο
_ σ\ οο
§ ^ 3 ^ οο <s
Ν r»
60
(30
5 1
S «η
^ Tt οο rn
ο
60$ Λ
8
8 > δ
m fvj co <N
3s§ Ε
(Η ©β C3 ·-<
3 S "« 55 60 8
ε s 8 S COε
ο
60 Λ J " *jj
11SS 00 00 00 00
υ ο η Ν η rt
03
OS Co
03
Ί3
ΟΙ
(0
Ο
ΙΑ *
» 75
UJ > ο
—' Εο ?a
5 '4
2
Η α:
c e n t r a t i o n o f N V S S is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 m g / l i t e r . T h e difference, 3 0 — 2 0 =
10 m g / l i t e r , c o r r e s p o n d s t o N V S S s e t t l e d i n t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. S l u d g e
u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier c o n s i s t s o f t h i s N V S S s e t t l e d plus net
yield o f V S S f r o m r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n .
F r o m d a t a in T a b l e 5.4 d e t e r m i n e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s k, a, a\ b, a n d V. A l s o
estimate nonbiodegradable matter concentration S n (mg/liter). F r o m Table
5.5 d e t e r m i n e k a n d S . n A l s o p l o t c o l u m n (9) o f t h e t a b l e v s . c o l u m n (5). A
g r a p h o f t h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 5.14.
1 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
Slope;k = ( l . 6 l - 0 . 0 ) / ( I I O - I O ) = 0.0161 d a y
-1
= 0 . 0 0 0 6 7 hr' 1
Equation:
1.6
IQ\ O^Reactor
(S -S )/X0 e V f Q t=k(S -S )
e n ID.iy; * , N q
/ 3 = l
° mg/liter
1.2
n
0.8
O ^ R e a c t o r No. 2
0.4
X ^ - R e a c t o r No. 3
! >d*-Reactor No. 4
W 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 10 50 100
S e (mg/liter)
Fig. 5.14. Graphical determination of k and S„ (Example 5.5).
Est imc ted mir imu m

(at F/l 1=0 .6)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

F/M
Fig. 5.15. Plot of SVI vs. F/M (Example 5.5).

Step 1. D e t e r m i n e t h e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t k ( k i n e t i c s o f B O D r e m o v a l )
[ E q . (5.19)].
k = 0.0161 d a y " 1
(0.00067 h r " ) 1
Sn = 10 mg/liter
A p l o t o f S V I vs. F/M r a t i o is s h o w n in F i g . 5.15. E s t i m a t e d m i n i m u m S V I
o c c u r s a t a v a l u e o f F/M ratio « 0.6.
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a' a n d b' [ E q . ( 5 . 8 6 ) ] .
F r o m T a b l e 5.6 d e t e r m i n e a' a n d b'.
P l o t c o l u m n (4) vs. c o l u m n (5) ( T a b l e 5.6). T h e g r a p h is s h o w n in F i g . 5.16.
Then
a' = 0.79 m g 0 / m g B O D = 0.79 lb 0 / l b B O D
2 r 2 r
b' = 0.15 d a y " 1
T A B L E 5.6
Oxygen Utilization Parameters
Laboratory data Calculated data
(2) (3) W (5)

U) Xv, a Rr (S -S )/X t
0 e Vta
Reactor (mg/liter) [mg 0 /(liter)(day)]

2 RrlXv,a (day- ) 1
no. (Table 5.4) (Table 5.4) (day" ) 1

(Table 5.5)
1 3100 4025 1.298 1.440

2 2800 1800 0.643 0.620
3 3000 1292 0.431 0.350
4 2900 780 0.269 0.145
-τ—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—r~
Slope;a' = (i.O-0.5)/(l.07-0.44)
= 0.79 lb 0 ,energy/lb total B 0 D
2 5
Equation removed
1.5 (5.86)
^Reactor No. I
Intercept;
b'=O.I5 lb 0 /(day)(lb ML\
2
1.0
est J^-Reactor No. 2

0.5
^ - R e a c t o r No. 3
^-Reactor No. 4
^"Intercept; b'=O.I5
Ju ι ι Τ ι—ι ι ι ' I I I I—I—L_
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Fig. 5.16. Graphical determination of a' and b' (Example 5.5).

«τι
• I
ι Ό aJ
CO w
T3
CO*
3
oo δ
•s ν©
ί OOJO
ι φ¥
* l §:
I
.*i^CO
<
00
.6
υ Ι
Ο
1
CO
o O ^
-O
w
'«»is
8 s?"^
B . l b
co
< £ « ο
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e s l u d g e yield p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b [ E q . ( 5 . 8 9 ) ] .
(X ,
NV ο- X NVt e = 3 0 - 2 0 = 10 m g SS/liter) XVt 0 = 0
F r o m T a b l e 5.7 d e t e r m i n e a a n d b. P l o t c o l u m n (7) vs. c o l u m n (8) ( T a b l e

5.7). T h e g r a p h is s h o w n in F i g . 5.17.
a = 0.575 lb MLVSS/lb total B O D 5 removed
b = 0.075 lb MLVSS/(day)(lb MLVSS)
SUMMARY D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( E x a m p l e 5.5)
k = 0.0161 d a y " (0.00067 h r " )

1 1
S„ = 10 mg/liter
-ι 1 1 1 1
Equation;
ΔΧ,/V- (X N V , -X0 N V , e * X ) / 1 _AX /V
w V
ω
ω
> Λ
ν,α ν,α
= a[(S -S )/X 0 e V | Q t]-b (5.89)
^-Reactor
No. I J
Slope;a = (0.73-O.I55)/(l.4-0.4)
=0.575 lb MLVSS/lb total BODsrernoved
_J 1 L 1 JL
0.4 0.8 2.0
( S o - S e i V X ^ t (day' ) 1
b/a=0.075/0.575=O.I3
Fig. 5.17. Graphical determination of a and b (Example 5.5).

a = 0.575 lb M L V S S / l b total B O D 5 removed
a' = 0.79 lb 0 / l b total B O D

2 5 removed
b = 0.075 lb M L V S S / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S )
b' = 0.15 lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b MLVSS)

2
Example 5.6
If for a w a s t e w a t e r t h e l b 0 / d a y r e q u i r e d for a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t is
2
lb 0 / d a y = 0.4(lb B O D removed/day) + 0.1 (lb M L V S S )

2 5
w r i t e a n a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n for b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e yield in l b / d a y .
SOLUTION Here
a' = 0.4 (basis B O D , i.e., α' οΌ ) 5 Β 5
b' = 0.1
T h e d e s i r e d e q u a t i o n f r o m E q . (5.68) is
AX„(\b M L V S S / d a y ) = a ( l b B O D removed/day) - b(\b M L V S S )5
A p p r o x i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s for a [ S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 6 ( c ) ] a n d b [ f r o m E q . ( 5 . 6 0 ) ] a s
f u n c t i o n s o f a' a n d b'
0 . 8 2 a o D + 0.58flioD = 1.0
B 5 5
b = b'\\A2
Therefore, the a p p r o x i m a t e value of tf DBO 5 * S
fl D
BO 5 = ( l - 0 . 5 8 ^ D ) / 0 . 8 2 = [ l - ( 0 . 5 8 ) ( 0 . 4 ) ] / 0 . 8 2 = 0.94
O 5
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e o f b is
b = 671.42 = 0.1/1.42 = 0.07
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n for M L V S S yield is
AX V = 0.94(lb B O D removed/day) - 0.07(lb M L V S S )

5
7. Design P r o c e d u r e for an
A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e Plant
7.1. INTRODUCTION
F r o m k n o w l e d g e o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s k, a, b, a\ a n d b\ design of the
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t is u n d e r t a k e n . F o r t h e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r i n F i g . 5.10
t h e r e is n o r e c y c l e o f s l u d g e . N e t s l u d g e yield is w i t h d r a w n i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t o
m a i n t a i n a n a v e r a g e c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n (X ) Vf0 of M L V S S in the a e r a t i o n
c h a m b e r . F o r t h e a c t u a l p l a n t , s l u d g e is r e c y c l e d a s s h o w n i n F i g . 5 . 1 .
A p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e selected b y t h e d e s i g n e r is c o n c e n t r a t i o n X va of M L V S S
i n t h e a e r a t o r . R a t e o f recycle s l u d g e Q R is c a l c u l a t e d t o p r o v i d e t h i s c o n c e n
tration. Usually X v%a is selected b e t w e e n 2 0 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S .
A n o t h e r p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e w h i c h is selected b y t h e d e s i g n e r is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
X VfU o f M L V S S i n recycle s l u d g e ( s t r e a m 7 i n F i g . 5.1), w h i c h is a l s o e q u a l t o
M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier [ s t r e a m 5 ] .
Concentration X VfU is a l s o t h e s a m e a s t h a t i n s t r e a m 6 ( w a s t a g e ) . G o o d
s e t t l i n g s l u d g e is e x p e c t e d t o a t t a i n a c o n c e n t r a t i o n X vu b e t w e e n 10,000 a n d
15,000 m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S .
A t s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e is n o a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s l u d g e . T h u s , n e t
yield o f s l u d g e i n t h e a e r a t o r m u s t b e r e m o v e d i n w a s t a g e s t r e a m 6. F o r
p u r p o s e s o f m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s w a s t a g e is a s s u m e d t o b e c o n
t i n u o u s . I n p r a c t i c e , it is u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y b y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t
s h o w n i n F i g . 5.18, since it is o r d i n a r i l y t o o s m a l l t o justify c o n t i n u o u s w i t h
drawal.
R e t u r n a n d w a s t a g e lines a r e v a l v e d a s i n d i c a t e d . V a l v e s a r e a c t u a t e d b y a
t i m e c l o c k f o r i n t e r m i t t e n t s l u d g e w a s t a g e (e.g., 5 m i n e v e r y h o u r ) .
7.2. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E F O R D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF R E C Y C L E RATIO O F M L V S S
W r i t e a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e f o r M L V S S a r o u n d t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier i n F i g .
5.1 ( l o o p ··).
MLVSS, I N MLVSS, O U T
1. M L V S S in reactor effluent [stream 3 ] 1. M L V S S in net effluent [stream 4 ]

QX , (S34)
v a (lb/day) zero (assuming complete sedimentation
or [from Eq. (5.5)] o f M L V S S in secondary clarifier)
Q (l+r)X , (S.34)
F V A (lb/day) 2. M L V S S in wastage [stream 6 ]
AXv+QFXV.F (8.34) (lb/day)
3. M L V S S in recycled sludge [stream 7 ]
Q X R ( Z M ) = rQ X (S34)
V T U F (lb/day)
VtU
Then
Q (\+r)X , (S34)
F v a = 0+AX v + Q X , (S.34)
F V F + rQ ^ , « ( 8 . 3 4 )
F
S o l v i n g f o r t h e recycle r a t i o ,
r = ^MQFXâ-AX^^MQrXv^mMQAXû-Xâ)] (5.91)
If n e t s l u d g e yield (AX ) a n d M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n fresh feed (X )

V VtF are
negligible b y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t e r m 8 . 3 4 2 ^ ^ , E q . (5.91) simplifies t o yield
E q . (5.92).
r = Xv,aKXv,u-X ,a) V (5.92)
ω
Fresh
®
Combined
©
Reactor Net
©
Aerator Secondary
feed feed effluent effluent
clarifier
Xlarifier
underflow
©
-^-Recycle and
Timing device-η
wastage pump
© \- ©
Recycle sludge ^ Wastage ^
Fig. 5.18. Arrangement for sludge wastage.
W a s t a g e flow Q" is c a l c u l a t e d b y n o t i n g t h a t it m u s t c o n t a i n t h e AX V lb/day

o f n e t yield o f M L V S S plus t h e M L V S S f r o m fresh feed (Q X , )- F V F Therefore,
since c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S i n s t r e a m Q" is X , VtU
AXV + Q X , (8.34)
F V F = β'%,„(8.34) (5.93)
Q" = (AX + S.34Q V F X , )/S.34X

v F Vt „ (5.94)
Q is o b t a i n e d b y c o m b i n i n g E q s . (5.2) a n d ( 5 . 9 4 ) :
Q ' = Q F ~ Q" = Q F ~ (AX + 8.34QX , )/8.34X v v F utU (5.95)
7.3. M A T E R I A L B A L A N C E F O R C A L C U L A T I O N
OFS 0
B O D o f c o m b i n e d feed (S ) 0 is c a l c u l a t e d b y a B O D b a l a n c e a r o u n d t h e
j u n c t i o n o f fresh feed a n d recycle s l u d g e t o f o r m c o m b i n e d feed, i.e., l o o p
in F i g . 5 . 1 .
T h i s m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is a s f o l l o w s :
BOD IN: Q S F F + QSR e BOD OUT: QS 0
or or
QS F F + rQ S F e Qr{\+r)S 0
Then
QS F F + rQ SF e = Q (l+r)S
F 0
Therefore
S 0 = (S + rS.)/(l+r)
F (5.96)
From E q . (5.96) t h e difference (S — S )

0 e b e t w e e n influent a n d effluent
s o l u b l e B O D for t h e a e r a t o r is
So-S e = [(S + r S . ) / ( l + r ) ] - S .
F
or
So-S e = (S -S.)/(l+r)
F (5.97)
7.4. A L T E R N A T I V E E X P R E S S I O N S F O R N E T
YIELD OF BIOLOGICAL S L U D G E A N D
O X Y G E N UTILIZATION IN T H E A E R A T O R
1. Net yield of MLVSS. S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Q a n d (S -S ) 0 e in E q . (5.68) b y
t h e i r v a l u e s given b y E q s . (5.5) a n d (5.97) yields after s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
ΔΧ υ = a(S -S )Q
F e F - bX V
Vta (5.98)
E q u a t i o n (5.98) is a n a l t e r n a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n for AX . V I t is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t
t h a n E q . (5.68), since it c o n t a i n s p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e s S F and Q F rather than S Q
a n d Q. [ 5 a n d Q a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f S ,
0 F Q,
F S, e and r from
E q s . (5.96) a n d (5.5).]
T h e p h y s i c a l significance o f t h e s y n t h e s i s t e r m a(S F — S )Q e F is c l e a r . C o m
b i n e d feed Q ( F i g . 5.13) is t h o u g h t o f a s t w o h y p o t h e t i c a l s e p a r a t e s t r e a m s
( F i g . 5.19). F o r s t r e a m Q F s o l u b l e B O D is r e d u c e d f r o m S F to S, e and
b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e s y n t h e s i z e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s B O D r e d u c t i o n is a(S F — S) e Q.
F
T h e o t h e r s t r e a m (Q ) R e n t e r s a n d leaves t h e r e a c t o r w i t h t h e s a m e u n c h a n g e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u b l e B O D , i.e., S . e T h e r e f o r e it does not c o n t r i b u t e t o
synthesis of biological sludge.
Q ,S
F F Q ,S F e
Q =Q F + Q R
Q =rQ ,S
R F e QR.S e
= Q ( I +r)
F
Fig. 5.19. Diagram corresponding to Eq. (5.98).
2. Oxygen utilization in the aerator. O n s u b s t i t u t i o n o f (S — S ) a n d Q b y 0 e
t h e i r v a l u e s given b y E q s . (5.97) a n d (5.5), respectively, E q . (5.64) yields
l b 0 / d a y = a\S
2 F - S) Q e F + b'X ,
v a V (5.99)
Significance o f e n e r g y t e r m a\S — S )Q F is p a r a l l e l t o t h a t o f t h e s y n t h e s i s
e F
t e r m in E q . (5.98). O n l y s t r e a m Q c o n s u m e s o x y g e n since s t r e a m Q e n t e r s
F R
a n d leaves t h e r e a c t o r u n c h a n g e d . E q u a t i o n (5.99) is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t h a n
E q . (5.64), since it c o n t a i n s p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e s S a n d Q r a t h e r t h a n S a n d Q.
F F 0
7.5. C A L C U L A T I O N O F R E S I D E N C E
T I M E IN REACTOR
R e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e r e a c t o r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t w o c r i t e r i a i n o r d e r t o
determine which o n e controls the design. These t w o criteria are
1. Effluent q u a l i t y , w h i c h m e e t s r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
Effluent q u a l i t y d e p e n d s o n s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e g i v e n b y E q . (5.19), w h i c h
s o l v e d for t yields
t = (S -S )/[kX (Se-S )]
0 e uta n (5.100)
2. O r g a n i c l o a d i n g , e v a l u a t e d f r o m F/M r a t i o for o p t i m u m f l o c c u l a t i o n
a n d s e t t l i n g o f s l u d g e . T h i s is given b y E q . (5.80), w h i c h s o l v e d for t yields
* = S l[X , (FIM)]
0 v a (5.101)
R e q u i r e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q s . (5.100) a n d (5.101), t h e l a r g e r
o f t h e t w o v a l u e s o f t t h u s o b t a i n e d b e i n g a d o p t e d for d e s i g n . F o r w a s t e s w h i c h
a r e easily d e g r a d a b l e (e.g., s u g a r refinery, d a i r y , b r e w e r y ) , t h e optimum
flocculation c o n d i t i o n is c o n t r o l l i n g for r e s i d e n c e t i m e c a l c u l a t i o n s . F o r o t h e r
w a s t e s , e.g., i n p e t r o l e u m refineries a n d p e t r o c h e m i c a l p l a n t s , t h e effluent
quality criterion controls residence time requirements since biological
d e g r a d a t i o n is v e r y s l o w .
7.6. E Q U A T I O N S F O R S L U D G E R E C Y C L E
RATIO r IN C A S E S W H E N EFFLUENT
QUALITY A N D O R G A N I C L O A D I N G
CONTROL RESIDENCE TIME
C o n s i d e r E q . (5.91) for t h e s l u d g e recycle r a t i o . AX V is g i v e n b y E q . (5.68),
w h i c h is r e w r i t t e n i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t o r 8.34 for u s e w i t h Q in M G D ; V i n
M G ; and S, 0 Se9 and X v%a in m g / l i t e r a s
AXV = S.34a(S -S )Q 0 e - S.34bX V Vt0 (5.102)
U t i l i z i n g E q . (5.5),
AX V = S34a(S -S )Q (\0 e F + r ) - 8.34bX , V v a (5.103)
S i n c e r e a c t o r v o l u m e Κ is a v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e d e s i g n e r , it is d e s i r a b l e
t o r e w r i t e E q . (5.103) a s a f u n c t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e f, w h i c h is g i v e n b y e i t h e r
E q . (5.100) o r (5.101). T e r m V in E q . (5.103) is o b t a i n e d b y c o m b i n i n g E q s .
(5.17) a n d ( 5 . 5 ) :
V= Qt = Q V+r)t F (5.104)
S u b s t i t u t i n g in E q . (5.103) V b y its v a l u e given b y E q . (5.104),
AX V = S.34a(S -S )Q (l+r)
0 e F - S.34bX , Q (1
v a F +r)t (5.105)
Substitution o f ΔΑ^ given by Eq. (5.105) in Eq. (5.91) yields after

simplification
r = [X -a(S -S )(\+r)
Vta 0 e + bX , (\+r)t-v a X ,,]/(*,,„-X ,.)
v v (5.106)
R e s i d e n c e t i m e t o n t h e n u m e r a t o r o f E q . (5.106) is given b y e i t h e r E q .
(5.100) o r (5.101), d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r r e s i d e n c e t i m e is g o v e r n e d b y
substrate removal rate or optimum flocculation conditions. E q u a t i o n s (5.100)
a n d (5.101) a r e w r i t t e n i n a g e n e r a l i z e d f o r m a s
t = (S -a)/X , fi 0 v a (5.107)
W h e r e effluent q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s d e s i g n ( C a s e 1),
α = S e (5.108)
fi = k(S -S ) e n (5.109)
Where optimum flocculation conditions control design (Case 2),
<x = 0 (5.110)
β = ΠΜ (5.111)
S u b s t i t u t i n g r e s i d e n c e t i m e t i n t h e n u m e r a t o r o f E q . (5.106) b y its v a l u e f r o m
E q . (5.107) yields
X , -a(S -Se)(l
v a 0 + r) + 6 ^ A l + r)-X , v F (X ,u-Xv,a)
v (5.112)
Ρ
Since S 0 is not a. p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e it is d e s i r a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e it f r o m t h e
n u m e r a t o r o f E q . (5.112). S u b s t i t u t i n g (S — S ) b y i t s v a l u e g i v e n i n E q . 0 e
(5.97), a n d t h e v a l u e o f S i n t e r m ( S - a ) b y i t s v a l u e g i v e n i n E q . ( 5 . 9 6 ) ,
0 0
X , -a(S -S )
v a F e +b S F+ r S e
p * ( l + r )
-X V f F l(X -X , )
VtU v a (5.11 3)
N o w w r i t e E q . (5.113) specifically f o r C a s e s (1) a n d (2).

For Case ( / ) . S u b s t i t u t i n g i n E q . (5.113) α a n d β given b y E q s . (5.108) a n d
(5.109) a n d simplifying,
Χν,ο - a(S -S ) F e +b S f
~ ° S
- X VtF (X , -Xv,a)
v u (5.114)
Recycle ratio, Case (1): Effluent q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s d e s i g n

For Case (2). S u b s t i t u t i n g i n E q . (5.113) α a n d β g i v e n b y E q s . (5.110) a n d
(5.111), s o l v i n g t h e r e s u l t i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r r , a n d s i m p l i f y i n g [ E q . ( 5 . 1 1 5 ) ] ,
_ {X , -a(S -S )-](FIM)^bS -Xv, (FIM)

v a F e F F
" (X , -X , )(FIM)-bSe
v u v a
Recycle ratio, Case (2): O p t i m u m flocculation conditions control design
7.7. N E U T R A L I Z A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S
O p t i m u m activity for bacteria occurs a t p H values o f 6 - 8 . I t s h o u l d b e
c h e c k e d if n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is n e e d e d p r e c e d i n g b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t . F o r
a l k a l i n e w a s t e s , i t is t a k e n a s a r u l e o f t h u m b t h a t u p t o 0 . 5 l b o f a l k a l i n i t y ( a s
C a C 0 ) is r e m o v e d p e r l b o f B O D r e m o v e d . T h i s h a p p e n s b e c a u s e t h e C 0
3 2
evolved from bacterial waste degradation reacts with alkalinity ( O H ~ ) present

in t h e w a s t e t o f o r m b i c a r b o n a t e ( H C 0 ~ ) , w h i c h buffers t h e s y s t e m a t a p H
3
o f a b o u t 8. T h u s , n e u t r a l i z a t i o n p r e c e d i n g b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t m a y n o t b e
r e q u i r e d for s o m e a l k a l i n e w a s t e w a t e r s .
7.8. NUTRIENT R E Q U I R E M E N T S
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t o f c e r t a i n n u t r i e n t s is r e q u i r e d for b o t h s y n t h e s i s
a n d respiration phases of aerobic biological degradation of wastes. R e q u i r e d
nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and vitamins.
M o s t of these nutrients, which are r e q u i r e d only in trace quantities, are
usually present in wastewaters. However, m a n y industrial wastewaters are
deficient i n n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s . R e q u i r e d a m o u n t s o f n i t r o g e n a n d
p h o s p h o r u s are estimated by the p r o c e d u r e discussed in this section. If
deficiency exists, it is c o r r e c t e d b y a d d i n g t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r c a l c u l a t e d w e i g h t s
of c o m p o u n d s containing nitrogen a n d p h o s p h o r u s .
A n e s t i m a t e o f r e q u i r e m e n t s for n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s is b a s e d o n t h e
fact t h a t w a s t e d M L V S S (ΔΑ^ l b / d a y ) c o n t a i n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 % o f its d r y
weight as p h o s p h o r u s a n d 12% as nitrogen. A n estimate of weights of nitrogen
a n d p h o s p h o r u s to be added comprises
1. W e i g h t s o f t h e s e n u t r i e n t s w h i c h a r e l o s t b y w a s t a g e o f M L V S S , i.e.,
N i t r o g e n : 0.12 AX V lb/day
P h o s p h o r u s : 0.02 AX V lb/day
2. W e i g h t s o f t h e s e n u t r i e n t s w h i c h a r e l o s t i n t h e effluent. ( T o t a l
effluent = Q' + Q" = Q .) C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s o l u b l e n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s
F
p r e s e n t in effluent a r e u s u a l l y e s t i m a t e d t o b e 1.0 a n d 0.5 m g / l i t e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

T h u s , t h e a m o u n t s o f n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s l o s t in t h e effluent a r e
N i t r o g e n : fi χ 1.0 χ 8.34 lb/day

F
Phosphorus: Q F χ 0.5 χ 8.34 lb/day
w h e r e Q is t h e effluent in M G D . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n i t r o g e n
F
a n d p h o s p h o r u s a r e given b y t h e s u m o f t h e e s t i m a t e s m a d e u n d e r (1) a n d (2)

[ E q s . (5.116) a n d ( 5 . 1 1 7 ) ] :
N i t r o g e n : 0.12 AX V + Q F χ 1.0 χ 8.34 lb/day (5.116)
P h o s p h o r u s : 0.02 AX V + Q F χ 0.5 χ 8.34 lb/day (5.117)
In activated sludge plants, nitrogen a n d p h o s p h o r u s requirements are

provided by the addition of a n h y d r o u s or a q u e o u s N H , H P 0 , or 3 3 4
(NH ) P0 .
4 3 4
7.9. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A C T I V A T E D
SLUDGE PLANTS
Step L C a l c u l a t e t h e r e c y c l e r a t i o o f M L V S S . Select v a l u e s f o r X va and
X ,
VtU usually within the ranges of 2000-4000 a n d 10,000-15,000 mg/liter,
respectively.
F r o m s e d i m e n t a t i o n a n d S V I d a t a ( F i g . 5.7) select a n a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e f o r
t h e F/M r a t i o . O p t i m u m F/M is u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 .
T h e recycle r a t i o is c a l c u l a t e d (1) f r o m E q . (5.114), w h i c h a s s u m e s t h a t
effluent q u a l i t y c o n t r o l s t h e d e s i g n , a n d (2) f r o m E q . (5.115), w h i c h a s s u m e s
t h a t o p t i m u m flocculation conditions control t h e design. T h e decision o n
w h i c h c o n d i t i o n c o n t r o l s d e s i g n is a r r i v e d a t i n S t e p 3 .
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e B O D o f t h e c o m b i n e d feed (S ). S is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
0 0
E q . (5.96) u t i l i z i n g both v a l u e s o f r c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 1 ( 1 ) a n d S t e p 1 ( 2 ) .
These t w o parallel calculations a r e referred t o hence a s Steps 2 ( 1 ) a n d 2 ( 2 ) ,
respectively.
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e r e s i d e n c e t i m e i n t h e r e a c t o r .
Case (1) Assuming substrate removal rate controls design [Eq.
( 5 . 1 0 0 ) ] , w h e r e S is t h e v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 2 ( 1 ) .
0
Case (2) Assuming optimum flocculation conditions control design

[ E q . ( 5 . 1 0 1 ) ] , w h e r e S is t h e v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 2 ( 2 ) .
0
P o s s i b l y * t h e l a r g e r o f t h e s e t w o c a l c u l a t e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e s is t h e o n e
selected f o r d e s i g n . R e c y c l e r a t i o a n d B O D o f c o m b i n e d feed f o r t h e specific
case which controls design a r e then a d o p t e d . Calculated values for t h e other
case a r e discarded.
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e a c t o r v o l u m e . R e a c t o r v o l u m e is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m E q . (5.104) u t i l i z i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e selected i n S t e p 3 .
A t t h i s s t a g e , d e p t h o f t a n k is selected. S e l e c t i o n d e p e n d s o n t y p e o f a e r a t o r
utilized ( C h a p t e r 4 , S e c t i o n s 1 4 . 4 , 1 5 . 4 , a n d 16.3). C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a is t h e n
calculated.
Step 5 . C a l c u l a t e t h e n e t yield o f M L V S S . N e t yield o f M L V S S AX V is
c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.105) o r E q . (5.98).
Note: A c h e c k o n t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e f o r M L V S S is m a d e a t t h i s p o i n t .
(See E x a m p l e 5.7 f o r d e t a i l s . )
Step 6. C a l c u l a t e Q" a n d g ' . Q" a n d Q' a r e t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q s .
(5.94) a n d (5.95).
Step 7. C a l c u l a t e ΔΧ Νν a n d AX . t ΔΧ Νν is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.72) a n d
t o t a l s l u d g e yield is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.1), w h e r e ΑΧ υ a n d AXNV are the
v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p s 5 a n d 7, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
* T h e reason for the word possibly is that frequently a compromise is made in selection o f
residence time, s o that n o t only reasonable B O D reduction is achieved (i.e., a l o w value o f
S ), but also g o o d flocculation conditions for the sludge (although n o t necessarily the
e
o p t i m u m ) are obtained.
Note: A c h e c k o n t h e o v e r a l l m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for N V S S is m a d e a t t h i s
p o i n t . (See E x a m p l e 5.7 for d e t a i l s . )
Step 8. C a l c u l a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b / d a y ) f r o m E q . (5.64) o r E q .
(5.99).
Step 9. Specify a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . A e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t is selected f r o m
o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s d e t e r m i n e d in S t e p 8 a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
for a e r a t o r s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e is d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 4 , S e c t i o n s 14, 15, a n d
16. C a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s n e e d e d a r e (1) t o t a l H P a n d n u m b e r o f a e r a t i o n u n i t s ;
(2) p o w e r level, H P / 1 0 0 0 g a l ; a n d (3) s p a c i n g b e t w e e n a e r a t o r s . A l a y o u t for
a e r a t o r s in t h e t a n k is selected. ( D e t a i l s a r e given in E x a m p l e 4.5.)
Step 10. C h e c k n e u t r a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . Verify if n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is
required prior t o biological treatment. F o r alkaline wastes, the rule of t h u m b
s t a t i n g t h a t u p t o 0.5 l b o f a l k a l i n i t y (as C a C 0 ) is r e m o v e d p e r lb o f B O D
3
r e m o v e d is f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y e d ( S e c t i o n 7.7).
Step 11. E v a l u a t e n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e q u i r e m e n t s for n i t r o g e n a n d
p h o s p h o r u s ( l b / d a y ) a r e e v a l u a t e d a s d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.8 f r o m Eqs.
(5.116) a n d (5.117).
7.10. N U M E R I C A L E X A M P L E : D E S I G N O F A N
ACTIVATED S L U D G E PLANT
Example 5.7
A n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t ( E x a m p l e 5.5) c o n s i d e r s a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m for
t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i r w a s t e w a t e r s . B a s e d e s i g n o n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a in a d d i t i o n
t o i n f o r m a t i o n given in E x a m p l e 5 . 5 :
F l o w : 1.5 M G D (1,500,000 gal/day)
Influent B O D : 1200 mg/liter
5
Effluent B O D : 40 mg/liter
5
O H " alkalinity of raw wastewater: 90 mg/liter (as C a C 0 ) 3
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen a n d p h o s p h o r u s in fresh feed: 85 a n d 3 mg/liter, respectively

Csw' Saturation D O of wastewater at the temperature a n d barometric pressure of
the test
C (summer conditions at 30°C): 7.4 mg/liter
sw
C (winter conditions at 18°C): 10.3 mg/liter

sw
α = AâiwastewaterJ/t^Laiwater)] = 0.72
Assume operating D O (level in aeration basin « 1.0 mg/liter)
Characteristics of surface a e r a t o r s : given by Fig. 4.17
Select for design p u r p o s e s :
XVt a= 3000 mg/liter of M L V S S
X , = 10,000 mg/liter of M L V S S
0 u
Neglect VSS concentration in effluent from secondary clarifier a n d in fresh feed
SOLUTION A flowsheet for t h e p r o p o s e d a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t is s h o w n

in F i g . 5.20. F o l l o w d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s u m m a r i z e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.
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Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e c y c l e r a t i o o f M L V S S .
(1) A s s u m e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n [ E q . ( 5 . 1 1 4 ) ] . H e r e
XVtQ = 3000 mg/liter
a(S -S )F e = 0 . 5 7 5 ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) = 0.575 χ 1160 = 665 mg/liter
Xv.u ~ X ,a = 10,000 - 3000 = 7000 mg/liter

v
X ,a - a(S -S )
v F e = 3000 - 665 = 2335 mg/liter
Xv.F = 0
T h u s E q . (5.114) yields
r = [2335 + b(S -S )/k(S -S WOOO

F e e n
C a l c u l a t e s e p a r a t e l y t e r m b(S F — S )/k(S
e e — S ), n w h i c h is t h e o n l y different
t e r m i n e q u a t i o n s for r i n S t e p 1(1) a n d S t e p 1 (2).
b(S -S )lk(S -S )
F e e n = 0 . 0 7 5 ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) / 0 . 0 1 6 1 ( 4 0 - 1 0 ) = 180
r = ( 2 3 3 5 + 1 8 0 ) / 7 0 0 0 = 0.36
(2) A s s u m e optimum flocculation conditions control design [Eq.

(5.115)]. Here
[X , -a(S -
v a F S )] = 2335
e [calculated Step 1 (1)]
(X Vt u - X , a) = 7000
v [also calculated Step 1(1)]
X (F/M)
VtF = 0 since X VtF = 0
and
(F/M) = 0.6
b = 0.075
S e = 40
T h u s E q . (5.115) yields
r = (2335 x 0.6 + 0 . 0 7 5 x 1200)/(7000x 0 . 6 - 0 . 0 7 5 x 4 0 ) = 0.353
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e S f r o m E q . (5.96). Q
(1) A s s u m e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n (i.e., r = 0.36).
S 0 = (1200 + 0.36 x 4 0 ) / ( l + 0 . 3 6 ) = 893 mg/liter
(2) A s s u m e optimum flocculation conditions control design (i.e.,

r = 0.353).
S 0 = (1200 + 0.353 x 4 0 ) / ( l + 0 . 3 5 3 ) = 900 mg/liter

Step 3. C a l c u l a t e r e s i d e n c e t i m e .
(1) A s s u m e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n (S Q = 893 m g / l i t e r ) .
F r o m E q . (5.100)
/ = ( 8 9 3 - 4 0 ) / [ 0 . 0 1 6 1 χ 3 0 0 0 ( 4 0 - 1 0 ) ] = 0.59 day
or
24 χ 0.59 = 14.2 h r
(2) A s s u m e o p t i m u m flocculation c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r o l d e s i g n (S 0 =
900 mg/liter).
F r o m E q . (5.101)
t = 900/3000 χ 0.6 = 0.5 day
or
24 χ 0.5 = 12 h r
T h u s s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n t r o l s d e s i g n , a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s i n p a r t (2) f o r
S t e p s 1-3 a r e d i s c a r d e d . F/M r a t i o for t h e r e a c t o r is [ f r o m E q . ( 5 . 8 0 ) ]
F/M = 893/3000 χ 0.59 = 0.504
F r o m F i g . 5.15, t h i s v a l u e o f F/M is c o m p a t i b l e w i t h g o o d flocculation con

d i t i o n s for t h e s l u d g e . T h e r e f o r e , n o a d j u s t m e n t o f selected r e s i d e n c e t i m e
( 1 4 . 2 h r ) is r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n B O D r e d u c t i o n a n d g o o d
flocculation conditions.
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e a c t o r v o l u m e . T h r o u g h p u t r a t e [ E q . ( 5 . 5 ) ] :
Q = 1.5(1+0.36) = 2.04 M G D
Reactor volume [Eq. (5.104)]:
V = 2.04 χ 0.59 = 1.2 M G

or
1,200,000 gal χ ft /7.48 gal = 161,000 ft
3 3
F o r d e p t h s o f 10 a n d 15 ft, for e x a m p l e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s
are
F o r d = 10 ft A = 161,000/10 = 16,100 ft 2
or
16,100 ft χ acre/43,500 ft
2 2
= 0.37 acre
F o r d = 15 ft A = 161,000/15 = 10,700 ft 2
or
10,700/43,500 = 0.246 acre
Parallel basins might be recommended.

Step 5. C a l c u l a t e n e t yield o f M L V S S . F r o m E q . (5.105) (a, b f r o m

E x a m p l e 5.5),
AX V = 0 . 5 7 5 ( 8 9 3 - 4 0 ) χ 2.04 χ 8.34 - 0.075 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34
ΑΧ ν = 8342 - 2252 = 6090 lb/day
O r f r o m E q . (5.98),
ΑΧ υ = 0 . 5 7 5 ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) χ 1.5 χ 8.34 - 0.075 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34
ΑΧ ν = 8342 - 2252 = 6090 lb/day
Note: A t t h i s p o i n t a c h e c k o n m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s is m a d e .
C a l c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in c o m b i n e d feed t o t h e r e a c t o r (X ) Vt0 from
E q . (5.75), w h e r e X VtF = 0.
Χν,ο = (0 + 0.36 χ 10,000)/(1 + 0.36) = 2647 mg/liter
T h e difference b e t w e e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f M L V S S in r e a c t o r effluent ( 3 0 0 0
m g / l i t e r ) a n d t h e v a l u e 2647 m g / l i t e r in r e a c t o r influent m u s t c o r r e s p o n d t o
t h e n e t yield o f M L V S S (i.e., AX V = 6090 lb/day). Therefore, 3 0 0 0 - 2 6 4 7 =
353 m g / l i t e r , i.e., 353 m g o f M L V S S a r e p r o d u c e d p e r liter o f l i q u o r flowing
t h r o u g h t h e r e a c t o r . T h e n b a s e d o n flow Q = 2.04 M G D , n e t p r o d u c t i o n o f
M L V S S is 353 χ 2.04 χ 8.34 « 6 0 0 6 l b / d a y , w h i c h a g r e e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y w i t h
the value 6090 lb/day of c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 5 ( w i t h i n 1.4%).
Step 6. C a l c u l a t e Q" a n d Q' [ E q s . (5.94) a n d (5.95), r e s p e c t i v e l y ] .
Q" = 6090/8.34 χ 10,000 = 0.073 M G D for X ,

V F = 0
or
β " = 73,000 gal/day (9.9 gal/min)
and
Q = 1,500,000 - 73,000 = 1,427,000 gal/day
Step 7. C a l c u l a t e AX NV a n d AX . t F r o m E q . (5.72),
AX NV = 1 . 5 ( 3 0 - 2 0 ) χ 8.34 + 0.073 χ 20 χ 8.34 = 125 + 12.2 « 137 lb/day
T h e t o t a l s l u d g e yield AX t is [ f r o m E q . (5.1), w h e r e X VF = 0]
AX t = 6090 + 137 = 6227 lb/day
Note: C h e c k o n m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for N V S S in t h e influent.
IN = Q X F NVfF = 1.5 χ 30 χ 8.34 = 376 lb/day

O U T = Q"X NVtU = AX NV = 137 lb/day
Q'X , NV e = 1.427 χ 20 χ 8.34 = 239 lb/day (checks)
X NVtU = ΔΑ^ /8.34β κ

,/
= 137/8.34 χ 0.073 = 225 mg/liter
F r o m E q . (5.74),
X y, ο = (30 + 0.36 x 2 2 5 ) / ( l + 0 . 3 6 ) = 82 mg/liter
N
Step 8. C a l c u l a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m e i t h e r E q . (5.64) o r E q .
(5.99). F r o m E q . (5.64) (a\ V f r o m E x a m p l e 5.5)
lb 0 / d a y = 0 . 7 9 ( 8 9 3 - 4 0 ) χ 2.04 χ 8.34 + 0.15 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34

2
= 11,500 + 4500 = 16,000
F r o m E q . (5.99)
lb 0 / d a y = 0 . 7 9 ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) χ 1.5 χ 8.34 + 0.15 χ 3000 χ 1.2 χ 8.34

2
= 11,500 + 4500 = 16,000

or
16,000/24 = 665 lb 0 / h r 2
Step 9. Specify a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t . Specification o f a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t

a n d l a y o u t for a e r a t o r s in t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 4 ( E x a m p l e
4.5).
Step 10. Check neutralization requirements. Utilize rule of thumb:
0.5 l b o f a l k a l i n i t y (as C a C 0 ) a r e r e m o v e d p e r lb o f B O D r e m o v e d . C a l c u l a t e
3
lb of B O D removed per day.

(1200 - 40) χ 1.5 χ 8.34 = 14,512 lb/day
T h u s 14,512/2 = 7256 l b / d a y o f a l k a l i n i t y a r e r e m o v e d . C a l c u l a t e t h e l b / d a y
o f a l k a l i n i t y in fresh feed.
90 χ 1.5 χ 8.34 = 1126 lb/day
Since 1126 < 7 2 5 6 , n o n e u t r a l i z a t i o n is r e q u i r e d p r i o r t o t h e biological

process.
Step 11. E v a l u a t e n u t r i e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s .
Nitrogen
1. N i t r o g e n lost f r o m s y s t e m t h r o u g h w a s t a g e o f s l u d g e :
0.12 AX V = 0.12 χ 6090 = 730 lb/day
2. N i t r o g e n l o s t in effluent (1.0 m g / l i t e r ) :
13 lb/day
1 χ 1.5 χ 8.34 (total nitrogen required)
743 lb/day
N i t r o g e n a v a i l a b l e is (85 m g / l i t e r )
85 χ 1.5 χ 8.34 = 1070 lb/day
T h u s a d d i t i o n o f n i t r o g e n is not r e q u i r e d .
Phosphorus
1. P h o s p h o r u s lost f r o m s y s t e m t h r o u g h w a s t a g e o f s l u d g e :
0.02 AX 0 = 0.02 χ 6090 = 121.8 lb/day

8. The M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n Relationship 219
2. P h o s p h o r u s l o s t in t h e effluent 0.5 m g / l i t e r ) :
0.5 χ 1.5 χ 8.34 6 lb/day

128 lb/day
P h o s p h o r u s a v a i l a b l e is (3 m g / l i t e r )
3 χ 1.5 χ 8.34 = 37.6 lb/day
T h u s 1 2 8 - 3 7 . 6 « 91.0 lb/day of p h o s p h o r u s should be a d d e d .
8. The M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n
Relationship
8.1. D E R I V A T I O N O F M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N
RELATIONSHIP
F o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n r e l a t i o n s h i p is b a s e d o n s t u d i e s o f
p u r e c u l t u r e s . H o w e v e r , it is u s e d in d e t e r m i n i n g k i n e t i c s o f s u b s t r a t e d e g r a
d a t i o n b y a h e t e r o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , w h i c h is t h e c a s e
for the activated sludge process.
Degradation o f w a s t e s b y m i c r o o r g a n i s m s is a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h a
c o m p l e x series o f c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s . T h e s e r e a c t i o n s a r e c a t a l y z e d b y o r g a n i c
c a t a l y s t s ( e n z y m e s ) p r e s e n t in t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . E n z y m e s a r e l a r g e m o l e c
u l a r w e i g h t c o m p o u n d s . U s u a l l y e n z y m e s a r e q u i t e specific in t h e i r f u n c t i o n s
a s c a t a l y s t s , i.e., a given e n z y m e o r d i n a r i l y c a t a l y z e s a specific c h e m i c a l
reaction. Bacteria contains a great variety of enzymes, each one being respon
sible for a m i n o r s t e p in t h e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s o f b i o l o g i c a l m e t a b o l i s m .
T h e a c t i o n o f e n z y m e s is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n :
Substrate + Enzyme ^ E n z y m e - S u b s t r a t e complex ^ E n z y m e + Products
or symbolically
[S] + [E] ^ [ E - S ] ^=f [Ε] + [P] (5.118)
w h e r e &'s s t a n d for t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t s . A s i n d i c a t e d b y E q . (5.118),

s u b s t r a t e a n d e n z y m e u n i t e t o f o r m a n e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x . T h i s is
followed by the breaking d o w n of this complex, resulting in the end p r o d u c t s .
T h e e n z y m e r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d a n d is r e a d y t o r e e n t e r t h e r e a c t i o n , a c t i n g
therefore as a catalyst.
T h e r a t e o f s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.118) b y m a k i n g t h e
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e b r e a k i n g d o w n o f t h e e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x is
irreversible. T h e n E q . (5.118) is r e w r i t t e n a s
[S] + [Ε] τ=± [E-S] [Ε] + [P] (5.119)

T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is essentially c o r r e c t if m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e t a k e n s h o r t l y after
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t v e r y little p r o d u c t h a s b e e n
a l l o w e d t o f o r m . U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , since t h e r a t e o f t h e i n v e r s e
reaction
[Ε] + [P] [E-S]
is given b y *
*-2[E][P]
a n d since [ P ] « 0, it m a y b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e b r e a k i n g d o w n o f t h e e n z y m e -
s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x is irreversible. T h e r e f o r e E q . (5.118) is r e w r i t t e n a s s h o w n
[ E q . ( 5 . 1 1 9 ) ] . T h e r a t e o f r e a c t i o n m e a s u r e d u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s is t h a t
o c c u r r i n g i m m e d i a t e l y o n c o n t a c t o f s u b s t r a t e a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m , a n d is
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e initial r a t e o f r e a c t i o n . T o d e v e l o p k i n e t i c d a t a it is n e c e s s a r y
t o m e a s u r e a series o f s u c h initial r a t e s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o different c o n c e n t r a
t i o n s of s u b s t r a t e s h o r t l y after t h e s u b s t r a t e s a m p l e s a r e b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t
with the microorganism.
S u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e is d e n o t e d h e r e b y V. F o r a b a t c h r e a c t o r , it c o r r e
s p o n d s t o t h e s l o p e of t h e B O D c u r v e in F i g . 5.3 ( S e c t i o n 3.1) a t a n y specified
t i m e /, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a c o n c e n t r a t i o n S o f s u b s t r a t e . A specific s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v a l r a t e p e r m g / l i t e r o f M L V S S is utilized, i.e. [ E q . ( 5 . 1 2 0 ) ] ,
K = -(l/X XdSldt)Vta (5.120)
( M i n u s sign is n e c e s s a r y since dS/dt < 0 a n d V > 0.)

F o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r a s s h o w n in S e c t i o n 3.2, t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o
[ i n finite r a t h e r t h a n differential f o r m ]
(S -S )/X , t
0 e v a
w h e r e t is t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r . T h e s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l
r a t e is e q u a l t o t h e r a t e o f f o r m a t i o n o f p r o d u c t P , a n d is given b y E q . (5.121).
V=k [E-S]2 (5.121)
S i m i l a r l y , t h e r a t e of f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x ( E - S ) is
R a t e of formation of (E-S) = &i [S] [E] (5.122)
T h e r a t e o f c o n v e r s i o n o f e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x t o Ε a n d S is [ E q . ( 5 . 1 2 3 ) ]
R a t e of conversion of ( E - S ) = fc_i[E-S] (5.123)
T h e r e f o r e , t h e n e t c h a n g e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x is
d[E-SVdt= k [S] [E] -

x ^[E-S] - A: [E-S]
2 (5.124)
formation destruction destruction
* In the formulation to follow, symbols [ S ] , [ E ] , [ E - S ] , and [ P ] are used to denote c o n

centrations o f substrate, enzyme, enzyme-substrate complex, and products, respectively.
L e t t h e t o t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e n z y m e in t h e r e a c t i n g s y s t e m b e d e n o t e d a s
E , . T h i s i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y free e n z y m e ( E ) b u t a l s o e n z y m e in c o m b i n e d f o r m
a s e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x ( E - S ) , i.e. [ E q s . (5.125) a n d ( 5 . 1 2 6 ) ] ,
[E ] = [E] + [E-S]
f (5.125)
.·. [E] = [ E J - [ E - S ] (5.126)
S u b s t i t u t i n g [ E ] in E q . (5.124) b y its v a l u e g i v e n in E q . (5.126) yields
d[E-S]/dt = A ^ t f E J - [ E - S ] ) [ S ] - k-, [ E - S ] - k [E-S]

2 (5.127)
A t s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s it is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
i n t e r m e d i a t e c o m p l e x e s ( e n z y m e - s u b s t r a t e c o m p l e x in t h i s c a s e ) remains
u n c h a n g e d . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is called t h e s t e a d y s t a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n . T h e r e
fore
d[E-S]/dt = 0 (5.128)
a n d E q . (5.127) b e c o m e s E q . (5.129).
&i([EJ-[E-S])[S] - [ E - S ] - A; [E-S] = 0
2 (5.129)
S o l v i n g for [ E - S ] ,
[Et] [S]
[E-S] = J
(5.130)
T e r m (k_ t + k )/k
2 l is called t h e M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n c o n s t a n t a n d is d e s i g n a t e d
as K.s
K = (k.^^/kt
s (5.131)
T h e n , E q . (5.130) is r e w r i t t e n a s E q . (5.132).
[ E J [S]
[E-S] = (5.132)
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e in E q . (5.121), t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n for t h e s u b
s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e Κ is o b t a i n e d :
[ E J [S]
V = & 2 — (Michaelis-Menten relationship) (5.133)
[S] + K s
8.2. C O R O L L A R I E S O F M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N
RELATIONSHIP
T h e t w o c o r o l l a r i e s s t a t e d in S e c t i o n 3.1 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.133).
Corollary 1 : H i g h s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
A t high substrate concentrations,
[S] > K s (5.134)

N e g l e c t i n g K in t h e d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . ( 5 . 1 3 3 ) a s c o m p a r e d t o [ S ] a n d
s
simplifying,
V= * [EJ
2 = KMAX (5.135)
E q u a t i o n ( 5 . 1 3 5 ) indicates that a t high substrate concentrations, removal of

s u b s t r a t e t a k e s p l a c e a t a m a x i m u m r a t e (V ) MAXindependent of concentration.
I t is a s s u m e d t h a t a t t h e s e h i g h s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s all a c t i v e sites o f t h e
e n z y m e s a r e s a t u r a t e d w i t h s u b s t r a t e , a n d s o r e a c t i o n p r o c e e d s a s fast a s
possible independent of substrate concentration (zero-order reaction). This
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e section of the B O D curve in Fig. 5 . 3 (Section 3 . 1 ) from time
z e r o u p t o t i m e t \ w h e r e t h e t a n g e n t t o t h e B O D c u r v e essentially c o i n c i d e s
w i t h t h e c u r v e itself ( c o n s t a n t s l o p e ) .
[s];from ordinate of BOD curve, figure 5.3, section 3.1
Fig. 5.21. Plot of V vs. [S].
F r o m F i g . 5.3, a p l o t o f s l o p e s o f t h e B O D c u r v e ( K ' s o r s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l
r a t e s ) v s . t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g B O D v a l u e s ( [ S ] ) c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d ( F i g . 5.21).
T h e region of high substrate concentration encompasses values from t h e
r i g h t - h a n d e x t r e m i t y o f t h e g r a p h d o w n t o a c o n c e n t r a t i o n S' ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o t i m e t' in F i g . 5.3). T h i s is t h e r e g i o n w h e r e V = V MAX = constant irre
spective o f s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
F r o m E q . (5.135) E q . (5.133) is r e w r i t t e n a s
V = K MMAAXX [ S ]
(5.136)
[S] + # S
Corollary 2 : L o w s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
A t low substrate concentrations,
[S] <^ K 5 (5.137)
Neglecting [ S ] in the d e n o m i n a t o r of E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) as c o m p a r e d t o K S ,
[SG/A. (5.138)
Since V M A X and KS a r e b o t h c o n s t a n t for a specific w a s t e , E q . ( 5 . 1 3 8 ) is r e

written as
V=K[S] (5.139)
where
K = VMAX/K, (5.140)
E q u a t i o n ( 5 . 1 3 9 ) indicates that at low substrate concentrations, substrate

r e m o v a l follows first-order kinetics. In Fig. 5 . 2 1 this corresponds t o the section
o f t h e c u r v e f r o m a v a l u e o f t h e a b s c i s s a S = 0 u p t o a v a l u e S". I n t h i s s e c t i o n ,
t h e c u r v e is e s s e n t i a l l y r e p l a c e d b y a s t r a i g h t line p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r i g i n
(with slope = K ) . This situation corresponds to t h a t encountered in con
t i n u o u s b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g a t s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s . I n fact, F i g .
5 . 2 1 u p t o [ S ] = S" is i d e n t i c a l t o F i g . 5 . 5 ( S e c t i o n 3 . 2 ) , w h i c h w a s u t i l i z e d f o r
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t f r o m a series o f continuous
l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g in p a r a l l e l . H a d t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s b e e n c o n
t i n u e d o n h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u b s t r a t e , t h e s t r a i g h t line w o u l d h a v e
b e c o m e a c u r v e like t h e o n e in F i g . 5 . 2 1 . H o w e v e r , o p e r a t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s
r e a c t o r s is a l w a y s c o n d u c t e d a t s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s m u c h b e l o w 5 0 0
mg/liter (expressed as B O D ) . 5 Under these conditions the straight line
relationship applies.
8.3. S I G N I F I C A N C E O F M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N
CONSTANT K s
F r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) it is s h o w n t h a t K is e q u a l t o t h e s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
S
w h e n s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e V e q u a l s half t h e m a x i m u m , i.e., w h e n V =
V /2.
MAX T h i s is s h o w n b y l e t t i n g V = V /2 MAX in E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) a n d s o l v i n g for
[ S ] . T h e final r e s u l t is
[S] = KS (for V=V /2)

MAX
T h i s is i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5 . 2 1 .
8.4. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F \ Z : M A X
THE L I N E W E A V E R - B U R K PLOT
T h e value of V M A X e s t i m a t e d f r o m F i g . 5 . 2 1 is i n a c c u r a t e since it is a n
asymptotic value. A better way of determining K M A X is a s f o l l o w s . T a k e t h e
inverse of Eq. (5.136),
l/V = (A«/KMAX)(1/[S]) + (1/KMAX) (5.141)
B a s e d o n E q . ( 5 . 1 4 1 ) a l i n e a r p l o t o f l / V v s . 1 / [ S ] is c o n s t r u c t e d , f r o m w h i c h
the characteristic constants V MAX and K s are determined from the slope a n d
i n t e r c e p t o f t h e s t r a i g h t line. T h i s g r a p h , w h i c h is s h o w n i n F i g . 5.22, is k n o w n
as the Lineweaver-Burk plot [ 5 ] . As indicated the intercept at the abscissa
c o r r e s p o n d s t o (— l/K ),s since for l/V= 0 o n e o b t a i n s 1/[S] = — l/K s from
E q . (5.141).
x>
>
y^— Slope: K / V S M A X
J—l/K 8
intercept = l / V M A X
i/[s]
Fig. 5.22. Lineweaver-Burk plot.
8.5. M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N RELATIONSHIP
W H E N N O N B I O D E G R A D A B L E MATTER IS
PRESENT IN THE S Y S T E M
I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r is i n d i c a t e d a s [ 5 J , it is
a c c o u n t e d for by substituting t h e value of [ S ] by ( [ S ] — [ S J ) in E q . (5.136).
A s i m i l a r s u b s t i t u t i o n in S e c t i o n 3.2 led t o E q . (5.19) f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 8 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , m o d i f i e d E q . (5.136) is
y = V ^ K s + [ s ] _ [ S n ] (5-142)
T h e t w o c o r o l l a r i e s s t u d i e d i n S e c t i o n 8.2 d e r i v e d f r o m E q . (5.133) a r e a l s o
o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 4 2 ) . S i m i l a r l y , F i g . 5.21 is r e p l o t t e d w h e n n o n b i o
d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r is p r e s e n t ( F i g . 5.23).
F r o m E q . (5.142), it is s h o w n t h a t
K = [ S ] - [5„]
s
w h e n V= V /2
MAX
T h e L i n e w e a v e r - B u r k e q u a t i o n w h e n n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r is p r e s e n t
is w r i t t e n b y r e p l a c i n g [ S ] i n E q . (5.141) b y ( [ S ] - [ £ „ ] ) . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
L i n e w e a v e r - B u r k p l o t follows directly from the e q u a t i o n t h u s o b t a i n e d .
8. The Michaelis Menten-Relationship 225
V (day"
r-[Sn]-T-K —I 8
[S]
Fig. 5.23. Plot of V vs. [S] when nonbiodegradable matter is present.
8.6. M I C H A E L I S - M E N T E N R E L A T I O N S H I P I N
T E R M S OF SPECIFIC G R O W T H RATE
OF S L U D G E
T h e M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n r e l a t i o n s h i p [ E q . ( 5 . 1 3 6 ) ] is w r i t t e n a s a f u n c t i o n
o f t h e specific s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e [ E q . ( 5 . 1 2 0 ) ] . A n e q u i v a l e n t f o r m is
w r i t t e n a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e specific g r o w t h r a t e o f s l u d g e , defined a s
μ = (l/X , )(dXldt)
v a (5.143)
W h e r e a s v a l u e s o f dSjdt in E q . (5.120) c o r r e s p o n d t o s l o p e s o f t h e BOD

c u r v e in F i g . 5.3, v a l u e s o f dX/dt in E q . (5.143) c o r r e s p o n d t o s l o p e s o f t h e
M L V S S curve.
A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e specific g r o w t h r a t e o f s l u d g e is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
specific s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e , i.e., t h a t a c o n s t a n t f r a c t i o n o f t h e s u b s t r a t e
r e m o v e d is c o n v e r t e d t o cells (μ = aV), E q . (5.136) is r e w r i t t e n a s
F r o m E q . (5.144) it is s h o w n , f o l l o w i n g t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e utilized i n S e c t i o n
8.3 for E q . (5.136), t h a t K is e q u a l t o t h e s u b s t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h e n t h e
s
specific g r o w t h r a t e o f t h e s l u d g e is e q u a l t o h a l f t h e m a x i m u m specific g r o w t h
r a t e , i.e., K = [ S ] , w h e n
s μ — μ Α χ / 2 · All
Μ corollaries, derivations, and
g r a p h i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n s 8.2 t o 8.5 b a s e d o n t h e specific
s u b s t r a t e r e m o v a l r a t e a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e in t e r m s o f t h e specific g r o w t h r a t e
of the sludge.
9. T h e C o n c e p t of S l u d g e A g e
S l u d g e a g e is defined a s t h e m e a n r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f M L V S S i n t h e r e a c t o r .
F o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s h o w n in F i g . 5.1 t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o
lb M L V S S in reactor/net o u t p u t of VSS from t h e system (lb/day)

(5.145)
or
t =
s (5.146)
total lb/day of VSS wasted, i.e., _ input of VSS in fresh
o u t p u t of VSS (lb/day) feed (lb/day)
or
t s =
(AX* Qi°J-Q Xr,
+ F F
( d a y S ) ( 5 U 7 )
I n E q . (5.147) n u m e r a t o r (X V) Vf0 equals total lb of M L V S S in the reactor

at a n y time (a constant value a t steady state conditions). T e r m s between
p a r e n t h e s e s in t h e d e n o m i n a t o r r e p r e s e n t t o t a l V S S w a s t e d , i n c l u d i n g s l u d g e
w a s t e d p u r p o s e l y (ΔΧ ) ν a n d t h a t l o s t i n effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier
(Q'X ).Vte Term Q X F VF c o r r e s p o n d s t o i n p u t o f s l u d g e i n fresh feed. T h e
difference b e t w e e n t h e t e r m s w i t h i n p a r e n t h e s e s a n d this value QX,
F V F
represents net o u t p u t of VSS from this system.

Since in t h e formulation of t h e activated sludge process c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
V S S i n effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is n e g l e c t e d (i.e., X « VtB 0), E q .
(5.147) r e d u c e s t o E q . (5.148).
ts = X , V/(AX -Q Xv, )
v a v F F (X ,
v e = 0) (5.148)
F i n a l l y , w h e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n fresh feed is a l s o n e g l i g i b l e (i.e.,
ts = Xv, a V/AXv (Xv, e*0 X , K

9 v F 0) (5.149)
S l u d g e a g e is a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s m e a n cell r e s i d e n c e t i m e o r s o l i d s r e t e n t i o n
time. T h e relationship between sludge age a n d hydraulic or liquid retention
t i m e (t = V/Q) is p r e s e n t e d f o r t w o t y p e s o f c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r s : (1) c o m
p l e t e m i x — n o recycle r e a c t o r ; a n d (2) c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h r e c y c l e
(a) w i t h w a s t a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m r e a c t o r ( o r r e a c t o r effluent), a n d ( b ) w i t h
w a s t a g e f r o m t h e s l u d g e recycle line.
1. Complete mix—no recycle reactor. I n this m o d e l , liquor in t h e reactor
u n i t is c o m p l e t e l y m i x e d a n d t h e r e is n o recycle. T h i s does not c o r r e s p o n d t o
the conventional activated sludge process, b u t rather t o flow-through devices
s u c h a s a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ( C h a p t e r 6, S e c t i o n 5), a s s u m i n g c o m p l e t e m i x i n g t o
o c c u r i n t h e l a g o o n . T h e s i t u a t i o n is d e p i c t e d b y F i g . 5.24.
Q
Reactor
^ν,ο ^ν,α
Fig. 5.24. Complete mix reactor without recycle.
H y d r a u l i c o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n t i m e is t = V/Q, a n d t h e s l u d g e a g e is [ f r o m
Eq. (5.145)]
ts = Xv.aVlQ(Xv,a-Xv,o) = ( X , J&v. a ~ Xv, .)] / (5.150)
F r e q u e n t l y , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in influent is negligible (i.e., X &0).

vo
T h e n , E q . (5.150) r e d u c e s t o
ts = Xv,aV\QX , v a = V/Q = t (XVt0 « 0) (5.151)
T h u s for t h e c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h o u t recycle w h e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
V S S in influent is negligible, s l u d g e a g e e q u a l s h y d r a u l i c ( o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n )
t i m e . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e in t h e r e a c t o r is k e p t a t a c o n s t a n t v a l u e X . Vta
Since c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e in effluent a l s o e q u a l s X , it f o l l o w s t h a t
va
r e s i d e n c e t i m e is s u c h t h a t s l u d g e is n o t w a s h e d o u t f r o m t h e s y s t e m f a s t e r
t h a n it c a n r e p r o d u c e . I n fact, since s t e a d y s t a t e is a s s u m e d ( c o n s t a n t X in va
r e a c t o r a n d effluent), r e s i d e n c e t i m e is s u c h t h a t s l u d g e w a s h e d o u t i n effluent
is exactly replaced b y a n e q u a l m a s s o f n e t s l u d g e yield for t h e s a m e t i m e
interval.
2. Complete mix reactor with recycle. T h i s m o d e l c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s ( F i g . 5.1). W a s t a g e o f s l u d g e is u s u a l l y
a c c o m p l i s h e d ( F i g . 5.1) b y d r a w i n g off f r o m t h e s l u d g e recycle line. H o w e v e r ,
t h e possibility o f w a s t i n g s l u d g e d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e a c t o r ( o r r e a c t o r effluent)
is a l s o c o n s i d e r e d .
Q F Q Χν,α V Q Secondary Q'=Qp -Q"

6
Reoctor S clarifier S
e e
^ν,ο *v,e
s e
, Q = QR
U
X
V,0
Λ
ν,υ
Λ
Fig. 5.25. Diagram of complete mix reactor with recycle, and wastage
directly from the reactor.
Ό"
S E
X
v,a Secondary
Q χ
ν,α V Q Q'= Q F - Q "
clarifier
s F ^ e
Reactor s e S E
X
V,F
Q = C |R U
-s e
QR X
v,u
S E
Fig. 5.26. Diagram of complete mix reactor with recycle, and wastage
directly from the reactor effluent.
a. C o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h recycle, a n d w a s t a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m r e a c t o r
( o r r e a c t o r effluent). T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o d i a g r a m s s h o w n i n F i g s . 5.25 a n d
5.26, t h e f o r m e r w i t h w a s t a g e t a k e n d i r e c t l y f r o m r e a c t o r a n d t h e l a t t e r w i t h
w a s t a g e t a k e n f r o m r e a c t o r effluent. T h e h y d r a u l i c o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n t i m e
for t h e m o d e l s i n t h e s e figures is / = V/Q w h e r e a s s l u d g e is [ f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 4 5 ) ]
9
t s =
lb/day VSS wasted in Q"+lb/day VSS _ input of VSS in fresh ( 5 1 5 2 )
lost in effluent from secondary clarifier feed (lb/day)
or
t S =
[β"*,,« + (QF-Q")Xv,e] - QfXv,F
I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is
n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X VfC « 0 ) , E q . (5.153) yields
ts = X.,*VHQrx ..-QwXv.w)
9 (Xv, * 0)
e (5.154)
F i n a l l y , w h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n fresh feed is a l s o n e g l i g i b l e (i.e.,

X *0),
VtF
ts = X...VIQTX,.. = Κ/β" * 0; X , V F * 0) (5.155)
C o m p a r i n g E q s . (5.17) a n d (5.155), it f o l l o w s t h a t since Q" <^ β , t h e n
ts > t (5.156)
b . C o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h recycle, a n d w a s t a g e f r o m r e c y c l e l i n e .
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e flow d i a g r a m i n F i g . 5 . 1 . S i n c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e
i n t h e w a s t a g e s t r e a m is e q u a l t o X , VtU w h e r e a s it is X„ a(X a
f Vt < ^ , « ) when
w a s t a g e is t a k e n d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e a c t o r o r r e a c t o r effluent ( F i g s . 5.25 a n d
5.26), it f o l l o w s t h a t t h e v o l u m e t r i c w a s t a g e flow Q" ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s a t o t a l
o f AX Vt0 l b / h r o f s l u d g e ) is less f o r t h e c a s e o f F i g . 5 . 1 . T h i s is o n e a d v a n t a g e
o f t a k i n g w a s t a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e c y c l e line. H y d r a u l i c o r l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n
t i m e is / = V/Q w h e r e a s s l u d g e a g e is g i v e n f r o m E q . (5.152) a s
9
Xv,aV ,- *
t S
" [<2'X.« + (QF-Q")Xv,el - QfXv.F
I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is
n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X ve « 0 ) , E q . (5.157) y i e l d s
ts = Xv,aVl(Q"X»,u-QFXv.F) (Xv.e * 0) (5.158)
F i n a l l y , w h e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n fresh feed is a l s o n e g l i g i b l e (i.e.,

XV,F*0),
ts = Xv, V/Q"Xv,ua (Xv, * 0 ; Xv,F * 0)
e (5.159)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n w a s t a g e is t a k e n f r o m t h e recycle l i n e , k n o w l e d g e o f
b o t h mixed liquor a n d recycled sludge m i c r o o r g a n i s m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e
required for calculation of sludge age.
F o r t h e c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h r e c y c l e ( F i g s . 5 . 2 5 , 5.26, a n d 5.1),
r e s i d e n c e t i m e is s u c h t h a t s l u d g e is n o t w a s t e d f r o m t h e s y s t e m f a s t e r t h a n it
r e p r o d u c e s . I n fact, s i n c e a s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n is a s s u m e d , w a s t a g e (ΑΧ )υ
e q u a l s e x a c t l y t h e n e t s l u d g e yield f o r t h e s a m e t i m e i n t e r v a l if l o s s o f V S S i n
t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier is n e g l i g i b l e .
Example 5 . 8
F o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t d e s i g n e d i n E x a m p l e 5.7 c a l c u l a t e t h e s l u d g e
age.
SOLUTION T h i s is a c a s e o f a c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h r e c y c l e , w a s t a g e
b e i n g t a k e n f r o m t h e recycle line. C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e s e c o n d a r y
clarifier effluent is n e g l i g i b l e (i.e., X &0), ve a n d also X VF = 0. Equation
(5.159) is t h e n u t i l i z e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s l u d g e a g e . H e r e
X Vta = 3000 mg/liter
X VyU = 10,000 mg/liter
V = 1.2 M G
Q" = 0.073 M G D
T h e n f r o m E q . (5.159)
t s = 3000 χ 1.2/0.073 χ 10,000 = 4.43 days
H y d r a u l i c r e s i d e n c e t i m e t is 14.2 h r ( E x a m p l e 5.7, S e c t i o n 7.10).

A relationship between sludge age, substrate removal rate \_(S -SÎX t\

0 va
a n d p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b for s l u d g e yield is w r i t t e n f r o m E q . (5.149) f o r t h e

c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r w i t h recycle. [ I n E q . (5.149) it is a s s u m e d t h a t c o n c e n
t r a t i o n s o f V S S in t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier a n d i n fresh feed
are negligible.]
If in E q . (5.149) n e t s l u d g e yield AX V is r e p l a c e d for t h e v a l u e g i v e n b y

E q . (5.68),
h = Xv,aVI[a(S -S )Q-bX , V}
0 e v a
and
= ia(s -s )Q-bx , vyx . v

0 e v a v a
Since V/Q = t, t h e n
l/'s = a[(S -S )/X , t]

0 e v a - b (5.160)
10. Kinetics of C o n t i n u o u s
T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m s : Plug Flow,
C o m p l e t e Mix, a n d A r b i t r a r y
Flow R e a c t o r s
I n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , t h e m o d e l utilized for t h e
c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r w a s t h a t o f a c o m p l e t e m i x vessel. T h e p l u g flow c o n t i n u o u s
r e a c t o r m o d e l w a s o n l y briefly m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 5 ( F i g . 5.9). I n t h i s
s e c t i o n t h r e e m o d e l s f o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r ( F i g . 5.27) a r e d e s c r i b e d :
(1) p l u g flow r e a c t o r , (2) c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r , a n d (3) a r b i t r a r y flow r e a c t o r .
1. Plug flow reactor. I n t h e p l u g flow r e a c t o r fluid p a r t i c l e s t r a v e l t h r o u g h
t h e vessel w i t h o u t m i x i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e a r e d i s c h a r g e d in t h e s a m e s e q u e n c e
in w h i c h t h e y e n t e r . I f a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c e r is i n t r o d u c e d s t a r t i n g a t t i m e
t = 0 ( c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e influent b e i n g C ), 0 n o t r a c e r a p p e a r s in
effluent u n t i l a t i m e / , e q u a l t o t h e o r e t i c a l r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f t h e fluid i n t h e
r
vessel, h a s e l a p s e d . T h e n , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e effluent j u m p s
from a zero value to the value C 0 a n d remains at that value as long as contin
u o u s i n j e c t i o n o f t r a c e r is m a i n t a i n e d .
If a first d o s e of s l u g t r a c e r is i n t r o d u c e d a t t i m e t = 0, n o n e o f it a p p e a r s in
t h e effluent u n t i l a t i m e t h a s e l a p s e d . A t / = t
r ri concentration of tracer in the
effluent j u m p s f r o m z e r o t o C . A t t i m e (t + dt) it is b a c k a g a i n t o z e r o . I t
0 r
j u m p s again to C 0 a t t i m e t + At
r 9 w h e r e Δ / is t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e
first t w o d i s c o n t i n u o u s injections o f t r a c e r .
2. Complete mix reactor. In this reactor immediate dispersion of particles
t a k e s p l a c e a s t h e y e n t e r t h e vessel. F o r a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c e r , its c o n c e n t r a t i o n
10. Kinetics of Continuous Treatment Systems 231
(a) (b) (c)

Plug flow Complete mix Arbitrary flow
Pattern of continuous tracer input
C C C
Pattern of slug tracer input

Fig. 5.27. Continuous reactor models {adapted from Ref. [7]).
in t h e effluent a s a f u n c t i o n of t i m e is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l
b a l a n c e for t r a c e r a r o u n d t h e r e a c t o r :
R a t e of change in a m o u n t of tracer in reactor

= rate of input of tracer to reactor - rate of o u t p u t of tracer from reactor
or
(dC/dt) V = QC 0 — QC (5.161)
w h e r e C i s t h e effluent c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r a t a n y t i m e t\ Κ t h e v o l u m e o f t h e
r e a c t o r ; Q t h e flow r a t e ; a n d C t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r in t h e influent.
0
F r o m E q . (5.161),
dC/dt = (Q/V) ( C - C ) 0 (5.162)
Since V/Q = t ( h y d r a u l i c r e s i d e n c e t i m e , w h i c h is d e n o t e d h e r e a s t s o a s t o
r r
d i s t i n g u i s h it for t i m e v a r i a b l e t), E q . (5.162) yields
dC/dt = (\lt )(C -C)

r 0
or
dC/{Co-C) = (\/t )dt r (5.163)
I n t e g r a t i n g E q . (5.163) a n d s o l v i n g for C,
C = c [l-*-<'"'>]
0 (5.164)
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c u r v e for t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s tracer
s h o w n in F i g . 5 . 2 7 ( b ) . A s s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a p p r o a c h e d (theo
retically a t / = o o ) , E q . (5.164) yields
C= Co
T h u s , the curve a p p r o a c h e s asymptotically the o r d i n a t e C = C . If a d d i t i o n 0
o f t r a c e r s t o p s w h e n a s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n is r e a c h e d , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
v a l u e for t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e effluent d r o p s g r a d u a l l y f o l l o w i n g c u r v e
C = C e~ \ 0
( t/tr
also s h o w n in Fig. 5.27(b). This corresponds t o a r e a c t o r
being p u r g e d of tracer. A s t oo ( s t e a d y s t a t e ) , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e r i n
effluent a p p r o a c h e s z e r o .
3. Arbitrary flow reactor. These reactors correspond to a partial mix
c o n d i t i o n b e t w e e n p l u g flow a n d c o m p l e t e m i x t y p e s . T y p i c a l p a t t e r n s for
c o n t i n u o u s a n d s l u g t r a c e r i n p u t for a r b i t r a r y flow r e a c t o r s a r e s h o w n i n F i g .
5.27(c). M a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h i s t y p e o f r e a c t o r is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e
c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n p l u g o r c o m p l e t e m i x t y p e s , a n d for t h i s r e a s o n t h e s e t w o
models are usually chosen to describe reactor performance.
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o m p a r e efficiency o f B O D r e m o v a l for continuous
r e a c t o r s w i t h recycle ( t y p i c a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t ) , a d o p t i n g c o m p l e t e m i x
a n d p l u g flow m o d e l s t o d e s c r i b e t h e r e a c t o r in q u e s t i o n . C o m p a r i s o n is m a d e
b y c o m p u t i n g for a given w a s t e w a t e r (i.e., k a n d S n fixed) t h e effluent BOD
(S ) e for fixed v a l u e s o f flow r a t e Q, influent B O D (S \ F recycle r a t i o ( r ) , a n d
M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n (X ) Vt0 for v a r i o u s a s s u m e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e s t. F o r t h e
c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r , t h e k i n e t i c m o d e l is g i v e n b y E q . (5.19). If in E q . (5.19)
S0 is e l i m i n a t e d u t i l i z i n g E q . ( 5 . 9 6 ) , t h e r e s u l t is
(S -S )/[(l+r)X , t]
F e v a = k(S -S )
e n (5.165)
Solving for S,
e
Se = [S F + kS (\+r)X , t~\IV
n v a + kX ,a(l+r)t~\
v (5.166)
A typical plot of S e v s . t o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . (5.166) is s h o w n b y t h e c u r v e

l a b e l e d " c o m p l e t e m i x m o d e l " i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 5.28. ( F o r t = 0, S e = SF and
for t = oo, Se = S .)
n
A k i n e t i c m o d e l for t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r w i t h recycle u n d e r p l u g flow

c o n d i t i o n s is m a t h e m a t i c a l l y q u i t e difficult t o d e r i v e . A m o d e l h a s been
o b t a i n e d , however, by Lawrence a n d M c C a r t h y [ 4 ] . This m o d e l predicts for
a given r e s i d e n c e t i m e t a l o w e r v a l u e o f effluent B O D t h a n t h a t f o r t h e c o r r e
s p o n d i n g c o m p l e t e m i x m o d e l . T h i s is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e d o t t e d c u r v e i n F i g .
5.28. T h u s , t h e p l u g flow recycle s y s t e m is t h e o r e t i c a l l y m o r e efficient t h a n t h e
c o m p l e t e m i x recycle s y s t e m for s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f s o l u b l e w a s t e s . I n p r a c t i c e ,
h o w e v e r , t h e p l u g flow m o d e l is difficult t o o b t a i n b e c a u s e o f l o n g i t u d i n a l
dispersion. A l s o , the complete mix systems h a n d l e s u d d e n changes in influent
10. Kinetics of Continuous Treatment Systems 233
Fig. 5.28. Plot ofS 9 vs. t for continuous flow reactors with recycle (complete
mix and plug flow models).
B O D ( s h o c k l o a d s ) m u c h m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h a n p l u g flow s y s t e m s . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is t h e u n f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e F/M r a t i o s a l o n g p l u g
flow r e a c t o r s , a n d its p o s s i b l e u n d e s i r a b l e effect o n t h e s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e s l u d g e d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 5. A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s t e n d t o r e d u c e differences
in a c t u a l efficiency o f B O D r e m o v a l for t h e t w o m o d e l s .
F i g u r e 5.29 s h o w s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e B O D r e d u c t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n a p l u g flow
r e a c t o r f r o m v a l u e S a t t h e inlet t o t h e final v a l u e S . By d i v i d i n g t h e a e r a t i o n
0 e
t a n k i n t o a series o f c o m p l e t e m i x r e a c t o r s ( a s s u m e a u n i f o r m s o l u b l e B O D
v a l u e for t h e l i q u o r b e t w e e n a n y t w o d o t t e d p a r t i t i o n s in F i g . 5.29), a n i m p r o v e
m e n t in t r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e is o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t a m a j o r loss i n a b i l i t y o f
t h e s y s t e m t o h a n d l e s h o c k l o a d s . T h i s is t h e i d e a b e h i n d t h e s t e p a e r a t i o n
s c h e m e ( C h a p t e r 6, S e c t i o n 4 . 1 , F i g . 6.6).
Fig. 5.29. BOD reduction in a plug flow reactor.

Problems
I. Determination o f design parameters for an activated sludge project. A n industrial plant

considers an activated sludge system for disposal o f wastewaters. Preliminary tests are per
formed in laboratory scale continuous reactors. Four reactors are operated in parallel until
steady state conditions are obtained. D a t a taken are presented in the following tabulations.
TABLE 1
For Removal Kinetics
Average Average Average

B O D of
5 BOD5 o f MLVSS Residence
Reactor influent effluent concentration time
no. (mg/liter) (mg/liter) (mg/liter) (hr)
1 850 100 2000 4.81

2 800 50 2500 7.32
3 750 25 3100 12.7
4 700 15 3100 18.4
TABLE 2
Oxygen Utilization and Sludge Production
Reactor Oxygen uptake rate Sludge yield AX /V V
no. R [mg 0 / ( l i t e r ) (day)]

r 2 [mg sludge/(liter)(day)]
1 3200 2500
2 2187 1450
3 1425 780
4 1008 403
F r o m these data determine design parameters k ( h r - 1

and d a y ) * S„, a, a', b, and b'.
- 1
II. A n organic chemical wastewater is t o be treated by a proposed activated sludge plant to

produce an effluent B O D o f 50 mg/liter during summer conditions (20°C). Wastewater
characteristics are
F l o w = 2.0 M G D
Influent B O D = 1000 mg/liter
Treatment parameters are
k = 0.0005 h r " at 20°C1
a = 0.50 lb M L V S S / l b B O D P
a' = 0.55 lb 0 / l b B O D
2 r
b = 0.1 lb M L V S S / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S )
b' = 0.14 lb 0 / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S )
2
F/M = 0.6
s„ = 0 . 0 mg/liter
References 235
Take
X = 3000 mg/liter
a
X = 12,000 mg/liter
u
Neglect influent suspended solids.
Calculate
1. Reactor v o l u m e (Mgal) and sludge return rate (Mgal/day)
2. Oxygen required Ob 0 / h r )
2
3. N e t sludge yield (lb M L V S S / d a y )

4. H P required for surface aeration. Characteristics o f the aerator are given by Fig. 4.17.
Base calculation o n 20°C operation and take
Csw = 8.0 mg/liter

C = 1.0 mg/liter
L
α = 0.8
Calculate required power level in H P / 1 0 0 0 gal

5. Nutrient requirements (lb/day) for nitrogen and phosphorus
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., "Industrial Pollution Control." McGraw-Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1966.
2. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w Y o r k , 1970.
3. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
4. Lawrence, A . W., and McCarthy, P. L., / . Sanit. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 4 9 , S A 3
y
(1970).
5. Lineweaver, H . , and Burk, D . , / . Am. Chem. Soc. 5 6 , 6 5 8 - 6 6 6 (1934).
6. "Manual for Biooxidation U n i t . " Biodevelopment Associates, P.O. B o x 1752, Austin,
Texas.
7. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, D i s p o s a l . "
McGraw-Hill, N e w York, 1972.
6
Secondary Treatment:
Other Aerobic and Anaerobic
Wastewater Treatment Processes
1. Introduction 237
2. Extended Aeration (or Total Oxidation Process) 238
2.2. Comparison of Extended Aeration and Activated Sludge
Processes 238
2.3. Application of Extended Aeration 239
2.4. Extended Aeration Units 239
2.5. Settling of Sludge from Extended Aeration 241
2.6. Nitrification in Extended Aeration 241
2.7. Design Criteria for Extended Aeration 241
3. Contact Stabilization 244
3.2. Advantage of Contact Stabilization v s . Conventional Activated
Sludge Process 244
3.3. Solubility Index (SI) and Overall Efficiency 245
3.4. Design of Contact Stabilization Systems 246
4. Other Modifications of Conventional Activated Sludge Process:
Step Aeration, Complete M i x Activated Sludge Process, and
Tapered Aeration 247
4.1. Step Aeration 247
4.2. Complete M i x Activated Sludge Process 248
4.3. Tapered Aeration 248
5. Aerated Lagoons 249
5.2. Mixing Regimes for Aerated Lagoons 249
5.3. Kinetics of B O D Removal 250
5.4. Estimate of Lagoon Temperature (T ) w 251
5.5. Oxygen Requirements for Aerated Lagoons 253
5.6. Soluble Effluent B O D for an Aerated Lagoon 253
5.7. M L V S S Concentration in Aerated Lagoons 253
5.8. Retention Period Required for a Specified Effluent Soluble
BOD 2 5 4
5.9. Total Effluent B O D for an Aerated Lagoon 255

5.10. Design Procedure for Aerated Lagoons 256
6. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds 2 5 9
6.1. Introduction 2 5 9
6.2. Kinetics of B O D Removal for Stabilization Ponds 260

236
1. Introduction 237
6.3. Laboratory Simulation of Stabilization Ponds 261

6.4. Mathematical Formulation for Several Stabilization Ponds in
Series 261
6.5. Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate Constant Κ 262
6.6. Oxygen Production in Aerobic Ponds 262
6.7. Depth of Oxygen Penetration in Stabilization Ponds 263
6.8. Facultative Ponds: Hermann and Gloyna's Equation 263
6.9. Anaerobic Ponds 264
6.10. Summary of Design Criteria for Wastewater Stabilization
Ponds 264
6.11. Design Calculations for Stabilization Ponds 264
7. Trickling Filters 268
7.2. Thickness of Slime Layer 269
7.3. Comparison between Trickling Filters and Activated Sludge
Process 269
7.4. Physical Arrangement of Trickling Filters 270
7.5. Trickling Filter Systems 270
7.6. Pretreatment for Trickling Filtration 271
7.7. Design Formulation for Trickling Filters 271
7.8. Application of Basic Mathematical Model to Trickling Filters
without and with Recycle 272
7.9. Procedure for Design of Trickling Filters W h e n Bench Scale
or Pilot-Plant Data Are Available 273
7.10. Design Procedure W h e n Experimental Data Are Not Available 282
8. Anaerobic Treatment 282
8.2. A Quantitative Study of Anaerobic Degradation of an Organic
Waste 283
8.3. Mathematical Formulation for Anaerobic Digestion Process . . 284
8.4. Laboratory Anaerobic Reactors for Obtaining Basic Design
Information 288
8.5. Design Procedure for Anaerobic Digesters 289
Problems 293
References 294
T h e b a s i c m e c h a n i s m f o r a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s is d e s c r i b e d in
C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 1 . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is a l s o
s t u d i e d in d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 5.
I n Sections 2 - 4 of this chapter, several modifications of t h e activated sludge
process are described. O t h e r types of wastewater t r e a t m e n t (aerated lagoons,
s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s , a n d t r i c k l i n g filters) a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n s 5 - 7 . T h e s e
a r e m o s t l y a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s . A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s is s t u d i e d
in S e c t i o n 8.
238 6. Secondary Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes
F o r b o t h a e r o b i c a n d a n a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s t h e a p p r o a c h utilized for t h e
m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n , a s well a s t h e p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d t o o b t a i n d e s i g n
d a t a f r o m b e n c h scale u n i t s , a r e t h o s e d e v e l o p e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s .
2. Extended A e r a t i o n (or Total

Oxidation P r o c e s s )
2.1. INTRODUCTION
T h i s p r o c e s s , a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s t o t a l o x i d a t i o n , is a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l i d e a in e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n a s
c o m p a r e d t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is t o m i n i m i z e t h e
a m o u n t o f excess s l u d g e . T h i s is a c h i e v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g r e s i d e n c e t i m e ; t h u s
t h e r e a c t o r v o l u m e is c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a r g e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d in t h e c o n v e n
t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s . A s a r e s u l t , essentially all d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e
f o r m e d is c o n s u m e d b y e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n . R e f e r r i n g t o E q . (5.68), t h e
c o n d i t i o n for z e r o n e t yield o f s l u d g e is
AX V « 0 (6.1)
or
aS Q
r = bX , V
v a (6.2)
T h e o r e t i c a l r e s i d e n c e t i m e t o a c h i e v e z e r o n e t yield o f M L V S S is o b t a i n e d
f r o m E q . (6.2).
/ = ν/Q = aS lbX , r v a (6.3)
T h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s is t h a t s l u d g e h a n d l i n g
facilities a r e m i n i m a l c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e r e q u i r e d for t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
process.
2.2. C O M P A R I S O N OF EXTENDED AERATION

A N D ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES
There are four basic features which distinguish extended aeration from the
conventional activated sludge process:
1. L o n g e r d e t e n t i o n t i m e in a e r a t o r
2. L o w e r o r g a n i c l o a d i n g s . F o r t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s o r g a n i c
l o a d i n g , e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f f o o d t o m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o (F/M) (Chapter
5, S e c t i o n 5), is u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 0.10 a n d 0 . 2 5 , a s c o m p a r e d t o v a l u e s o f
0 . 3 - 0 . 7 for t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s .
3. H i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s in t h e a e r a t o r . T h e s e v a l u e s
r a n g e f r o m 3500 t o 5000 m g / l i t e r for e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n , a s c o m p a r e d t o
2 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r for t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s . C o m b i n a t i o n o f f e a t u r e s
2. Extended Aeration 239
c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r (2) a n d (3) (i.e., less f o o d for g r e a t e r m i c r o o r g a n i s m p o p u l a

t i o n ) r e s u l t s in s t a r v a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s for t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . Resulting
"cannibalism" (endogenous respiration conditions) reduces concentration of
M L V S S , a n d t h u s a m i n i m i z a t i o n o f s l u d g e a c c u m u l a t i o n is a c h i e v e d .
4. H i g h e r c o n s u m p t i o n o f o x y g e n in e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s . F o r
d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t , P a s v e e r [ 1 1 ] r e p o r t s for t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n
p r o c e s s a n o x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice t h a t for t h e c o n v e n
t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , n a m e l y 18 v s . 9 k w h / ( c a p i t a ) ( y e a r ) . With
t h i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l e x t r a c o s t for e n e r g y , s u b s t a n t i a l s a v i n g s in c a p i t a l
T A B L E 6.1
Comparison of Conventional Activated Sludge and Extended
Aeration Processes
Activated Extended
Characteristics sludge aeration
F o o d to microorganism ratio
[lb B O D / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S ) ]
5 0.3-0.7 0.10-0.25
M L V S S concentration in reactor (mg/liter) 2000-4000 3500-5000
Overall B O D removal efficiency (% includes
5
both soluble and suspended B O D ) 5 90-95 85-98

Effluent characteristics
Soluble B O D 5 (mg/liter) 10-20 10-20
Total B O D (suspended + colloidal + soluble)
5
(mg/liter) 15-25 20-40

Suspended solids (mg/liter) <20 <70
Sludge yield (lb/lb B O D removed) 5 «0.03 «0.01
0 requirement (as % o f B O D removed)
2 5 90-95 120
e x p e n d i t u r e m a y b e a c h i e v e d . T a b l e 6.1 p r e s e n t s a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e m a i n
characteristics of conventional activated sludge a n d extended aeration
processes.
2.3. A P P L I C A T I O N O F E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N
T h e extended aeration process has been applied mostly in t r e a t m e n t of
w a s t e w a t e r s w h e n d a i l y v o l u m e is less t h a n 2 0 0 0 g a l / d a y . T h i s i n c l u d e s t r e a t
m e n t o f d o m e s t i c s e w a g e for s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s , h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s ,
recreational areas, a n d some industrial wastes. Extended aeration package
units are commercially available. If well designed a n d operated, they should
not present odor problems and thus can be located within populated areas.
2.4. E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N U N I T S
F i g u r e s 6.1 a n d 6.2 i l l u s t r a t e a c o n v e n t i o n a l e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n u n i t a n d a
variation k n o w n as the oxidation ditch. In the conventional aeration unit
( F i g . 6.1), t h e influent p a s s e s first t h r o u g h a s c r e e n t o r e m o v e l a r g e s u s p e n d e d
Q=QpQp +
Waste Screen QF \
or
influent shredder
OF
S l u d g y recycle; Q R ^ P Y p S l u d g e wastage
Fig. 6.1. Conventional extended aeration process.
s o l i d s , in o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e a e r a t o r u n i t f r o m d a m a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m c l o g g i n g .
I n s o m e u n i t s a s h r e d d e r is p r o v i d e d i n s t e a d o f a s c r e e n . T h e flow d i a g r a m o f
t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l u n i t is essentially i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
p r o c e s s . Effluent f r o m t h e clarifier m a y b e c h l o r i n a t e d p r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e i n
the receiving water.
Waste Âeration rotor
wastage
Fig. 6.2. Oxidation ditch.
F i g u r e 6.2 s h o w s a d i a g r a m o f t h e o x i d a t i o n d i t c h . A n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h i s
s y s t e m is a n a e r a t i o n d i t c h p r o v i d e d w i t h a n a e r a t i o n r o t o r . T h i s r o t o r h a s
t w o f u n c t i o n s : a e r a t i o n a n d p r o v i s i o n o f a flow velocity t o t h e m i x e d l i q u o r i n
t h e d i t c h . L i q u i d flow velocity is o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 ft/sec. T h e m i x t u r e o f s e w a g e
a n d activated sludge repeatedly passes over the aeration r o t o r at short inter
vals. A typical r o t o r has a diameter of approximately 30 in., revolves a t a b o u t
75 r p m , h a s a d e p t h o f i m m e r s i o n o f a b o u t 6 in., a n d a n o x y g e n a t i o n c a p a c i t y
(OC) of the order of 6 lb/hr.
2.5. S E T T L I N G O F S L U D G E F R O M
EXTENDED AERATION
A l t h o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y s l u d g e yield is nil f o r t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s ,
i n p r a c t i c e t h i s is n o t t h e c a s e since p a r t o f t h e s l u d g e is n o t b i o d e g r a d a b l e a n d
t h e r e f o r e a c c u m u l a t e s . T h e n e t s l u d g e yield m u s t b e w a s t e d .
F i g u r e 5.7 ( C h a p t e r 5) r e v e a l s t h a t for v a l u e s o f F/M i n t h e r a n g e u t i l i z e d
for t h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n p r o c e s s ( 0 . 1 0 - 0 . 2 5 ) , t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a r e d r i v e n
to endogenous respiration and metabolize the cytoplasmic material of their
"fellow" microorganisms. T h e remains of this "cannibalist feast" are n o n -
d e g r a d a b l e cellular shells w h i c h a r e r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t c o m p a r e d t o c y t o p l a s m i c
m a t e r i a l a n d settle w i t h difficulty. S e t t l i n g t a n k s for e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n s y s t e m s
should therefore provide longer retention t i m e t h a n for the c o n v e n t i o n a l
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s . R e t e n t i o n t i m e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 v s . 2 h r f o r t h e
conventional activated sludge process.
2.6. N I T R I F I C A T I O N I N E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N
A s o r g a n i c l o a d i n g (F/M r a t i o ) is l o w i n e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n a n d s i n c e a l a r g e
excess o f a i r is s u p p l i e d , nitrification m a y o c c u r t o a n a p p r e c i a b l e e x t e n t
involving the conversion of a m m o n i a nitrogen t o nitrite a n d nitrate. A p r o b l e m
r e l a t e d t o n i t r i f i c a t i o n is a d r o p i n p H f o r t h e s y s t e m d u e t o f o r m a t i o n o f
n i t r i c a c i d . T h e p H m a y d r o p a s l o w a s 4 . 5 , in w h i c h c a s e t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s
m a y b e a d v e r s e l y affected.
2.7. D E S I G N C R I T E R I A F O R E X T E N D E D A E R A T I O N
2.7.1. Calculation of Residence T i m e for
Extended Aeration U n i t s
Since t h e d e t e n t i o n p e r i o d r e q u i r e d for B O D r e m o v a l is m u c h s h o r t e r t h a n
t h a t for a u t o x i d a t i o n o f s l u d g e , a e r a t o r v o l u m e is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e r a t e o f
sludge oxidation.
F o r m u l a t i o n o f d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n is b a s e d o n E q .
(6.2), w h i c h m u s t b e slightly m o d i f i e d p r i o r t o its a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e m o d i f i c a
t i o n s a r e a s f o l l o w s : in E q . (6.2), t h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t all
s l u d g e f o r m e d (aS Q) r is b i o d e g r a d a b l e . E x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 7 % o f t h e s l u d g e p r o d u c e d is b i o d e g r a d a b l e , t h e r e m a i n i n g
2 3 % c o m p r i s i n g n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e c e l l u l a r shells. T h e r e f o r e , t h e l e f t - h a n d
m e m b e r o f E q . (6.2) is r e w r i t t e n a s E q . (6.4).
aSQ
a r =faS Qr (6.4)
w h e r e a is t h e l b o f b i o d e g r a d a b l e M L V S S p r o d u c e d / l b t o t a l B O D r e m o v e d
Q 5
o r fa; f t h e l b b i o d e g r a d a b l e M L V S S p r o d u c e d / l b t o t a l M L V S S p r o d u c e d «
0.77; a n d a the lb total M L V S S p r o d u c e d / l b total B O D removed. 5
I n t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (6.2), M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s
o n l y t o b i o d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e , i.e., X va t o b e s u b s t i t u t e d b y fX Vta (mg/liter of
b i o d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e ) . A s w r i t t e n in E q . (5.68) p a r a m e t e r b r e p r e s e n t s t h e
fraction of total M L V S S oxidized per day.
b = lb M L V S S oxidized/(day)(lb total M L V S S in reactor)
Define p a r a m e t e r b referred t o lb of b i o d e g r a d a b l e sludge.

0
b = lb M L V S S oxidized/(day)(lb biodegradable M L V S S in reactor)

Q
T h e relationship between b a n d b is Q
b = lb M L V S S o x i d i z e d / ( d a y ) [ / ( l b total M L V S S in reactor)] = b/f

0
If in the r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r of E q . (6.2) b a n d X va are substituted by b 0
a n d fX ,
Vta respectively,
b (fX ,a)V=
0 v ΦΙ/)(/Χ , )ν= υ α bX , Vv a (6.5)
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (6.2) is left u n c h a n g e d .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e m o d i f i e d E q . (6.2) is o b t a i n e d b y e q u a t i n g E q . (6.4) t o
E q . (6.5).
faS Q r = a SQ
0 r = bX , V v a (6.6)
R e s i d e n c e t i m e is t h e n s h o w n i n E q . (6.7).
t = V/Q = a SrlbX , 0 v a = faS /bX , r v a = fa(S -S )/bX ,

0 e v a (6.7)
I t is c o n v e n i e n t t o w r i t e t h e e x p r e s s i o n for r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t e r m s o f B O D
for t h e fresh feed, 5 . If i n E q . (6.7) (S -S )
F 0 e is s u b s t i t u t e d b y t h e v a l u e g i v e n
i n E q . (5.97), o n e o b t a i n s
t = (fa/bX , mS -S )K\ v a F e +r)] ( / * 0.77) (6.8)
2.7.2. Expression for Recycle Ratio r

C o n s i d e r E q . (5.91) for recycle r a t i o r ( l e t t i n g X VF « 0):
r = (SMQ X , -AX )ll834Q (Xv,u-X ,a)]

F v a v F v (6.9)
F o r e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n , w a s t a g e AX V c o r r e s p o n d s t o n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e cells
which are approximately 2 3 % of the sludge formed.
ΑΧ υ = 8.34(1 -f)a(S -S ) 0 e Q - (effluent loss) (6.10)
where
1 - / « 1 - 0 . 7 7 « 0.23
N e g l e c t i n g effluent l o s s i n E q . ( 6 . 1 0 ) , * a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g AX V i n E q . (6.9) b y
its v a l u e f r o m E q . (6.10) y i e l d s after s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
r = \.QFXv,a-i\-f)a(S -S )Q\IQ (X , -X )
0 e F v u Vta (6.11)
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f Q a n d (S — S ) in E q . (6.11) b y t h e i r v a l u e s f r o m E q s . (5.5)
0 e
a n d (5.97) yields after s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
r = [X , -v a (1 -f)a'S -SMKXv.u-Xp.J
r (6.12)
2.7.3. Expression for Reactor V o l u m e

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e t in E q . (5.104) b y t h e v a l u e g i v e n i n E q .
(6.8) l e a d s t o E q . (6.13).
V= Q fa(S -S )/bX ,
F F e v a (6.13)
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e for a n e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n u n i t is i l l u s t r a t e d by
Example 6.1.
Example 6 . 1
26,000 gal/day of a n industrial wastewater are t o be treated by e x t e n d e d
aeration. Influent B O D 5 is SF = 1200 m g / l i t e r , a n d it is d e s i r e d t o r e d u c e it
t o a v a l u e n o t o v e r 50 m g / l i t e r in t h e effluent (S ). e Take X Vta and X VtU as 4000
a n d 12,730 m g / l i t e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . V a l u e s o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s a, b, a', a n d V
h a v e been estimated as 0.7, 0 . 1 , 0.5, a n d 0.142, respectively ( u n i t s : B O D , 5
d a y ) . A s s u m e t h a t 7 7 % o f t h e M L V S S f o r m e d is b i o d e g r a d a b l e a n d n e g l e c t
X .
VyF C a l c u l a t e (1) r e c y c l e r a t i o , (2) r e s i d e n c e t i m e i n h r , (3) B O D 5 of c o m
b i n e d feed, (4) c o m b i n e d feed i n g a l / d a y , (5) F/M r a t i o , (6) r e a c t o r v o l u m e in
gal, a n d (7) o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s in l b / d a y .
SOLUTION
1. R e c y c l e r a t i o f r o m E q . ( 6 . 1 2 ) :
r = [ 4 0 0 0 - ( l - 0 . 7 7 ) ( 0 . 7 ) ( 1 2 0 0 - 4 0 ) ] / ( 1 2 , 7 3 0 - 4 0 0 0 ) = 0.437
2. R e s i d e n c e t i m e f r o m E q . ( 6 . 8 ) :
t = [(0.77 χ 0.7)/(0.1 χ 4000)] [ ( 1 2 0 0 - 50)/(l + 0 . 4 3 7 ) ] = 1.078 days (26 hr)
3. B O D 5 o f c o m b i n e d feed f r o m E q . ( 5 . 9 6 ) :
S = [1200 + (0.437) ( 5 0 ) ] / ( l + 0.437) = 850.3 mg/liter

0
4 . C o m b i n e d feed f r o m E q . ( 5 . 5 ) :
Q = 2 6 , 0 0 0 ( 1 + 0 . 4 3 7 ) = 37,360 gal/day
* Effluent loss in extended aeration is more significant than in the conventional activated
sludge process because as explained in Section 2.5, nonbiodegradable material is difficult t o
settle.
5. F/M ratio from Eq. (5.80):
F/M = 850.3/(4000 χ 1.078) = 0.197
6. R e a c t o r v o l u m e f r o m E q . ( 5 . 1 0 4 ) :
V = 37,360 χ 1.078 = 40,290 gal
7. O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m E q . ( 5 . 8 5 ) :
RVr = 0.5 ( 8 5 0 . 3 - 5 0 ) (0.03736) (8.24) + (0.142) (4000) (0.04029) 8.34
RVr = 124.7 + 190.9 = 315.6 lb/day.
3. C o n t a c t Stabilization
3.1. INTRODUCTION
C o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n is a n o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s .
A flow d i a g r a m for t h e s y s t e m is s h o w n in F i g . 6 . 3 .
I n f l u e n t w a s t e w a t e r is m i x e d w i t h s t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e , a n d t h i s m i x t u r e is
a e r a t e d in t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a c t t a n k f o r w h i c h d e t e n t i o n t i m e is o n l y 2 0 - 4 0 m i n .
D u r i n g initial c o n t a c t a n a p p r e c i a b l e f r a c t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d a n d d i s s o l v e d
B O D is r e m o v e d b y b i o s o r p t i o n after c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w e l l - a e r a t e d a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e . T h e m i x e d effluent f r o m t h e initial c o n t a c t t a n k flows i n t o a clarifier.
Clarified effluent is r e m o v e d a n d u n d e r f l o w f r o m t h e clarifier is t a k e n t o a
s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k , w h e r e it is a e r a t e d for a p e r i o d o f 1.5-5 h r .
D u r i n g this stabilization period, biosorbed organics are b r o k e n d o w n by
a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n . S t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e l e a v i n g t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k is i n a
" s t a r v e d " condition and ready to adsorb organic waste.
3.2. A D V A N T A G E O F C O N T A C T
STABILIZATION V S . CONVENTIONAL
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
S i n c e o n l y r e c y c l e d s l u d g e is s u b j e c t t o l e n g t h y a e r a t i o n , t h i s s y s t e m p e r m i t s
a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c t i o n in a e r a t i o n b a s i n v o l u m e . T h i s is t h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f
c o n t a c t stabilization vs. the conventional activated sludge process. F o r a
w a s t e w a t e r flow Q ( f t / h r ) a n d a s l u d g e recycle o f 0.3Q , a p p r o x i m a t e t a n k
F
3
F
v o l u m e s for t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s a n d c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a
t i o n a r e l\Q F a n d 4Q , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n e a r l y t h r e e f o l d
F
t a n k r e d u c t i o n . O v e r a l l r e m o v a l efficiencies a r e u s u a l l y l o w e r t h a n in t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , b u t c o u l d easily r e a c h 8 5 - 9 0 % B O D 5
removal.
T h e c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s is s u i t a b l e w h e n t h e w a s t e w a t e r c o n t a i n s
a high p r o p o r t i o n of B O D in suspended a n d colloidal forms. C o n t a c t stabiliza
t i o n p l a n t s m a y o p e r a t e w i t h o u t n e e d o f p r i m a r y clarification.
3. Contact Stabilization 245
Q =Q + Q =Qp (l r)
F R
+
, A j r
Influent Effluent
Initial contact tank Clarifier
Typical f X = 4 0 0 0 mg/liter
v a
values \\ =20 to 4 0 min

1
(Initial contact) I Clarifier underflow

Typical:
I Air X = 8 0 0 0 mg/liter
v u
Stabilized
Stabilization tank
t w 1.5 to 5 hr Sludge
m Wastage
sludge recycle
QR
Fig. 6.3. Flow diagram of contact stabilization system.
3.3. S O L U B I L I T Y I N D E X ( S I ) A N D
OVERALL EFFICIENCY
T h e solubility i n d e x (SI) o f a w a s t e w a t e r is defined a s
SI = soluble B O D / t o t a l B O D (6.14)
w h e r e 0 < SI ^ 1.0.
A s SI a p p r o a c h e s z e r o t o t a l B O D t e n d s t o b e o f s u s p e n d e d o r c o l l o i d a l f o r m ,
a n d t h e w a s t e w a t e r b e c o m e s s u i t a b l e for t r e a t m e n t b y c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n
since m o s t B O D c a n b e r e m o v e d w i t h i n a s h o r t i n i t i a l c o n t a c t p e r i o d . A s S I
approaches one, total B O D tends t o be of soluble form, a n d the conventional
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is m o r e efficient.
jr-Typical residence time

1/ for initial contact tank
Detention time for initial contact tank (hours)
Fig. 6.4. Relationship of SI, BOD removal, and initial contact time.
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f S I , B O D r e m o v a l , a n d initial c o n t a c t t i m e is s h o w n i n
F i g . 6.4. F o r t y p i c a l r e s i d e n c e t i m e s i n t h e initial c o n t a c t t a n k , c o n s i d e r a b l y
g r e a t e r B O D r e d u c t i o n o f effluent is a c h i e v e d w h e n t h e v a l u e o f S I a p p r o a c h e s
u n i t y . T h e rise in t h e c u r v e for SI = 0 f o l l o w i n g t h e initial d r o p is d u e t o o v e r -
o x i d a t i o n , a c o n c e p t w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 3.4.
3.4. D E S I G N O F C O N T A C T S T A B I L I Z A T I O N
SYSTEMS
3.4.1. Selection of Residence Times for
C o n t a c t and Stabilization
T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e in d e s i g n o f c o n t a c t s t a b i l i z a t i o n s y s t e m s is t h e s e l e c t i o n
o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e s for initial c o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k s . F o r a specific
w a s t e w a t e r , l a b o r a t o r y tests a r e p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e effect o f a c o m
b i n a t i o n o f v a r i o u s r e s i d e n c e t i m e s for initial c o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k s
o n t h e % B O D r e m o v a l . A t y p i c a l set o f c u r v e s o b t a i n e d for a specific w a s t e
w a t e r is s h o w n in F i g . 6.5. E a c h c u r v e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a fixed initial c o n t a c t
d e t e n t i o n t i m e . T h e a b s c i s s a is s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e a n d t h e o r d i n a t e is t h e % B O D
removal.
I f t h e d e s i r e d B O D r e m o v a l c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d in t h e initial c o n t a c t t a n k
(i.e., a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e = 0 ) , s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e m u s t b e e x t e n d e d t o r e a c h
t h e d e s i r e d r e m o v a l . F o r e a c h c o n t a c t t i m e ( t h a t is, for e a c h c u r v e in F i g . 6.4)
t h e r e is a n o p t i m u m s t a b i l i z a t i o n t i m e a s i n d i c a t e d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a
m a x i m u m % B O D removal. F o r stabilization times longer t h a n those corre-
Fig. 6.5. Relationship of contact time, stabilization time, and % BOD

removal [3]-
4. Modifications of Activated Sludge Process 247
s p o n d i n g t o these m a x i m a , sludge d e g r a d a t i o n ( e n d o g e n o u s phase) results in

s u c h a b r e a k i n g d o w n t h a t s l u d g e effluent f r o m t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k is n o t
a d e q u a t e t o p e r f o r m b i o s o r p t i o n i n t h e initial c o n t a c t . T h e r e f o r e , % B O D
r e m o v a l d r o p s . T h i s is k n o w n a s o v e r o x i d a t i o n .
3.4.2. Determination of Recycle Ratio

T h e recycle r a t i o is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m E q . (5.92), n e g l e c t i n g w a s t a g e . T y p i c a l
values of X and X
VyQ a r e 4 0 0 0 a n d 8 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r , respectively, i n w h i c h c a s e
VtU
r = 0 . 5 . O n c e t h e recycle r a t i o a n d d e t e n t i o n t i m e s h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d ,
sizing o f c o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n t a n k s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
3.4.3. Determination of O x y g e n Requirements

O x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (5.64). C o n t a c t a n d s t a b i l i z a
t i o n t a n k s a r e c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s o f a' a n d b'
a r e u s e d in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
4. O t h e r M o d i f i c a t i o n s of
Conventional Activated Sludge
Process: Step Aeration, Complete
Mix A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e P r o c e s s , a n d
Tapered Aeration
4.1. S T E P A E R A T I O N
S t e p a e r a t i o n is a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s
in w h i c h fresh feed is i n t r o d u c e d a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s a l o n g t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k . T h i s
a r r a n g e m e n t p r o v i d e s f o r a n e q u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e F/M r a t i o s a l o n g t h e t a n k .
Primary
clarifier
Tank length
Fig. 6.6. Step aeration process [8].

T h e a e r a t i o n t a n k is d i v i d e d b y baffles i n t o several p a r a l l e l c h a n n e l s . E a c h
c h a n n e l constitutes o n e step of the process, a n d the steps are linked together
i n series. T h i s p r o c e s s , a s well a s o x y g e n s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d a l o n g t h e t a n k
l e n g t h , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 6.6.
4.2. C O M P L E T E M I X A C T I V A T E D S L U D G E
PROCESS
I n t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , fresh feed a n d r e c y c l e d
s l u d g e a r e c o m b i n e d a n d t h e n i n t r o d u c e d a t several p o i n t s in t h e a e r a t i o n
t a n k f r o m a c e n t r a l c h a n n e l . A e r a t e d l i q u o r leaves t h e r e a c t o r f r o m effluent
c h a n n e l s o n b o t h sides o f t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k ( F i g . 6.7).
Primary Secondary
clarifier clarifier
Reactor
\Effluent
Wastage
Recycled sludge
Pump
Supply
Q) Ο
Demand
Ο ο
c
ο
Tank length (or width)
Fig. 6.7. Complete mix activated sludge process [8].
Oxygen supply and d e m a n d are uniform along the tank, as indicated by the
g r a p h a c c o m p a n y i n g F i g . 6.7. T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s d e v e l o p e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 3.2 a s s u m e s c o m p l e t e
m i x i n g . If p l u g flow c o n d i t i o n s a r e a s s u m e d , o x y g e n d e m a n d d e c r e a s e s a l o n g
the length of the aeration t a n k , whereas the oxygen supply r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t
( F i g . 6.8).
4.3. T A P E R E D A E R A T I O N
T h e p u r p o s e o f t a p e r e d a e r a t i o n is t o m a t c h t h e a m o u n t o f a i r s u p p l i e d
w i t h t h e o x y g e n d e m a n d a l o n g t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k . S i n c e a t t h e inlet o x y g e n
d e m a n d is t h e h i g h e s t , a e r a t o r s a r e s p a c e d m o r e closely t o p r o v i d e a h i g h e r
o x y g e n a t i o n r a t e . S p a c i n g b e t w e e n a e r a t o r s is i n c r e a s e d t o w a r d t h e o u t l e t a s
oxygen d e m a n d decreases.
Primary Secondary
clarifier clarifier
Effluent
Plug flow reactor
Wastage
Recycled sludge Γ
Pump
Tank length
Fig. 6.8. Conventional activated sludge process with plug flow reactor [8].
5. A e r a t e d L a g o o n s
A e r a t e d l a g o o n s a r e b a s i n s h a v i n g d e p t h s v a r y i n g f r o m 4 t o 12 ft i n w h i c h
o x y g e n a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a e r a t i o n u n i t s . T h e f u n d a
m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n a e r a t e d l a g o o n s a n d t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m is
t h a t r e c y c l i n g o f t h e s l u d g e is p r o v i d e d i n t h e l a t t e r a s a m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e a m o u n t o f b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e i n t h e a e r a t o r . A e r a t e d l a g o o n s a r e flow-
t h r o u g h devices, i.e., n o recycle o f s l u d g e is p r o v i d e d . S o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
t h e l a g o o n is a f u n c t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d d e t e n t i o n t i m e . I t is
u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 8 0 a n d 2 0 0 m g / l i t e r , i.e., m u c h l o w e r t h a n t h a t f o r a c t i v a t e d
sludge units (2000-4000 mg/liter).
5.2. M I X I N G R E G I M E S F O R A E R A T E D L A G O O N S
T u r b u l e n c e level i n l a g o o n s is t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r classification i n t o t w o t y p e s .
5.2.1. Completely M i x e d L a g o o n s
T h e t u r b u l e n c e level is sufficient t o m a i n t a i n s o l i d s i n s u s p e n s i o n . D e t e n t i o n
t i m e s a r e u s u a l l y less t h a n 3 d a y s , a n d p o w e r levels a r e h i g h e r t h a n 2 5 H P p e r
m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f b a s i n v o l u m e . P o w e r levels f o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e u n i t s a r e
in t h e vicinity o f 0.25 H P / 1 0 0 0 gal ( o r 2 5 0 H P p e r m i l l i o n g a l l o n s ) , i.e., a b o u t
ten times higher t h a n for a e r a t e d lagoons. A s s u m p t i o n of c o m p l e t e mixing,
w h i c h e v e n f o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e u n i t s is a n i d e a l i z e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n , is
q u e s t i o n a b l e for a e r a t e d l a g o o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s a s s u m p t i o n is often m a d e ,
l e a d i n g t o a s i m p l e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for t h e l a g o o n . U t i l i z i n g a p p r o p r i a t e
safety f a c t o r s , t h i s i d e a l i z e d a p p r o a c h is useful.
5.2.2. Facultative L a g o o n s
T h e t u r b u l e n c e level is insufficient t o m a i n t a i n all s o l i d s in s u s p e n s i o n .
P a r t o f t h e s o l i d s settle t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l a g o o n , w h e r e t h e y u n d e r g o
anaerobic decomposition. Detention times are usually over 6 days a n d power
levels a r e 4 - 2 5 H P p e r m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f b a s i n v o l u m e . T h e r e is a g r a d u a l
b u i l d u p o f r e s i d u e w h i c h h a s t o b e d e s l u d g e d a t p e r i o d s o f 1-10 y e a r s .
S e l e c t i o n o f m i x i n g r e g i m e is t h e r e s u l t o f a n e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n
p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s ( g r e a t e r in c o m p l e t e l y m i x e d r e g i m e ) a n d a c r e a g e c o s t
( m o r e a c r e a g e r e q u i r e d for f a c u l t a t i v e l a g o o n s ) . T h e s e t w o m i x i n g r e g i m e s a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 6.9.
» % r Γ"β~7 % , •
Influent \ / — / *± /Effluent
* χ (Lj / IV
Completely mixed lagoon

(a)
lnfluent\
Jk
—23—
^
^ J~/\ ^ - ^ ^ J- S o/Effluent
v
<V
lids
'—-— f^ffffiffigy deposition
Facultative lagoon
(b)
Fig. 6.9. Mixing regimes for aerated lagoons.
5.3. K I N E T I C S O F B O D R E M O V A L
Assuming appropriate environmental conditions ( p H , presence of nutrients,
etc.), t h e r a t e o f B O D r e m o v a l is a f u n c t i o n o f d e t e n t i o n t i m e , t e m p e r a t u r e ,
n a t u r e of wastewater, a n d concentration of suspended volatile solids.
U s u a l l y B O D r e m o v a l r a t e is a s s u m e d t o f o l l o w first-order k i n e t i c s , a n d t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n for t h e c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r a s s u m i n g c o m p l e t e m i x i n g ( C h a p t e r 5 ,
S e c t i o n 3.2) is utilized. T h e r e f o r e , E q . (5.18) is t a k e n a s t h e k i n e t i c m o d e l f o r
t h e l a g o o n . I t is c o n v e n i e n t t o r e w r i t e E q . (5.18) in t e r m s o f t h e r a t i o SJS 09
i.e., t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f B O D r e m a i n i n g i n t h e effluent. L e t t i n g kX Vta = K,

r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f E q . (5.18) yields
SJS 0 = 1/(1 +Kt) (6.15)

w h e r e S is t h e s o l u b l e B O D o f t h e influent, S t h e s o l u b l e B O D o f t h e effluent,
0 e
Κ the removal rate constant, and
/ (detention time) = V/Q = AD/Q (6.16)
I n E q . (6.16), Κ is t h e l a g o o n v o l u m e , Q t h e flow r a t e , A t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s -
sectional area of the lagoon, a n d D the d e p t h of t h e lagoon.
I t s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l is b a s e d o n t w o
f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n s , t h o s e o f first-order k i n e t i c s a n d t o t a l m i x i n g
c o n d i t i o n s . N e i t h e r a s s u m p t i o n is v a l i d i n a l l c a s e s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s f o r m u l a
t i o n is useful f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s .
V a l u e s o f A^can b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale d a t a . A r e a c t o r like t h e o n e
s h o w n i n F i g . 5.10 ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 6.1) is u s e d t o s i m u l a t e a n a e r a t e d
l a g o o n . T h e sliding baffle is r e m o v e d f o r t h i s s i m u l a t i o n . T h e v a l u e o f Κ is
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m l i n e a r p l o t s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n F i g . 5.5 ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n
3.2) b a s e d o n E q . (5.18). Κ v a l u e s s h o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e l a g o o n t e m
perature (summer a n d winter conditions) by the procedure described in
S e c t i o n 5.4. V a l u e s o f Κ c a n a l s o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m p i l o t - p l a n t d a t a o r
estimated from data o n operating lagoons.
5.4. E S T I M A T E O F L A G O O N T E M P E R A T U R E (T ) w
T h e rate of B O D removal nearly doubles for every 10°C of t e m p e r a t u r e

rise ( C h a p t e r 2 , S e c t i o n 7.1). T h u s i t is n e c e s s a r y t o e s t i m a t e l a g o o n t e m p e r a
t u r e u n d e r a v e r a g e s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s is d o n e b y p e r f o r m i n g
a heat balance. Consider t h e l a g o o n represented b y Fig. 6.10. T e m p e r a t u r e
v a l u e s s h o w n a r e t h o s e f o r t h e s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s i n E x a m p l e 6.2.
Let
T = temperature of t h e influent
t
Tw = lagoon ( a n d effluent) temperature (°F)
Τ = atmospheric temperature (°F)

a
T (air)
a
(80°F)
T: (IOO°F) T w (87.I°F)
T w (87.I°F)
Q
Fig. 6.10. Heat balance for aerated lagoon.

h = heat transfer coefficient [ B T U / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( ° F ) ] between lagoon a n d a t m o s p h e r e

2
(should take into account such factors as wind a n d humidity effects). In the
absence of m o r e a c c u r a t e information a value of 100 B T U / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( ° F ) m a y 2
be utilized for estimate purposes
Q = flow r a t e (Mgal/day)
A = lagoon surface (ft ) 2
C = specific heat of wastewater [take as 1.0 B T U / ( l b ) ( ° F ) ]
T h e e n t h a l p y c h a n g e o f t h e i n f l u e n t is
Λ Mgal Λ „, 4 Λ Λ l b liquor BTU

Q—r— x 8.34 χ 10* χ C χ (7|-r )°F w
* day Mgal liquor (lb liquor) (°F) v 1 w }
= β ( Γ , - 7^)8.34 x 1 0 6
(BTU/day) (6.17)
This should e q u a l h e a t loss t o s u r r o u n d i n g air given by
h BTU/(day)(ft )(°F) χ A ft 2 2
χ (T -T )°F w 0 = hA(T -T ) w a (BTU/day)
(6.18)
E q u a t i n g E q s . (6.17) a n d ( 6 . 1 8 ) ,
2 ( 7 , - 7 ^ ) 8 . 3 4 χ 1 0 = hA(T -T ) 6
w a (6.19)
Let
h χ 10- /8.34 = / 6
Note: If h » 100 B T U / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( ° F ) , t h e n / « 12 χ 1 0 " .

2 6
O n e then writes
Q(T^T )=/A(T -
W W T) a (6.20)
S o l v i n g for T , w
Tw = (AfT +QTi)/(Af+
a Q) (6.21)
E q u a t i o n (6.21) p e r m i t s a n e s t i m a t e o f l a g o o n t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e effect o f l a g o o n t e m p e r a t u r e (T ) w o n B O D r e m o v a l r a t e Κ is g i v e n b y
the empirical equation
K Tw = Κ Θ »- 20
Τ 20
(6.22)
where K Tyv is t h e B O D r e m o v a l r a t e a t t e m p e r a t u r e T , K w 20 the B O D removal

r a t e a t 2 0 ° C , a n d θ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient 1.056 ( 2 0 - 3 0 ° C ) a n d 1.135
(4-20°C).
C o n s i d e r E q s . (6.15), (6.16), (6.21), a n d (6.22). Substituting i n E q . (6.15)
v a l u e s o f /, K ,Tw and T w g i v e n b y E q s . ( 6 . 1 6 ) , (6.22), a n d (6.21), o n e o b t a i n s
SJS 0 = l/{l + ( / i / > / ( 2 ) ^ 2 o ^ / r

- + < 2 r
' ) / u / + < 2 ) ]
- 2 0
} (6.23)
E q u a t i o n (6.23) p e r m i t s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e effect o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n p e r
c e n t a g e o f B O D r e m a i n i n g i n t h e effluent.
5.5. O X Y G E N R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R
AERATED LAGOONS
Oxygen r e q u i r e m e n t s for aerobic o x i d a t i o n processes a r e given by E q .
(5.64). S i n c e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S (X ) Vta is l o w f o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ,
t h e t e r m b'X Vis
va usually neglected. Therefore
lb 0 / d a y « a'S Q « a\\b B O D removed/day)
2 r (6.24)
V a l u e s o f a' f o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s v a r y f r o m 0.9 t o 1.4 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e
of waste, mixing regime, a n d t e m p e r a t u r e .
5.6. S O L U B L E E F F L U E N T B O D F O R A N
AERATED LAGOON
T h e s o l u b l e effluent B O D f o r a n a e r a t e d l a g o o n is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q .
(6.15). S o l v i n g f o r S , e
S = S /(l+Kt) e 0 (6.25)
This equation does n o t take into account B O D feedback to the lagoon d u e t o
a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n of deposited solids. Usually a correction factor t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h i s is i n t r o d u c e d i n E q . (6.25). S i n c e a n a e r o b i c B O D f e e d b a c k is
g r e a t e r d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r , t w o m o d i f i e d f o r m s o f E q . (6.25) a r e r e c o m
mended by Eckenfelder a n d F o r d [ 5 ] .
S u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s : S = \2S /(\
e 0 + Kt) (6.26)
Winter c o n d i t i o n s : S = \.05S I(1+Kt)

e 0 (6.27)
F o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s , d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e c o n s i s t s o f specifying a
d e s i r e d effluent q u a l i t y (S ) a n d t h e n c a l c u l a t i n g r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( / ) n e c e s s a r y
e
t o a c h i e v e t h i s specified q u a l i t y . F o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s t h e d e s i g n a p p r o a c h is
normally t h e reverse of t h a t for activated sludge plants. U u s u a l l y w h e n a n
a e r a t e d l a g o o n is b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , o n e h a s a v a i l a b l e a g i v e n a c r e a g e o f l a n d
presumably at a reasonably low cost. T h e design procedure starts from t h e
k n o w n value of t h e surface area A a n d a n a s s u m e d reasonable d e p t h . T h e r e
f o r e , t h e v o l u m e o f t h e l a g o o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y r e s i d e n c e t i m e a r e fixed.
Effluent q u a l i t y S a c h i e v e d f o r t h i s r e s i d e n c e t i m e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q .
e
(6.25) [ o r E q s . (6.26) a n d ( 6 . 2 7 ) ] . F o r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t i t is u n
i m p o r t a n t t o w r i t e E q . (6.25), since S is a primary specification,
e rather than a
calculated v a l u e .
5.7. M L V S S C O N C E N T R A T I O N I N
AERATED LAGOONS
Consider a n aerated lagoon for complete m i x conditions indicated b y
Fig. 6.11. Let X Vt0 b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of V S S in t h e influent (mg/liter) a n d
Xva t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S f o r t h e l a g o o n ( s a m e a s t h a t i n effluent,
mg/liter).
254 6. S e c o n d a r y Treatment: Aerobic and Anaerobic P r o c e s s e s
V
Q Q
X
ν,α X
ν,α
Fig. 6.11. Material balance for ML VSS.
A m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for V S S yields
(Solids in) + (net synthesis in lagoon) = (solids out)

or
QX Vt0 + (aS Q-bX V)
r Vt0 = QX V>
D i v i d i n g t h r o u g h b y Q, l e t t i n g V/Q = / = d e t e n t i o n t i m e , a n d s o l v i n g f o r
Χν,α = (X„,o + aS )/(\+bt)

r
(6.28)
F o r facultative lagoons, X va is l o w e r t h a n t h e v a l u e e s t i m a t e d f r o m E q . (6.28)

d e p e n d i n g o n l a g o o n g e o m e t r y , a e r a t o r s p a c i n g , p o w e r level, a n d t h e n a t u r e
of influent solids.
R e m a r k s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e m a d e i n S e c t i o n 5.6 c o n c e r n i n g t h e difference i n
design a p p r o a c h between activated sludge plants a n d aerated lagoons are
a p p l i c a b l e t o E q . (6.28). F o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s , M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n
in t h e a e r a t o r (i.e., X ) va is specified b y t h e d e s i g n e r . F o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n s ,
X Vta is a c a l c u l a t e d q u a n t i t y ( f r o m t h e specified r e s i d e n c e t i m e / f r o m w h i c h
S is c a l c u l a t e d , a n d t h e v a l u e f o r S = S — S is t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d ) . E q u a t i o n
e r 0 e
(6.28) is t h e n u t i l i z e d t o c a l c u l a t e X . Vta F o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s it is u n
i m p o r t a n t t o w r i t e E q . (6.28), since X v>a is a p r i m a r y specification r a t h e r t h a n
a calculated quantity.
5.8. R E T E N T I O N P E R I O D R E Q U I R E D F O R A
SPECIFIED EFFLUENT S O L U B L E B O D
F r o m t h e d e s i g n a p p r o a c h i n S e c t i o n 5.6, r e t e n t i o n p e r i o d is u s u a l l y a
p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e w h i c h is i n d i r e c t l y specified b y t h e d e s i g n e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
o b t a i n i n g a n e q u a t i o n for / f o r t h e a e r a t e d l a g o o n is less i m p o r t a n t t h a n it w a s
for t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n e q u a t i o n f o r r e s i d e n c e t i m e is
d e r i v e d w h i c h m a y b e u t i l i z e d t o e v a l u a t e r e s i d e n c e t i m e s f o r a specified v a l u e
o f S f o r several p o s s i b l e selected v a l u e s o f l a g o o n d e p t h . T a k e E q . (5.18) a n d
e
substitute X v>ab y its v a l u e given i n E q . (6.28). S i m p l i f y i n g a n d s o l v i n g f o r

r e s i d e n c e t i m e t, o n e o b t a i n s
t = SMX .o v + aSr)kS -bSr]

e
(6.29)
w h e r e S = S — S . I f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n t h e i n f l u e n t (X )
r 0 e Vt0 is n e g l i
gible, E q . ( 6 . 2 9 ) simplifies t o yield
t = XI(akS -b) e (X ,ο * 0)
v (6.30)
If i n t h i s e q u a t i o n t h e u n i t s t o b e utilized a r e t ( d a y s ) , a ( l b M L V S S / l b B O D ) , r
k (hr" ), S1
e (mg/liter), a n d b [lb M L V S S / ( d a y ) ( l b M L V S S ) ] , a conversion
f a c t o r o f 2 4 h r / d a y is u s e d . T h e r e f o r e , E q . (6.29) is r e w r i t t e n a s E q . (6.31).
t = \/(24akS -b) e (X * Vt0 0) (6.31)
5.9. T O T A L E F F L U E N T B O D F O R A N
AERATED LAGOON
S o far, o n l y s o l u b l e B O D o f t h e effluent (S ) h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d . T o t h i s ,
e
one m u s t a d d the B O D contribution corresponding t o volatile suspended

solids p r e s e n t i n t h e effluent.* A s s u m i n g c o m p l e t e m i x i n g , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f V S S i n t h e effluent is e q u a l t o t h a t in t h e l a g o o n . B O D c o n t r i b u t i o n d u e t o
V S S d e p e n d s o n s l u d g e a g e , w h i c h for a e r a t e d l a g o o n s is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q .
(5.150) [ ( o r E q . (5.151) if X vo = 0 ) ] . A s s l u d g e s t a b i l i z e s w i t h a g e , its c o n t r i
b u t i o n t o effluent B O D l o w e r s . C o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s l u d g e a g e a n d B O D
c o n t r i b u t i o n b y V S S is s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 1 2 . T h e t o t a l B O D o f t h e effluent is
[ E q . (6.32)]
Total B O D of effluent = S + ψΧ , e υ α (mg/liter) (6.32)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

^ = B 0 D / V S S = (lb B 0 D / l b VSS)
5 5
Fig. 6.12. Correlation for insoluble BOD [5].
* F o r the activated sludge process, complete settling o f M L V S S in the secondary clarifier

is assumed. Therefore only soluble B O D is accounted for in the net effluent (refer t o Fig. 5.1},
where X « 0 ) .
v%e
w h e r e S is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (6.26) [ o r E q . ( 6 . 2 7 ) ] , φ is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m
e
F i g . 6.12, a n d X is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (6.28).
Vtu
5.10. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R A T E D
LAGOONS
T h e p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y
E x a m p l e 6.2.
Example 6.2
A n a e r a t e d l a g o o n is c o n t e m p l a t e d for t r e a t i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r .
A n a r e a o f 5 a c r e s is a v a i l a b l e . T h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n is t a k e n a s a b a s i s
for d e s i g n :
Q = 1.5 M G D (average flow rate)
So = 600 mg/liter ( B O D of influent)

5
Χ υ> ο = 20 mg/liter (VSS in influent)
Τ = average air temperature, 80°F ( s u m m e r ) ; 35°F (winter)

a
T = 100°F
t (influent temperature)
D a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale e q u i p m e n t :
Κ = 0.06 h r " 1
= 1.44 d a y " 1
(at 20°C)
a = 0.5 lb VSS/lb B O D r
b = 0.06 d a y - 1
a' = 1.1 l b 0 / l b B O D
2 r
h = 100BTU/(day)(ft )(°F) 2
Calculate
1. Effluent s o l u b l e B O D for s u m m e r a n d 5 winter conditions. Base
c a l c u l a t i o n s o n a l a g o o n d e p t h o f 8 ft.
2. M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t e q u i l i b r i u m for a completely mixed lagoon
Xva for s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s .
3. T o t a l B O D in t h e effluent for s u m m e r a n d
5 winter conditions.
4. S u r f a c e a e r a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s : lb 0 / d a y , 2 required H P , and power
level in H P / M g a l o f b a s i n v o l u m e .
S O L U T I O N : Part 1 BOD 5 o f effluent
Step 1. E s t i m a t e T w for s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s [ E q . ( 6 . 2 1 ) ] . H e r e
A = 5 acre χ 43,560 ft /acre = 217,800 ft 2 2
and
/ = 12 χ I O " 6
corresponding to
h = 100BTU/(day)(ft )(°F) 2
Summer: T w = (217,800 χ 12 χ 1 0 ~ χ 8 0 + 1.5 χ 100)/(217,800χ 12 χ Ι Ο " + 1 . 5 )

6 6
= 87.1°F (30.6°C)
Winter: T w = (217,800 χ 12 χ 1 0 ~ χ 3 5 + 1 . 5 χ 100)/(217,800χ 12 χ 1 0 " + 1.5)

6 6
= 58.7°F (14.8°C)
Step 2. E s t i m a t e B O D r e m o v a l r a t e Κ f o r s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s
[Eq. (6.22)].
Summer: K . * 30 6 c = 1.44 χ 1 . 0 5 6 ( 3 0
· - 6 2 0 )
= 2.57 d a y 1
Winter: # 1 4 . .
8 c = 1.44 χ 1 . 1 3 5 < · - 1 4 8 2 0 )
= 0.745 d a y 1
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e d e t e n t i o n t i m e [ E q . ( 6 . 1 6 ) ] .
217,800 ft χ 8 ft χ 7.48 gal/ft

2 3
Λ m Λ
t = = 8.7 days
1,500,000 gal/day y
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e S e ( s o l u b l e B O D o f effluent) f o r s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r
5
conditions.
S u m m e r : F r o m Eq. (6.26) S e = 1.2 χ 600/(1 + 2.57 χ 8.7) = 30.8 mg/liter
% soluble B O D r e m o v a l : [(600 - 30.8)/600] χ 100 = 9 5 %
W i n t e r : F r o m Eq. (6.27) S e = 1.05 χ 6 0 0 / ( 1 + 0 . 7 4 5 χ 8.7) = 84.2 mg/liter
% soluble B O D r e m o v a l : [ ( 6 0 0 - 8 4 . 2 ) / 6 0 0 ] χ 100 = 86%
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n [ E q . (6.28)]
Summer: X , 0 a = [20 + 0 . 5 ( 6 0 0 - 3 0 . 8 ) ] / [ l + (0.06)(8.7)] = 200 mg/liter
Winter: X, v a = [20 + 0 . 5 ( 6 0 0 - 8 4 . 2 ) ] / [ l + (0.06)(8.7)] = 182.6mg/liter
S O L U T I O N : Part 3 Total B O D 5 for effluent
Soluble B O D 5 o f t h e effluent h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d i n S o l u t i o n , P a r t 1, S t e p 4 .
Summer: S e = 30.8 mg/liter
Winter: S e = 84.2 mg/liter
Step 1. E s t i m a t e ψ f r o m F i g . 6.12. F i r s t c a l c u l a t e s l u d g e a g e [ E q . ( 5 . 1 5 0 ) ] .
S u m m e r : t = [200/(200 - 20)]8.7 = 9.67 days

s
Winter: / = [ 1 8 2 . 6 / ( 1 8 2 . 6 - 2 0 ) ] 8.7 = 9.77 days

s
T h e n f r o m F i g . 6.12,
S u m m e r : F o r t = 9.67 days, read ψ = 0.332

s
Winter: F o r t = 9.77 days, read φ = 0.330

s
Step 2 . E s t i m a t e V S S c o n t r i b u t i o n t o effluent B O D . 5
S u m m e r : ψΧ , ν α = 0.332 χ 200 = 66.4 mg/liter

Winter: ψΧ υ>α = 0.330 χ 182.6 = 60.3 mg/liter
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t o t a l B O D 5 i n effluent.
S u m m e r : Soluble B O D 5 30.8 mg/liter
B O D (VSS) 5 66.4 mg/liter
97.2 mg/liter
Winter: Soluble B O D 5 84.2 mg/liter

BOD5 (VSS) 60.3 mg/liter
144.5 mg/liter
S O L U T I O N : Part 4 Surface aeration requirements
Step L E s t i m a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s [ E q . ( 6 . 2 4 ) ] .
S u m m e r : B O D = 600 - 30.8 = 569.2 mg/liter = 569.2 χ 1 0 " lb B O D / l b liquor

r
6
r
B O D / d a y = 569.2 χ 1 0 " lb B O D / l b liquor χ 1.5 χ 1 0 gal liquor/day

r
6
r
6
χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor = 7121 lb B O D / d a y P
lb 0 / d a y = 1.1 lb 0 / l b B O D χ 7121 lb B O D / d a y = 7833 lb 0 / d a y

2 2 r r 2
= 326 lb 0 / h r 2
Winter: B O D = 600 - 84.2 = 515.8 mg/liter = 515.8 χ I O " lb B O D / l b liquor

r
6
r
B O D / d a y = 515.8 χ 1 0 " l b B O D / l b liquor χ 1.5 χ 1 0 gal liquor/day

r
6
r
6
χ 8.34 l b liquor/gal liquor = 6453 l b B O D / d a y r
= 269 lb B O D / h r r
lb 0 / d a y = 1.1 lb 0 / l b B O D χ 6453 lb B O D / d a y = 7098 lb 0 / d a y

2 2 r r 2
= 296 lb 0 / h r 2
Step 2. E s t i m a t e l b 0 / ( H P x h r ) 2 [ E q . (4.34)]. Base estimate o n t h e

following values:
N = 2.5 lb 0 / Η Ρ χ h r
0 2
α = 0.8
Csw = 7.0 mg/liter ( s u m m e r ) ; 9.5 mg/liter (winter)
C L = 1.0 mg/liter
6. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds 259
Then
Summer: For T w = 30.6°C (Part 1, Step 1)
Ν — 2.5[(7.0-1.0)/9.2]0.8 χ 1 . 0 2 4 ( 3 0
· -
6 2 0 )
= 1.68 lb 0 / ( H P x hr)
2
Winter: For T w = 14.8°C (Part 1, Step 1)
Ν = 2.5[(9.5-1.0)/9.2]0.8 χ 1 . 0 2 4 ( 1 4
· -
8 2 0 )
= 1.63 lb 0 / ( H P x hr)
2
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e q u i r e d H P .
lbP /hr2
lb 0 / H P x h r
2
where the n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r have been calculated in P a r t 4 (Steps

1 a n d 2, respectively).
S u m m e r : H P = 326/1.68 = 194 H P
Winter: H P = 296/1.63 = 182 H P
S u m m e r operation controls design.
Step 4. E s t i m a t e t h e p o w e r level b a s e d o n 194 H P . T h e l a g o o n h a s a

v o l u m e o f 2 1 7 , 8 0 0 f t χ 8 ft = 1,742,400 f t , o r
2 3
1,742,400 ft χ 7.48 gal/ft

3 3
= 13,033,152 gal
Λ H P / M g a l = 194/13.03 = 14.9 H P / M g a l (faculative lagoon level)
6. W a s t e w a t e r S t a b i l i z a t i o n P o n d s
6.1. INTRODUCTION
T h e b a s i c difference b e t w e e n t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d i n
t h i s s e c t i o n a n d t h o s e p r e v i o u s l y s t u d i e d is t h a t n o a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t is
e m p l o y e d in s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s . O x y g e n n e e d s for p o n d s a r e p r o v i d e d b y
n a t u r a l surface aeration a n d by algae, which p r o d u c e oxygen by p h o t o
s y n t h e s i s . O x y g e n r e l e a s e d b y a l g a e a s a r e s u l t o f p h o t o s y n t h e s i s is u t i l i z e d b y
b a c t e r i a for a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r . P r o d u c t s o f t h i s d e g r a d a
t i o n ( c a r b o n d i o x i d e , a m m o n i a , p h o s p h a t e s ) a r e in t u r n u t i l i z e d b y a l g a e .
T h i s cycle s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a l g a e a n d b a c t e r i a is s h o w n d i a -
grammatically in Fig. 6.13.
W a s t e w a t e r s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s a r e feasible w h e n l a r g e l a n d a r e a s are
a v a i l a b l e a t l o w c o s t a n d h i g h q u a l i t y effluent is n o t r e q u i r e d . I f B O D o f the
influent is h i g h , o x y g e n d e m a n d is a b o v e t h a t p r o v i d e d b y p h o t o s y n t h e s i s and
n a t u r a l surface aeration. U n d e r these circumstances D O concentration in the
r Organic
New- Bacteria matter
bacteria
C0 ,NH2 3
Algae
Solar
energy New
algae
Fig. 6.13. Cyclic symbiotic relationship between algae and bacteria.
w a s t e w a t e r d r o p s t o a very l o w level a n d a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n p r e v a i l s .
T e r m i n a l p r o d u c t s for a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e C H + H 0 , in c o n t r a s t
4 2
t o C 0 + H 0 for a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n . C h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o
2 2
a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n 8 . 1 .
P o n d s in w h i c h t h e u p p e r l a y e r s a r e a e r o b i c a n d t h e l o w e r a r e a n a e r o b i c
a r e referred t o a s f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d s . M o s t s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s fall in t h i s
category.
W h e n e v e r o r g a n i c l o a d i n g is v e r y h i g h , o x y g e n d e m a n d m a y b e s u c h t h a t
p o n d o p e r a t i o n is a n a e r o b i c . W h e n several p o n d s a r e o p e r a t i n g in series, t h e
first o n e r e c e i v i n g r a w w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e is a n a e r o b i c a n d t h e s e c o n d ,
w h i c h receives p a r t i a l l y stabilized w a s t e w a t e r f r o m t h e first, m a y b e a f a c u l t a
tive p o n d . T h e last o n e r e c e i v i n g relatively l o w B O D w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e
from the preceding one might function as a n aerobic p o n d .
Because of high detention time, frequently a b o u t 2 m o n t h s , r e m o v a l of
refractory organic materials which c a n n o t be accomplished by activated
s l u d g e o r a e r a t e d l a g o o n p r o c e s s e s m a y b e c o m e p o s s i b l e in s t a b i l i z a t i o n
p o n d s . T h u s , a convenient arrangement m a y be to provide stabilization p o n d s
following a n activated sludge (or aerated lagoon) unit to complete
stabilization.
6.2. K I N E T I C S O F B O D R E M O V A L F O R
STABILIZATION P O N D S
A n i d e a l i z e d a p p r o a c h s i m i l a r t o t h a t utilized for a e r a t e d l a g o o n s is o f t e n
e m p l o y e d for s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f M L V S S is n o t a r e l e v a n t
p a r a m e t e r in s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s , a n d t h u s t h e t e r m X does not appear in
Vf0
t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l . E q u a t i o n 5.18 is r e w r i t t e n a s
(S -S )lt
0 e = KS e
(6.33)
E q u a t i o n (6.33) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a p l o t o f (S -S )/t 0 e vs. S e yields a s t r a i g h t

line, a n d t h e v a l u e o f Κ is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s l o p e . T y p i c a l g r a p h s o f t h i s
t y p e a r e s h o w n i n F i g s . 6.18 a n d 6.19.
6.3. L A B O R A T O R Y S I M U L A T I O N O F
Batch or continuous models of stabilization p o n d s have been used on
b e n c h o r p i l o t scale. T w o o f t h e s e m o d e l s , r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d
F o r d [ 5 ] , a r e s h o w n in F i g . 6.14.
Light system
Light (JJjsys tern <J5~ "δ"

Influentr Effluent
Batch model Continuous model

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.14. Laboratory models for wastewater stabilization ponds.
F r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s e m o d e l s , g r a p h s s u c h a s F i g s . 6.18 a n d 6.19 a r e
c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d a n e s t i m a t e o f Κ v a l u e s is m a d e .
6.4. M A T H E M A T I C A L F O R M U L A T I O N F O R
S E V E R A L STABILIZATION P O N D S IN S E R I E S
S t a r t f r o m t h e m o d i f i e d f o r m o f t h e first-order kinetics removal equation
for o n e p o n d . S o l v i n g E q . (6.15) f o r / y i e l d s :
t = (l-SJS.)/K(SJS.) (6.34)
R a t i o SJS r e p r e s e n t s t h e % B O D r e m a i n i n g in t h e effluent.
0
F o r t w o s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s in series ( F i g . 6.15), o n e c a n w r i t e [ E q . ( 6 . 1 5 ) ]
S 0 s; s e
Pond No. 1 Pond No. 2
•l *2
Fig. 6.15. Diagram for two stabilization ponds in series.
F o r p o n d N o . 1: S/IS 0 = 1/(1 +K X ii) (6.35)

F o r p o n d N o . 2 : S /S ' e e = 1/(1+ Kt)
2 2 (6.36)
C o m b i n i n g E q s . (6.35) a n d (6.36) b y m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ,
SJS 0 = 1/(1 + K t )(\ l 1 +K t )

2 2 (6.37)
W h e n r e t e n t i o n p e r i o d t a n d r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t Κ a r e t h e s a m e for b o t h
p o n d s , E q . (6.37) yields
SJSo = 1/(1 +Kt) 2
(6.38)
where t i = t2 = t and K t = K2 = K. S o l v i n g E q . (6.38) for /,
/ = [1 - (S /S ) ]/K(S /S y>
e 0
1/2
e o
2
(6.39)
F o r η p o n d s i n series, E q s . (6.38) a n d (6.39) yield
SJS 0 = 1/(1+Kt) n
(6.40)
t = [1 - (S IS ) ]/K(S ISo)
e 0
lln
e
1,n
(6.41)
F u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e w h e n e v e r t h e p r o d u c t Kt is m u c h less t h a n
unity. Exponential e Kt
is g i v e n b y t h e p o w e r series in E q . (6.42).
eKt
= 1 + Kt + (Kt) /2l 2
+ (Kt) /3l 3
+ ··· (6.42)
If ATr <^ 1, o n e c a n w r i t e a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n
e Kt
= 1 + Kt (6.43)
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t h e d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . (6.40) (1 +Kt) by the exponential e,

Kt
gives E q . (6.44),
SjSo = lle nKt
= e~ nKt
(6.44)
from which
SolS e = (6.45)
or
(S /S )
0 e
1,n
= (6.46)
6.5. E F F E C T O F T E M P E R A T U R E O N R E A C T I O N
RATE C O N S T A N T Κ
T h i s effect is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m a n e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p r e c o m m e n d e d b y
Eckenfelder and F o r d [ 5 ] .
K = Κ Θ-
t 25
χ 25
(6.47)
w h e r e K is t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e a t t°C;
t K 25 the reaction rate at 25°C; t the tem
p e r a t u r e ( ° C ) ; a n d θ t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o n s t a n t ( 1 . 0 6 — 1 . 0 9 ; t a k e θ = 1.07).
6.6. O X Y G E N P R O D U C T I O N I N A E R O B I C P O N D S
Aerobic stabilization p o n d s depend on algae to provide the oxygen necessary
t o satisfy B O D r e q u i r e m e n t s . S i n c e t h i s o x y g e n is p r o d u c e d b y p h o t o s y n t h e s i s ,
s u n l i g h t is r e q u i r e d . T h i s r e s t r i c t s t h e d e p t h o f a e r o b i c p o n d s t o a r a n g e o f
6-18 in.
T h e a m o u n t o f o x y g e n p r o d u c e d b y a l g a e is e s t i m a t e d f r o m Oswald's
e q u a t i o n [ E q . (6.48)] [ 9 ] .
O P = 0.25FI L (6.48)
w h e r e O P is t h e o x y g e n p r o d u c t i o n [ l b 0 / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) ] ; F t h e light c o n v e r
2
s i o n efficiency ( % ) ; a n d I t h e light i n t e n s i t y [ c a l / ( c m ) ( d a y ) ] .
L
2
F is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t o b e 4 % . T h u s F = 4 a n d
OP « l L (6.49)
I v a r i e s f r o m a b o u t 100 t o 3 0 0 c a l / ( c m ) ( d a y ) d u r i n g w i n t e r a n d s u m m e r ,
L
2
respectively, for a l a t i t u d e o f 30°. T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e m a x i m u m B O D l o a d i n g

for a e r o b i c o p e r a t i o n o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s t o t a k e p l a c e v a r i e s f r o m 100 t o
3001b BOD /(acre)(day).
5
6.7. D E P T H O F O X Y G E N P E N E T R A T I O N I N
D e p t h of oxygen penetration has been correlated by O s w a l d [ 1 0 ] t o surface
l o a d i n g , e x p r e s s e d a s l b B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) ( F i g . 6.16). T h e g r e a t e r t h e l o a d i n g ,
5
t h e s h a l l o w e r t h e d e p t h o f o x y g e n p e n e t r a t i o n since o x y g e n d e m a n d is h i g h e r .
12
Fall c onditio ns
_ 10
c
ο
.2 8 α>
σ α
ν κ ϊ
ί 4
ο
2
< r Sumn er
inter^
Ο 100 200
Loading ;lb B 0 D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5
Fig. 6.16. Correlation for depth of oxygen penetration in stabilization ponds

(adapted from Oswald [10]). (Reprinted with permission, copyright by the University of
Texas Press).
6.8. F A C U L T A T I V E P O N D S : H E R M A N N A N D
GLOYNA'S EQUATION
T h e d e s i g n f o r m u l a t i o n for s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n s 6.2
a n d 6.4 a p p l i e s t o f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d s . F a c u l t a t i v e p o n d d e p t h s v a r y f r o m 3 t o
8 ft.
A n e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n for f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d s h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y H e r m a n n
a n d G l o y n a [ 6 ] . T h i s f o r m u l a is b a s e d o n s e v e r a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d d e v e l o p e d
b y a n a l y s i s o f r e s u l t s f r o m b e n c h scale, p i l o t - p l a n t , a n d field p o n d s . I t is
a p p l i c a b l e t o d o m e s t i c s e w a g e for a 8 5 - 9 5 % B O D r e d u c t i o n [ E q . ( 6 . 5 0 ) ] .
V = 10.7 x 1 0 - Q S ( 1 . 0 8 5 - * )
8
o
3 5
(6.50)
w h e r e V is t h e p o n d v o l u m e ( a c r e χ f t ) ; Q t h e w a s t e w a t e r flow ( g a l / d a y ) ; S Q
t h e B O D o f influent ( m g / l i t e r ) ; a n d t t h e p o n d t e m p e r a t u r e ( ° C ) .
M
6.9. A N A E R O B I C P O N D S
L o a d i n g o f a n a e r o b i c p o n d s is s u c h t h a t a n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l
t h r o u g h o u t the liquid. Organic loadings range between 250 a n d 4000 lb
B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) . R e m o v a l efficiencies v a r y b e t w e e n 50 a n d 8 0 % . S i n c e t h i s
5
d e g r e e o f B O D r e m o v a l is u s u a l l y n o t a d e q u a t e for d i s c h a r g i n g t h e effluent,
5
a n a e r o b i c p o n d s are usually followed by faculative a n d aerobic ones. D e p t h s

f r o m 8 t o 15 ft a r e c o m m o n , b u t g r e a t e r d e p t h s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d t o p r o v i d e
m a x i m u m h e a t r e t e n t i o n , b e s i d e s t h e r e s u l t i n g e c o n o m y in t e r m s o f l a n d c o s t .
6.10. S U M M A R Y O F D E S I G N C R I T E R I A F O R
WASTEWATER STABILIZATION P O N D S
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a a r e s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 6.2.
TABLE 6.2
Summary of Design Criteria for Wastewater Stabilization P o n d s '
Ponds
Criteria Aerobic Facultative Anaerobic
D e p t h (ft) 0.5-1.5 3-8 8-15

Detention time (days) 2-6 7-50 5-50
Loading
lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5
100-200 200-500 250-4000
% B O D removal 80-95 70-95 50-80
A l g a e concentration (mg/liter) 100 10-50
a
Adapted from Eckenfelder [4J.
6.11. D E S I G N C A L C U L A T I O N S FOR
D e s i g n for s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 6 . 3 . T h e d e s i g n
p r o c e d u r e is t h a t r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s .
Example 6.3
W a s t e w a t e r s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s a r e c o n s i d e r e d for t r e a t m e n t o f o r g a n i c
c h e m i c a l s w a s t e . T o t a l d e s i g n flow is 1.0 M G D , a n d e s t i m a t e d p o n d t e m p e r a
t u r e s a r e 15° a n d 3 0 ° C for w i n t e r a n d s u m m e r o p e r a t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
It is d e s i r e d t o r e d u c e w a s t e w a t e r C O D f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 4 0 0 m g / l i t e r u s i n g t w o
a n a e r o b i c p o n d s in series o f e q u a l d e t e n t i o n t i m e , a n d t h e n t o l o w e r t h e C O D
o f t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a n a e r o b i c p o n d t o 50 m g / l i t e r b y m e a n s o f a n
6. W a s t e w a t e r Stabilization P o n d s 265
a e r o b i c p o n d . B e n c h scale tests a r e p e r f o r m e d w i t h w a s t e w a t e r for both

anaerobic and aerobic p o n d conditions, and the laboratory data obtained at
25°C are tabulated below.
D e t e n t i o n time
S (mg/liter C O D )
0 S (mg/liter C O D )
e (days)
Anaerobic p o n d
Run 1 3000 1000 40
Run 2 2000 667 40
Run 3 1200 400 40
Aerobic p o n d
Run 4 700 49 40
Run 5 400 28 40
Run 6 300 21 40
Design the treatment system.
SOLUTION See F i g s . 6 . 1 7 - 1 9 .
Step 1. O b t a i n c o n s t a n t Κ a t 2 5 ° C for t h e a n a e r o b i c a n d a e r o b i c p o n d s ,
f r o m p l o t s o f l a b o r a t o r y d a t a [ ( 5 - S )/t
0 e v s . SJ s h o w n in t a b u l a t i o n b e l o w .
S 0 S e D e t e n t i o n time
(mg/liter C O D ) (mg/liter C O D ) (days) (S -S )/t
0 e
Anaerobic
Run 1 3000 1000 40 50
Run 2 2000 667 40 33.3
Run 3 1200 400 40 20
Aerobic
Run 4 700 49 40 16.3
Run 5 400 28 40 9.3
Run 6 300 21 40 7.0
In summary
Κ (anaerobic ponds) = 0 . 0 5 d a y " 1
# (aerobic p o n d ) = 0.335 d a y " 1
Step 2. O b t a i n v a l u e s o f Κ a t 15°C since w i n t e r c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r o l t h e

design [ E q . (6.47)].
For the anaerobic ponds
K ls = 0.05 χ 1 . 0 7 ( 1 5
- 2 5 )
= 0.0254 d a y " 1
( w a s 0.05 d a y " 1
at 25°C, laboratory conditions).
Q=I.O MGD Anaerobic Anaerobic Aerobic

C0D=2000 pond pond pond
mg/liter 1 2 3
Si COD COD
4 0 0 mg/liter 50 mg/liter
Fig. 6.17. Diagram for Example 6.3.
601 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Γ
0 300 600 900 1200

S e (mg/liter)
Fig. 6.18. Determination of Κ (anaerobic ponds) for Example 6.3.
20 1——— 1 1 1 J
K= 16.75/50=0.335 day" 1
liter]Kday)
>*#4
15 S (49;I63) "
\
CP IO
ε
(28;9.3)
(2I;7)
5 -
k
^ Ι Ι Ι -I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
S e (mg/liter)
Fig. 6.19. Determination of Κ (aerobic pond) for Example 6.3.
F o r the aerobic p o n d
K l5 = 0.335 χ 1 . 0 7 ( 1 5
- 2 5 )
= 0.17 d a y " 1
(was 0.335 d a y " 1

at 25°C, laboratory conditions).
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e d e t e n t i o n t i m e s .
F o r t h e t w o a n a e r o b i c p o n d s i n series [ E q . ( 6 . 3 9 ) ]
/ = [1 - ( 4 0 0 / 2 0 ω ) 1 / 2
]/0.0254(400/2000) 1 / 2
= 48.7 days (each p o n d )
Since for t h e t w o a n a e r o b i c p o n d s in E x a m p l e 6.3 ^ = # 2 = ^ 1 5 = 0.0254

day" 1
and t = t 1 2 = t = 4 8 . 7 d a y s , it f o l l o w s t h a t f r o m E q s . (6.35) a n d (6.36),
S fS
e Q — S /S
e e
Λ S e
f
= (S Se)
0
112
= (2000x400) 1 / 2
= 894 mg/liter
( C O D of effluent from a n a e r o b i c p o n d 1)
F o r the aerobic p o n d [ E q . (6.34)]
/ = ( l - 5 0 / 4 0 0 ) / 0 . 1 7 (50/400) = 41.2 days
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e p o n d a r e a ( a c r e s ) . F o r t h e t w o a n a e r o b i c p o n d s a s s u m e
a d e p t h o f 12 ft. S i n c e / = V/Q = Ah/Q, w h e r e / is t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( d a y ) ;
Κ t h e v o l u m e o f p o n d ( f t ) ; Q t h e flow r a t e ( f t / d a y ) ; A t h e a r e a o f p o n d ( f t ) ;
3 3 2
a n d h t h e d e p t h o f p o n d (ft), t h e n A = tQ/h o r
A = 48.7 days χ (1 χ 1 0 gal/day χ ft /7.48 gal χ 1/12 ft x acre/43,560 f t )

6 3 2
= 12.5 acres per p o n d
T h e r e f o r e , d e s i g n t w o 12.5 a c r e p o n d s , e a c h 12 ft d e e p . S u r f a c e l o a d i n g [ l b
B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) ] for e a c h o f t h e a n a e r o b i c p o n d s is s h o w n b e l o w .
5
Anaerobic pond 1
Since 2 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r = 2 0 0 0 χ 1 0 " 6
lb C O D / l b liquor
lb C O D / d a y = 1 χ 1 0 gal liquor/day χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor

6
χ 2000 χ 1 0 - lb C O D / l b liquor
6
= 1 χ 8.34 χ 2000 = 16,680 lb C O D / d a y

A s s u m e B O D / C O D « 0.7. T h e n l b B O D / d a y = ( 0 . 7 ) ( 1 6 , 6 8 0 ) = 11,676
5 5
a n d lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 11,676/12.5 = 9 3 4
5 (surface loading for
a n a e r o b i c p o n d 1).
Anaerobic pond 2
lb C O D / d a y = 1 χ 8.34 χ 894 = 7456
l b B O D s / d a y = (0.7)(7456) = 5219
lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 5219/12.5 = 418
5 (surface loading for anaerobic
p o n d 2)
F o r t h e a e r o b i c p o n d , t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s :
1. A s s u m e a d e p t h o f o x y g e n p e n e t r a t i o n , e.g., h = 3 ft.
2. F r o m k n o w l e d g e o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e a n d flow r a t e , c a l c u l a t e a first
a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e p o n d a r e a ( a c r e s ) : A = tQ/h.
3. C a l c u l a t e s u r f a c e l o a d i n g in lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5 based on the
a s s u m e d v a l u e o f h.
4. F r o m F i g . 6.16 d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h o f o x y g e n p e n e t r a t i o n a n d c o m p a r e
it w i t h t h e a s s u m e d v a l u e u n d e r (1). F o r a e r o b i c o p e r a t i o n , t h e d e p t h o f o x y g e n
p e n e t r a t i o n s h o u l d b e at least e q u a l t o t h e a s s u m e d d e p t h . If n e c e s s a r y ,
assume a n o t h e r value of h a n d iterate steps ( l ) - ( 4 ) .
5. O x y g e n p r o d u c t i o n b y a l g a e is c h e c k e d t o a s s u r e t h a t it is sufficient t o
satisfy t h e s u r f a c e l o a d i n g [ E q . ( 6 . 4 9 ) ] .
Calculations are as follows:
1. A s s u m e h = 3 ft.
2. C a l c u l a t e A i n a c r e s .
A = 41.2 days χ (1 χ 1 0 gal/day χ ft /7.48 gal χ 1/3 ft χ acre/43,560 f t )

6 3 2
= 42.1 acres
3. S u r f a c e l o a d i n g . F i r s t c a l c u l a t e l o a d i n g in t e r m s o f l b C O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) .
Since 4 0 0 m g / l i t e r = 4 0 0 χ 1 0 " l b C O D / l b l i q u o r ,
6
lb C O D / d a y = 1 χ 1 0 gal liquor/day χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor

6
χ 400 χ I O " lb C O D / l b liquor

6
= 3336 lb C O D / d a y
Therefore,
l b C O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 3336/42.1 = 79.2 lb COD/(acre)(day)
A s s u m e B O D / C O D « 0.7. T h e n t h e s u r f a c e l o a d i n g in t e r m s o f B O D
5 5 is
l b B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) = 0.7 χ 79.2 « 55 lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y )
5 5
F r o m F i g . 6.16 for t h i s l o a d i n g , r e a d h « 3 ft. T h e r e f o r e , t h e a s s u m e d d e p t h is

a p p r o p r i a t e a n d n o f u r t h e r t r i a l is n e c e s s a r y .
4. C h e c k o x y g e n p r o d u c t i o n b y a l g a e . F r o m E q . (6.49) it follows t h a t
o x y g e n p r o d u c t i o n r e s t r i c t s m a x i m u m l o a d i n g s f r o m 100 t o 3 0 0 l b B O D / 5
(acre) ( d a y ) . S i n c e a c t u a l l o a d i n g is o n l y 55 l b B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) , a n excess
5
o f o x y g e n o v e r B O D r e q u i r e m e n t s is a v a i l a b l e .
5
7. Trickling Filters
T h e t r i c k l i n g filter is a p a c k e d m e d i a c o v e r e d w i t h b i o l o g i c a l slime t h r o u g h
w h i c h w a s t e w a t e r is p e r c o l a t e d . T h e slime layer, w h i c h u s u a l l y h a s a t o t a l
t h i c k n e s s b e t w e e n 0.1 a n d 2.0 m m , c o n s i s t s o f o n e a e r o b i c a n d o n e a n a e r o b i c
s u b l a y e r , a s s h o w n d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 6.20.
T h e biological aerobic process which takes place in the aerobic sublayer
is t y p i c a l ( C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 1 , F i g . 5.6). T h e s u b s t r a t e is p a r t i a l l y o x i d i z e d
BOD Oo (air)
" ^ j - Aerobic
Ν \ layer
-*\—J-Anaerobic
/ / / layer
/ ι
r ,
!
—f-Slime layer
/ / (0.1-2.0 mm)
-Organic acids
Fig. 6.20. Diagram of aerobic and anaerobic sublayers for a trickling filter.
t o p r o v i d e e n e r g y for t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s . A n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s u b s t r a t e is
utilized t o s y n t h e s i z e n e w s l i m e m a t e r i a l .
In the anaerobic sublayer decomposition takes place with formation of
o r g a n i c a c i d s , C H , a n d H S ( S e c t i o n 8.1). I n t h e t r i c k l i n g filter, o r g a n i c a n d
4 2
colloidal m a t t e r are removed by aerobic oxidation, biosorption, coagulation,

a n d a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n . E s s e n t i a l l y t h e r e is n o r e m o v a l b y m e c h a n i c a l
filtration. T h e t e r m " t r i c k l i n g filter" is m i s l e a d i n g in t h i s r e s p e c t .
7.2. T H I C K N E S S O F S L I M E L A Y E R
U s u a l l y , t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s l i m e l a y e r is b e t w e e n 0.1 a n d 2.0 m m . I t h a s
a n a d v e r s e effect o n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e t r i c k l i n g filter if it is t h i c k e r t h a n
2.0 m m . C l o g g i n g o f m e d i a m a y o c c u r , t h u s i m p a i r i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r flow
a n d the transfer of oxygen t o aerobic m i c r o o r g a n i s m s .
Operational hydraulic loadings are low [0.4-4.0 gal/(min)(ft )] a n d are 2
n o t sufficient t o k e e p t h e slime l a y e r s c o u r e d off. T h u s , h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g

c a n n o t b e u s e d in c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s l i m e layer. T h i s c o n t r o l
is e x e r t e d m o s t l y b y l a r v a e a n d w o r m s , w h i c h t h r i v e o n t h e a c c u m u l a t e d s l i m e .
A s t h e s l i m e layer i n c r e a s e s i n t h i c k n e s s , o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r
is m e t a b o l i z e d b e f o r e it c a n r e a c h t h e l a y e r o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s c l i n g i n g t o t h e
s u r f a c e o f t h e m e d i a . T h e s e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a r e left w i t h o u t sufficient f o o d
a n d tend to enter the e n d o g e n o u s respiration phase. T h u s , the slime layer
loses its a b i l i t y t o c l i n g t o t h e m e d i a s u r f a c e a n d is w a s h e d a w a y . T h i s
p h e n o m e n a , called s l o u g h i n g , is a f u n c t i o n o f o r g a n i c a n d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g
o f t h e filter.
7.3. C O M P A R I S O N B E T W E E N T R I C K L I N G
FILTERS A N D A C T I V A T E D S L U D G E P R O C E S S
F o r B O D r e m o v a l efficiencies o f a b o u t 6 0 % , it is u s u a l l y f o u n d t h a t t r i c k l i n g
filters a r e m o r e e c o n o m i c a l t h a n t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r
s m a l l flow r a t e s o f w a s t e w a t e r . F o r h i g h e r B O D r e m o v a l efficiencies ( 9 0 % o r
a b o v e ) , t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is m o r e e c o n o m i c a l b e c a u s e p a c k i n g
material costs w o u l d be t o o high. These considerations suggest a possible
t w o s t e p o p e r a t i o n : t r i c k l i n g filters f o l l o w e d b y a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t , a
c o m b i n a t i o n w h i c h in s o m e c a s e s m a y p r o v e a d v a n t a g e o u s .
S o m e a d v a n t a g e s o f t r i c k l i n g filters o v e r t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s a r e
(1) n o p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s for a e r a t i o n , (2) s i m p l e o p e r a t i o n , a n d (3) s l o w e r
r e s p o n s e a n d q u i c k e r r e c o v e r y t o s u d d e n c h a n g e s o f influent B O D .
7.4. P H Y S I C A L A R R A N G E M E N T O F
TRICKLING FILTERS
T r i c k l i n g filters a r e b e d s f r o m 3 t o 4 0 ft d e e p filled w i t h p a c k i n g s u c h a s
b r o k e n rock, clinkers, or synthetic media (trade n a m e s Surfpac, Flocor,
Actifil). T h e s e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l p a c k i n g s a r e a v a i l a b l e c o m m e r c i a l l y ( D o w
Chemical C o . , Ethyl C o r p o r a t i o n , B . F . G o o d r i c h , N o r t o n Co.) in h o n e y c o m b
a n d o t h e r s h a p e s . I n f l u e n t w a s t e w a t e r is u s u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e filter
by a mechanical rotating a r m mechanism and percolates t h r o u g h the packing,
c o m i n g in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l slime layer.
W h e r e a s b e d s filled w i t h r o c k s , c l i n k e r s , o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s a r e l i m i t e d in
d e p t h f r o m 3 t o 8 ft, b e d s o f s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l s a r e c o m m o n l y 2 0 - 4 0 ft d e e p .
T h e higher percentage of void space for synthetic packing allows a n easier
flow a n d r e d u c e s t h e r i s k o f flooding.
F o r o r d i n a r y p a c k i n g ( r o c k s , c l i n k e r s , etc.) t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e t y p i c a l : d i a m e t e r s : 1^—2 i n . ; s u r f a c e a r e a : 2 4 - 3 4 f t / f t o f b u l k v o l u m e ;
2 3
v o i d % : 4 5 - 5 5 % ; a n d m a x i m u m h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s : 0.5 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
A d v a n t a g e s o f s y n t h e t i c p a c k i n g s a r e t h a t t h e y (1) a l l o w p a c k i n g d e p t h u p
t o 4 0 ft; (2) a l l o w h i g h e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s , u p t o 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ; (3) h a v e
2
s u r f a c e a r e a s u p t o 7 0 f t / f t o f b u l k v o l u m e ; a n d (4) a r e less likely t o b e

2 3
clogged by wastewaters carrying large a m o u n t s of suspended solids.

D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f s y n t h e t i c p a c k i n g s a r e t h a t t h e y a r e (1) relatively e x p e n s i v e ;
a n d (2) i n a p p r o p r i a t e for w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o a r r i v e a t a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
effluent q u a l i t y a s c o m p a r e d t o o r d i n a r y p a c k i n g .
7.5. T R I C K L I N G FILTER S Y S T E M S
M o s t c o m m o n a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r t r i c k l i n g filters a r e s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 1 .
(a) Single filter system—May b e o p e r a t e d w i t h o r w i t h o u t recycle. R e c y c l i n g
is i n d i c a t e d for h i g h e r effluent q u a l i t y . If influent B O D is g r e a t e r t h a n 500
m g / l i t e r , r e c y c l i n g is u s u a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d , (b) Alternating double filtration—
T h e first filter is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m o s t B O D r e m o v a l ; t h e s e c o n d o n e is a n
effluent p o l i s h e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , m o s t slime g r o w t h o c c u r s in t h e first filter.
T h e cycle is r e v e r s e d p e r i o d i c a l l y (daily o r w e e k l y ) a s i n d i c a t e d b y d o t t e d lines
in F i g . 6.21 ( b ) . I n t h i s m a n n e r c o n t r o l o f t h e slime l a y e r t h i c k n e s s is a c h i e v e d ,
m a i n t a i n i n g a u n i f o r m slime t h i c k n e s s in b o t h u n i t s . H i g h e r B O D effluent
Wastewater Wastewater Wastewater
Sedimentation!
tank I
Sedimentation Sedimentation!
tank tank I I
Single filter system Alternating double filtration Two stage filtration

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.21. Trickling filter systems.
q u a l i t y is o b t a i n e d b y t h i s s y s t e m a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e single filters, (c) Two

stage filtration—The first filter is a c o a r s e o n e , u s u a l l y filled w i t h s y n t h e t i c
p a c k i n g w h i c h r e m o v e s 6 0 - 7 0 % o f t h e B O D . T h e s e c o n d filter, w h e r e s l i m e
g r o w t h is c o n s i d e r a b l y less, a c t s a s t h e effluent p o l i s h e r .
7.6. P R E T R E A T M E N T FOR TRICKLING

FILTRATION
A p r e t r e a t m e n t s i m i l a r t o t h a t for t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s m a y b e
r e q u i r e d for t r i c k l i n g filtration. I t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o a d j u s t t h e p H b y
n e u t r a l i z a t i o n t o a n o p t i m u m r a n g e f r o m 7 t o 9, b e c a u s e excess a l k a l i n i t y o r
acidity disturbs the biological process.
7.7. D E S I G N F O R M U L A T I O N FOR TRICKLING

FILTERS
T h e p u r p o s e of d e s i g n f o r m u l a t i o n is t o o b t a i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g B O D
r e m o v a l , d e p t h o f t h e filter, a n d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g . T h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a t i o n
is t h e o n e d e v e l o p e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d a s s o c i a t e s . B O D r e m o v a l is u s u a l l y
e x p r e s s e d a s % B O D r e m a i n i n g in t h e effluent.
S /S
e 0 = effluent B O D (mg/liter)/influent B O D (mg/liter)
T h e t r i c k l i n g filter d e p t h is d e n o t e d b y D (ft) a n d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g b y L
[ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] . A s s u m i n g B O D r e m o v a l t o f o l l o w first-order k i n e t i c s [ E q .
2
(6.51)],
dS/dt = -k'X S v = -K'S (6.51)
w h e r e K' = k'X .
0
Rearranging and integrating,
\n(SelS ) 0 = -k'X t v = -K't

or
Se/S 0 = e- »* kx
= (6.52)
w h e r e S is t h e effluent B O D ( m g / l i t e r ) ; S t h e influent B O D ( m g / l i t e r ) ; k' t h e

e 0
r e m o v a l rate c o n s t a n t (no volatile solids i n c l u d e d ) ; X v the volatile solids;

K' t h e r e m o v a l r a t e c o n s t a n t ( v o l a t i l e s o l i d s i n c l u d e d , K' = k'X ); v and t the
residence time.
R e s i d e n c e t i m e / is w r i t t e n a s
t = CD/L" (6.53)
w h e r e D is t h e filter d e p t h (ft); L t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] ; a n d 2
C , η t h e c o n s t a n t s w h i c h a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e filter m e d i a a n d specific s u r f a c e .
Specific s u r f a c e is defined a s f t 2
of p a c k i n g surface per ft 3
of bulk v o l u m e .
S u b s t i t u t i o n o f t [ E q . ( 6 . 5 3 ) ] in E q . (6.52) yields
S IS e 0 = - e
K C D
i L n
= e- " KD/L
(6.54)
w h e r e A: = K'C.
E q u a t i o n ( 6 . 5 4 ) is t h e b a s i c m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l [ 4 ] for t r i c k l i n g filters. I t
r e l a t e s % B O D r e m a i n i n g (SJS ) 0 t o d e p t h o f t h e filter (D) and hydraulic
l o a d i n g ( L ) . P a r a m e t e r Κ ( r a t e c o n s t a n t ) is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e a s e o f d e g r a d -
ability of the substrate. P a r a m e t e r η d e p e n d s o n the characteristics of the
packing media.
7.8. A P P L I C A T I O N O F B A S I C M A T H E M A T I C A L
M O D E L TO TRICKLING FILTERS
WITHOUT A N D WITH RECYCLE
S t r e a m s i n v o l v e d in o p e r a t i o n o f t r i c k l i n g filters w i t h o u t a n d w i t h r e c y c l e
a r e s h o w n in t h e F i g . 6.22. R e c y c l e i m p r o v e s efficiency o f B O D r e m o v a l a n d
d i l u t e s i n f l u e n t B O D t o a level c o m p a t i b l e w i t h m a i n t e n a n c e o f a e r o b i c
c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n t h e r e is n o recycle, E q . (6.54) a p p l i e s d i r e c t l y . F o r t r i c k l i n g
filters w i t h recycle, influent B O D (S ) is d i l u t e d t o a v a l u e S p r i o r t o e n t e r i n g
F Q
t h e filter. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g S 09 5 , S F e9 a n d t h e recycle r a t i o is o b t a i n e d
b y a m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for t h e B O D [ l o o p ( ) of F i g . 6 . 2 2 ( b ) ] .
SJS 0 = e- ' KD LH
(6.55)
QS F F + QS R e = (QF + Q R ) S 0
S 0 = (Q S F F + Q S )KQ R E F + Q) R
Dividing b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r by Q F a n d l e t t i n g Q /Q
R F = r =
recycle r a t i o [ E q . (6.56)],
So = ( S + r S ) / ( l + r ) F e (6.56)
Q F . S F
iQ=Q .Q .S
F R 0
Recycle
Q =rQ
R F
No recycle:(6.54)
S /S =e-KD/L"
e 0 [S = S ]
0 F
S /S =e-KO/L"
e 0
(a)
Fig. 6.22. Trickling filter without recycle (a) and with recycle (b).
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a l u e i n E q . (6.55),
S /[(S
e F + rS We + r)] = e- ' KD La
(6.57)
F o r s i m p l i c i t y , let KB/ Π = X. D i v i d i n g b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r
by S F a n d s o l v i n g for SJS , F
SJS F = e- l(\
x
+r-re- ) x
(6.58)
F o r domestic sewage, a n empirical relationship has been developed by

Balakrishnan [2] based on Eq. (6.58):
S IS
e 0 = exp(-0.003^°- 6 4 4
5* - D/L )
e
0 5 4 n
(6.59)
7.9. P R O C E D U R E F O R D E S I G N O F T R I C K L I N G
FILTERS W H E N B E N C H S C A L E O R
PILOT-PLANT DATA A R E AVAILABLE
T h r e e i t e m s will b e d i s c u s s e d : (1) A m o d e l o f b e n c h s c a l e t r i c k l i n g filter a n d
p r o c e d u r e for o b t a i n i n g d e s i g n d a t a f r o m t h i s m o d e l , (2) t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a
o b t a i n e d in o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e c o n s t a n t s η a n d Kin E q . ( 6 . 5 4 ) ; a n d (3) a p p l i
c a t i o n o f t h e s e r e s u l t s t o d e s i g n o f a p l a n t scale t r i c k l i n g filter. B o t h c a s e s ,
w i t h o u t a n d w i t h r e c y c l e , a r e s t u d i e d . T h e a p p r o a c h f o l l o w e d is t h a t p r o p o s e d
b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 5 ] . E x a m p l e 6.4 p r e s e n t s a n u m e r i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n .
7.9.1. M o d e l of Bench S c a l e Trickling Filter

A s k e t c h o f a b e n c h scale m o d e l o f a t r i c k l i n g filter d e v e l o p e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r
a n d a s s o c i a t e s is s h o w n in F i g . 6 . 2 3 . W a s t e w a t e r c o n t a i n e d i n t h e feed r e s e r v o i r
is p u m p e d b y a S i g m a m o t o r p u m p t o a p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e f o r flow d i s t r i b u t i o n .
T h e r e it is m i x e d w i t h t h e recycle s t r e a m f r o m t h e s e t t l i n g t a n k .
Fresh feed line ~*;(||| » Perforated plate for

flow distribution
Simplified 7-1/2" diameter
diagram: /plexiglass column 7'high
Sigmamotor pump iquid sampling

ports (1/4" tubing)
Recycle line-*
-•-Feed
Weir (gravity
flow)
Media
sampling
ports
Γ^β Overflow
Constant head feed Media
reservoir (substrate)
Settling tank
Fig. 6.23. Bench scale trickling filter.
A s a p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p , it is n e c e s s a r y t o g e n e r a t e a n a c c l i m a t e d slime o n t h e
filter m e d i a . T h i s m a y t a k e f r o m a few d a y s t o several w e e k s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
n a t u r e of the wastewater. Samples are t a k e n periodically at the m e d i a a n d
liquid sampling ports, a n d B O D determinations are performed. Steady state
B O D v a l u e s a r e r e c o r d e d . P i l o t - p l a n t u n i t s m a y a l s o b e utilized.
T h e p r o c e d u r e t o o b t a i n b a s i c d a t a is (1) select t h r e e o r f o u r h y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g s [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] . F o r d e e p filters (D > 10 ft) w i t h p l a s t i c p a c k i n g ,
2
flow r a t e s o f 0 . 5 - 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) a r e selected. F o r t h e p i l o t - p l a n t u n i t ( E x a m p l e
2
6.4), h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s o f 1, 2 , 3 , a n d 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) a r e utilized ( T a b l e 6.3).

2
(2) F o r e a c h flow r a t e , s a m p l e a t least t h r e e d e p t h s . F o r E x a m p l e 6.4, f o u r
T A B L E 6.3
Data for Example 6.4*
L, hydraulic loading [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
D, depth
(ft)
L = 1 L = 2 L = 3 L = 4
5 57.5 67.5 73.0 76.0

10 33.5 46.0 53.0 57.0
15 19.5 31.0 38.7 43.0
20 11.3 21.0 28.2 32.8
" Values in 4 χ 4 matrix are those for (S /S ) e 0 χ 100.

d e p t h s ( 5 , 10, 15, a n d 2 0 ft) a r e s a m p l e d . A n a l y s e s o f s a m p l e s a r e u s u a l l y

e x p r e s s e d a s % B O D r e m a i n i n g , i.e., SJS 0 χ 100. S i n c e i n E x a m p l e 6.4 f o u r
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s ( L ) a n d f o u r s a m p l i n g d e p t h s a r e selected, t h e SJS0 values
f o r m a 4 χ 4 m a t r i x ( T a b l e 6.3). A n a l y s e s c a n a l s o b e m a d e i n t e r m s o f C O D o r
T O C . Determinations of p H , Kjeldahl nitrogen, a n d water temperature are
also performed.
7.9.2. Treatment of D a t a Obtained in Order t o

Determine C o n s t a n t s η and Κ
Step 1. O n s e m i l o g p a p e r , p l o t t h e % B O D r e m a i n i n g (SJS ) 0 χ 100) v s .
d e p t h (D) f o r e a c h v a l u e o f h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s (L). F r o m E q . (6.54), it f o l l o w s
t h a t [ E q . (6.60)]
ln(5 /S ) = -KD/L"
e 0 = —(KIL )D n
(6.60)
T h e r e f o r e a family o f s t r a i g h t lines is o b t a i n e d . T h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f t h e i r
s l o p e s c o r r e s p o n d s t o K/I?. F o r E x a m p l e 6.4, t h i s p l o t is s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 4 ,
w h e r e f o u r lines c o r r e s p o n d t o f o u r r u n s [ L = 1, 2 , 3 , a n d 4 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] .
2
90r
15 20
D, depth (ft)
Fig. 6.24. Plot of % BOD remaining vs. depth.

Step 2 . O n l o g - l o g p a p e r , p l o t t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s o f t h e s l o p e s f o r e a c h
o f t h e lines f r o m S t e p 1 v s . L ( T a b l e 6.4 a n d F i g . 6.25). Since
|Slope| = K/L n
(6.61)
then
l o g | s l o p e | = logK- nlogL (6.62)
0.2 ι—ι 1—ι—I I I I I

|Slope| = η = (log 0.1085 -log 0.056)/(log l-log 4)
K/L n
η =0.478
0.1
0.08 j
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
I 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
L
Fig. 6.25. Plot ofK/L n

vs. L.
T A B L E 6.4
K/L" vs. L
L [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
"Absolute value o f slopes,A7L rt
1 0.1085
2 0.0779
3 0.0634
4 0.0560
a
F r o m Fig. 6.24.
O n e s t r a i g h t line is o b t a i n e d , e a c h p o i n t o f w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o o n e e x p e r i
m e n t . I t s s l o p e yields t h e v a l u e o f η i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E q . (6.62). F o r E x a m p l e
6.4 t h i s p l o t is s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 5 , w h e r e f o u r p o i n t s a r e u t i l i z e d f o r t h e
construction.*
* T h e value o f i f f m a y b e estimated from the ordinate intercept (for abscissa L = 1) o f Fig.
6.25 as 0.11. It is preferable, however, t o determine Κ from the slope o f the straight line in
Fig. 6.26, as described in Step 4 .
Step 3. P e r f o r m t h e f o l l o w i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s :
1. D e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s o f L f o r e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n u t i l i z i n g t h e
n
v a l u e o f η d e t e r m i n e d in S t e p 2 ( T a b l e 6.5).
T A B L E 6.5
Values of L = Ι · n β 4 7 β
vs. L
n _ £0.478
Run no. L(gal/(min)(ft )] 2 L
1 1 1.0
2 2 1.393
3 3 1.690
4 4 1.941
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e s o f DjU for each experimental r u n at e a c h

d e p t h . F o r E x a m p l e 6.4 t h i s r e s u l t s in t h e 4 χ 4 m a t r i x ( T a b l e 6.6).
T A B L E 6.6
Matrix for Values of D/L n
= D/L 9
Values o f L
D, depth
(ft)
L = l L = 2 L = 3 L = 4
5 5.0 3.59 2.96 2.57

10 10.0 7.17 5.91 5.15
15 15.0 10.75 8.87 7.71
20 20.0 14.35 11.83 10.30
3. C o n s t r u c t a t a b l e o f D/U v s . (SJS ) χ 100 f r o m i n s p e c t i o n o f T a b l e s

0
6.3 a n d 6.6. F o r E x a m p l e 6.4, t h i s is s h o w n i n T a b l e 6.7. V a l u e s o f D/Π a r e

r e a d f r o m T a b l e 6.6 f r o m left t o r i g h t a n d f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m , a n d c o r r e
s p o n d i n g v a l u e s o f (SJS )
0 χ 100 a r e r e a d f r o m T a b l e 6.3 i n t h e s a m e w a y . F o r
E x a m p l e 6.4, a s u m m a r y o f c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s is s h o w n a s a c o n v e n i e n t a r r a y
i n T a b l e 6.8.
Step 4. O n s e m i l o g p a p e r p l o t t h e v a l u e s o f (SJS ) χ 100 v s . D/L ( T a b l e
0
n
6.7). F r o m E q . (6.60) o b t a i n
ln (SJSo) = - K(DIL") (6.63)
T h e s l o p e o f t h e s t r a i g h t line t h u s o b t a i n e d yields t h e v a l u e o f K. F o r Example

6.4, t h i s p l o t is s h o w n in F i g . 6.26. S i n c e in t h i s e x a m p l e t h e r e is a 4 χ 4 matrix,
16 p o i n t s a r e utilized in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s line. T h e r e f o r e , t h e values of
c o n s t a n t s η a n d Κ for t h e b a s i c m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l h a v e n o w b e e n obtained.
TABLE 6.7
D/L n
= D/L 0 4 7 9
v s . (SJS ) 0 X100
D\L n
= D/L 0418
(S l S ) x 100
e 0
5 57.5
3.59 67.5
2.96 73.0
2.57 76.0
10.0 33.5
7.17 46.0
5.91 53.0
5.15 57.0
15.0 19.5
10.75 31.0
8.87 38.7
7.71 43.0
20.0 11.3
14.35 21.0
11.83 28.2
10.30 32.8
TABLE 6.8
S u m m a r y of Calculated Values for Example 6.4
D, depth (ft) L [gal/(min) ( f t ) ] 2

L 0 4 7 8
D/L -*
0 78
(S /S )
e 0 χ 100
5 1.0 1.0 5.0 57.5

10 1.0 1.0 10.0 33.5
15 1.0 1.0 15.0 19.5
20 1.0 1.0 20.0 11.3
5 2.0 1.393 3.59 67.5

10 2.0 1.393 7.17 46.0
15 2.0 1.393 10.75 31.0
20 2.0 1.393 14.35 21.0
5 3.0 1.690 2.96 73.0

10 3.0 1.690 5.91 53.0
15 3.0 1.690 8.87 38.7
20 3.0 1.690 11.83 28.2
5 4.0 1.941 2.57 76.0

10 4.0 1.941 5.15 57.0
15 4.0 1.941 7.71 43.0
20 4.0 1.941 10.30 32.8
70
60
50
Ο
2 40
^ 3 0
Ο
Slope; Κ =0.109
ε
ν.
ο
2 2 0
GO
10
10 15 20 25 30 35
0.478
Fig. 6.26. Plot of (SJS )

Q X 1 0 0 vs. D/L9
7.9.3. Application of Results to the D e s i g n of a

Plant S c a l e Trickling Filter
Case 1. T r i c k l i n g filters w i t h o u t recycle [ F i g . 6 . 2 2 ( a ) ]
D e s i g n is b a s e d o n E q . (6.54), for w h i c h v a l u e s o f Κ a n d η a r e d e t e r m i n e d
a s d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.2.
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g L for specified B O D
r e m o v a l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o r e q u i r e d SJS . 0 A s s u m e a value for d e p t h D a n d
solve for h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g L [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] . S o l v i n g E q . (6.54) for L ,
2
L = [-KDI\n(S /S )y e 0
ln
(6.64)
E q u a t i o n (6.64) yields t h e r e q u i r e d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g L i n g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) .
2
Step 2. T h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a A is
(6.65)
Step 5. F i l t e r d i a m e t e r is given in E q . (6.66).
d = (4Α/π) 1/2
= (Λ/0.785) 1/2
ft (6.66)
Case 2. T r i c k l i n g filters w i t h recycle [ F i g . 6 . 2 2 ( b ) ]

Step 1. C a l c u l a t e S 0 f r o m E q . (6.56) for a specified v a l u e o f t h e recycle
r a t i o r.
Step 2. S o l v i n g E q . (6.55) for L , o n e o b t a i n s a n e q u a t i o n s i m i l a r t o E q .

(6.64), f r o m w h i c h t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g is c a l c u l a t e d . S t e p s 1 a n d 2 m a y b e
c o m b i n e d b y s o l v i n g E q . (6.58) d i r e c t l y for L. F i n a l r e s u l t is
-KD
L =
t (SJS )(\+r)
F
(6.67)
In
\+r(S /S ) J e F
Step 3. T h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a A is s h o w n in E q . (6.68).
A = Q/L = Q (r+ F 1)/L (ft )2

(6.68)
Step 4. F i l t e r d i a m e t e r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (6.66).
E x a m p l e 6.4
D a t a p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 6.3 f o r % B O D r e m a i n i n g vs. d e p t h a r e o b t a i n e d
f r o m a p i l o t - p l a n t t r i c k l i n g filter t r e a t i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r .
1. D e t e r m i n e v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s η a n d Κ a n d w r i t e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f
B O D remaining to depth and hydraulic loading.
2. C a l c u l a t e t r i c k l i n g filter d i a m e t e r n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n B O D r e d u c t i o n
o f 8 0 % if w a s t e w a t e r flow is 2.0 M G D . A filter d e p t h o f 2 0 ft is p r o v i d e d w i t h
recycle r a t i o o f 0 . 3 . B a s e c a l c u l a t i o n s o n a n influent B O D o f 300 m g / l i t e r .
3. If n o recycle is u s e d for t h e filter d e s i g n e d in P a r t 2, c a l c u l a t e t h e
m a x i m u m w a s t e w a t e r flow p e r m i s s i b l e in M g a l / d a y t o r e a c h t h e d e s i r e d B O D
reduction of 80%.
S O L U T I O N : Part 1 F o l l o w p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.2.
Step 1. P l o t o f (SJS ) 0 χ 100 v s . D for a set o f f o u r v a l u e s o f L. T h i s g r a p h

is s h o w n in F i g . 6.24.
Step 2. T a b l e 6.4 p r e s e n t s t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of t h e s l o p e s r e a d f r o m F i g .
6.24 vs. L. F i g . 6.25 is a p l o t o f t h e s e v a l u e s . F r o m F i g . 6.25 o b t a i n η = 0 . 4 7 8 .
Step 3.
1. V a l u e s o f U = L 0 , 4 7 8
for e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 6.5.
2. M a t r i x for v a l u e s o f D / L ? = D / L 0 , 4 7 8
for e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n a t
e a c h d e p t h is s h o w n in T a b l e 6.6.
3. V a l u e s o f / ) / ! " = D / L 0 , 4 7 8
vs. (SJS ) 0 χ 100 a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 6.7.
A s u m m a r y o f c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s is g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.8.
Step 4. P l o t l o g [ ( 5 / S ) χ 100] v s . D / L '
e 0
0 4 7 8
( F i g . 6.26). F r o m t h e s l o p e o f
t h e s t r a i g h t line in F i g . 6.26 o n e o b t a i n s # = 0 . 1 0 9 . F r o m E q . (6.54) for
η = 0.478 a n d # = 0 . 1 0 9 ,
S /S
e 0 = ^- / °* 0109D L 7e
w h i c h is t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f B O D r e m a i n i n g t o d e p t h a n d h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g .
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 T r i c k l i n g filter d i a m e t e r
F o l l o w p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.3 ( C a s e 2).
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e S 0 [Eq. (6.56)].
Here,
S e = (0.2) (300) = 60 mg/liter
Λ S = [300 + ( 0 . 3 ) ( 6 0 ) ] / ( l + 0 . 3 ) = 244.6 mg/liter

0
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e L [ E q . ( 6 . 6 4 ) ] .
Here,
SelS 0 = 60/244.6 = 0.245
ln 0.245 = - 1 . 4 0 5
and
η = 0.478
Therefore,
L = (-0.109 χ 20/-1.405) 1 / 0
· 4 7 8
= 2.506 gal/(min) (ft ) 2
or
2.506 gal/(min)(ft ) χ 6 0 m i n / h r χ 2 4 h r / d a y = 3609 gal/(day)(ft )
2 2
Alternative calculation procedure [ E q . (6.67)]

H e r e , SJS F = 6 0 / 3 0 0 = 0.2, Κ = 0.109, η = 0 . 4 7 8 , D = 2 0 ft, a n d r = 0 . 3 .
Therefore,
0 . 1 0 9 x 2 I0Q Ί1/0.478
Λ L =
l n [ ( 0 . 2 ) ( l + 0 . 3 ) ] / [ l -'T^m\ = -
2 5 0 6
^(min)(ft )2
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e t h e filter a r e a [ E q . ( 6 . 6 8 ) ] .
A = 2,000,000(0.3 + l ) / 3 6 0 9 = 720 ft 2
Step 4. D e t e r m i n e t h e filter d i a m e t e r [ E q . ( 6 . 6 6 ) ] .
d = (720/0.785) 1/2
= 30.3 ft
S O L U T I O N : Part 3 N o recycle
A = 720 f t 2
SJSo = 0.2
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g [ E q . ( 6 . 6 4 ) ] .
Here,
S0 = S F = 300 mg/liter
L = (-0.109 x 2 0 / l n 0 . 2 ) 1 / 0 4 7 8
= 1.89 gal/(min)(ft ) 2
or
1.89 gal/(min)(ft ) χ 60 m i n / h r χ 24 hr/day = 2722 gal/(day)(ft )

2 2
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m w a s t e w a t e r flow [ E q . ( 6 . 6 5 ) ] .
Q F = AL = 720 ft x 2 7 2 2 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) = 1,960,000 gal/day

2 2
or
QF = 1.960 M G D
( w a s 2.0 M G D w i t h r = 0.3).
7.10. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E W H E N
EXPERIMENTAL DATA ARE NOT
AVAILABLE
Experimental d a t a necessary to determine parameters η a n d Κ by the
p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 7.9.2, i.e., a n e t w o r k o f d a t a a s s h o w n i n
T a b l e 6 . 3 , a r e often u n a v a i l a b l e . I t m a y n o t b e feasible t o c o n d u c t t h e t e d i o u s
e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n t h i s n e t w o r k o f d a t a . If t h i s is t h e c a s e
p a r a m e t e r η is e s t i m a t e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e d a t a for different t y p e s o f filter m e d i a
(n d e p e n d s only o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p a c k i n g ) . P a r a m e t e r K, w h i c h is o n l y
a f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r , is a l s o e s t i m a t e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e
d a t a for w a s t e w a t e r s f r o m several s o u r c e s . E c k e n f e l d e r [ 4 ] p r e s e n t s a t a b u l a
t i o n o f Κ v a l u e s for S u r f p a c filter m e d i a (n = 0.5) for several i n d u s t r i a l
wastewaters.
8. A n a e r o b i c T r e a t m e n t
A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t is utilized for t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s a s well a s for
d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s . A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s is d e s c r i b e d in t h i s
s e c t i o n . A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s is s t u d i e d in C h a p t e r 7 ( S e c t i o n s 2.6
a n d 2.7). T h e e n d p r o d u c t s o f a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n a r e g a s e s , m o s t l y m e t h a n e
( C H ) , c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C 0 ) , a n d s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f h y d r o g e n sulfide
4 2
( H S ) a n d h y d r o g e n ( H ) . T h e p r o c e s s c o m p r i s e s t w o s t a g e s : (1) a c i d fer
2 2
m e n t a t i o n a n d (2) m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n .
In the acid fermentation stage, organic materials are b r o k e n d o w n t o
organic acids, mainly acetic ( C H C O O H ) , p r o p i o n i c ( C H C H C O O H ) , a n d
3 3 2
butyric ( C H C H C H C O O H ) . In the m e t h a n e fermentation stage, " m e t h a n e

3 2 2
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s " convert the longer chain acids to methane, c a r b o n dioxide,

a n d a n a c i d h a v i n g a s h o r t e r c a r b o n c h a i n . T h e a c i d m o l e c u l e is r e p e a t e d l y
b r o k e n d o w n in t h e s a m e m a n n e r . T h e r e s u l t i n g a c e t i c a c i d is d i r e c t l y c o n
verted to C 0 2 and C H . 4
C H 3 C O O H ? ^ C 0 2 + CH 4
organisms
T h e m e t h a n e fermentation stage controls the rate of a n a e r o b i c degradation.

I n S e c t i o n 8.3.1 it is s h o w n t h a t a p l o t o f (S - 0 S )/X t
e v v s . S ( F i g . 6.28) yields
e
r a t e c o n s t a n t k. T h i s is s i m i l a r t o t h e s i t u a t i o n f o u n d in a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t
[ E q . (5.18) a n d F i g . 5 . 5 ] . H o w e v e r , o n e s t r a i g h t line is o b t a i n e d i n a e r o b i c
treatment, whereas two result from anaerobic data. T h e rate constants can
b e e v a l u a t e d f r o m t h e s l o p e s o f t h e s e s t r a i g h t lines. F r o m F i g . 6.28, t h e s l o p e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t f o r
t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . If t h e t w o lines a r e p l o t t e d o n t h e s a m e scale
a s in F i g . 6.28, t h e o n e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n is n e a r l y
v e r t i c a l b y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e o t h e r . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m e t h a n e fer
m e n t a t i o n s t a g e c o n t r o l s t h e p r o c e s s r a t e . T h e r e f o r e , for d e s i g n p u r p o s e s o n e
should a d o p t the k value a n d other parameters evaluated from the m e t h a n e
f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . S i n c e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n c o n t r o l s t h e p r o c e s s r a t e , it
is i m p o r t a n t t o m a i n t a i n c o n d i t i o n s o f effective m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n .
D e t e n t i o n t i m e for m e t h a n e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s m u s t b e a d e q u a t e , o r t h e y a r e
washed away from the system. Experimental d a t a show that the required
d e t e n t i o n t i m e v a r i e s f r o m 2 t o 2 0 d a y s . O p t i m u m p H r a n g e is 6 . 8 - 7 . 4 .
A n a e r o b i c t r e a t m e n t is relatively i n e x p e n s i v e b e c a u s e a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t
is n o t utilized. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e s i d e n c e t i m e s r e q u i r e d a r e m u c h l o n g e r
t h a n for a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s . B a d o d o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n a e r o b i c p r o c e s s e s ,
due mainly to production of H S a n d m e r c a p t a n s , m a y constitute a serious
2
l i m i t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in u r b a n a r e a s .
8.2. A Q U A N T I T A T I V E S T U D Y O F A N A E R O B I C
D E G R A D A T I O N OF A N O R G A N I C W A S T E
A quantitative study of anaerobic degradation of organic wastewaters h a s
b e e n m a d e b y A n d r e w s [ 1 ] , a n d r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n F i g . 6.27.
T h e following observations m a y be m a d e :
1. pH. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n ( a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n ) ,
the p H d r o p s d u e t o f o r m a t i o n of organic acids. Since at a later stage ( m e t h a n e
f e r m e n t a t i o n ) t h e s e a c i d s a r e b r o k e n d o w n , p H i n c r e a s e s . T h e rise s t a r t s
after a b o u t 2 d a y s , a s d e p i c t e d in F i g . 6.27.
2. COD remaining. T h i s c u r v e is relatively flat d u r i n g t h e first 2 d a y s o f
t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e , since a t t h i s t i m e o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s a r e m e r e l y
c o n v e r t e d t o s o l u b l e f o r m ; s o t h e r e is n o C O D r e d u c t i o n . C O D d r o p s m a r k e d l y
after t h i s initial s t a g e .
Detention time (days)
Fig. 6.27. Anaerobic degradation of an organic waste [1 ] . (Data obtained

with a batch reactor.)
3. Methane percentage and volatile acids. T h e r e is a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n

m e t h a n e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e in v o l a t i l e a c i d s a n d a n
i n c r e a s e in p H after t h e first 2 d a y s .
F o r l o n g d e t e n t i o n t i m e s , n e a r l y all v o l a t i l e a c i d s a r e c o n v e r t e d t o C H 4
a n d C 0 . S i n c e n o t all v o l a t i l e s o l i d s a r e b i o d e g r a d a b l e , t h e c u r v e for C O D
2
r e m a i n i n g a p p r o a c h e s a l i m i t i n g o r d i n a t e for l a r g e v a l u e s o f r e s i d e n c e t i m e .
8.3. M A T H E M A T I C A L F O R M U L A T I O N F O R
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n d e s c r i b e d is t h e o n e p r o p o s e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r
a n d associates [ 5 ] .
8.3.1. B O D Removal Rate for A n a e r o b i c Process

If B O D r e m o v a l is a s s u m e d t o f o l l o w first-order k i n e t i c s , o n e m a y utilize
t h e f o r m u l a t i o n p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 3.2 for t h e a e r o b i c p r o c e s s .
E q u a t i o n (6.69), w h i c h is s i m i l a r t o E q . (5.18), is o b t a i n e d . *
(S -S )IX t
0 e v = kS e (6.69)
O w i n g t o the presence of n o n r e m o v a b l e B O D a n d following considerations

s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 3.2, o n e m a y w r i t e a m o d i f i e d f o r m o f
E q . (6.69).
(S -S )/X t
0 e v = k(S -S )
e n (6.70)
* N o t a t i o n X is utilized in Eq. (6.69) instead o f X , used in Eq. (5.18). Since subscript a

v v a
refers to the aerator, it is omitted in the formulation of the anaerobic process.

IQ
Acid fermentation stage
2o|
Methane fermentation stage-^
^-Slope: k
7>CT
0
Fig. 6.28. Determination of BOD removal rate for anaerobic degradation.
E q u a t i o n (6.70) is s i m i l a r t o E q . (5.19). F r o m E q . (6.70) a p l o t o f (S - 0 S )/X t

e v
v s . S yields t w o s t r a i g h t lines, a s s h o w n i n F i g . 6 . 2 8 . F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , t h e
e
v a l u e o f k o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s l o p e o f t h e line c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e m e t h a n e
f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is t h e o n e a d o p t e d . I n F i g . 6.28 a s i n F i g . 5.14, t h e a b s c i s s a
a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e o r d i n a t e axis c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e s u b
strate (S ).
n
F i g u r e 6.28 c a n b e r e p l o t t e d b y c h o o s i n g a s a b s c i s s a o n l y t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e
p o r t i o n o f t h e effluent, S '.
e
S.' = S e - S n (6.71)
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a translation of t h e axes indicated in Fig. 6.29, so t h a t t h e

s t r a i g h t line c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n passes t h r o u g h the
origin.
T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o F i g . 6.29 is
(S - S )/X
0 e v t = S /X
r v t = kS '
e (6.72)
If t h e r e is n o n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r , S n = 0, a n d S ' = S
e e9 t h e n E q . (6.72)
r e d u c e s t o E q . (6.69).
8.3.2. Volatile S o l i d s in the A n a e r o b i c Reactor

C o n s i d e r t h e a n a e r o b i c r e a c t o r d e p i c t e d b y F i g . 6.30. L e t X VtQ and X0 be
the V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e influent a n d in t h e reactor, respectively.
A s s u m i n g steady state o p e r a t i o n a n d perfect mixing conditions, V S S con
c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e effluent is a l s o e q u a l t o X . v A material balance for V S S leads
Fig. 6.29. Modified plot for determination of BOD removal rate for
anaerobic degradation.
Waste S l u d g e out
Anaerobic
reactor
Λ
ν,ο "ν
Fig. 6.30. Material balance for volatile solids in anaerobic reactor.
t o a n e q u a t i o n s i m i l a r t o E q . (6.28) in S e c t i o n 5.7, e x c e p t for o m i s s i o n o f

s u b s c r i p t α in t e r m X. v
X = (Xv, ο + aSrW
v + bt) (6.73)
E q u a t i o n (6.73) is t h e e x p r e s s i o n for t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e a n a e r o b i c
r e a c t o r . If t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e influent is negligible (i.e., X Vy0 « 0),
t h i s e q u a t i o n is simplified t o yield
X = aSrl(\+bt)
v (X ,o*0)
v
(6.74)
P a r a m e t e r s a a n d b i n E q . (6.73) a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y w r i t i n g it in l i n e a r f o r m .
B y c r o s s m u l t i p l y i n g , d i v i d i n g t h r o u g h b y aX V9 a n d r e a r r a n g i n g , E q . (6.74)
yields
( l / a ) ( l -X .JX )
9 9 + (b/a)t = S /X r v (6.75)
E q u a t i o n (6.75) is t h e b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b. A p l o t
of S /X = (S — S )/X v s . t yields a set o f t w o s t r a i g h t l i n e s : t h e first o n e , for
r v 0 e v
l o w e r f's, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e , a n d t h e s e c o n d , f o r
higher / ' s , corresponding t o the m e t h a n e fermentation stage. A typical plot

is s h o w n in F i g . 6 . 3 1 . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b is i n d i c a t e d in
this g r a p h .
(s -s )/x
0 e v
Methane
fermentation:
lntercept =
(l/a)(l-X Vf0 /X )
v
Note:
If X « 0 , t h e n :
vo
Intercept* l/a
λ .
Residence time,t (days)
Fig. 6.31. Determination of parameters a and b.
W h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e i n f l u e n t is negligible (i.e., X v o « 0)
a s s h o w n in F i g . 6.35, S e c t i o n 8.5, E q . (6.75) yields E q . (6.76).
1/a + (b/o) t = Sr/Xv (X Vt ο * 0) (6.76)
F o r c a l c u l a t i o n of d e t e n t i o n t i m e , t h e v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s α a n d b c o r r e
s p o n d i n g t o the m e t h a n e fermentation are t h e ones t o be a d o p t e d since this
is t h e c o n t r o l l i n g s t a g e .
8.3.3. Calculation of Detention Time for

Anaerobic Treatment
C o n s i d e r E q . (6.72) for B O D r e m o v a l a n d E q . (6.73) for V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
F r o m E q . (6.72),
/ = SrlkX S 'v e (6.77)
F r o m E q . (6.73),
S r = | X ( 1 + bt) - X Vt 0]/a (6.78)
S u b s t i t u t i n g S i n E q . (6.77) b y its v a l u e f r o m E q . (6.78) a n d s o l v i n g for t,

r
t = (X - v Χ , )l(akX
υ 0 v S ' - bX )
e 0 (6.79)
I n E q . (6.79), S J is g i v e n b y E q . (6.71). W h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S i n
t h e i n f l u e n t is negligible (i.e., X vo w 0 ) , E q . (6.79) is simplified t o yield
/ = 1 l(akS ' - b) e (X , ο * 0)
v (6.80)
8.3.4. G a s Production in A n a e r o b i c Treatment

G a s p r o d u c e d b y a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n is c o m p o s e d o f C H , C 0 , a n d 4 2
small quantities of H S a n d H . Lawrence a n d M c C a r t h y [ 7 ] have s h o w n

2 2
t h a t m e t h a n e g a s p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e e s t i m a t e d a s 5.62 f t ( a t S T P ) * p e r l b o f 3
C O D r e m o v e d , excluding t h e C O D r e m o v e d w h i c h is c o n v e r t e d t o cells. T h e
p r o p o s e d r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e s t i m a t e g a s p r o d u c t i o n is t h e n
G = 5.62(β5 -\A2QX ) Γ V = 5 . 6 2 Q ( . S - 1.42Α;)

r (6.81)
w h e r e G is t h e f t o f g a s ( a t S T P ) p r o d u c e d p e r d a y ; QS t h e l b C O D r e m o v e d /
3
r
d a y ; a n d \A2QX V t h e l b V S S in r e a c t o r effluent/day. [ R a t i o 1.42 c o r r e s p o n d s

t o l b C O D / l b V S S ; see C h a p t e r 5, E q . ( 5 . 6 0 ) . ]
A t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o t h e u n i t s i n utilizing E q . (6.81). If t h e f o l l o w i n g
u n i t s a r e e m p l o y e d , w h e r e G is t h e f t g a s / d a y ( a t S T P ) ; Q t h e M G D ; S t h e
3
r
m g C O D / l i t e r ( « l b C O D / M l b liquor); a n d X the m g VSS/liter ( * lb V S S / v
M l b liquor), then
„ *„ /^ S
ft3
l M
ο COD
a l
^ lb liquor
l i ( u o r l b
n
G = 5.62 I Q—- — χ S χ 8.24 r
lb C O D \ day M l b liquor gal liquor

lb C O D Mgal liquor Λ lb VSS _ lb liquor \ v o
- 1.42 χ Q—- — χ X χ 8.24 v
lb VSS day M l b liquor gal l i q u o r /
o r finally [ E q . ( 6 . 8 2 ) ] ,
G = 46.87e(S -1.42A ,)ft /day r

r
l
3
(STP) (6.82)
8.4. L A B O R A T O R Y A N A E R O B I C R E A C T O R S
FOR O B T A I N I N G B A S I C D E S I G N I N F O R M A T I O N
T w o m o d e l s o f a l a b o r a t o r y a n a e r o b i c r e a c t o r a r e s h o w n in F i g s . 6.32 a n d
6.33. T h e r e a c t o r in F i g . 6.32 is a b a t c h t y p e a n d t h e o n e in F i g . 6.33 is
continuous.
T h e o p e r a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d t o o b t a i n b a s i c d e s i g n d a t a is
1. T o p r o v i d e a seed o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , o b t a i n a s a m p l e o f s e t t l e d s l u d g e
f r o m a m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t a n d p l a c e it in t h e l a b o r a t o r y
reactor. A d d the wastewater to be treated a n d maintain a temperature of 35°C
t h r o u g h o u t t h e test p e r i o d .
2. I f significant a m o u n t s o f a i r a r e t r a p p e d in t h e r e a c t o r , p u r g e t h e
system with an inert gas.
3. T h e m i x t u r e is m i x e d c o n t i n u o u s l y , e i t h e r m e c h a n i c a l l y ( F i g . 6.32) o r
b y r e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e g a s p r o d u c e d , b y m e a n s o f a g a s p u m p ( F i g . 6.33). D o
n o t s t a r t feeding t h e w a s t e w a t e r o r w i t h d r a w i n g t h e m i x e d l i q u o r u n t i l g a s
p r o d u c t i o n is a s c e r t a i n e d .
* S T P stands for standard temperature and pressure, taken as Ρ = 1 atm and t = 60°F.
Feed tube and g a s sampling cock
Withdrawal tube
Mixer
Digester
Rubber tubing—J
Fig. 6.32. Bench scale batch feed digester.
Feed-pump Gas^pumpp Gas to waste
Feed-*=fl
(gravity flow)
Feed-*-
reservoir^
(constant head) Condensate trap
Overflow*-^
Withdrawal tube Digester
Fig. 6.33. Continuous feed digester.
4. O n c e g a s p r o d u c t i o n is n o t i c e d , feed p o r t i o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r , w i t h
drawing equal portions of mixed liquor.
5. D u r i n g t h e e n t i r e s t a r t - u p p e r i o d p H is o b s e r v e d closely, a n d if it
falls b e l o w 6.6, a l k a l i n i t y is a d d e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e r e c o m m e n d e d r a n g e , i.e.,
p H 6.6-7.6.
6. C o n t i n u e t o feed a n d w i t h d r a w d a i l y u n t i l effluent B O D ( o r C O D )
stabilizes. A n a l y z e a n d r e c o r d t h e d a t a : r a w w a s t e w a t e r : p H a n d C O D ( o r
B O D ) ; effluent: p H , C O D ( o r B O D ) , a n d V S S .
5 5
8.5. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R
ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS
T r e a t m e n t of the d a t a o b t a i n e d in the l a b o r a t o r y t o arrive at design p a r a
meters a n d utilization of this i n f o r m a t i o n in the design of a n a n a e r o b i c
d i g e s t e r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 6.5.
Example 6.5
200,000 gal/day of a wastewater are t o be treated by a n a e r o b i c d e g r a d a t i o n .
T h e m e a n v a l u e for influent C O D is 10,000 m g / l i t e r . Effluent C O D s h o u l d b e
r e d u c e d t o a t t h e m o s t 2 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S in t h e influent is
negligible.
A b e n c h scale r e a c t o r is utilized t o s i m u l a t e t h e p r o c e s s , a n d M L V S S c o n
c e n t r a t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500 m g / l i t e r in all e x p e r i m e n t a l
r u n s . D a t a o b t a i n e d a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 6.9.
T A B L E 6.9
Laboratory Data for Example 6.5
Residence time Influent COD Effluent COD

Run no. (days) (mg/liter) (mg/liter)
1 5 8,550 3,800
2 10 8,400 2,400
3 15 9,190 1,940
4 20 10,200 1,700
5 30 12,470 1,470
1. O b t a i n d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s k, a, a n d b.
2. C a l c u l a t e d i g e s t e r v o l u m e r e q u i r e d ( g a l ) .
3. C a l c u l a t e M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n for t h e a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r ( m g / l i t e r ) .
4. E s t i m a t e g a s p r o d u c t i o n ( f t / d a y a t S T P ) .
3
Step 1. O b t a i n v a l u e s o f (S -S )/X 0 a n d (S -S )/X t
e 0 0 e v necessary to plot
F i g s . 6.34 a n d 6 . 3 5 . T h i s is s h o w n in T a b l e 6.10.
Step 2. P r e p a r e a p l o t o f (S — S )/X t 0 vs. S a n d d e t e r m i n e k from the
e v e
s l o p e o f t h e line f o r t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . T h i s is s h o w n i n F i g .
6.34. S i n c e all r e s i d e n c e t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d a r e l o n g e r t h a n 5 d a y s , o n l y t h e
s t r a i g h t line c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is s h o w n in
F i g . 6.34. F r o m t h e s l o p e o f t h i s line o n e o b t a i n s k = 0 . 0 0 0 5 d a y and - 1
S « 0 ( s t r a i g h t line p a s s e s t h r o u g h o r i g i n ) .
n
Step 5. D e t e r m i n e p a r a m e t e r s a a n d b. P l o t (S — S )/X v s . t: T h i s p l o t
0 e v
is s h o w n i n F i g . 6.35. A s i n d i c a t e d i n S t e p 2 , o n l y t h e s t r a i g h t line c o r r e
s p o n d i n g t o t h e m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n s t a g e is o b t a i n e d .
Intercept = 1/a = 7.0

.·. fl =l/7 = 0.143
Slope = b/a = 0.5
Λ b = a0.5 = 0.143 χ 0.5 = 0.0715
Anaerobic Treatment
co
CO
5
O m
si 0\ Ν
vo «o
ON OO
m
h
^ ^ ο ο ο
CO
CO
Co Xi «η Ο «ο ρ
σ< (Ν T t
Ο
cn
ski" ι—I ι—« ι—I <S
s
I
S O ^ ^
8
oo ^
8 S8§
Hu oo τ ? λ ι-^
rn r i ^ *-T
CO
~ Q ο ο
«ο Ο _ . _ -
8 8 S
GO Π « η Tf rt^ (Ν Tt
οο οο" oC θ" ri
ΙΛ
<o
9
O.
ε
X
2 ϊ
UJ
•8S
4>
(ft
ο c
ο
<o
(D
III _
-I 3
§8 •Η Ν (^1 Tt ΙΛ
< CD
2.0
/\
Ι.Θ
16
1.4
).000i > day" 1
1.2 >
1.0
0.8
0
χ
0.6
0.4
0.2
2000 3000 4000

S ; mg/liter [COD]
e
Fig. 6.34. Plot of (SQ — S )/X 9 v t vs. S0 for Example 6.5.
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 D i g e s t e r v o l u m e (gal)
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e f r o m E q . (6.80). Since « 0, t h e n

S'
e
=
S —S
e n α S .)
e
/ = 1 / ( 0 . 1 4 3 x 0 . 0 0 0 5 x 2 0 0 0 - 0 . 0 7 1 5 ) = 14 days
Step 2. D i g e s t e r v o l u m e is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d .
V = Qt = 200,000 gal/day χ 14 days = 2,800,000 gal
SOLUTION: Part 3 M L V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r [Eq.

(6 7 4 ) ]
χ ν = 0.143(10,000 - 2 0 0 0 ) / ( l + 0 . 0 7 1 5 χ 14) = 572 mg/liter
S O L U T I O N : Part 4 G a s p r o d u c t i o n f r o m E q . (6.82)
Since
Q = 200,000 gal/day = 0.2 Mgal/day
then
G = 46.87 x 0.2 [(10,000 - 2000) - 1.42 χ 572] = 67,380 f t / d a y at S T P 3

4
Ο 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
t (days)
Fig. 6.35. Plot of (S Q — S,)/Xv vs. t for Example 6.5.
Problems
I. A n aerated lagoon is being considered for treatment o f an industrial wastewater flow o f
1.0 M G D .
T h e following data are available:
Influent soluble B O D = 200 mg/liter
5
Influent suspended solids concentration is negligible

Effluent soluble B O D ^ 2 0 mg/liter
5
Wastewater temperature = 6 0 ° F
Since in most situations summer conditions control required aerator horsepower, base
design u p o n an air temperature o f 85°F
T a k e h = 100 B T U / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( ° F )
2
D a t a obtained from laboratory simulation k = 0.025 d a y (at 2 0 ° Q , α = 0.65 lb

- 1
VSS/
lb B O D day, b = 0.07 d a y " a n d α' = 1.2 lb 0 / l b B O D
r 2 5
L a g o o n depth = 10 ft
Oxygen concentration to be maintained in liquid is 1.5 mg/liter
Determine
1. L a g o o n surface in acres
2. Total effluent B O D (soluble + insoluble)
3. Oxygen requirements [lb 0 / ( H P ) ( h r ) ] and total required H P and p o w e r
2 level
(HP/Mgal). Take C sw = 8 mg/liter and α = 0.85. A s s u m e aerators are conservatively rated
at N = 3.0 lb 0 / ( H P ) ( h r ) .
0 2
II. It is proposed to treat an industrial wastewater (flow, 1.0 M G D ) utilizing stabilization

ponds. Plan the operation in three stages. Influent B O D (2000 mg/liter) should be reduced
5
t o a value not higher than 4 0 mg/liter (effluent from third stage).

Stage 1—Anaerobic pond. It should be designed for the purpose o f reducing influent
B O D ( 2 0 0 0 mg/liter) to a value of 500 mg/liter in the effluent. Take K= 0.1 d a y . Plan o n
5
- 1
a 10-ft depth. Calculate the area of the p o n d in acres. Calculate surface loading in lb B O D / 5
(acre)(day).
Stages 2 and 3—Facultative ponds. D e s i g n stages 2 and 3 for same residence time in each.
T a k e Κ = 0.2 d a y " for both stages. For stage 2, the design is to be based o n a surface loading
1
of 500 lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) . Calculate the area in acres and the depth in ft. Estimate depth
5
o f o x y g e n penetration in ft. F o r stage 3, the design is t o be based o n a surface loading o f

2 5 0 lb B O D / ( a c r e ) ( d a y ) . Calculate the area in acres and the depth in ft. Estimate depth o f
5
o x y g e n penetration in ft.
III. T h e data tabulated below for % B O D remaining (i.e., S /S

5 e 0 x 100) were obtained in a
pilot-plant trickling filter treating an industrial wastewater.
Hydraulic loading [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ]
2
Z>, depth
(ft)
1 2 3 4
6 62 70 75 80
12 36 46 57 63
18 24 32 43 48.5
24 14 22 32 39
1. Correlate the data and develop a relationship between B O D removal, depth, and
hydraulic loading.
2. D e s i g n a filter to obtain 80% B O D reduction from 5 M G D of settled wastewater
with an initial B O D o f 2 5 0 mg/liter, using a depth o f 30 ft (a) without recycle; (b) with
5
recycle ratio o f 1.5.
IV. A wastewater for which the m e a n influent C O D may be taken as 10,000 mg/liter is t o be
treated by anaerobic degradation. Laboratory tests indicated that the nondegradable C O D
is approximately 2000 mg/liter. Average M L V S S influent concentration is 15 mg/liter.
Bench scale determinations yield the following values for design parameters: k = 0.0004
d a y " , α = 0.14 lb M L V S S yield/lb C O D removed, and 6 = 0.02 lb M L V S S oxidized/
1
(day)(lb M L V S S in reactor). Calculate % C O D removal for residence times o f 80, 60, 40,
and 2 0 days, and plot % removal vs. residence time. O n the same graph plot the corre
sponding values o f % C O D removal, neglecting the M L V S S in the influent.
References
1. Andrews, J. F., Cole, R. D . , and Pearson, Ε . Α . , "Kinetics and Characteristics o f
Multistage Methane Fermentation," S E R L R e p . 6 4 - 1 1 . University of California,
Berkeley, 1962.
2. Balakrishnan, S., Eckenfelder, W . W., and Brown, C , Water Wastes Eng. 6, N o . 1,
A-22(1969).
3. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., "Industrial Pollution Control." McGraw-Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1966.
References 295
4. Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., "Water Quality Engineering for Practicing Engineers." Barnes
& N o b l e , N e w Y o r k , 1970.
5. Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton
Press, Austin and N e w York, 1970.
6. Hermann, E. J., and G l o y n a , E. F., Sewage Ind. Wastes 3 0 , N o . 8, 963 (1958).
7. Lawrence, A . W . , and McCarthy, P. L., "Kinetics o f Methane Fermentation in Anaerobic
Waste Treatment," R e p . N o . 75. Department o f Civil Engineering, Stanford University,
Stanford, California, 1967.
8. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, D i s p o s a l . "
:
McGraw-Hill, N e w York, 1972.

9. Oswald, W. J., in "Advances in Biological Waste Treatment" (W. W . Eckenfelder, Jr.
and O. M c C a b e , eds.), p p . 3 5 7 - 3 9 3 . Pergamon, Oxford, 1963.
10. Oswald, W. J., in "Advances in Water Quality Improvement" (W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr.
and E. F. G l o y n a , eds.), pp. 4 0 9 - 4 2 6 . Univ. o f Texas Press, Austin, 1968.
11. Pasveer, Α . , "The Oxidation D i t c h : Principles, Results and Applications," Proc.
Symp. L o w Cost Waste Treatment, pp. 165-171. C P H E R I , Nagpur, India, 1969.
7
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
1. Introduction 297
2. Aerobic and Anaerobic Digestion of Sludges 297
2.1. Introduction to Aerobic Digestion of Sludges 297
2.2. Schematic Representation of Aerobic Biological Treatment of
Sludges 299
2.3. Concept of Sludge A g e for the Case of Sludge Digesters 300
2.4. Laboratory Scale Batch Reactor to Obtain Basic Design Data
for Aerobic Digesters 301
2.5. Design Procedure for Aerobic Digesters of Sludge 302
2.6. Introduction to Anaerobic Sludge Digestion 307
2.7. Sizing of Anaerobic Sludge Digesters 309
3. Thickening of Sludges 309
3.2. Advantages of Thickening 309
3.3. Gravity Thickener 310
3.4. Design Principles for Gravity Thickeners 310
3.5. Edde and Eckenfelder's Equation 310
3.6. Flotation Thickening 311
4. Dewatering of Sludges by Vacuum Filtration 311
4.2. Variables in Vacuum Filtration 312
4.3. Definition of Parameter c 313
4.4. Filtration Equations 314
4.5. Laboratory Determination of Specific Resistance r and
Optimum Coagulant Dosage 315
4.6. Units for Specific Resistance of Cake (r) 316
4.7. Numerical Example: Determination of Specific Cake Resist
ance Using the Buchner Funnel 317
4.8. Specific Resistance for Compressible Cakes 318
4.9. Filtration Design Equation 319
4.10. Determination of Parameters n. s , m. and r in Eq. (7.29) . . . .
Q 320
4.11. Leaf Test Laboratory Procedure for Determination of the
Parameters in the Loading Equation 321
4.12. Illustration of Calculation Procedure for Parameters n, s, m,
and r0 324
4.13. Procedure for Rotary Filter Design 327
5. Pressure Filtration 328
6. Centrifugation 328
7. Bed Drying of Sludges 329
7.2. Mechanisms of Dewatering Sludges on Sand Beds 330
7.3. Construction of Sand Drying Beds 331
7.4. Drying Bed Design 331
296
2. Digestion of Sludges 297
8. Pre-dewatering Treatment of Sludges 334

8.1. Chemical Coagulation 334
8.2. Heat Treatment of Sludges 336
9. Sludge Disposal 340
9.1. Land Disposal of Sludges 340
9.2. Sludge Incineration 340
Problems 341
References 341
M o s t p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s ( C h a p t e r 3) a s well a s s e c o n d a r y t r e a t
m e n t s e q u e n c e s ( C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6) yield s l u d g e s w h i c h m u s t b e d i s p o s e d o f i n
s o m e a d e q u a t e w a y . S l u d g e s r e s u l t i n g solely f r o m s o l i d - l i q u i d s e p a r a t i o n
p r o c e s s e s ( s e d i m e n t a t i o n , flotation) a r e r e f e r r e d t o h e n c e a s p r i m a r y s l u d g e s ,
a n d those resulting from biological processes are designated as secondary
sludges.
O n e p o s s i b i l i t y in t h e t r e a t m e n t s e q u e n c e is r e d u c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l a m o u n t
of organic a n d volatile c o n t e n t by submitting the sludge t o digestion. A e r o b i c
a n d a n a e r o b i c digestion of sludges are discussed in Section 2.
A n o t h e r a p p r o a c h is t o i n c r e a s e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f solid c o n t e n t s i n t h e
s l u d g e b e f o r e final d i s p o s a l b y a s e q u e n c e o f p r o c e s s e s w h i c h fall u n d e r t h e
h e a d i n g s o f t h i c k e n i n g a n d d e w a t e r i n g , s t u d i e d in S e c t i o n s 3 - 7 . F i g u r e 7.1
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n c r e a s e in s o l i d c o n t e n t w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d i n s u c h
treatment sequences.
Special t r e a t m e n t p r e c e d i n g d e w a t e r i n g b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y f o r c e r t a i n
s l u d g e s w h i c h a r e difficult t o d e w a t e r . T h e s e i n c l u d e c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a t i o n a n d
h e a t - t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s , d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 8.
T h e end of the treatment sequence involves disposal of the remaining sludge,
w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 9. S l u d g e d i s p o s a l m e t h o d s fall i n t o t w o s c h e m e s
involving either land disposal or incineration. All these alternatives are
i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 7 . 1 , w h i c h is t h e o v e r a l l p l a n o f s t u d y f o r t h i s c h a p t e r .
2. A e r o b i c a n d A n a e r o b i c
Digestion of S l u d g e s
2.1. I N T R O D U C T I O N T O A E R O B I C D I G E S T I O N
OF S L U D G E S
A e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is a p r o c e s s in w h i c h a m i x t u r e o f p r i m a r y d i g e s t i b l e
s l u d g e f r o m p r i m a r y clarification a n d a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e f r o m a e r o b i c b i o
logical t r e a t m e n t is a e r a t e d for a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h i s r e s u l t s i n
cellular destruction with a decrease of volatile s u s p e n d e d solids (VSS).
298 7. Sludge Treatment and Disposal
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T h e p u r p o s e o f a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is t o r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t o f s l u d g e w h i c h
is t o b e d i s p o s e d o f s u b s e q u e n t l y . T h i s r e d u c t i o n r e s u l t s f r o m c o n v e r s i o n b y
oxidation of a substantial p a r t of the sludge into volatile p r o d u c t s ( C 0 , 2
N H , H ) . If b a c t e r i a l cells a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o r m u l a C H N 0 , o x i d a
3 2 5 7 2
t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e in a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is g i v e n b y E q . (5.51). T h i s o x i d a t i o n
o c c u r s w h e n t h e s u b s t r a t e in a n a e r o b i c s y s t e m is insufficient f o r e n e r g y a n d
s y n t h e s i s . I t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n p h a s e ( F i g . 5.3).
Wastewater Primary Aerator Secondary Effluent

clarifier (Activated clarifier
sludge process)
Volatile
matter*
Recycled sludge Wastage Aerobic

-a Secondary digester
Primary sludge sludge) _ of sludge
Stabilized
sludge—
Fig. 7.2. Flow diagram showing aerobic digester of sludge.
F i g u r e 7.2 s h o w s a flow d i a g r a m o f a c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r for t h e

treatment sequence involving primary sedimentation, the activated sludge
p r o c e s s , a n d a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e . W h e n t h e r e is a s m a l l a m o u n t o f
s l u d g e t o b e d i g e s t e d , b a t c h o p e r a t i o n is u t i l i z e d w i t h i n t e r m i t t e n t d i s c h a r g e
o f d i g e s t e d s l u d g e . T h e a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s h o w n in F i g . 7.2 h a n d l e s a m i x t u r e
of p r i m a r y a n d secondary sludge.
D e s t r u c t i o n r a t e o f cells u s u a l l y d e c r e a s e s w h e n t h e f o o d t o m i c r o o r g a n i s m
r a t i o (F/M) i n c r e a s e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e
utilized in t h e p r o c e s s , t h e s l o w e r is t h e d i g e s t i o n b e c a u s e p r i m a r y s l u d g e h a s
relatively h i g h B O D ( h i g h F) a n d l o w M L V S S c o n t e n t ( l o w Μ), t h u s l e a d i n g
t o h i g h F/M r a t i o s .
2.2. S C H E M A T I C R E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F A E R O B I C
BIOLOGICAL T R E A T M E N T OF S L U D G E S
F i g u r e 5.3 s h o w s t w o v a r i a b l e s ( m a s s o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d r e m a i n i n g
s o l u b l e B O D ) p l o t t e d v s . a e r a t i o n t i m e . T h e c u r v e for r e m a i n i n g s o l u b l e B O D
b e c o m e s n e a r l y flat a s t h e m a s s o f M L V S S r e a c h e s its m a x i m u m . S i n c e a e r o b i c
d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e o c c u r s in t h e e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n p h a s e r e g i o n , t h e r e is
essentially n o s o l u b l e B O D r e m o v a l . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l o b j e c t i v e o f a e r o b i c
d i g e s t i o n is r e d u c t i o n o f t h e m a s s o f s l u d g e for d i s p o s a l , a n d n o t r e m o v a l o f
soluble B O D .
2.3. C O N C E P T O F S L U D G E A G E F O R T H E
C A S E OF S L U D G E DIGESTERS
T h e c o n c e p t o f s l u d g e a g e is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 9 a n d is g i v e n
b y E q . (5.145), in w h i c h t h e d e n o m i n a t o r is t h e n e t o u t p u t o f V S S f r o m t h e
s y s t e m . F o r all c a s e s d i s c u s s e d s o far, c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e i n t h e r e a c t o r
effluent w a s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t in t h e influent. A s a r e s u l t , t h e r e w a s a p o s i t i v e
n e t o u t p u t o f V S S for t h e s y s t e m . F o r s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is less
s l u d g e l e a v i n g t h a n e n t e r i n g , t h e difference c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s l u d g e w h i c h is
b i o d e g r a d e d . A s a r e s u l t , t h e d e n o m i n a t o r in E q . (5.145) is n e g a t i v e , c o r r e
s p o n d i n g t o a n e t i n p u t o f V S S t o t h e s y s t e m . T h e r e f o r e , for s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s
t h i s e q u a t i o n is r e w r i t t e n a s
lb M L V S S in the digester
ts = > 0 (7.1)
net input of VSS t o the system (lb/day)
F r o m E q . (7.1), s l u d g e a g e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a v e r a g e l e n g t h o f t i m e t h e
n e t i n p u t o f s l u d g e is s u b j e c t e d t o d i g e s t i o n . A n u m e r i c a l e x a m p l e will clarify
t h i s c o n c e p t ( v a l u e s f r o m E x a m p l e 7 . 1 ) : 5 0 0 0 l b / d a y o f s l u d g e a r e fed t o a n
a e r o b i c digester. L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t 5 5 % o f t h i s s l u d g e is n o n -
degradable. This a m o u n t s t o (0.55)(5000) = 2750 lb. T h u s , the d e g r a d a b l e
p o r t i o n is 5 0 0 0 - 2 7 5 0 = 2 2 5 0 l b .
T h e a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r is d e s i g n e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f o x i d i z i n g 9 0 % o f t h i s
d e g r a d a b l e V S S . T h e V S S w h i c h is n o t o x i d i z e d is 1 0 % o f 2 2 5 0 l b o r
(0.10) (2250) = 2 2 5 l b . A s s u m e t h a t t h e d i g e s t e r is c o n t i n u o u s , o p e r a t i n g a t
s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f V S S is m a i n t a i n e d a t
4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . D i g e s t e r v o l u m e is 1,185,000 g a l . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e s h o w n in
Fig. 7.3(a).
T h u s , t h e t o t a l o u t p u t o f s l u d g e is
2750 + 225 = 2975 lb/day
Since t h e s e 2 9 7 5 l b / d a y e n t e r a n d leave t h e d i g e s t e r w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e , t h e
n e t s l u d g e i n p u t ( s l u d g e w h i c h is a c t u a l l y o x i d i z e d i n t h e d i g e s t e r ) is
5000 - 2975 = 2025 lb/day
T h e r e f o r e , F i g . 7 . 3 ( a ) is r e d r a w n [ F i g . 7 . 3 ( b ) ] s h o w i n g t h e n e t i n p u t .
S l u d g e a g e t f r o m E q . (7.1) is d e r i v e d f r o m E q . (7.2).
s
ts (days) = X , v a F/(sludge input - sludge o u t p u t ) = X Vt a V/(AX)Mt (7.2)
Since X v%a = 4000 mg/liter = 4000 χ 1 0 " 6

lb s l u d g e / l b l i q u o r , t h e n
ts (days)
_ 4000 χ 1 0 " lb sludge/lb liquor χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor χ 1,185,000 gal liquor
6
2025 lb sludge/day
= 19.5 days
V= 1,185,000 gal
Part of degradable sludge
Aerobic digester which is not oxidized-.225 lb/day
Input: X = 4 0 0 0 mg/liter
v a
5 0 0 0 lb/day sludge Sludge oxidized:
(0.9)(2250)=2025 lb/day Nondegradable sludge:

2 7 5 0 lb/day
(a)
V= 1,185,000 gal
Aerobic digester
Net input: X v a = 4 0 0 0 mg/liter
2025 lb/day Sludge oxidized:
2 0 2 5 lb/day
(b)
Fig. 7.3. Diagrams to illustrate concept of sludge age.
F o r higher values of sludge age c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a larger v o l u m e for t h e

a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r , it is p o s s i b l e t o o x i d i z e o v e r 9 0 % o f t h e d e g r a d a b l e V S S .
T h i s m e a n s less s l u d g e for d i s p o s a l , t h o u g h a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a h i g h e r i n v e s t
m e n t for t h e d i g e s t e r . A n e c o n o m i c s t u d y c a n b e m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
o p t i m u m f r a c t i o n o f d e g r a d a b l e s o l i d s t o b e o x i d i z e d in t h e d i g e s t e r .
2.4. L A B O R A T O R Y S C A L E B A T C H R E A C T O R
TO OBTAIN B A S I C D E S I G N DATA FOR
AEROBIC DIGESTERS
A t y p i c a l b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale r e a c t o r utilized f o r o b t a i n i n g d e s i g n d a t a
for a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s is s h o w n in F i g . 5.2. E v e n w h e n d e s i g n i n g a c o n t i n u o u s
a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r a s s h o w n in F i g . 7.2, t h e l a b o r a t o r y scale b a t c h r e a c t o r is
needed t o o b t a i n design i n f o r m a t i o n , because residence times required for
a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s a r e h i g h . R e q u i r e d flow r a t e s for c o n t i n u o u s
o p e r a t i o n are impractically small for the low v o l u m e l a b o r a t o r y r e a c t o r a n d
cannot be measured with reasonable accuracy. Therefore, continuous labora
t o r y scale r e a c t o r s a s in F i g . 5.10 a r e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d .
A c o n t i n u o u s digester operates, a s s u m i n g steady state conditions, with a
c o n s t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s . F o r t h e b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale
u n i t utilized t o s i m u l a t e t h e p l a n t scale c o n t i n u o u s r e a c t o r , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
suspended solids decreases with t i m e because of the g r a d u a l oxidation of V S S .
F o r e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale d a t a t o a p l a n t scale c o n t i n u o u s
reactor, o n e should w o r k with a n average value of the VSS c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o
s i m u l a t e t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n s t a n t V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r
operating a t steady state conditions. Similarly, the oxygen u p t a k e rate for the
b a t c h r e a c t o r d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e . A n a v e r a g e v a l u e is t a k e n t o s i m u l a t e t h e
p r e v a i l i n g c o n s t a n t o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e in t h e c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r o p e r a t i n g a t
steady state conditions. T h e calculation technique for utilizing b a t c h reactor
d a t a in d e s i g n i n g a c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r is i l l u s t r a t e d in E x a m p l e 7 . 1 .
F u n d a m e n t a l d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e b a t c h l a b o r a t o r y scale
r e a c t o r is (1) s u s p e n d e d solids v s . s l u d g e a g e ( d a y s ) a n d (2) o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e
[mg/(liter)(hr)] vs. sludge age (days). Several units each with a capacity of
a b o u t 2 liters a r e u s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a n d r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a r e a v e r a g e d . T h e
u n i t s a r e filled w i t h s l u d g e w i t h a n initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s
the range which might be expected in the p r o p o s e d digester unit. Samples are
w i t h d r a w n a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s , a n d V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d o x y g e n
uptake rates are determined.
C a l c u l a t e d d e s i g n v a l u e s a r e (1) r e q u i r e d r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( a n d v o l u m e o f t h e
d i g e s t e r ) a n d (2) o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( l b / h r ) f r o m w h i c h n e e d e d H P is
c a l c u l a t e d a n d a e r a t o r s specified.
2.5. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A E R O B I C
D I G E S T E R S O F S L U D G E [1]
T h e p r o c e d u r e for u t i l i z i n g l a b o r a t o r y d a t a for t h i s d e s i g n is p r e s e n t e d i n
E x a m p l e 7 . 1 . D e s i g n for a c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r is i l l u s t r a t e d f r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d
in a l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h r e a c t o r . F o r t h e d e s i g n o f a b a t c h r e a c t o r t h e p r o c e d u r e
is s i m p l e r , b e c a u s e t h e l a b o r a t o r y scale b a t c h u n i t is a n a c t u a l m i n i a t u r e o f t h e
p l a n t scale digester.
T h e r a t e o f d e g r a d a t i o n o f s l u d g e is t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n t . F o r a c o n
servative design, l a b o r a t o r y d a t a should be o b t a i n e d at the lowest t e m p e r a t u r e
a n t i c i p a t e d i n t h e field.
Example 7.1
D a t a i n T a b l e 7.1 w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m a l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h r e a c t o r . 5 0 0 0
l b / d a y o f s l u d g e a r e t o b e d i g e s t e d a n d it is d e s i r e d t o d e s t r o y 9 0 % o f d e g r a d a b l e
VSS. A s s u m e a n operating steady state concentration of 4000 mg/liter of VSS
for t h e c o n t i n u o u s d i g e s t e r t o b e d e s i g n e d . C a l c u l a t e (1) d i g e s t e r v o l u m e (gal)
a n d (2) o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t ( l b / d a y ) .
S O L U T I O N : Part 1 D i g e s t e r v o l u m e (gal)
Step 1. P l o t V S S ( m g / l i t e r ) [ c o l u m n (2), T a b l e 7.1] v s . t i m e o f a e r a t i o n
[ c o l u m n (7), T a b l e 7 . 1 ] , a s s h o w n in F i g . 7.4. T h e c u r v e is a s y m p t o t i c t o a V S S
v a l u e e s t i m a t e d a t 3050 m g / l i t e r , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o n o n d e g r a d a b l e V S S
in t h e s l u d g e .
2. Digestion of S l u d g e s 303
T A B L E 7.1
ω (2) (3)
Time o f aeration VSS R , oxygen uptake rate
r
(days) (mg/liter) [mg/(liter)(hr)]
0 5550
1 5200 35.0
2 4950 28.0
5 4420 19.0
7 4170 16.0
10 3870 12.5
15 3500 8.8
20 3260 6.1
25 3200 4.2
8000i
7000
[Labon itory da a]
1
Κ 6000
@5000
c
ε
ο 4000
,ο,
I 3000
ί
If 1
ο»
i
Ε
mρ
co
£2000
§
m mΜ
1000
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Aeration time (days) [Column φ , table 7l]
Fig. 7.4. VSS concentration vs. aeration time (Example 7.1).
Step 2. O b t a i n t h e o x i d i z a b l e V S S r e m a i n i n g a t a n y t i m e b y s u b t r a c t i n g
3 0 5 0 m g / l i t e r f r o m t h e v a l u e s in c o l u m n (2) o f T a b l e 7 . 1 . T h e r e s u l t is s h o w n i n
T a b l e 7.2 [ c o l u m n ( 2 ) ] .
304 7. S l u d g e Treatment and Disposal
T A B L E 7.2
Degradable V S S Remaining vs. Time of Aeration
(Example 7.1)
ω (2)
Time o f aeration Degradable VSS remaining
(days) (mg/liter)
0 2500
1 2150
2 1900
5 1370
7 1120
10 820
15 450
20 210
25 150
F r a c t i o n o f n o n d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e is 3 0 5 0 / 5 5 5 0 = 0.55 ( o r 5 5 . 0 % ) , a n d t h a t
o f d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e is 1—0.55 = 0.45 ( o r 4 5 . 0 % ) . A t t i m e z e r o , c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e is 2 5 0 0 m g / l i t e r [first e n t r y in c o l u m n (2), T a b l e 7 . 2 ] . I t
is d e s i r e d t o oxidize 9 0 % o f t h i s s l u d g e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e d e g r a d a b l e V S S
r e m a i n i n g is 1 0 % o f 2 5 0 0 m g / l i t e r , o r ( 0 . 1 ) ( 2 5 0 0 ) = 2 5 0 m g / l i t e r .
Step 3. D e t e r m i n e s l u d g e a g e ( d a y s ) for o x i d i z a b l e V S S r e m a i n i n g t o b e
2 5 0 m g / l i t e r . F o r c o n v e n i e n t i n t e r p o l a t i o n p l o t c o l u m n (2) vs. c o l u m n ( / )
(of T a b l e 7.2) o n s e m i l o g p a p e r , a s s h o w n in F i g . 7.5. F o r a n o r d i n a t e o f 2 5 0
m g / l i t e r , a s l u d g e a g e o f 19.5 d a y s is r e a d .
Step 4. F r o m i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s t e p s ( u t i l i z i n g
l a b o r a t o r y d a t a o n l y ) , t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e for t h e p l a n t scale a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r
is w r i t t e n a s f o l l o w s :
Sludge I N : 5000lb/day
Sludge O U T :
Nondegradable V S S : (0.55)(5000) = 2750
F r a c t i o n o f d e g r a d a b l e s l u d g e w h i c h is not o x i d i z e d : d e g r a d a b l e
sludge = 5 0 0 0 - 2 7 5 0 = 2250 lb/day
Fraction not oxidized: (0.1) (2250) = 225
Total sludge output: 2975 lb/day
T h i s m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e is s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 3 , w h i c h w a s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e
concept of sludge age.
Step 5. C a l c u l a t e t h e d i g e s t e r v o l u m e f r o m E q . (7.2), w h e r e
AX net = (sludge i n p u t - s l u d g e output) = 5 0 0 0 - 2975 = 2025 lb/day

w h e r e -X w%a = 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r a n d t = 19.5 d a y s .
Therefore,
K - 19.5 days χ 2025 lb sludge/day = m
4000 χ 1 0 " lb sludge/lb liquor χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor

6
S O L U T I O N : Part 2 Oxygen requirement (lb/day)
B e f o r e m a k i n g a n e s t i m a t e o f o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e c o n t i n u o u s
d i g e s t e r , c a l c u l a t e a v e r a g e v a l u e s for V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d o x y g e n
u p t a k e r a t e for t h e l a b o r a t o r y u n i t o v e r a p e r i o d o f 19.5 d a y s .
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r a l a b o r a t o r y u n i t .
A v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m F i g . 7.4. F i r s t d e t e r m i n e b y
graphical integration the area b o u n d by the curve from the abscissa zero to
19.5 d a y s .
J
*f = 1 9 . 5 d a y s
(VSS concentration) dt = 78,400 (mg/liter) χ day
*=o
A v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n is t h e n
/V=19.5days
Average VSS concentration = [ l / ( / - 0 ) ] (VSS concentration)*//
Jt=o
J
V = 19.5days
(VSS concentration)*//
f=0
= (1/19.5)78,400 = 4020 mg/liter
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e t h e a v e r a g e o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e for a l a b o r a t o r y u n i t .
O x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e [ c o l u m n (3) o f T a b l e 7 . 1 ] is p l o t t e d v s . t i m e o f a e r a t i o n
[ c o l u m n (7) o f T a b l e 7 . 1 ] . T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 7.6. D e t e r m i n e b y g r a p h i c a l
i n t e g r a t i o n t h e a r e a b o u n d b y t h e c u r v e f r o m t h e a b s c i s s a z e r o t o 19.5 d a y s .
/•/ = 1 9 . 5 d a y s
Area = R dt
r = 303 m g 0 / ( l i t e r ) (hr) χ days
2
Jt=o
45i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ο 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time of aeration [Column®, table 7.0
Fig. 7.6. estimate of average oxygen uptake rate (Example 7.1).

or
χ days χ 24 h r / d a y = 7272 m g 0 / l i t e r 2
A v e r a g e d a i l y o x y g e n u p t a k e r a t e is t h e n
»r = 1 9 . 5 d a y s »i = 1 9 . 5 d a y s
Averages = [l/(i-0)] R dtr = R dt
r
]
t=0 Jt=o
= 1/19.5 days χ 7272 m g 0 / l i t e r 2
= 373 m g 0 / ( l i t e r ) ( d a y )
2
Step 3. E s t i m a t e o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s for a c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r .
A v e r a g e o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e for t h e l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h u n i t is
373 m g 0 / ( l i t e r ) ( d a y )
2
= 373 χ 10- lbO /(lbliquor)(day)

6
2
= 373 χ 1 0 ~ lb 0 / ( l b liquor)(day) χ 8.34 lb liquor/gal liquor

6
2
= 3.11 χ 1 0 " lb 0 / ( g a l liquor)(day)

3
2
C a l c u l a t e d a v e r a g e V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n for t h e l a b o r a t o r y b a t c h u n i t is 4 0 2 0
m g / l i t e r ( S o l u t i o n , P a r t 2 , S t e p 1), w h e r e a s V S S c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t s t e a d y s t a t e
c o n d i t i o n s for t h e c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r is 4 0 0 0 m g / l i t e r . O x y g e n
r e q u i r e m e n t s for the c o n t i n u o u s a e r o b i c reactor a r e estimated a s s u m i n g
proportionality between oxygen utilization a n d VSS concentration.
3.11 χ Ι Ο " lb 0 / ( g a l liquor)(day) χ 1.185 χ 1 0 gal liquor χ 4000/4020

3
2
6
= 3667 lb 0 / d a y 2
w h e r e 4 0 0 0 / 4 0 2 0 is t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r r e q u i r e d for t r a n s l a t i n g d a t a o b t a i n e d
with the laboratory batch reactor to actual operational conditions with the
c o n t i n u o u s reactor. H o r s e p o w e r requirements a n d layout for a e r a t o r s are
o b t a i n e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 4 , S e c t i o n s 1 4 - 1 6 .
2.6. I N T R O D U C T I O N T O A N A E R O B I C
SLUDGE DIGESTION
I t h a s b e e n k n o w n f o r a t l e a s t a c e n t u r y t h a t if s e t t l e d s e w a g e s o l i d s a r e k e p t
in a c l o s e d t a n k for a p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e y a r e c o n v e r t e d t o a l i q u i d s t a t e a n d a
c o m b u s t i b l e g a s c o n t a i n i n g m e t h a n e is g e n e r a t e d . A p a t e n t w a s i s s u e d t o
I m h o f T i n 1904 f o r t h e d e s i g n o f a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n vessels, w h i c h a r e k n o w n
as Imhoff tanks. M o s t sludge digestion processes in use t o d a y are anaerobic,
a l t h o u g h a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e p o p u l a r , especially for s m a l l
units.
A n a e r o b i c s l u d g e d i g e s t e r s a r e u s u a l l y o f t w o t y p e s : (1) single-stage d i g e s t e r s
a n d (2) t w o - s t a g e d i g e s t e r s . A t y p i c a l single-stage s l u d g e d i g e s t e r is s h o w n in
F i g . 7.7.
Gas removal
Gas
Supernatant layer
Supernatant layer
outlet
Raw sludge
feed .Actively digesting Sludge
—-—~ sludge heater
^ Digested sludge;^
Fig. 7.7. Single-stage anaerobic sludge digester.
R a w s l u d g e is fed t o t h e z o n e w h e r e t h e s l u d g e is actively d i g e s t i n g a n d g a s is
p r o d u c e d . A s t h e g a s rises, it lifts s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s ( g r e a s e ,
oil, fats), f o r m i n g a s u p e r n a t a n t l a y e r w h i c h is d r a w n off f r o m t h e d i g e s t e r .
D i g e s t e d s l u d g e is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k .
T h e d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s is f a v o r e d b y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e ( u s u a l l y f r o m 8 5 ° -
1 0 5 ° F ) , so d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e is h e a t e d e i t h e r b y s t e a m coils w i t h i n t h e vessel o r
b y m e a n s o f a n e x t e r n a l s l u d g e h e a t e r ( F i g . 7.7). G a s is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e t o p
o f t h e d i g e s t e r a n d o f t e n utilized a s fuel, o w i n g t o its h i g h c o n t e n t o f m e t h a n e .
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e t w o - s t a g e u n i t is f u n d a m e n t a l l y t o p r o v i d e a b e t t e r v o l u m e
Gas removal
Gas Gas
Supernatant
Supernatant
XIiV.-
layer outlet
— layer
Row sludge_
feed
-ι f Sludge Digested _
.1 Ί- heater sludge
outlet
Stage I Stage 2
Fig. 7.8. Two-stage anaerobic sludge digester.

3. Thickening of Sludges 309
u t i l i z a t i o n . V o l u m e u t i l i z a t i o n f o r t h e s i n g l e - s t a g e u n i t is p o o r , o w i n g t o
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a n d p o o r m i x i n g . S t a g e 1 is u s e d for d i g e s t i o n . I t is h e a t e d a n d
m i x i n g is p r o v i d e d e i t h e r m e c h a n i c a l l y o r b y m e a n s o f g a s r e c i r c u l a t i o n .
S t a g e 2 is u s e d for s t o r a g e a n d s e p a r a t i o n o f d i g e s t e d s l u d g e a n d t h e s u p e r
n a t a n t layer.
2.7. S I Z I N G O F A N A E R O B I C S L U D G E D I G E S T E R S
L a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n for a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f s l u d g e s c a n b e m a d e b y
t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d for a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s , e x c e p t t h a t a e r a t i o n is n o t
p r o v i d e d . C u r v e s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e s h o w n i n F i g . 7.4 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m
l a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n , a n d t h e d i g e s t e r v o l u m e is c a l c u l a t e d b y a p r o c e d u r e
s i m i l a r t o t h a t for a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r s ( E x a m p l e 7.1).
E m p i r i c a l m e t h o d s a r e u s u a l l y e m p l o y e d for sizing a n a e r o b i c s l u d g e
digesters. S o m e of these m e t h o d s are based o n the p o p u l a t i o n served by the
s e w a g e s y s t e m (for d o m e s t i c s l u d g e ) o r o n r e c o m m e n d e d v a l u e s o f s l u d g e a g e .
T h e latter values are temperature dependent, decreasing with increase of
o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . T a b l e 7.3 p r e s e n t s s u g g e s t e d s l u d g e a g e v a l u e s a s a
f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e . V o l u m e ( S C F M ) o f g a s g e n e r a t e d is e s t i m a t e d f r o m
E q . (6.82).
T A B L E 7.3
Recommended Values of Sludge A g e for
Anaerobic Sludge Digester [3]
Temperature Suggested sludge age

(°F) t (days)
s
65 28
75 20
85 14
95 10
105 10
3. Thickening of S l u d g e s
T h i c k e n i n g is t h e u s u a l first s t e p i n s l u d g e d i s p o s a l p r o c e s s i n g . I t c a n b e
d o n e (1) b y g r a v i t y a n d (2) b y d i s s o l v e d a i r flotation.
3.2. A D V A N T A G E S O F T H I C K E N I N G
1. I t i m p r o v e s d i g e s t e r o p e r a t i o n a n d r e d u c e s c a p i t a l c o s t w h e n e v e r
s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n is utilized.
2. It r e d u c e s s l u d g e v o l u m e p r i o r t o l a n d o r sea d i s p o s a l .
3. I t i n c r e a s e s e c o n o m y of sludge dewatering systems (centrifuges,
v a c u u m filters, p r e s s u r e filters, etc.).
3.3. G R A V I T Y THICKENER
Thickeners are t a n k s of circular cross section provided with a r o t a t i n g rake
m e c h a n i s m s i m i l a r t o t h e clarifiers d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3, S e c t i o n 3.7.
3.4. D E S I G N P R I N C I P L E S F O R G R A V I T Y
THICKENERS
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i c k e n e r s is t o p r o v i d e a c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u d g e u n d e r f l o w .
A f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r is t h i c k e n e r a r e a r e q u i r e d for a specific u n d e r f l o w
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f t h e u n i t a r e a UA, defined a s
[ E q . (7.3)]
υ A = ft /(lb/day) = (ft )(day)/(lb)
2 2
(7.3)
[i.e., t h e a r e a ( f t ) r e q u i r e d p e r l b / d a y o f s l u d g e in t h e i n f l u e n t ] . T h e r e c i p r o c a l
2
o f t h e u n i t a r e a , w h i c h is t e r m e d m a s s l o a d i n g (ML) is
ML = l/UA = (lb/day)/ft 2
= lb/(day)(ft ) 2
(7.4)
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l design p r o b l e m consists of calculating the thickener area

f r o m t h e k n o w l e d g e o f (1) flow r a t e ( M g a l / d a y ) o f s l u d g e of initial c o n c e n t r a
tion C 0 ( m g / l i t e r ) a n d (2) d e s i r e d final u n d e r f l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n C u (mg/liter).
O n c e t h e v a l u e o f UA ( o r ML) is d e t e r m i n e d , t h e a r e a ( f t ) o f t h e t h i c k e n e r is
2
given in E q . (7.5).
Area (ft ) = (lb/day of influent) χ UA

2
[from Eq. (7.3)] (7.5)
or
Area (ft ) = (lb/day of influent/ML)
2
[from Eq. (7.4)] (7.6)
T h e p r o c e d u r e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3, S e c t i o n 3.6 m a y b e utilized for

d e s i g n o f t h i c k e n e r s . A specific m e t h o d for t h i c k e n e r d e s i g n b a s e d o n a n
empirical equation proposed by Edde and Eckenfelder is d e s c r i b e d in
S e c t i o n 3.5.
3.5. E D D E A N D E C K E N F E L D E R ' S E Q U A T I O N [2]

T h e degree t o which sludges can be thickened depends o n m a n y variables.
A c o r r e l a t i o n d e v e l o p e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d E d d e is
[ ( C . / C o ) - 1 ] = KI(ML)» = K/d/UAT (7.7)
where C u is t h e u n d e r f l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; C 0 t h e initial feed c o n

c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; ML t h e m a s s l o a d i n g [ ( l b / d a y ) / f t ] ; UA t h e u n i t a r e a
2
4. Dewatering of Sludges 311
[ f t / ( l b / d a y ) ] ; a n d Κ a n d η c o n s t a n t s . C o n s t a n t η is o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
2
r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s l u d g e . C o n s t a n t Κ is r e l a t e d n o t o n l y t o t h e
initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n C 0 b u t also t o the height of settling c o l u m n .
E q u a t i o n (7.7) is w r i t t e n in l i n e a r f o r m b y t a k i n g l o g a r i t h m s o f b o t h
members.
l o g [ ( C / C ) - l ] = log A: - A*log(ML) = XogK - n\og(\IUA)

u 0 (7.8)
F r o m E q . (7.8) a p l o t o n l o g - l o g p a p e r o f [ ( C / C ) - 1 ] v s . (l/UA)
M 0 [or
( M L ) ] yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e = — η a n d i n t e r c e p t = K. A p r o c e d u r e f o r
d e s i g n o f g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r s s t a r t i n g f r o m d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale
u n i t s a n d b a s e d o n E d d e a n d E c k e n f e l d e r ' s e q u a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d b y E c k e n
felder a n d F o r d [ 1 ] .
3.6. FLOTATION T H I C K E N I N G
F l o t a t i o n t h i c k e n i n g c a n b e utilized f o r s l u d g e s a n d is specifically r e c o m
m e n d e d for gelatinous ones such as t h o s e from t h e activated sludge process.
D e s i g n o f flotation e q u i p m e n t is d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 3 , S e c t i o n 4 .
4. D e w a t e r i n g of S l u d g e s by
V a c u u m Filtration
V a c u u m filtration is t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d p r o c e d u r e f o r d e w a t e r i n g w a s t e
w a t e r s l u d g e s . I n v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n , w a t e r is r e m o v e d u n d e r a p p l i e d v a c u u m
t h r o u g h a p o r o u s m e d i a which retains solids b u t allows liquids t o p a s s t h r o u g h .
S e v e r a l t y p e s o f m e d i a a r e u s e d , s u c h a s n y l o n a n d d a c r o n c l o t h , steel m e s h ,
a n d t i g h t l y w o u n d stainless steel coil s p r i n g s .
T h e c e n t r a l u n i t is a r o t a r y d r u m w h i c h r e v o l v e s i n a s l u r r y t a n k ( F i g . 7.9).
V a c u u m is a p p l i e d t o t h e s u b m e r g e d p a r t o f t h e d r u m a n d s o l i d s a r e r e t a i n e d
Fig. 7.9. Diagram of rotary filter.

o n t h e d r u m surface. T h e c a k e s t a r t s b u i l d i n g u p a t p o i n t A a s t h e d r u m d i v e s
i n t o t h e s l u r r y t a n k , a n d r e a c h e s full t h i c k n e s s a t p o i n t Β a s t h e d r u m e m e r g e s .
T i m e e l a p s e d f r o m A t o Β (i.e., s u b m e r g e n c e t i m e ) is d e s i g n a t e d a s f o r m t i m e
(t ).
f F r o m Β t o A t h e c a k e is d e w a t e r e d , a n d t i m e e l a p s e d is d e s i g n a t e d a s d r y
t i m e (t ). T h e t o t a l cycle t i m e (t ) is
d c
t = t + t
c f d (7.9)
Since the d r u m revolves at a c o n s t a n t speed, the following relationship

applies [Eq. (7.10)]:
tfltc = t l(tf f + t ) = (% submergence)/100

d (7.10)
U s u a l l y d r u m s u b m e r g e n c e b e t w e e n 10 a n d 6 0 % is e m p l o y e d , i.e.,
0.6/ > t >

c f 0.1/c (7.11)
T h e r e f o r e , f o r m t i m e is u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 10 a n d 6 0 % o f t o t a l cycle t i m e .
After being dried by liquid transfer t o air d r a w n t h r o u g h the cake by the
a p p l i e d v a c u u m , t h e c a k e is r e m o v e d b y a knife e d g e o n t o a c o n v e y o r b e l t t o
d i s p o s a l facilities. T h e filter m e d i a is t h e n w a s h e d b y a w a t e r s p r a y p r i o r t o
b e i n g i m m e r s e d a g a i n in t h e s l u r r y t a n k .
4.2. V A R I A B L E S I N V A C U U M F I L T R A T I O N
V a r i a b l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d fall i n t o t w o g r o u p s : t h o s e r e l a t e d t o s l u d g e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d t h o s e p e r t a i n i n g t o filter o p e r a t i o n . V a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o
sludge characteristics are as follows:
1. S o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e s l u d g e . T h i s is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e s l u d g e (i.e., p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y , d o m e s t i c o r i n d u s t r i a l ) a n d b y
t h i c k e n i n g p r o c e s s e s p r e c e d i n g t h e filtration s t e p .
2. Viscosity o f s l u d g e a n d filtrate, t h e l a t t e r b e i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e
a s t h a t for w a t e r a t s i m i l a r t e m p e r a t u r e s .
3. S l u d g e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , w h i c h is r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e
particles.
4. C h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c l e size a n d s h a p e ,
water content.
Filter operation variables are
1. Operating vacuum. U s u a l l y f r o m 10 t o 2 0 in. o f m e r c u r y . H i g h e r
v a c u u m s a r e m o r e effective w i t h i n c o m p r e s s i b l e c a k e s . F o r v e r y c o m p r e s s i b l e
c a k e s , a p p l y i n g h i g h e r v a c u u m s m a y r e s u l t in c l o g g i n g t h e filter m e d i a .
2. Drum submergence. T h i s v a r i e s f r o m 10 t o 6 0 % , h i g h p o r o s i t y s l u d g e s
p e r m i t t i n g h i g h e r s u b m e r g e n c e s . S l u d g e s o f l o w p o r o s i t y m u s t b e filtered w i t h
low submergence, otherwise the resulting c o m p a c t a n d thick cake does n o t
a l l o w a n a d e q u a t e flow o f filtrate.
3. Sludge conditioning by chemical addition. M a n y sludges require

c o a g u l a n t s (e.g., F e C l , l i m e , p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s ) t o c o a g u l a t e s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s
3
w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e c l o g t h e filter m e d i a , r e s u l t i n g in r e d u c t i o n o f filtration
rate.
4. Type and porosity of the filter media. H i g h p o r o s i t y m e d i a r e s u l t s i n
h i g h e r filtration r a t e s .
4.3. D E F I N I T I O N O F P A R A M E T E R c
F i l t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n s in S e c t i o n 4 . 4 e m p l o y a p a r a m e t e r c, w h i c h is defined
a s t h e m a s s o f solids d e p o s i t e d o n t h e filter p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f filtrate. A n
e x p r e s s i o n f o r c is d e r i v e d a s f o l l o w s : L e t c b e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l i d s i n
f
t h e i n c o m i n g s l u r r y , e x p r e s s e d a s g r a m s o f s o l i d s p e r m l o f s l u r r y . S l u r r y is
filtered in a l a b o r a t o r y B u c h n e r filter ( F i g . 7.10). F u r t h e r m o r e , a s s u m e t h a t
for t h e filtrate t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l i d s is r e d u c e d t o a v a l u e i n d i c a t e d a s
c ( a l s o e x p r e s s e d a s g r a m s o f solids p e r milliliter). P r e s u m a b l y c <ζ c .
f f {
C =l/[(I-C )/C f f -(l-c,)/c,]
Fig. 7.10. Diagram to illustrate derivation of Eq. (7.12).
Since t h e s l u r r y is relatively d i l u t e d , a s s u m e t h a t t h e d e n s i t y is a p p r o x i m a t e l y
t h a t o f w a t e r , i.e., 1 g p e r m l . T h u s , 1 g o f feed t o t h e filter c o n t a i n s c g r a m f
o f solid a n d (1 — c ) g r a m o f w a t e r . T h e m l o f w a t e r p e r g r a m o f s o l i d s i n t h e
t
i n c o m i n g s l u r r y a r e t h e n (1 - q ) / ^ ( m l w a t e r / g s o l i d ) . S i m i l a r l y f o r t h e filtrate
o n e h a s (l—c )/cf f ( m l w a t e r / g s o l i d ) . T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o v a l u e s
is
(\-c,)lc -{\-c,)lc
f t (ml water/g solid)
T h e i n v e r s e o f t h i s q u a n t i t y c o r r e s p o n d s t o p a r a m e t e r c, i.e., m a s s o f s o l i d s
d e p o s i t e d p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f filtrate [ E q . ( 7 . 1 2 ) ] .
c = l/[(l-c,)/cr-(l-c )/o] (
(7.12)
4.4. F I L T R A T I O N E Q U A T I O N S
T h e b a s i c filtration e q u a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e Poiseuille a n d d ' A r c y l a w is
p r e s e n t e d in E q . (7.13).
dVldt = AP/(R cake + i? medla ) (7.13)
w h e r e Κ is t h e v o l u m e o f f i l t r a t e ; t t h e t i m e ; dV/dt the rate of filtration; AP t h e

d r i v i n g f o r c e = p r e s s u r e difference. I f e x p r e s s e d i n psi AP is n u m e r i c a l l y
e q u a l t o a p p l i e d v a c u u m in g a u g e u n i t s , b e c a u s e AP = Vacuum-âtmospheric ·
H e n c e , it is i n d i c a t e d a s Ρ = a p p l i e d v a c u u m ( p s i ) ; R cake t h e r e s i s t a n c e offered
b y c a k e t o t h e flow o f filtrate; a n d ^ m e d i a t h e r e s i s t a n c e offered b y m e d i a t o
t h e flow o f filtrate.
T h i s e q u a t i o n is r e w r i t t e n a s [ 5 ]
dV/dt = PA /fr(rcV+R A)]

2
m (7.14)
w h e r e V is t h e v o l u m e o f filtrate; t t h e t i m e ; Ρ t h e a p p l i e d v a c u u m ; A t h e
filter a r e a ; c t h e p a r a m e t e r defined in S e c t i o n 4 . 3 , i.e., m a s s o f solids d e p o s i t e d
p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f filtrate. C o n s e q u e n t l y p r o d u c t cV is t h e m a s s o f c a k e (lb)
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o v o l u m e V o f filtrate; r t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e o f c a k e t o t h e
flow of filtrate (i.e., r e s i s t a n c e p e r l b o f c a k e ) . P h y s i c a l significance o f r a n d its
u n i t s is d i s c u s s e d in t h i s s e c t i o n ; R t h e initial r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e filter m e d i a .
m
T h i s r e s i s t a n c e is u s u a l l y negligible a s c o m p a r e d t o t h a t d e v e l o p e d b y t h e
filter c a k e ; a n d μ t h e viscosity o f t h e filtrate.
T h e p h y s i c a l significance o f p a r a m e t e r r c a n b e a p p r e c i a t e d if in E q . (7.14)
m e d i a r e s i s t a n c e R is n e g l e c t e d . S o l v i n g f o r r,
m
r = PA /UicV(dV/dt)]
2
(7.15)
F r o m E q . (7.15) it follows t h a t r is n u m e r i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e p r e s s u r e difference

( a p p l i e d v a c u u m P) required to p r o d u c e a unit rate of filtrate flow (i.e.,
dVjdt = 1.0) t h r o u g h a u n i t m a s s o f c a k e (i.e., cV = 1.0) a n d a u n i t y filter a r e a
(A = 1), if filtrate viscosity is u n i t y (μ = 1, e.g., 1 c P ) o r r = Ρ if dV/dt = 1.0,
cV = 1.0, μ = 1.0, a n d A = 1.0. T h u s , t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e r m e a s u r e s t h e
a b i l i t y o f t h e s l u d g e t o b e filtered; t h e h i g h e r t h e v a l u e , t h e m o r e difficult is t h e
filtration.
I n t e g r a t i o n o f E q . (7.14) is u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d assuming that specific
r e s i s t a n c e is c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t f o r m t i m e . F r o m E q . (7.14) if a t / = 0,
V = 0 a n d a t t = t, V = K, i n t e g r a t i o n o f E q . 7.14 yields
A s s u m i n g t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e o f c a k e t o b e c o n s t a n t ,
or
(p/A P)[rc(V /2)
2 2
+ R AV]
m = t
Dividing both members by V a n d rearranging,
tjV = (prc/2PA )V+ 2

pRJAP (7.16)
F r o m E q . (7.16) it follows t h a t a p l o t o f t/V v s . V yields a s t r a i g h t l i n e . V a l u e s

o f specific c a k e r e s i s t a n c e r a n d m e d i a r e s i s t a n c e R m are evaluated from the
s l o p e a n d i n t e r c e p t o f t h i s line, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
r = (2PA /pc)s
2
(7.17)
R m = iAP/μ (7.18)
w h e r e s a n d / d e n o t e t h e s l o p e a n d t h e i n t e r c e p t o f t h e s t r a i g h t line. A t y p i c a l
p l o t o f (t/V) v s . Vis s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 3 . Specific r e s i s t a n c e is p r i m a r i l y useful
for c o m p a r i n g filtration c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f different s l u d g e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g
o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s t o p r o d u c e a c a k e offering a minimum
r e s i s t a n c e ( S e c t i o n 4.5).
4.5. L A B O R A T O R Y D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE r A N D O P T I M U M
COAGULANT DOSAGE
L a b o r a t o r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f specific r e s i s t a n c e r is b a s e d o n c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f a p l o t o f t/V v s . V a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f r f r o m E q . (7.17). T h e l a b o r a t o r y
e q u i p m e n t n e e d e d is a n o r d i n a r y B u c h n e r f u n n e l a p p a r a t u s ( F i g . 7.11).
T h e p r o c e d u r e [ 1 ] is a s f o l l o w s :
1. P r e p a r e t h e B u c h n e r f u n n e l a n d filter p a p e r .
2. W e t filter p a p e r a n d a d j u s t v a c u u m t o 15 o r 2 0 in. o f H g .
Buchner funnel-f
Filter paper Λ
Vacuum g a u g e y
Pig. 7.11. Buchner funnel apparatus.

3. R e c o r d filtrate v o l u m e s a t selected t i m e i n t e r v a l s u n t i l t h e v a c u u m
b r e a k s . V a c u u m exists a s l o n g a s t h e r e is a p o o l o f l i q u i d o v e r t h e c a k e . A s
s o o n a s t h e l i q u i d is d r a i n e d off, a i r is s u c k e d in a n d t h e v a c u u m b r e a k s .
4. M e a s u r e s o l i d s c o n t e n t in i n c o m i n g s l u r r y a n d filtrate b y e v a p o r a t i o n
a n d w e i g h i n g . L e t t h e s e b e v a l u e s c (initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n , g / m l ) a n d c ( c o n
{ f
c e n t r a t i o n in filtrate, g / m l ) . P a r a m e t e r c is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (7.12).
5. C a l c u l a t e r f r o m a p l o t o f tjV vs. Κ u t i l i z i n g E q . (7.17).
6. R e p e a t S t e p s 1-5 u s i n g v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c o a g u l a n t . D e
p e n d i n g on the n a t u r e of the sludge, F e C l a n d / o r lime dosages are 2 - 1 0 % by
3
weight a n d polyelectrolyte dosages 0.1-1.5% by weight.

7. C o m p u t e specific r e s i s t a n c e o f all s a m p l e s a s i n d i c a t e d in S t e p 5.
D e t e r m i n e o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t d o s a g e f r o m a p l o t o f specific r e s i s t a n c e v s .
coagulant dosage. O p t i m u m dosage corresponds to the minimum on the
specific r e s i s t a n c e c u r v e ( F i g . 7.12).
Coagulant dosage (lb/ton)
Fig. 7.12. Typical curve for the effect of coagulant dosage on sludge
specific resistance.
4.6. UNITS FOR SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF

C A K E (r)
T h e following observations should be m a d e :
1. A p p l i e d v a c u u m (in. H g ) is u s u a l l y c o n v e r t e d t o g / c m b e f o r e u t i l i z a
2
t i o n in E q . (7.17). T h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r is
(in. Hg)(34.5) = g / c m 2
(7.19)
If a p p l i e d v a c u u m is e x p r e s s e d in p s i , t h e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r is
(psi)(70.1) = g / c m 2
(7.20)
4. Dewatering of S l u d g e s 317
2. Specific r e s i s t a n c e r is u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d in c m / g . F r o m F i g . 7 . 1 3 ,
2
u n i t s for s l o p e s a r e (for t = sec, V = m l )

s = (t/V)IV = (sec/ml)/ml « ( s e c / c m ) / c m 3 3
= sec/cm 6
U n i t s for c a r e
c = g/ml « g / c m 3
a n d t h o s e for μ a r e
μ = g/(cm)(sec) = Poise
I f Ρ is e x p r e s s e d in g / c m 2
utilizing the conversion factors indicated in E q s .
(7.19) a n d (7.20), a n d t h e a r e a is i n c m , t h e n f r o m E q . (7.17) u n i t s f o r r a r e
2
g/cm χ c m
2 4
r =
"77—77—χ ;—5 * sec/cm = sec /g
6 2
g/(cm)(sec)xg/cm 3
4.7. N U M E R I C A L E X A M P L E : D E T E R M I N A T I O N
OF S P E C I F I C C A K E R E S I S T A N C E U S I N G
THE B U C H N E R FUNNEL
Example 7.2
T h e d a t a t a b u l a t e d b e l o w a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m a filtration l a b o r a t o r y test for
a n activated sludge utilizing a B u c h n e r funnel a p p a r a t u s .
V o l u m e o f filtrate (ml) T i m e (sec)
25 48
50 150
75 308
100 520
125 788
150 1118
O p e r a t i n g v a c u u m is 2 0 i n . o f H g a n d t e m p e r a t u r e is 2 5 ° C . A r e a o f t h e
filter is 5 0 0 c m . A s s u m e t h a t t h e filtrate h a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f w a t e r a t 2 5 ° C
2
(μ = 0.8953 c P ) . T a k e c = 0.2 g / c m . D e t e r m i n e t h e specific c a k e r e s i s t a n c e

3
in sec /g.
2
Step 1. Set u p t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b u l a t i o n f r o m t h e d a t a g i v e n a b o v e .
V (ml) / (sec) tVj (sec/ml)
25 48 1.92
50 150 3.00
75 308 4.11
100 520 5.20
125 788 6.30
150 1118 7.45
25 50 75 I00 I25 I50

V (ml)
Fig. 7.13. Plot of t/V vs. V (Example 7.2).
Step 2. P r e p a r e a p l o t o f t/V v s . V. T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 3 .
Step 3. F r o m F i g . 7 . 1 3 ,
Slope = s = (5.23 - 0 . 8 ) / ( 1 0 0 - 0.0) = 0.0443 s e c / c m 6
Since Ρ = ( 2 0 ) ( 3 4 . 5 ) = 6 9 0 g / c m , t h e n r is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (7.17).
2
2 χ 690 g / c m χ 5 0 0 c m χ 0.0443 s e c / c m
2 2 4 6
8.53 χ 1 0 s e c / g
9 2
0.008953 g/(cm)(sec) χ 0.2 g / c m 3
4.8. S P E C I F I C R E S I S T A N C E F O R
COMPRESSIBLE CAKES
M o s t i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s f o r m c o m p r e s s i b l e c a k e s for which
filtration r a t e a n d specific r e s i s t a n c e a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e p r e s s u r e difference
a c r o s s t h e c a k e . T h i s effect is r e p r e s e n t e d b y E q . (7.21).
r = rP Q
s
(7.21)
w h e r e s is t h e coefficient o f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . T h e l a r g e r is s t h e m o r e c o m p r e s
9
sible is t h e s l u d g e . W h e n s = 0, t h e specific r e s i s t a n c e is i n d e p e n d e n t o f p r e s s u r e
a n d t h e s l u d g e is i n c o m p r e s s i b l e . E q . (7.21) yields
r = r = constant
Q (7.22)
Some generalizations on filtration characteristics of sludges are as follows:

1. E a s e o f filterability of wastewater sludges decreases with degree of
treatment.
r < r < r
raw primary secondary
sewage sludge sludge
sludge
R a w s e w a g e s l u d g e is t h e e a s i e s t t o filter ( l o w e r specific r e s i s t a n c e ) , w h e r e a s
s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e is t h e m o s t difficult.
2. F i l t e r a b i l i t y is i n f l u e n c e d b y p a r t i c l e size, s h a p e , a n d d e n s i t y , a n d b y
electrical c h a r g e o n t h e p a r t i c l e . T h e l a r g e r t h e p a r t i c l e size, t h e h i g h e r t h e
filtration r a t e ( l o w e r specific r e s i s t a n c e ) , a n d t h u s t h e final c a k e m o i s t u r e is
lower. A d d i t i o n of coagulants p r o m o t e s agglomeration of particles, t h u s
increasing filtration rate.
4.9. F I L T R A T I O N D E S I G N E Q U A T I O N
F o r p u r p o s e o f filter d e s i g n it is c o n v e n i e n t t o m o d i f y E q . ( 7 . 1 6 ) . N e g l e c t i n g
r e s i s t a n c e o f m e d i a (R m « 0) a n d r e c a l l i n g t h a t t is t h e f o r m t i m e (t = t \
f
tfjV= <jirc/2PA )V
2
(7.23)
I t is c o n v e n i e n t t o w r i t e t h e e q u a t i o n in t e r m s o f filter l o a d i n g (L ) f 9 i.e., l b o f
d e p o s i t e d c a k e / ( f t ) ( h r ) . S i n c e p r o d u c t cV r e p r e s e n t s t h e w e i g h t o f c a k e
2
( S e c t i o n 4 . 4 ) , filter l o a d i n g (L ) f b a s e d o n f o r m t i m e ( f o r m l o a d i n g ) is
L f = cV/Atf = lb of deposited c a k e / ( f t ) ( h r ) 2
(7.24)
S u b s t i t u t i n g in E q . (7.23) r b y its v a l u e g i v e n i n E q . (7.21) a n d r e a r r a n g i n g ,
V /A 2 2
= (ZPi-'tJIQir.c) (7.25)
S u b s t i t u t i n g in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (7.25) t h e i d e n t i t i e s t f = t /tf
f
2
a n d c = c /c 2
and rearranging,
(cV/Atf) 2
= W-*c)l<jir t )
0 r (7.26)
T h e l e f t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (7.26) is t h e s q u a r e o f f o r m l o a d i n g [ E q . ( 7 . 2 4 ) ] .
Therefore,
Lf = [(^-•cVOir.'/)] ' 1 2
(7.27)
T A B L E 7.4
Units for Form Loading Equation
ω (2) (3)
Practical units Metric units Conversion factors
Lf = lb/(ft )(hr) 2
g/(cm )(sec) 2
Lf l b / ( f t ) ( h r ) x 4 5 4 g/lb
2
χ f t / 3 0 . 5 c m χ hr/3600 sec
2 2 2
= 1.356 x l O " ! , / 4
P = psi g/cm 2
Ρ (psi) χ 70.1 g / c m / p s i = Ρ χ 70.1
2
[Eq. (7.20)]
c = g/ml = g / c m g/cm
—
3 3
μ = cP g/(cm)(sec) = Poise μ (cP) x P o i s e / 1 0 c P = μ x 1 0 "

2 2
r = (sec /g)xl0-
o
2 7
= practical unit sec /g 2

r xl0o
7
/ / (min) sec / / (min) χ 6 0 sec/min = / / χ 6 0

w h i c h is t h e e q u a t i o n for f o r m l o a d i n g . If m e t r i c u n i t s a r e u s e d ( E x a m p l e 7.2),
t h e set o f u n i t s for p a r a m e t e r s in E q . (7.27) is p r e s e n t e d in c o l u m n (2), T a b l e 7.4.
F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s it is c o n v e n i e n t t o e x p r e s s f o r m l o a d i n g in t e r m s o f l b
o f c a k e / ( f t ) ( h r ) a n d o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s in t h e p r a c t i c a l u n i t s i n d i c a t e d in
2
c o l u m n ( / ) , T a b l e 7.4. C o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s f r o m c o l u m n ( / ) t o c o l u m n (2) a r e
i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n (5). S u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s e c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s in E q . (7.27)
l e a d s t o E q . ( 7 . 2 8 ) , w h e r e all p a r a m e t e r s a r e in t h e p r a c t i c a l u n i t s listed in
c o l u m n ( / ) o f T a b l e 7.4.
L f = 35.7 [ ( c P - )l(Mr 1 s
0 tf)] '
1 2
(7.28)
Since m o s t s l u d g e s h a v e specific c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , E q . (7.28) is m o d i f i e d for

prediction of filtration performance.
Lf = 35J(P - lpr ) (c lt )
1 S
0
ll2 m
f
n
(7.29)
[ F o r u n i t s see T a b l e 7.4, c o l u m n ( / ) . ]
E q u a t i o n 7.29 is referred t o a s t h e f o r m l o a d i n g e q u a t i o n . T h e u s u a l r a n g e s
o f v a l u e s for p a r a m e t e r s η a n d m a r e 1.0 > η > 0.4, o w i n g t o v a r i a t i o n in c a k e
p e r m e a b i l i t y w h i l e a d d i t i o n a l c a k e is b e i n g f o r m e d [ E q . (7.28) c o r r e s p o n d s t o
a v a l u e o f η = 0 . 5 ] ; a n d 1.0 > m > 0 . 2 5 , o w i n g t o effect o f v a r i a t i o n in s o l i d s
c o n t e n t fed t o filter. [ E q . (7.28) c o r r e s p o n d s t o a v a l u e o f m = 0 . 5 . ]
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s n, s, m, a n d r is d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 0
E x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e utilized is d e s c r i b e d in S e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . E x a m p l e 7.3
( S e c t i o n 4.12) i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e .
4.10. D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F P A R A M E T E R S
n. s, m. A N D r I N E q . (7.29) Q
1. Determination of n. If Ρ a n d c a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t (μ a n d r a r e c o n s t a n t 0
f o r a specific e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n ) , E q . (7.29) b e c o m e s
L f = K (Vt ) 1 f
n
(7.30)
where
K l = 35J(P - lMr ) c 1 s
0
lf2 m
= constant (7.31)
W r i t i n g E q . (7.30) in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m ,
logL f = -n l o g t + l o g K , f (7.32)
F r o m E q . (7.32), a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L v s . t yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e

f f
— Αϊ. A t y p i c a l p l o t is p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 7.16.
2. Determination of s. If t a n d c a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t (μ a n d r a r e c o n s t a n t
f Q
for a specific e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n ) , E q . (7.29) b e c o m e s
L f = K P^- 2
S)/2
(7.33)
where
K 2 = 35.7(l///r ) 0
1 / 2
( c / / / ) = constant
M
(7.34)
W r i t i n g E q . (7.34) in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m ,
log L f = [(1 - j)/2] log Ρ + log K 2 (7.35)

F r o m E q . (7.35), a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f v s . Ρ yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e
(1 —s)/2. A t y p i c a l p l o t is p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 7.17.
3. Determination of m. If t a n d Ρ a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t (μ a n d r a r e c o n s t a n t
f 0
for a specific e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n ) , E q . (7.29) b e c o m e s

Lf = Kc 3
m
(7.36)
where
# 3 = 35.7(/> -7/"V)1 1 / 2
(l/i/) (7.37)
W r i t i n g E q . (7.37) i n l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m ,
log L f = m l o g c + log ^ 3 (7.38)

F r o m E q . (7.38), a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f v s . c y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t l i n e o f s l o p e m.
A t y p i c a l p l o t is p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 7.18.
4. Determination ofr .
0 F r o m E q . (7.29) a p l o t o f L r vs. 3 5 . 7 ( Ρ 1 _
7μ) 1 / 2
(c /t/)
m
yields a s t r a i g h t line o f s l o p e ( l / r ) 0
1 / 2
. A t y p i c a l p l o t is p r e s e n t e d i n
F i g . 7.19. S i n c e r is o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e , i t is a c o n s
Q
t a n t for all e x p e r i m e n t s p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e s a m e s l u d g e .
4.11. L E A F T E S T L A B O R A T O R Y P R O C E D U R E
FOR D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF T H E
P A R A M E T E R S IN THE L O A D I N G EQUATION
E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 1 ] r e c o m m e n d a leaf t e s t a p p a r a t u s a s s h o w n i n
F i g . 7.14 for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e l o a d i n g e q u a t i o n . I t is
o p e r a t e d b y a l t e r n a t i v e l y s u b m e r g i n g t h e t e s t leaf i n t h e s l u d g e t o s i m u l a t e
Fig. 7.14. Leaf test apparatus.

f o r m t i m e t , a n d t a k i n g it o u t t o s i m u l a t e d r y t i m e t . F r o m E q . (7.10) it
f d
f o l l o w s t h a t it is p o s s i b l e t o s i m u l a t e o p e r a t i o n o f a r o t a r y filter o f k n o w n
s u b m e r g e n c e b y p r o p e r c h o i c e o f t a n d t . U s u a l l y , t o t a l cycle t i m e (t ) r a n g e s
f d c
from 1 to 6 min.
I n p r a c t i c e , o n e selects a n o p e r a t i n g v a c u u m ( 1 0 - 2 0 i n . H g ) a n d a s u b
m e r g e n c e ( 1 0 - 6 0 % ) . T h e n a d r y t i m e is selected t o yield t h e d e s i r e d % m o i s t u r e
for t h e c a k e . T h i s is d o n e b y u s i n g t h e leaf test a p p a r a t u s a n d p r e p a r i n g a n
experimental g r a p h of % m o i s t u r e for the c a k e vs. d r y time. A s a m p l e g r a p h
is s h o w n in F i g . 7.15. A v a l u e o f t is t h e n selected ( F i g . 7.15) c o r r e s p o n d i n g
d
t o the desired % m o i s t u r e for the cake.
σ
( J
Dry t i m e , t d (min)
Fig. 7.15. Selection of t.

d
T h e p r o c e d u r e [ 1 ] f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e l o a d e q u a t i o n is
1. Select t f r o m F i g . 7.15.
d
2. U s i n g t h e o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t d o s a g e a s d e t e r m i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 ,
r u n a series o f leaf t e s t s r e l a t i n g filter l o a d i n g t o f o r m t i m e (t ), initial s o l i d s
f
c o n c e n t r a t i o n (c), a n d v a c u u m (P). A series o f 7 - 8 t e s t r u n s s h o u l d yield

sufficient d e s i g n d a t a . T o t a l cycle t i m e is 1-6 m i n , w i t h a r a n g e o f d r u m s u b
m e r g e n c e o f 1 0 - 6 0 % . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o v a l u e s o f t f r o m 0.1 t o 3.6 m i n
f
( T a b l e 7.5).
A p o s s i b l e series o f r u n s is s h o w n in T a b l e 7.6, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o d a t a in
E x a m p l e 7.3.
T h e f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k s a r e p e r t i n e n t t o T a b l e 7 . 6 : (a) for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f η
(Ρ a n d c c o n s t a n t ) , r u n s 1 - 3 ; ( b ) for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s (t a n d c c o n s t a n t ) ,
f
r u n s 6 - 8 ; (c) for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m (t a n d Ρ c o n s t a n t ) , r u n s 2 , 4 , a n d 5 ; a n d
f
( d ) f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r , r u n s 1-8.
0
T A B L E 7.5
Usual Range of Values for t and t f d
tc tf = t (% submergence/100)
c U = t -t c f
(min) % submergence (min) (min)
6 60% 3.6 2.4

6 10% 0.6 5.4
1 60% 0.6 0.4
1 10% 0.1 0.9
T A B L E 7.6
Leaf Test Data
(2) (3) (5)

ω Form Dry Applied vacuum (6)
Run time, time, (4) Loading,
no. t (min)
f t (min)
d c Ρ (in. H g ) P(t>si) L f [lb/(ft )(hr)]
2
1 0.25 1.5 0.03 20 9.80 73.0

2 0.50 1.0 0.03 20 9.80 47.0
3 1.00 0.5 0.03 20 9.80 29.2
4 0.50 1.5 0.04 20 9.80 70.0
5 0.50 1.5 0.05 20 9.80 90.0
6 1.50 1.0 0.03 10 4.90 21.0
7 1.50 1.0 0.03 15 7.35 22.5
8 1.50 0.5 0.03 20 9.80 23.5
3. P r o c e d u r e f o r e a c h r u n is a s f o l l o w s .
(a) A d d t h e o p t i m u m c o a g u l a n t d o s a g e a s d e t e r m i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 .
( b ) F l o c c u l a t e t h e m i x t u r e f o r 3 0 s e c . I n s o m e c a s e s a series o f t e s t s a r e
m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e o p t i m u m flocculation t i m e .
(c) S u b m e r g e t h e leaf i n flocculated s l u d g e m i x t u r e f o r t h e specified
f o r m t i m e (t ) ( T a b l e 7.5). M a i n t a i n g e n t l e m i x i n g t o a v o i d d e p o s i t i o n o f
f
sludge.
(d) R e m o v e leaf f r o m s l u d g e a n d h o l d it v e r t i c a l l y f o r t h e specified d r y
t i m e , k e e p i n g it u n d e r full v a c u u m .
(e) T r a n s f e r e n t i r e c a k e f r o m t h e filter leaf t o a t a r e d d i s h . C o m p r e s s e d
a i r m a y b e g e n t l y a p p l i e d t o l o o s e n t h e c a k e f r o m t h e leaf.
(f) W e i g h w e t c a k e , d r y a t 1 0 3 ° C , a n d r e w e i g h ; m e a s u r e a n d r e c o r d
cake thickness.
(g) T h e l o a d i n g i n l b / ( f t ) ( h r ) is
2
L f = dry weight of sludge in g χ (cycles/hr)/[454 χ test leaf area (ft )] 2

4. P r e p a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g g r a p h s :
(a) \ogL f vs. l o g t f (P a n d c a r e c o n s t a n t s ) ( F i g . 7.16). S l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t line yields p a r a m e t e r η in E q . (7.29).
( b ) l o g L y v s . l o g Ρ (t f a n d c a r e c o n s t a n t s ) ( F i g . 7.17). S l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t line is (11 — s)/2, f r o m w h i c h p a r a m e t e r s is c a l c u l a t e d .
(c) \ogL f v s . l o g c (t f a n d Ρ a r e c o n s t a n t s ) ( F i g . 7.18). S l o p e o f t h e
s t r a i g h t line is p a r a m e t e r m in E q . (7.29).
(d) L f vs. 35.7(Ρ - /μ) (ο /ί )
1 3 ι/2 η
/
η
( F i g . 7.19). S l o p e o f t h e s t r a i g h t line
is (l/0 >1/2
fr° m
w h i c h p a r a m e t e r r is c a l c u l a t e d .
0
4.12. I L L U S T R A T I O N O F C A L C U L A T I O N
P R O C E D U R E F O R P A R A M E T E R S n, s, m,
AND r Q
Example 7 . 3
L a b o r a t o r y tests o n a leaf filter c o n d u c t e d for a s l u d g e yield r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d
in T a b l e 7.6. O b t a i n t h e v a l u e s for p a r a m e t e r s n, m, s, a n d r i n t h e f o r m 0
loading equation.
SOLUTION
(a) Determination of n. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f v s . t is s h o w n in F i g .
f
7.16, f r o m w h i c h s l o p e = —n = — 0 . 6 5 3 , η = 0 . 6 5 3 .
3001 1 1 1 π—Γ ι ι ιι 1 1
I0L
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0
t (min)
f
Fig. 7.16. Determination of η (Example 7.3).

Dewatering of Sludges
60,
50
cqnstant
R u n s : 6 . 7 and
40
R u n Mo. 8 ^
\ ,7-x
-Q
Run Ν
-T 20
-Slope = ( l - s ) / i
10
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ρ (psi)
Fig. 7.17. Determination of s (Example 7.3).
100
90 -Rtifl -N U". U m
\
80
70 P u n Mn Α —*ύ
n u n WU. *τ v
60
Dpe=m
ccr so
1?un No. 2y
* 40
30
[t , P = c o n s t a n t ]
f
R u n s . 2 , 4 and 5
20
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06
c
Fig. 7.18. Determination of m (Example 7.3).

( b ) Determination of s. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f v s . Ρ is s h o w n i n F i g .
7.17. From Fig. 7.17 read s l o p e = (1 -s)/2 = 0.1635. Therefore, s =
1 - 2 ( 0 . 1 6 3 5 ) = 0.673.
(c) Determination of m. T h e l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f L f vs. c is s h o w n i n F i g .
7.18. F r o m F i g . 7.18 r e a d s l o p e = m = 1.265.
100
Runs: 1 throigh 8
90
Run NO.
80
Run N( ι. 1
70 ι A
Run Ν
- 60
1/2
-Slope = ( l / r ) 0
Ξ 50
η
-Run 1 Jo. 2
jf 4 0
30 £=Run Nu. 3
tun No 8
η No. 7
20 ^-Run No. 6
10
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
35.7(p'" //x) (c /ty)
s ,/2 m
F/flr. 7.19. Determination of r 0 (Example 7.3).
T A B L E 7.7
Calculations for Determination of r (Example 7.3) c
R u n no.
j p l - 0 . 6 7 3 _ p 0 . 3 2 7 c 1.265 ,0,653
l
f 35J(P - M (c /t )
1 s lJ2 m
f
n
1 73.0 2.109 0.0119 0.404 1.525

2 47.0 2.109 0.0119 0.635 0.970
3 29.2 2.109 0.0119 1.000 0.615
4 70.0 2.109 0.0172 0.635 1.395
5 90.0 2.109 0.0227 0.635 1.850
6 21.0 1.683 0.0119 1.303 0.425
7 22.5 1.921 0.0119 1.303 0.451
8 23.5 2.109 0.0119 1.303 0.472
(d) Determination of r .
0 T h e plot of L f vs. 35J(P ' /p) (c /t/)
i s i/2 m
is
s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 9 ; t h e n e c e s s a r y c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 7.7.
Take μ = 1 cP.
F r o m F i g . 7.19 s l o p e = ( l / r ) 0
1 / 2
= 48.5. Therefore, r = (1/48.5) = 0.000425. 0
2
I n s u m m a r y , filtration p a r a m e t e r s for t h e f o r m l o a d i n g e q u a t i o n for E x a m p l e

7.3 a r e η = 0 . 6 5 3 , s = 0 . 6 7 3 , m = 1.265, a n d r = 0 . 0 0 0 4 2 5 . 0
4.13. P R O C E D U R E F O R R O T A R Y FILTER
D E S I G N [1]
Step 1. F r o m F i g . 7.15 select a n a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e o f t h e d r y t i m e t for a d
desired cake moisture.

Step 2. F o r a selected % s u b m e r g e n c e a n d t h e c h o s e n v a l u e o f t > c a l d
culate form time t f f r o m E q . (7.39), o b t a i n e d b y c o m b i n i n g E q s . (7.10) a n d

(7.9). S o l v i n g for t,
f
tf = WKlOO/% submergence) - 1 ] (7.39)
If desired, adjust the values of t [calculated from E q . (7.39)], t , a n d % s u b

f c
m e r g e n c e utilizing E q s . (7.9) a n d (7.10). T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d i n E x a m p l e 7.4.

Step 3. C a l c u l a t e f o r m l o a d i n g L f r o m E q . (7.29). F o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f L
f f
u s e (a) v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s n, m, s, a n d r d e t e r m i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a
0
( E x a m p l e 7 . 3 ) ; (b) selected v a l u e o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v a c u u m ; (c) f o r m t i m e t f
f r o m S t e p 2 ; a n d (d) μ a n d c f r o m d a t a o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s l u d g e . O r d i n a r i l y
take μ = 1 cP.
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e cycle l o a d i n g L c from
L c = L (% f submergence/100) χ 0.8 [lb/(ft )(hr)]

2
(7.40)
I n E q . (7.40), f a c t o r 0.8 c o m p e n s a t e s f o r t h e s e c t o r o f t h e filter d r u m w h e r e

c a k e is r e m o v e d a n d m e d i a w a s h e d ( F i g . 7.9).
Step 5 . C a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a f r o m
lb/hr of solids t o be removed

Filter area = , . n / m 2 u (ft ) 2
(7.41)
L [lb/(ft )(hr)]
c
2
E x a m p l e 7.4 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e .
E x a m p l e 7.4
L a b o r a t o r y tests for t h e s l u d g e i n E x a m p l e 7.3 i n d i c a t e d a d r y t i m e t = 1.25 d
m i n t o b e a n a p p r o p r i a t e c h o i c e . * I t is d e s i r e d t o d e s i g n a v a c u u m filter t o
d e w a t e r 3 0 , 0 0 0 l b / d a y o f s l u d g e ( d r y w e i g h t ) . P a r a m e t e r c is 0 . 0 3 . F i l t e r
o p e r a t e s 100 h r / w e e k . Select a s u b m e r g e n c e o f 2 5 % a n d a n o p e r a t i n g v a c u u m
o f 15 i n . o f H g . D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a i n f t . 2
* Details o f these tests, including the graph (similar to Fig. 7.15) utilized for selection o f
t , are not s h o w n in the text.
d
SOLUTION
Step 1. t = 1.25 m i n .
d
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e t f r o m E q . (7.39).
f
t f = 1 . 2 5 / [ ( 1 0 0 / 2 5 ) - l ] = 0.417 min
Take t f = 0.5 m i n a n d adjust accordingly values of t a n d % submergence, c
i.e. [ f r o m E q . ( 7 . 9 ) ] ,
t = h + t = 0.5 + 1.25 = 1.75 min
c d
F r o m E q . (7.10), t h e a d j u s t e d % s u b m e r g e n c e is
% submergence = 1 0 0 ( / / / i ) = 100(0.5/1.75) = 28.6% c
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e f o r m l o a d i n g L f r o m E q . (7.29), w h e r e p a r a m e t e r s
f
η = 0 . 6 5 3 , s = 0 . 6 7 3 , m = 1.265, a n d r = 0 . 0 0 0 4 2 5 ( E x a m p l e 7.3). O t h e r d a t a :
0
Ρ = 15 i n . H g ( = 7.35 p s i ) , μ = 1 c P , c = 0 . 0 3 , a n d t = 0.5 m i n . f
L f = 35.7[7.35 -°· ^(1.0)(0.0(^25)]

1 6 7 1 / 2
(0.03 ·
1 2 6 5
/0.5 · 0 6 5 3
) = 44.7 lb/(ft )(hr) 2
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e cycle l o a d i n g L c [Eq. (7.40)].

L c = 44.7(28.6/100) χ 0.8 = 10.23 lb/(ft )(hr) 2
Step 5. D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d filter a r e a [ E q . ( 7 . 4 1 ) ] .
30,000 lb/day χ 7 days/week χ week/100 h r

F , , t e r
^ = 10.23 lb/(ft*)(hr) = 2 0 5 3 ft2
5. P r e s s u r e Filtration
F i l t r a t i o n o f s l u d g e s in filter p r e s s e s is e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible w h e n e v e r
l a b o r c o s t s a r e relatively l o w , o w i n g t o t h e difficulty o f full a u t o m a t i o n o f t h e
o p e r a t i o n . R e c e n t l y , s y s t e m s w i t h fully a u t o m a t i c o p e r a t i o n h a v e b e e n
available commercially with a u t o m a t i c opening of the press, cake discharge,
a n d w a s h i n g o f t h e filter m e d i a b e t w e e n cycles. T h e s e n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s t e n d
t o m a k e filter p r e s s e s d e s i r a b l e for u s e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y in t h e f u t u r e .
T h e m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f filter p r e s s e s o v e r r o t a r y v a c u u m filters is t h a t a
d r i e r c a k e c a n b e o b t a i n e d . T h i s is especially a d v a n t a g e o u s if filtration is
followed by incineration.
6. Centrifugation
Dewatering of sludges by centrifugation has been applied with increasing
f r e q u e n c y i n t h e last few y e a r s . A s k e t c h o f a t y p i c a l c e n t r i f u g e for t h i s service
(a c o n t i n u o u s solid b o w l t y p e ) is s h o w n in F i g . 7.20.
T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c e n t r i f u g e a r e (1) fixed c a s i n g , (2) r o t a t i n g b o w l ,
(3) r o t a t i n g i n n e r c o n v e y o r , (4) d r i v i n g c o m p o n e n t s ( m o t o r a n d g e a r s y s t e m ) ,
(5) s l u r r y inlet p o r t , (6) solids d i s c h a r g e p o r t , a n d (7) l i q u i d d i s c h a r g e p o r t .
Fig. 7.20. Bird continuous solid bowl centrifuge. (Courtesy of Bird Machine
Company, Inc.)
S l u d g e solids a r e c o m p a c t e d b y c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e i n n e r w a l l s o f
the rotating bowl, then picked u p by the conveyor a n d t a k e n t o the solids
d i s c h a r g e p o r t . L i q u i d is d i s c h a r g e d a t t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e b o w l . N o
e s t a b l i s h e d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is a v a i l a b l e f r o m l a b o r a t o r y d a t a , b u t feasibility
o f c e n t r i f u g a t i o n for a specific s l u d g e m a y b e e v a l u a t e d f r o m t e s t s e m p l o y i n g
l a b o r a t o r y centrifuges.
7. Bed Drying of S l u d g e s
A i r d r y i n g o f s l u d g e s o n s a n d b e d s is o n e o f t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s
for d e w a t e r i n g . I t is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d for s m a l l t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , f o r
b o t h domestic a n d industrial wastewaters.
E c o n o m i c feasibility o f t h e p r o c e s s d e p e n d s g r e a t l y o n (1) a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
l a n d a t a r e a s o n a b l e c o s t , a n d (2) f a v o r a b l e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s ( d r y a n d w a r m
c l i m a t e ) c o n d u c i v e t o o p t i m u m e v a p o r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . T h e a r e a n e e d e d is a
f u n c t i o n o f (1) rainfall a n d e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e s , a n d (2) s l u d g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(for e x a m p l e , g e l a t i n o u s s l u d g e s r e q u i r e a l a r g e r a r e a ) .
7.2. M E C H A N I S M S O F D E W A T E R I N G SLUDGES
ON SAND BEDS
Dewatering of sludges occurs by t w o m e c h a n i s m s :
1. P e r c o l a t i o n o f w a t e r t h r o u g h t h e s a n d b e d . T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f w a t e r
r e m o v e d by percolation varies from 20 t o 5 5 % d e p e n d i n g o n initial solids
c o n t e n t o f s l u d g e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o l i d s . P e r c o l a t i o n is g e n e r a l l y c o m
p l e t e in 1-3 d a y s , r e s u l t i n g in s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s h i g h a s 1 5 - 2 5 % .
2. E v a p o r a t i o n o f w a t e r . E v a p o r a t i o n o c c u r s b y m e c h a n i s m s o f r a d i a t i o n
a n d c o n v e c t i o n . T h e r a t e o f e v a p o r a t i o n is s l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f d e w a t e r i n g b y
p e r c o l a t i o n , a n d it is r e l a t e d t o t e m p e r a t u r e , r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y , a n d a i r v e l o c i t y .
A t y p i c a l e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e c u r v e is s h o w n i n F i g . 7.21 a n d e x h i b i t s t w o d i s
t i n c t s e c t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n s t a n t a n d falling r a t e p e r i o d s .
Moisture (%)
Fig. 7.21. Evaporation rate curve.
D u r i n g t h e c o n s t a n t r a t e p e r i o d , t h e s l u d g e s u r f a c e is w e t , a n d r a t e o f
e v a p o r a t i o n is relatively i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e . T h i s r a t e is
less t h a n t h a t w h i c h is o b s e r v e d f r o m a free w a t e r s u r f a c e (free w a t e r e v a p o r a
t i o n ) , o w i n g t o t h e fact t h a t t h e p l a n e o f v a p o r i z a t i o n is b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e o f
t h e solid. E v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e e d s a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e u n t i l a critical m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d ( F i g . 7.21).
W h e n t h e critical m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d , w a t e r n o l o n g e r m i g r a t e s t o
t h e surface o f t h e s l u d g e a s r a p i d l y a s it e v a p o r a t e s , a n d t h e falling r a t e p e r i o d
o c c u r s . R a t e o f d r y i n g d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d is r e l a t e d t o t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s l u d g e ,
its p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a n d atmospheric conditions. Sub
s u r f a c e d r y i n g c o n t i n u e s u n t i l a n e q u i l i b r i u m m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d
( F i g . 7.21).
7.3. C O N S T R U C T I O N OF S A N D D R Y I N G B E D S
T y p i c a l s a n d b e d c o n s t r u c t i o n is i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 7.22, w h i c h s h o w s a
v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n o f a d r y i n g b e d . U n d e r d r a i n p i p i n g m a y b e o f vitrified clay,
w i t h a m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r o f 4 in. a n d a m i n i m u m s l o p e o f 1%. T h e filtrate is
returned to the treatment plant.
.Size: 0.3-1.2 mm -··.·•!· S a n d

'· · diameter : ' : ' : a to 9"
Gravel
-Gravel 8 to 18"
Size: 1/8 to I inch
diameter
Underdrain » » Filtrate
piping-'
Fig. 7.22. Sand drying bed.
S l u d g e is u s u a l l y a p p l i e d t o d r y i n g b e d s a t d e p t h s o f 8 - 1 2 i n . I t is left t o
d r y u n t i l it r e a c h e s a s o l i d s c o n t e n t b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 5 0 % . I t is r e m o v e d w h e n
s o l i d s r e a c h a liftable s t a t e , w h i c h v a r i e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l j u d g e m e n t a s well a s
t h e final d i s p o s a l m e a n s .
T h e p e r i o d o f t i m e b e t w e e n a p p l i c a t i o n o f s l u d g e t o s a n d b e d a n d its r e m o v a l
in a liftable s t a t e is c a l l e d b e d t u r n o v e r t i m e . I t v a r i e s b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 7 5 d a y s ,
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e . I t is p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e s u b s t a n t i a l l y
the bed t u r n o v e r time by prior t r e a t m e n t with chemical c o a g u l a n t s , for
e x a m p l e , a l u m a n d p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s . By c h e m i c a l p r e t r e a t m e n t it is p o s s i b l e
t o r e d u c e d r y i n g t i m e b y a s m u c h a s 5 0 % , a n d it is feasible t o a p p l y t h e s l u d g e
in a t h i c k e r l a y e r . B e d yield is r e p o r t e d t o v a r y l i n e a r l y w i t h c o a g u l a n t
dosage.
7.4. D R Y I N G B E D D E S I G N
In the past, drying beds have been designed o n a n empirical basis of ft of 2
bed area/capita or lb of dry solids/(ft )(year). Values of these p a r a m e t e r s

2
e m p l o y e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e given in Ref. [ 7 ] .
A rational m e t h o d of design has been developed recently by Swanwick [ 6 ]

a n d is r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 1 ] . T h e p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s ,
a n d E x a m p l e 7.5 i l l u s t r a t e s its a p p l i c a t i n g .
Step 1. Fill a glass c y l i n d e r ( 1 - 2 in. d i a m e t e r ) c o n t a i n i n g a s a n d b a s e w i t h
t e s t s l u d g e t o a d e p t h o f 8 - 1 2 in. ( d e p t h e n v i s i o n e d for t h e a c t u a l u n i t t o b e
designed).
Step 2. A l l o w c o m p l e t e d r a i n a g e o f w a t e r f r o m s l u d g e . T h i s r e q u i r e s a
d r a i n a g e p e r i o d o f 1-3 d a y s , d e p e n d i n g o n s l u d g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d initial
moisture content. This c o r r e s p o n d s t o the percolation p h a s e of the drying
mechanism.
Step 3. O n c e d r a i n a g e is c o m p l e t e d , r e m o v e t h e s l u d g e c o r e f r o m c y l i n d e r .
U t i l i z e a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f it t o d e t e r m i n e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t ( b y o v e n d r y i n g
a n d w e i g h i n g b e f o r e a n d after).
Step 4. P l a c e t h e s l u d g e c o r e in a n o p e n d i s h t o a l l o w e v a p o r a t i o n t o
o c c u r . C h e c k t h e s a m p l e p e r i o d i c a l l y u n t i l d e s i r e d m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t is r e a c h e d
( m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t w h e n s l u d g e c a k e is liftable).
Step 5. T h e difference b e t w e e n w e i g h t s o f w a t e r ( m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t ) a t t h e
e n d of Steps 3 a n d 4 c o r r e s p o n d s t o the w a t e r t o be e v a p o r a t e d ( e v a p o r a t i o n
p h a s e in t h e d r y i n g m e c h a n i s m ) . W a t e r t o b e e v a p o r a t e d is e x p r e s s e d in i n .
e v a p o r a t e d / f t o f b e d a r e a ( d e t a i l s o f c a l c u l a t i o n in S t e p 5, E x a m p l e 7.5).
2
Step 6. O b t a i n l o c a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s for rainfall (in.) a n d e v a p o r a

t i o n (in.) t a b u l a t e d o n a m o n t h l y b a s i s .
Step 7. P r e p a r e i n t a b u l a r f o r m a r e c o r d o f i n c h e s o f rainfall m u l t i p l i e d b y
a f a c t o r 0.57 vs. m o n t h . T h i s is b a s e d o n e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e t h a t 4 3 % o f
t h e rainfall d r a i n s t h r o u g h t h e c a k e , l e a v i n g 5 7 % t o b e e v a p o r a t e d . R a i n f a l l
f r a c t i o n t o b e e v a p o r a t e d v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o rainfall p a t t e r n s a n d i n t e n s i t y .
A v a l u e o f less t h a n 5 7 % , for e x a m p l e , m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d in r e g i o n s w h e r e
r a i n f a l l is i n t e n s e a n d o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n . P r e p a r e a l s o i n t a b u l a r f o r m a r e c o r d
o f i n c h e s o f e v a p o r a t i o n m u l t i p l i e d b y a f a c t o r 0.75 v s . m o n t h . T h i s is b a s e d
o n e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e t h a t a v e r a g e e v a p o r a t i o n o f w e t s l u d g e is 7 5 % o f t h a t
f o r free w a t e r .
Step 8. C a l c u l a t e a v e r a g e e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e ( d a y s / i n . ) for e a c h m o n t h .
Step 9. B a s e d o n v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 8, d e t e r m i n e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o
e v a p o r a t e i n c h e s o f w a t e r c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 5 for e a c h m o n t h .
Step 10. B a s e d o n v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 8 a n d i n c h e s o f r a i n f a l l
m u l t i p l i e d b y f a c t o r 0 . 5 7 , c a l c u l a t e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e rainfall ( d a y s )
for e a c h m o n t h .
Step 11. T h e t o t a l t i m e for e v a p o r a t i o n o f w a t e r c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 9 p l u s
t h a t t o e v a p o r a t e rainfall ( S t e p 10) is t h e n o b t a i n e d for e a c h m o n t h .
Step 12. T a k e t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e t o t a l t i m e s o b t a i n e d in S t e p 11 a s t h e d e s i g n
requirement. Calculate the ft 2
of bed area required as indicated in E x a m p l e
7.5 ( S t e p 12).
E x a m p l e 7.5
Sludge drying beds are considered to dewater 4000 lb/day (dry weight) of
a s l u d g e p r o d u c e d in a n i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . T h e s l u d g e is
a p p l i e d t o b e d s in 10-in. lifts.
A laboratory study shows t h a t percolation increased solids concentration
f r o m its initial v a l u e o f 5 % t o 2 0 % i n 2 5 h r . S l u d g e is c o n s i d e r e d liftable f r o m
drying beds at 25%solids. Meteorological records for the region a r e indicated
in T a b l e 7.8. D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d a r e a o f b e d s .
TABLE 7 . 8
Rainfall and Evaporation Record (Example 7 . 5 )
Jan. F e b . Mar. Apr. M a y June July A u g . Sept. Oct. N o v . D e c .
Rainfall (in.) 4.0 3.0 3.1 4.1 4.0 3.5 2.1 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.7 2.8
Evaporation (in.) 5.8 6.5 7.5 8.7 11.2 11.0 13.2 11.3 9.1 6.5 4.6 3.1
10 in. l i f t — 10/12 = 0 . 8 3 ft
(I f t ) 2
χ ( 0 . 8 3 f t ) ( 6 2 . 4 I b / f t ) = 5 l . 8 lb
3
Fig. 7.23. Basis of calculations for Example 7.5.
SOLUTION T a k e s l u d g e d e n s i t y a s 62.4 l b / f t . B a s e c a l c u l a t i o n s o n t o t a l
3
l b o f w e t s l u d g e a p p l i e d i n a lift p e r f t o f b e d , a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 7 . 2 3 .
2
Steps 1 and 2. P e r f o r m l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s a s d e s c r i b e d .
Step 3. S o l i d s c o n t e n t a t b e g i n n i n g o f p e r c o l a t i o n e q u a l s 5 % a s s t a t e d .
B a s e d o n a 10-in. lift p e r f t o f b e d , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o (51.8 l b ) ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 2.6
2
lb/ft (dry solids). After d r a i n a g e t o 2 0 % solids t h e total weight of wet c a k e

2
p e r f t o f a r e a (10-in. lift) is 2.6 l b / f t / 0 . 2 = 13 l b / f t .

2 2 2
Step 4. E v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e e d s t o a final c a k e c o n t a i n i n g 2 5 % s o l i d s . T h i s
c o r r e s p o n d s t o a t o t a l w e i g h t o f w e t c a k e p e r f t o f a r e a (10-in. lift) = 2.6
2
l b / 0 . 2 5 = 10.4 l b / f t .2
Step 5. W a t e r e v a p o r a t e d p e r f t o f a r e a (10-in. lift) is

2
13.0 - 10.4 = 2.6 lb of water evaporated/ft of bed area 2
(Step 3) (Step 4)
W a t e r e v a p o r a t e d is e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f i n c h e s e v a p o r a t e d p e r f t 2
of bed
area. V o l u m e of water e v a p o r a t e d (ft /ft 3 2
o f b e d a r e a ) is
2.6 lb/ft χ ft /62.41b = 0.0417 f t / f t

2 3 3 2
or
0.0417 f t / f t
3 2
χ 12 in./ft = 0.5 in. of water to be evaporated/ft of bed area 2
Step 6. M a i n t a i n m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s ( T a b l e 7.8).
Step 7. R e c o r d i n c h e s o f rainfall χ 0 . 5 7 ; see c o l u m n s (2) a n d (3) o f T a b l e
7.9. R e c o r d i n c h e s o f e v a p o r a t i o n χ 0 . 7 5 ; see c o l u m n s (4) a n d (5) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 8. T a k e t h e a v e r a g e e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e ( d a y s / i n . ) f o r e a c h m o n t h .
T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n is i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n s (6) a n d (7) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 9. D e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e 0.5 in. o f w a t e r (see
S t e p 5). T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n is i n d i c a t e d i n c o l u m n (8) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 10. C a l c u l a t e t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e rainfall ( d a y s ) . T h i s
c a l c u l a t i o n is i n d i c a t e d in c o l u m n (9) o f T a b l e 7.9.
Step 11. E s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l t i m e r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e 0.5 i n . o f w a t e r plus
r a i n f a l l . See c o l u m n (10), T a b l e 7.9.
Step 12. T a k e D e c e m b e r a s t h e c o n t r o l m o n t h [ l a r g e s t v a l u e o f t o t a l
t i m e , i.e., 2 7 . 9 5 d a y s , c o l u m n (70) o f T a b l e 7 . 9 ] . R e q u i r e d a r e a o f s a n d b e d is
then
4000 lb dry sludge/day χ ft /2.6 lb dry sludge χ 27.95 days

2
= 43,000 ft of bed area required

2
8. P r e - d e w a t e r i n g T r e a t m e n t
of S l u d g e s
F r e q u e n t l y , d e w a t e r i n g of s l u d g e s is difficult, especially w h e n o f g e l a t i n o u s
c o n s i s t e n c y . D e w a t e r i n g t h e s e t y p e s o f s l u d g e s b y v a c u u m filtration, f o r
e x a m p l e , is e x c e e d i n g l y difficult, a n d p r e - d e w a t e r i n g t r e a t m e n t m a y b e
r e c o m m e n d e d . T w o t y p e s o f p r e d e w a t e r i n g t r e a t m e n t a r e d i s c u s s e d in t h i s
s e c t i o n : (1) c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a t i o n a n d (2) h e a t t r e a t m e n t .
8.1. C H E M I C A L C O A G U L A T I O N
A d d i t i o n of c h e m i c a l c o a g u l a n t s p r o m o t e s c o a l e s c e n c e o f s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s
a n d t h u s i m p r o v e s t h e i r ability t o b e filtered. I t m a y b e p r e c e d e d b y w a s h i n g
o f t h e s l u d g e , a n o p e r a t i o n w h i c h is k n o w n a s e l u t r i a t i o n . E l u t r i a t i o n r e d u c e s
alkalinity, a n d therefore minimizes coagulant requirements. F e C l , lime, a n d 3
polyelectrolytes are the m o s t c o m m o n coagulants.

8. Pre-dewatering Treatment of S l u d g e s
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336 7. S l u d g e Treatment and Disposal
8.2. H E A T T R E A T M E N T O F S L U D G E S
T h r e e p r o c e s s e s o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t a r e d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n : (1) P o r t e u s ,
(2) Z i m p r o , a n d (3) N i c h o l s p r o c e s s e s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e w e t o x i d a t i o n
o f s l u d g e . T h i s c o n s i s t s o f c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c solids in a n a q u e o u s
p h a s e b y d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in r e a c t o r s o p e r a t i n g a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d
p r e s s u r e s . A d v a n t a g e s o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t a r e t h a t s l u d g e is sterilized, d e
o d o r i z e d , a n d c a n b e easily filtered e i t h e r in v a c u u m o r p r e s s u r e filters. A
c o m b i n e d flow d i a g r a m for t h e P o r t e u s a n d Z i m p r o p r o c e s s e s is s h o w n in
F i g . 7.24.
Coagulated sludge
Sludge inlet
Sludge outlet
(To thickening and/or
filtration/or drying beds)
Fig. 7.24. Combined flow diagrams for the Porteus and Zimpro processes.
T h e Porteus process involves continuous operation u n d e r pressures of

180-210 psig a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400°F. After passing t h r o u g h
a g r i n d e r , t h e s l u d g e is p u m p e d f r o m t h e a c c u m u l a t o r t h r o u g h a h e a t ex
c h a n g e r , w h e r e it is p r e h e a t e d b y h o t s l u d g e effluent f r o m t h e r e a c t o r . H i g h
p r e s s u r e s t e a m is injected i n t o t h e r e a c t o r . R e t e n t i o n t i m e in t h e r e a c t o r is
approximately 30 min. A n 8 0 - 9 0 % reduction of organic m a t t e r can be
accomplished; thus some organic matter and a m m o n i a are found a m o n g the
end products.
T h e Z i m p r o p r o c e s s differs f r o m t h e P o r t e u s p r i m a r i l y in t h e fact t h a t a i r
( i n s t e a d o f s t e a m ) is injected b y a n a i r c o m p r e s s o r ( F i g . 7.24). M a x i m u m
operating temperatures are 300°-600°F, a n d design operating pressures are
1 5 0 - 3 0 0 0 p s i g . C o m b u s t i o n is 8 0 - 9 0 % c o m p l e t e . H e a t r e l e a s e p e r l b o f a i r is
1200-1400 B T U .
T h e N i c h o l s h e a t - t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s [ 4 ] is a t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m t h a t
c o n d i t i o n s all t y p e s o f s e w a g e s l u d g e for effective d e w a t e r i n g . S l u d g e is s u b
jected t o a t e m p e r a t u r e of 395°F for a p e r i o d of 30 m i n , b r e a k i n g d o w n
g e l a t i n o u s cell s t r u c t u r e s t o r e l e a s e e n t r a i n e d w a t e r . A f t e r t h i s t h e r m a l a g i n g
s t e p , specific r e s i s t a n c e a n d c a p i l l a r y s u c t i o n t i m e o f t h e s l u d g e a r e l o w e r e d t o
a p o i n t w h e r e it c a n easily b e d e w a t e r e d m e c h a n i c a l l y t o a h i g h s o l i d s c o n
centration without addition of chemicals.
H e a t t r e a t m e n t c a n b e u s e d t o c o n d i t i o n all t y p e s o f c o m b i n a t i o n s o f o r g a n i c
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e , i n c l u d i n g t h e difficult t o h a n d l e w a s t e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e .
T h e p r e s e n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s h a s n o t b e e n f o u n d t o affect s l u d g e c o n
ditioning.
A s s h o w n i n F i g . 7.25, s l u d g e first p a s s e s t h r o u g h g r i n d e r s , t h e n i n t o h i g h
p r e s s u r e feed p u m p s . I n t e r l o c k s p r e v e n t i m p r o p e r flow levels a n d r a t e s a n d
a s s u r e c o n t i n u o u s feed. S l u d g e t r a v e l s d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r s e c t i o n ,
w h e r e it is b r o u g h t t o p r o c e s s t e m p e r a t u r e i n t w o s t a g e s ; i t t h e n flows c o n
tinuously through the reactor along serpentine tubes, where thermal aging
takes place. T h e treated sludge then travels back t h r o u g h the heat exchanger,
t h i s t i m e g i v i n g u p its h e a t , a n d i n t o a vessel t h a t c o n t r o l s p r e s s u r e a n d
b a l a n c e s t h e s y s t e m o u t p u t a g a i n s t i n p u t . H e a t - t r e a t e d s l u d g e is t h e n d i s
c h a r g e d i n t o a d e c a n t i n g t a n k . T h i c k e n e d s l u d g e is d r a w n c o n t i n u o u s l y o u t o f
the decanting t a n k into a conditioned sludge tank equipped with mixers.
F i n a l l y , c o n d i t i o n e d , t h i c k e n e d , a n d h o m o g e n i z e d s l u d g e is p u m p e d t o t h e
dewatering equipment.
T h e p r i m a r y sludge heater employs water t o transfer heat from o u t g o i n g t o
i n c o m i n g s l u d g e . T h i s m e t h o d p e r m i t s all s l u d g e t o flow u n h i n d e r e d t h r o u g h
the heat exchanger along piping designed to eliminate the high maintenance
costs associated with plugging. T h e secondary heater also m a k e s use of water
t o t r a n s f e r h e a t t o s l u d g e . S i n c e it is a n i n d i r e c t " c l o s e d l o o p " s y s t e m , w a t e r is
r e t a i n e d , a n d all h e a t t h a t r e m a i n s a f t e r t h e s l u d g e h a s b e e n h e a t e d t o p r o c e s s
t e m p e r a t u r e is r e c y c l e d t o t h e h o t w a t e r g e n e r a t o r f o r r e u s e . I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h
i n d i r e c t h e a t i n g t h e r e is n o i n c r e a s e i n t h e v o l u m e o f s l u d g e t o b e d e w a t e r e d .
W h e n required, the N i c h o l s system can c o m b i n e direct heating for q u i c k
s t a r t - u p a n d i n d i r e c t h e a t i n g t o p r o v i d e m a x i m u m d a y - i n , d a y - o u t efficiency.
B e c a u s e o f a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l s , safety i n t e r l o c k s , levels, t e m p e r a t u r e p r o b e s ,
a n d centralized valving, the entire Nichols heat-treatment system c a n be
c o n t r o l l e d b y o n e o p e r a t o r . N e a r l y all s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s c a n b e l o c a t e d
o u t s i d e , effectively c u t t i n g d o w n o n i n d o o r s p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
T h e a u t o m a t i c pressure control system prevents boiling of sludge a n d
r e s u l t a n t c o r r o s i o n o f p i p i n g , i n s p i t e o f flow c o n t r o l v a l v e o p e n i n g s o r
e q u i p m e n t failures. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t a l s o a l l o w s t h e s y s t e m t o r e a c h o p e r a t i n g
p r e s s u r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y , a s s o o n a s t h e feed p u m p s a r e t u r n e d o n .
W h e r e a N i c h o l s - H e r r e s h o f f m u l t i p l e h e a r t h f u r n a c e ( F i g . 7.26) is u s e d , t h e
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
I
a
ι
s
•ε
v.
I
I
JO
IS
h e a t - t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m is o p e r a t e d , e x c e p t for e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r , f r o m t h e w a s t e
heat recovered from the furnace. In addition, the conditioned sludge can be
d e w a t e r e d t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t fuel f o r t h e f u r n a c e is r e q u i r e d o n l y a t f u r n a c e
warm-up.
Fig. 7.26. Burning flow diagram of Nichols-Herreshoff multiple hearth

furnace for sludge incineration. (Courtesy of Nichols Engineering & Research
Corporation.)
9. S l u d g e Disposal
T w o f u n d a m e n t a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e utilized in s l u d g e d i s p o s a l : l a n d d i s p o s a l
or incineration.
9.1. L A N D D I S P O S A L O F S L U D G E S
T w o t y p e s o f l a n d d i s p o s a l o f s l u d g e s a r e m e n t i o n e d h e r e : (1) l a g o o n i n g
a n d (2) o x i d a t i o n p o n d s . L a g o o n i n g m a y b e a n e c o n o m i c a l d i s p o s a l m e t h o d
w h e n l a r g e l a n d a r e a s a r e a v a i l a b l e a t l o w c o s t . S u p e r n a t a n t l i q u o r is r e m o v e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y , a n d e v e n t u a l l y t h e l a g o o n b e c o m e s filled w i t h s o l i d s . I n a 2 - t o
3-year p e r i o d a 5 0 - 6 0 % m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t c a n b e a t t a i n e d . T h e n t h e l a g o o n is
a b a n d o n e d a n d a n e w l o c a t i o n is selected.
O x i d a t i o n p o n d s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d i s c u s s e d for w a s t e w a t e r s in C h a p t e r 6,
S e c t i o n 6 c a n b e utilized. A n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d o n t h e s u r f a c e ,
d u e m a i n l y t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l g a e . A n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l in d e e p e r
layers.
9.2. S L U D G E I N C I N E R A T I O N
S l u d g e i n c i n e r a t i o n is a f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y e d d i s p o s a l m e t h o d . Self-
s u s t a i n i n g c o m b u s t i o n is s o m e t i m e s p o s s i b l e after b u r n i n g a n a u x i l i a r y fuel
w h i c h raises t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e i n c i n e r a t o r a b o v e i g n i t i o n p o i n t . T h e
c o m b u s t i o n p r o d u c t s are mainly c a r b o n dioxide, sulfur dioxide, a n d ash.
T w o t y p e s o f i n c i n e r a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e (1) m u l t i p l e h e a r t h f u r n a c e s a n d
(2) fluidized b e d d r y i n g a n d b u r n i n g . A d i a g r a m o f a m u l t i p l e h e a r t h f u r n a c e
for i n c i n e r a t i o n o f s l u d g e s ( N i c h o l s - H e r r e s h o f f f u r n a c e ) is s h o w n i n F i g . 7.26.
Cyclone-W
Combustion gases
+ ash
ScrubberH
. Fluidized
: bed ..
Concentrated
sludge
Auxiliary
air blower
Fig. 7.27. Sketch of a fluidized bed disposal system.
References 341
S l u d g e p a s s e s d o w n w a r d t h r o u g h a series o f h e a r t h s . V a p o r i z a t i o n o f m o i s
t u r e o c c u r s in t h e u p p e r h e a r t h s , f o l l o w e d b y i n c i n e r a t i o n in t h e l o w e r o n e s .
Ashes from the b o t t o m of the furnace are collected by a dry ash h a n d l i n g
system. A n alternative water scrubbing system can also be provided.
E x h a u s t g a s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e u p p e r s e c t i o n o f t h e f u r n a c e flow i n t o a
V e n t u r i h i g h e n e r g y t y p e s c r u b b e r f o r r e m o v a l o f fly a s h . F u r n a c e t e m p e r a t u r e
is 1 0 0 0 ° - 1 8 0 0 ° F . T h e f u r n a c e is a i r c o o l e d , a i r b e i n g b l o w n b y a f a n . C o o l i n g
a i r is r e c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e a i r r e c i r c u l a t i o n d u c t . A f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o o l i n g
a i r is w a s t e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
A s k e t c h o f a fluidized b e d d i s p o s a l s y s t e m is s h o w n i n F i g . 7.27. S l u d g e is
fed i n t o a b e d o f s a n d fluidized b y a i r . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e fluidized b e d is
1 4 0 0 ° - 1 5 0 0 ° F . T h e r e is r a p i d d r y i n g a n d c o m b u s t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e . A s h is
carried u p from the bed by the c o m b u s t i o n gases a n d separated by water
s c r u b b i n g a n d c y c l o n i n g . A u x i l i a r y fuel is u t i l i z e d a t least f o r s t a r t i n g t h e
combustion process.
Problems
I. T h e following data are obtained from bench scale aeration o f a sludge for which a c o n
tinuous digester is to be designed.
T i m e o f aeration Suspended solids Oxygen uptake rate

(days) (mg/liter) [mg/(liter)(hr)]
0 6750 50
5 5650 21
10 4750 11
15 4200 7
20 3750 6
25 3600 5.5
30 3550 5.5
6000 lb/day o f this sludge are to be treated in an aerobic digester which is designed to achieve
80% reduction o f degradable volatile suspended solids. A s s u m e a steady state concentration
of 3500 mg/liter o f suspended solids in the digester. Estimate basin v o l u m e (gal) and o x y g e n
requirements (lb 0 / h r ) for the aerobic digester.
2
II. Air drying is being considered to dewater 1500 lb/day (dry weight) o f a sludge utilizing
8-in. lifts. A laboratory study has s h o w n that percolation increased solids concentration f r o m
its initial value o f 2% to 20% solids in 2 0 hr. Calculate the areas o f drying beds ( f t ) required 2
for liftable sludges with 30 and 35% solids, respectively. Base calculations o n 3 in. o f rainfall
and 4.5 in. evaporation for a 30-day period.
References
1. Eckenfelder, W. W . , Jr., and Ford, D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
2. Edde, H . J., and Eckenfelder, W . W., Jr., J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 4 0 , N o . 8, 1486
(1968).
3. M c C a r t h y , P. L., Public Works95,9-12 (1964).

4. Nichols Engineering & Research Corporation, "Nichols Heat Treatment Process for
Sludge Conditioning," F o r m . H T 123. Nichols E n g . & Res. C o r p . , Belle M e a d , New
Jersey, 1975.
5. R u t h , B . F., bid. Eng. Chem. 25,157 (1933).
6. Swanwick, J. D . , Lussignea, F. W . , and Baskerville, R . C , Adv. Water Pollut. Res. 2,
387-402 (1963).
7. Water Pollution Control Federation, "Sewage Treatment Plant Design,'* M a n u a l of
Practice 8. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed., Washington, D . C . , 1959.
8
Tertiary Treatment of
Wastewaters
1. Introduction 344
2. Suspended Solids Removal 344
3. Carbon Adsorption 345
3.2. Activated Carbons as Adsorbents 345
3.3. Adsorption Isotherms 346
3.4. Adsorption Operation 347
3.5. Design Procedure for Activated Carbon Adsorption Columns . 347
4. Ion Exchange 359
4.2. Basic Mechanism of Ion Exchange: Cation and Anion
Exchangers 359
4.3. Design of Ion Exchange Columns 361
4.4. Design of an Ion Exchange S y s t e m 363
5. Reverse Osmosis 367
5.1. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 367
5.2. van't Hoff Equation for Osmotic Pressure 368
5.3. Principle of Reverse Osmosis 369
5.4. Preparation of R O Membranes 371
5.5. Preferential Sorption-Capillary Flow Mechanism for Reverse
Osmosis 372
5.6. Characterization of Membrane Performance 373
5.7. Water Flux 374
5.8. Rejection Factor 374
5.9. Effect of Shrinkage Temperature on Performance of C A
Membranes 376
5.10. Effect of Feed Temperature on Flux 377
5.11. Flux Decline 378
5.12. Fouling: Causes and Cures 378
5.13. Prediction of Flux 380
5.14. Membrane Leakage 381
5.15. Solute Permeability and Concentration Polarization 382
5.16. Experimental Technique for Laboratory Prediction of M e m
brane Performance 383
5.17. Final Remarks on Reverse Osmosis 384
6. Electrodialysis 385
6.2. Voltage Required for Electrodialysis 385
6.3. Current Required for Electrodialysis 385
6.4. Pretreatment of Wastewaters in Electrodialysis 386
343
344 8. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewaters
7. Chemical Oxidation Processes (Chlorination and Ozonation) 387

7.1. Chlorination of Wastewaters 387
7.2. Ozonation of Wastewaters 390
8. Nutrient Removal 391
8.2. Phosphorus Removal 391
8.3. Nitrogen Removal 394
8.4. Added Benefits in Nutrient Removal 397
9. Sonozone Wastewater Purification Process 397
Problems 399
References 400
T e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t (also referred a s " a d v a n c e d w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t " )
c o n s i s t s o f p r o c e s s e s w h i c h a r e d e s i g n e d t o a c h i e v e h i g h e r effluent q u a l i t y t h a n
c o n v e n t i o n a l s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t s d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6. T h e f o l l o w
i n g t y p e s o f t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r : (1) s u s p e n d e d
s o l i d s r e m o v a l , (2) c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n ( o r g a n i c r e m o v a l ) , (3) i o n e x c h a n g e ,
(4) r e v e r s e o s m o s i s , (5) e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s , (6) c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n ( c h l o r i n a t i o n
a n d o z o n a t i o n ) , (7) n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l m e t h o d s ( n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s
r e m o v a l ) , a n d (8) s o n o z o n e w a s t e w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s
a r e n o t utilized extensively in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o d a y , b u t t h e i r u s e o n a n
i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r scale is a n t i c i p a t e d a s effluent q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c o m e
m o r e s t r i n g e n t in t h e f u t u r e .
2. S u s p e n d e d Solids Removal
S u s p e n d e d solids which have n o t been r e m o v e d by conventional p r i m a r y
a n d s e c o n d a r y o p e r a t i o n s m a y c o n s i t u t e a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e B O D o f effluents
f r o m w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s . T h e f o l l o w i n g r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s for t h e s e
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a r e a v a i l a b l e : (1) m i c r o s c r e e n i n g , (2) filtration, a n d (3)
coagulation.
M i c r o s c r e e n s a r e w o u n d a r o u n d r o t a t i n g d r u m s . W a s t e w a t e r is fed c o n
t i n u o u s l y t o t h e i n s i d e o f t h e d r u m , flowing t o a c l e a r w a t e r s t o r a g e c h a m b e r
o n t h e o u t s i d e . C l e a n i n g o f t h e i n n e r surface o f t h e d r u m is p e r f o r m e d b y
s p r a y s o f c l e a r w a t e r , w a s h i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s u s u a l l y b e i n g a b o u t 5 % o f feed
v o l u m e . M i c r o s c r e e n i n g r e s u l t s in 7 0 - 9 0 % r e m o v a l o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s .
F i l t r a t i o n is c o m m o n l y u s e d for s u s p e n d e d solids r e m o v a l y i e l d i n g r e m o v a l
efficiencies u p t o 9 9 % . S a n d , a n t h r a c i t e , a n d d i a t o m a c e o u s e a r t h a r e t h e m o s t
c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d filter m e d i a . C o a g u l a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d u t i l i z i n g a l u m ,
polyelectrolytes, lime, a n d other chemical agents.
3. C a r b o n A d s o r p t i o n
3.1. INTRODUCTION
A d s o r p t i o n is t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a s o l u t e a t t h e s u r f a c e o f a s o l i d . T h i s
p h e n o m e n o n t a k e s p l a c e w h e n s u c h a s u r f a c e is p l a c e d in c o n t a c t w i t h a
solution. A layer of molecules of solute a c c u m u l a t e s a t the surface of the solid
d u e t o i m b a l a n c e o f s u r f a c e forces ( F i g . 8.1).
N o n b a l a n c e d forces
Fig. 8.1. Representation of forces in a solid.
I n t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e solid, m o l e c u l e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y s u r r o u n d e d b y s i m i l a r
m o l e c u l e s a n d t h e r e f o r e s u b j e c t e d t o b a l a n c e d forces, a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e
a r r o w s in F i g . 8 . 1 . M o l e c u l e s a t t h e s u r f a c e a r e s u b j e c t e d t o n o n b a l a n c e d
forces. B e c a u s e t h e s e r e s i d u a l forces a r e sufficiently s t r o n g , t h e y m a y i m
p r i s o n m o l e c u l e s o f a s o l u t e w i t h w h i c h t h e s o l i d is in c o n t a c t . T h i s p h e n o m
e n o n is c a l l e d p h y s i c a l ( o r v a n d e r W a a l s ) a d s o r p t i o n . T h e solid (e.g., a c t i v a t e d
c a r b o n ) is t e r m e d t h e a d s o r b e n t a n d t h e s o l u t e b e i n g a d s o r b e d is t h e a d s o r b a t e .
A d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y is directly r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e o f a d s o r b e n t since
t h e l a r g e r t h i s s u r f a c e is, t h e m o r e r e s i d u a l ( u n b a l a n c e d ) forces a r e a v a i l a b l e
for a d s o r p t i o n .
3.2. A C T I V A T E D C A R B O N S A S A D S O R B E N T S
A c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s h a v e b e e n w i d e l y u s e d a s a d s o r b e n t s in w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s t o r e m o v e t a s t e a n d o d o r c a u s i n g o r g a n i c s . I t is e x p e c t e d t h a t w i t h t h e
e m p h a s i s b e i n g p l a c e d o n h i g h e r q u a l i t y effluents, use o f a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s in
t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r s will i n c r e a s e c o n s i d e r a b l y in t h e f u t u r e .
Preparation of activated carbons. A c t i v a t e d c a r b o n s a r e p r e p a r e d f r o m
c a r b o n a c e o u s r a w m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s w o o d , lignite, c o a l , a n d n u t shells b y a
p r o c e s s o f t h e r m a l a c t i v a t i o n w h i c h yields a v e r y p o r o u s s t r u c t u r e w i t h l a r g e
s u r f a c e a r e a s (as h i g h a s 1000 m / g ) . A d s o r p t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m is e s t a b l i s h e d w h e n
2
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o n t a m i n a n t r e m a i n i n g in s o l u t i o n is in d y n a m i c b a l a n c e
with that at the surface of the solid.
Reactivation of activated carbons. T h e g r e a t a d v a n t a g e o f a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n

a s a n a d s o r b e n t lies i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e a c t i v a t i o n ( u p t o 3 0 o r m o r e t i m e s )
w i t h o u t a p p r e c i a b l e loss o f a d s o r p t i v e p o w e r . U s u a l l y , r e a c t i v a t i o n is d o n e
by heating spent carbon t o a b o u t 1700°F in a steam-air a t m o s p h e r e (thermal
reactivation). This operation c a n be performed in multiple hearth furnaces o r
r o t a r y k i l n s . A d s o r b e d o r g a n i c s a r e b u r n e d off, a n d a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is r e
stored basically t o its initial a d s o r p t i o n capacity.
3.3. A D S O R P T I O N I S O T H E R M S
Equilibrium relationships between adsorbent a n d adsorbate are described
by adsorption isotherms. I n this section only t h e L a n g m u i r a n d Freundlich
isotherms are mentioned.
3.3.1. Langmuir Isotherm

I n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e L a n g m u i r i s o t h e r m it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e s o l u t e
is a d s o r b e d a s a m o n o m o l e c u l a r l a y e r a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e a d s o r b e n t . T h i s is
the m o s t often used a d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m , being given b y t h e relationship
X/M = KbCI(\+KC) (8.1)
w h e r e Xis t h e w e i g h t o f s o l u t e a d s o r b e d ( a d s o r b a t e ) ( m g ) ; Μ t h e w e i g h t o f
adsorbent (g); Κ the equilibrium constant ( c m of adsorbent/mg of adsor 3
bate); C the equilibrium concentration of solute (mg/liter); a n d b a constant

which represents the monolayer coverage per unit weight of adsorbent
( m g o f a d s o r b a t e / g o f a d s o r b e n t ) . A t y p i c a l p l o t o f X/M vs. C based o n
E q . ( 8 . 1 ) is s h o w n i n F i g . 8.2.
E q u a t i o n ( 8 . 1 ) is r e w r i t t e n i n l i n e a r f o r m b y t a k i n g t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f b o t h
members.
\KXlM) = (llKb)(llC) + (\lb) (8.2)
X / M
Fig. 8.2. Langmuir isotherm.

F r o m E q . (8.2) a p l o t o f I/(X/M) v s . 1/C yields a s t r a i g h t line, w h i c h p e r m i t s

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s tfand b f r o m i t s s l o p e a n d i n t e r c e p t , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
3.3.2. Freundlich Isotherm

T h e F r e u n d l i c h i s o t h e r m is e x p r e s s e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n
X/M = kC 1,n
(8.3)
X/M a n d C h a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a s i n L a n g m u i r ' s i s o t h e r m , a n d k a n d η
a r e c o n s t a n t s d e p e n d e n t o n several e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s . E q u a t i o n (8.3) is
r e w r i t t e n in l i n e a r f o r m b y t a k i n g l o g a r i t h m s o f b o t h m e m b e r s .
log(AVM) = (I/n) logC + log A: (8.4)
E q u a t i o n (8.4) r e v e a l s t h a t a l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t o f X/M v s . C yields a s t r a i g h t

line w h i c h p e r m i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s η a n d k f r o m its s l o p e a n d
intercept.
3.4. A D S O R P T I O N OPERATION
I n p r a c t i c e , a d s o r p t i o n o f o r g a n i c s in a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is c o n d u c t e d e i t h e r
as a batch or continuous operation. In batch o p e r a t i o n , powdered activated
c a r b o n is m i x e d w i t h t h e w a s t e w a t e r a n d a l l o w e d t o settle. C o n t i n u o u s o p e r a
t i o n is p e r f o r m e d i n c o l u m n s c o n t a i n i n g g r a n u l a r c a r b o n ( 4 0 - 8 0 m e s h ) . I t is
more economical than batch operation a n d has found the widest application.
R e m o v a l o f o r g a n i c s in a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n c o l u m n s o c c u r s b y t h r e e m e c h
a n i s m s : (1) a d s o r p t i o n o f o r g a n i c m o l e c u l e s , (2) filtration o f l a r g e p a r t i c l e s ,
a n d (3) p a r t i a l d e p o s i t i o n o f c o l l o i d a l m a t e r i a l . P e r c e n t r e m o v a l d e p e n d s
primarily on contact time between wastewater and activated carbon.
A s w a s t e w a t e r flows t h r o u g h t h e b e d , c a r b o n n e a r e s t t o t h e feed p o i n t
b e c o m e s s a t u r a t e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d w i t h fresh c a r b o n . T h i s is d o n e b y
o p e r a t i n g several s u i t a b l y v a l v e d c o l u m n s in series. T h e first c o l u m n is r e
p l a c e d w h e n e x h a u s t e d , a n d t h e flow o f w a s t e w a t e r is s w i t c h e d t o m a k e t h a t
c o l u m n t h e last o n e in t h e series. I n l a r g e i n s t a l l a t i o n s r e g e n e r a t i o n o f s p e n t
c a r b o n is e s s e n t i a l for e c o n o m i c feasibility.
3.5. D E S I G N P R O C E D U R E F O R A C T I V A T E D
CARBON ADSORPTION COLUMNS
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d is r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d
[ 5 ] a n d is b a s e d o n a n e q u a t i o n d e r i v e d b y B o h a r t a n d A d a m s [ 1 ] . T h e fol
l o w i n g t o p i c s a r e d i s c u s s e d : (1) B o h a r t a n d A d a m s ' e q u a t i o n for p e r f o r m a n c e
o f a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n c o l u m n s ( S e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 1 ) ; (2) l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
w i t h b e n c h scale c o l u m n s t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( S e c t i o n
3 . 5 . 2 ) ; (3) " s c a l e - u p " o f l a b o r a t o r y d a t a a n d d e s i g n o f a p l a n t scale u n i t
( S e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 3 ) ; a n d (4) d e r i v a t i o n o f B o h a r t a n d A d a m s ' e q u a t i o n ( S e c t i o n
3.5.4).
348 8. Tertiary T r e a t m e n t of W a s t e w a t e r s
3.5.1. Bohart and A d a m s ' Equation

In the o p e r a t i o n of a n activated c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n c o l u m n , wastewater
w i t h a n influent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n C ( m g / l i t e r ) is fed i n t o t h e c o l u m n .
0
I t is d e s i r e d t o r e d u c e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e effluent t o a v a l u e n o t ex
ceeding C (mg/liter), as determined by water quality requirements.
E
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e o p e r a t i o n , w h e n a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is fresh, effluent
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is a c t u a l l y lower t h a n a l l o w a b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n C . A s t h e E
o p e r a t i o n p r o c e e d s a n d a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n a p p r o a c h e s s a t u r a t i o n , effluent c o n
c e n t r a t i o n r e a c h e s v a l u e C . T h i s c o n d i t i o n is called t h e b r e a k p o i n t . L e t /
E
b e t h e t i m e e l a p s e d t o r e a c h t h e b r e a k p o i n t (service t i m e , h o u r s ) . A t t i m e /,
o p e r a t i o n is d i s c o n t i n u e d a n d a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n is r e g e n e r a t e d .
A t t i m e z e r o (t = 0 ) , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e p t h o f c a r b o n w h i c h is sufficient t o
p r e v e n t effluent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m e x c e e d i n g v a l u e C is c a l l e d t h e
E
critical b e d d e p t h D (ft). E v i d e n t l y , D < D, w h e r e D is t h e a c t u a l b e d d e p t h

0 0
(ft) ( F i g . 8 . 3 ) .
S e r v i c e time; t
[Break point]
ft/hr
C' >CE E
7""
Do
"0 ' 0
Fig. 8.3. Concept of critical bed depth (D ).

9
A d s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y (N ) 0 is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n v a r i a b l e . I t is t h e
m a x i m u m a m o u n t of c o n t a m i n a n t solute t h a t c a n be a d s o r b e d by the c a r b o n
(lb solute/ft 3
o f c a r b o n ) w h e n s a t u r a t i o n o c c u r s . T h e b r e a k p o i n t is u s u a l l y
t a k e n before s a t u r a t i o n o c c u r s . A n o t h e r p a r a m e t e r w h i c h e n t e r s in B o h a r t
a n d A d a m s ' e q u a t i o n is t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t K. T h i s a s s u m e s a f i r s t - o r d e r a d
sorption rate
r = Kc (8.5)
m g of solute/(g of c a r b o n ) (hr) = Kmg of solute/liter of solution
.'. Κ = liter of solution/(g of c a r b o n ) ( h r )

o r in E n g l i s h u n i t s
Κ = f t of solution/(lb of c a r b o n ) (hr)
3
Performance of c o n t i n u o u s activated c a r b o n c o l u m n s m a y be evaluated by

Eq. (8.6), which was developed by B o h a r t a n d A d a m s [ 1 ] .
l n [ ( C / C ) - 1] = \n(e ° -
0 £
KN DiV
1) - KC t 0 (8.6)
w h e r e C is t h e influent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; C t h e a l l o w a b l e
0 E
effluent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; Κ the r a t e c o n s t a n t [ f t / ( l b o f c a r b o n ) 3
( h r ) ] ; N the adsorptive capacity (lb of solute/ft of c a r b o n ) ; D the d e p t h of

0
3
c a r b o n b e d (ft); V t h e l i n e a r flow r a t e ( f t / h r ) ; a n d / t h e service t i m e ( h r ) .

A n e q u a t i o n for D is w r i t t e n f r o m E q . (8.6). D (critical d e p t h o f c a r b o n
0 0
b e d , ft) is t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e p t h o f c a r b o n sufficient t o p r e v e n t effluent s o l u t e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m e x c e e d i n g v a l u e C a t / = 0. D is o b t a i n e d f r o m E q .
E 0
(8.6) b y l e t t i n g t = 0 a n d s o l v i n g f o r D ( w h i c h e q u a l s D in t h i s c a s e ) . S i n c e 0
the exponential term e is u s u a l l y m u c h l a r g e r t h a n u n i t y , t h e u n i t y t e r m

K N o D , v
w i t h i n b r a c k e t s in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r o f E q . (8.6) is n e g l e c t e d . T h e final
r e s u l t is
D = (V/KNo) ln [ ( C / C ) - 1 ]
0 0 £ (8.7)
Expression for service time t. S o l v i n g E q . (8.6) for t a n d n e g l e c t i n g t h e

u n i t y t e r m w i t h i n b r a c k e t s in t h e r i g h t - h a n d m e m b e r a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e
exponential term.
t = (No/Co V)D - ln [ ( C / C ) - \]/KC
0 £ 0 (8.8)
E q u a t i o n (8.8) is t h e b a s i s for e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s N 0
a n d Κ f r o m b e n c h s c a l e c o l u m n s . T h e p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d is d e s c r i b e d in
S e c t i o n 3.5.2.
3.5.2. Determination of Parameters N , 0 K,

and D f r o m Laboratory Data
0
L a b o r a t o r y e q u i p m e n t r e c o m m e n d e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 5 ] is
s h o w n in F i g . 8.4. R e q u i r e d d a t a for r e m o v a l o f o r g a n i c s a r e o b t a i n e d b y
passing wastewater containing a k n o w n concentration of organic material
( C ) t h r o u g h a series o f c o l u m n s (e.g., t h r e e c o l u m n s in F i g . 8.4) a n d r e c o r d i n g
0
t h e t i m e s t {t t , a n d t ) a t w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f effluents f r o m c o l u m n s
u 2 3
# 1 , # 2 , a n d # 3 r e a c h t h e a l l o w a b l e effluent s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( C ) . E a c h £
set o f e x p e r i m e n t s is p e r f o r m e d a t c o n s t a n t flow r a t e [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] , t h e r e 2
fore l i n e a r velocity V (ft/sec) is h e l d c o n s t a n t . Effluent f r o m c o l u m n # 1 is

t h e first t o r e a c h v a l u e C ( r e c o r d t h i s t i m e ^ ) ; s o m e t i m e after, effluent f r o m
E
c o l u m n #2 r e a c h e s v a l u e C , t h i s t i m e a l s o b e i n g r e c o r d e d ( f ) . F i n a l l y ,
£ 2
350 8. Tertiary Treatment of W a s t e w a t e r s
Influent Column internal diameter:!"
Φ2 #3
Sampling ports
Fig. 8.4. Activated carbon columns (bench scale).
effluent f r o m c o l u m n # 3 r e a c h e s c o n c e n t r a t i o n C . E T h i s t i m e is a l s o r e c o r d e d
( i ) a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t d i s c o n t i n u e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e e x p e r i m e n t is c a r r i e d
3
o u t u n t i l t h e b r e a k p o i n t o f t h e l a s t c o l u m n is r e a c h e d .
T a b l e 8.1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l t a b u l a t i o n o f t v s . D v a l u e s a t f o u r different flow
r a t e s . F o r E x p e r i m e n t n o . 1, t h r e e c o l u m n s o f 2.5 ft o f c a r b o n d e p t h e a c h a r e
u t i l i z e d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t o t a l d e p t h s o f 2 . 5 , 5.0, a n d 7.5 ft a t s a m p l i n g p o r t s .
F l o w r a t e is 2 . 0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
F o r E x p e r i m e n t n o . 2, t h e first t w o c o l u m n s c o n t a i n a d e p t h o f 2 . 5 ft o f
c a r b o n e a c h , a n d t h e t h i r d 5 ft. T o t a l d e p t h s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s a m p l i n g p o r t s
a r e 2 . 5 , 5.0, a n d 10 ft. F l o w r a t e is 4 . 0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
F o r e x p e r i m e n t s n o . 3 a n d 4 , c a r b o n d e p t h s a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , 5-5-5 ft a n d
5-10-10 ft for t h e t h r e e c o l u m n s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t o t a l d e p t h s a t s a m p l i n g
p o r t s o f 5-10-15 ft a n d 5-15-25 ft. F l o w r a t e s a r e 8 a n d 16 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) , 2
r e s p e c t i v e l y . E q u a t i o n (8.8) r e v e a l s t h a t a p l o t o f t v s . D yields a s t r a i g h t
line for w h i c h s l o p e (s) a n d i n t e r c e p t ( i ) a r e
s = No/CoV
.'. N 0 = CQVS (8.9)
i =
In [(Co/CJJ) — 1]/ K C Q
Λ Κ = l n [ ( C / C ) - 1]//C
0 £ 0 (8.10)
Values of parameters N 0 a n d A ' a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m E q s . (8.9) a n d ( 8 . 1 0 ) ,

r e s p e c t i v e l y . F i g u r e 8.5 s h o w s f o u r s t r a i g h t lines c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e f o u r
experiments for which d a t a are presented in T a b l e 8.1. Critical d e p t h D 0 is
c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.7).
T A B L E 8.1
(4)
(2) Throughput
Experiment w
F l o w rate Bed depth (i)
Time, / volume
no. [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
(ft) (hr) (gal)
e
1 2.0 Z>! = 2.5 740 484

D =
2 5.0 1780 1164
D =
3 7.5 2780 1818
2 4.0 D =
t 2.5 180 235
D =
2 5.0 560 732
2>3 = 10.0 1330 1740
3 8.0 D, = 5.0 170 445
Z) = 2 10.0 500 1308
D = 3 15.0 830 2171
4 16.0 D = t 5.0 60 314
£> = 2 15.0 390 2040
D = 3 25.0 730 3819
"Calculation procedure for c o l u m n (4) o f Table 8.1. Cross-sectional area is

A = (i)nUr) 2
= 0.00545 f t 2
Throughput volume = gal /(min) ( f t ) χ 0.00545 f t χ ( i 6 0 ) m i n

2 2
or
(4) = ( / ) χ (5) χ 0.327
Example 8.1
D a t a in T a b l e 8.1 a r e o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g c o n t i n u o u s b e n c h scale a c t i v a t e d
c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n c o l u m n s w i t h 1-in. i n s i d e d i a m e t e r . F o u r sets o f e x p e r i
ments are performed. T h e wastewater contains 20 mg/liter of a n organic
solute removable by c a r b o n adsorption. Experiments are carried o u t record
i n g t h e t i m e t a k e n for effluents f r o m t h e first, s e c o n d , a n d t h i r d a d s o r p t i o n
c o l u m n s t o r e a c h a c o n c e n t r a t i o n C = 1.0 m g / l i t e r o f s o l u t e [ c o l u m n (3) o f
E
T a b l e 8 . 1 ] . P r e p a r e a p l o t o f p a r a m e t e r s N , K, a n d D v s . flow r a t e [ g a l /
0 0
(min(ft )].2
SOLUTION A p l o t o f / v s . D [ c o l u m n (3) v s . c o l u m n (2) o f T a b l e 8.1] is

p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 8.5. A d s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y N is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q .
0
(8.9), w h e r e (20 m g / l i t e r = 2 0 χ 1 0 " l b s o l u t e / l b l i q u o r )

6
C 0 = 20 χ 1 0 " lb solute/lb liquor χ 62.4 lb liquor/ft liquor

6 3
= 1.248 χ 1 0 " lb solute/ft liquor

3 3
V a l u e s o f V (ft/hr) a r e
Exp. n o . 1 2.0 gal/(min)(ft ) χ ft /7.48 gal χ 60 m i n / h r = 16 ft/hr

2 3
Exp. n o . 2 4.0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) χ ft /7.48 gal χ 60 m i n / h r = 32 ft/hr

2 3
Exp. n o . 3 8.0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) χ f t / 7 . 4 8 gal χ 60 m i n / h r = 64 ft/hr

2 3
Exp. n o . 4 16.0 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) χ f t / 7 . 4 8 gal χ 60 m i n / h r = 128 ft/hr

2 3
T h e calculation of N 0 is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8.2.
3000,
;perimen t no. 1
(7.5;27 B0)f [2.0 gpn l/ft ] 2
2500
= 2000
Γ
oo iperimen \ no. 2
!(5il780 [4.0 gprr ,/ft ]
2
© 1500
c
ε rfl0il33C
ο srExper iment nc .3
ο, \ [ 8 . C » gpm/ft*]
~ 1000
-7(2.5; 740) ι rtl5i830 1 (25^ '30)
Αδ60)
500
«<I5;39 0)
— E x p e riment η ).4
(5;I70)
Ϊ5-60) [l6.< ) gpm/f 1
P t e 5 ; l SO)
-500L
5 10 15 20 25
Depth, D (ft) [column®, table 8.l]
Fig. 8.5. Plots of t vs. D for Example 8.1.
T A B L E 8.2
Calculation of /V (Example 8.1)
0
N 0 = C Vs0 Eq.(8.9)
Exp. F l o w rate V Slope (Fig. 8.5) (*-$•£·*-«*·)

(ft/hr) (hr/ft) (Co = 1.248x 1 0 - l b / f t ) 3 3
1 2.0 16 408 8.15

2 4.0 32 153 6.11
3 8.0 64 66 5.27
4 16.0 128 33 5.27
T A B L E 8.3
Calculations of Κ and D (Example 8.1 ) 0
a
V No ι (absolute
Flow (ft/hr) (lb/ft ) 3
value of K, D,
0
Exp. rate (Table (Table intercept) Eq. (8.10) Eq. (8.7)

8.2) 8.2) (Fig. 8.5) [ft /(lb)(hr)]
3
(ft)
1 2.0 16 8.15 283 8.3 0.695
2 4.0 32 6.11 203 11.6 1.33
3 8.0 64 5.27 151 15.6 2.29
4 16.0 128 5.27 112 21.1 3.31
C = 1.248x 10" lb/ft .

0
3 3
— • 1 1 1
ο Experiment no. 1
• Experiment no. 2
• Experiment no. 3
Δ Experiment no. 4
0(2,8-15) < 1 6
^ 8
20
Κ
(16i33l)
\ ( 3;I5.6^T 7
"fi;2.29l/ /
(4;II.6W \
Ρ ΙΟ 6§ '
ο
Ζ
(2;8.3) / Λ
yfoij >3) (8-5 27) (1' >;5.27) 5
>4(2;0.6< >5)
5 10 15
Flow rate [ g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) ] 2
Fig. 8.6. Plots of 7V K. and D 0f 9 vs. flow rate (Example 8.1).
V a l u e s o f Κ a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.10), w h e r e ln [ ( C / C — 1] = 0 £
l n [ ( 2 0 / l ) - l ] = 2.94. V a l u e s o f D a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.7). C a l c u l a
0
t i o n s o f Κ a n d D a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8 . 3 . V a l u e s o f JV , K, a n d D a r e
0 0 0
p l o t t e d v s . flow r a t e i n F i g . 8.6.
3.5.3. S c a l e - U p of Laboratory Data and

D e s i g n of a Plant S c a l e Unit
P l a n t scale d e s i g n is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e 8.2.
E x a m p l e 8.2
W a s t e w a t e r utilized i n l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s ( E x a m p l e 8.1) is t r e a t e d f o r
removal of solute (concentration = 20 mg/liter) t o a residual value of 1 mg/liter
in a n a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n b e d 2.5 ft i n d i a m e t e r a n d 6 ft d e e p . F l o w is 2 5 , 0 0 0
gal/day.
1. C a l c u l a t e service t i m e ( h o u r s p e r cycle).
2. C a l c u l a t e n u m b e r o f c a r b o n c h a n g e s r e q u i r e d p e r y e a r a n d a n n u a l
carbon volume (ft ). 3
3. E s t i m a t e s o l u t e r e m o v a l ( l b / y e a r ) .
4 . C a l c u l a t e a d s o r p t i o n efficiency b a s e d o n N a n d D . 0 0
5. E s t i m a t e % e r r o r in n e g l e c t i n g u n i t y f a c t o r in t e r m (e KNoD/v
— 1).
T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n is u t i l i z e d in a r r i v i n g a t E q s . (8.7)—(8.10).
SOLUTION P a r t 1. C a l c u l a t i o n o f service t i m e
Step 1. F l o w r a t e in g a l / m i n is (25,000)/(24) (60) = 17.4 g a l / m i n . C r o s s -

s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f c o l u m n is A = (£) π ( 2 . 5 ) = 4.9 f t . 2 2
F l o w r a t e in gal/
( m i n ) ( f t ) is 17.4/4.9 = 3.6 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) , o r
2 2
V = 3.6 gal/(min)(ft ) χ 60 m i n / h r χ ft /7.48 gal = 28.9 ft/hr

2 3
Step 2. F r o m F i g . 8.6, for flow r a t e 3.6 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) , o n e r e a d s 2
K= 10.7ft /(lb)(hr)
3
and
N0 = 6.35 lb/ft 3
Step 5 . Service t i m e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.8).
/ = [6.35/(1.248 χ 1 0 " χ 28.9)]6 - 2.94/(10.7 χ 1.248 χ Ι Ο " ) = 836 hr/cycle

3 3
SOLUTION P a r t 2. N u m b e r o f c a r b o n c h a n g e s p e r y e a r a n d a n n u a l c a r b o n
volume
N o . c a r b o n changes/year = (365 χ 24)/836 = 10.5
A n n u a l c a r b o n v o l u m e = (6 χ 4.9) 10.5 = 309 f t 3
SOLUTION Part 3. Estimation of solute removal (lb/year)
S o l u t e r e m o v e d p e r cycle is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
lb solute removed per cycle

= lb solute in influent per cycle - lb solute in effluent per cycle
Since
Volume of wastewater per cycle
= 25,000 gal/day χ 836 hr/cycle χ day/24 h r χ ft /7.48 gal 3
= 1.16 x 1 0 f t / c y c l e
5 3
and
Co = 20 mg/liter = 1.248 χ 1 0 " 3
lb/ft 3
then
lb solute in influent per cycle = 1.248 χ 1 0 ~ lb/ft χ 1.16 χ 1 0 ft /cycle
3 3 5 3
= 144.8 lb/cycle
R e s i d u a l s o l u t e l e a v i n g w i t h effluent p e r cycle is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
(lb solute in effluent per cycle) = (1.16 x 1 0 ) f t / c y c l e χ C 5 3

a v e lb/ft 3
= 1.16 χ 1 0 C 5
a v e (lb/cycle)
C a v e is g i v e n b y
/ V = 8 3 6 hr
C a v c = (1/836) Cdt
Jt = 0
C s t a n d s for a series o f effluent c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e s ) , t h e h i g h e s t
one being that corresponding to C E = 1 mg/liter (or 6.24 χ 1 0 " 5
lb/ft ),
3
w h i c h o c c u r s a f ter 836 h r o f o p e r a t i o n . If i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s o f effluent c o n

c e n t r a t i o n s f r o m t i m e z e r o ( s t a r t o f cycle) t o t = 836 h r ( e n d o f cycle) a r e
recorded, one can evaluate the integral by graphical or numerical methods.
In the absence of these values one can m a k e a conservative (low) estimate of
solute removed based on the C E value of 1 mg/liter (6.24 χ 1 0 " 5
lb/ft ). The
3
e r r o r i n s u c h a n e s t i m a t e is less t h a n 5 % (since i n t h i s c a s e C /C 0 E = 20).

Thus,
High estimate of lb solute in effluent per cycle
= 1.16 χ 10 ft /cycle χ 6.24 χ 1 0 " lb/ft

5 3 5 3
= 7.2 lb/cycle
and
L o w estimate of lb solute removed per cycle = 144.8 - 7.2 = 137.6 lb/cycle
or
137.6 lb/cycle x 10.5 cycle/year = 1445 lb/year
SOLUTION P a r t 4. A d s o r p t i o n efficiency
Based on N:
0
Total solute a d s o r b e d : 1445 lb/year (Solution, P a r t 3)

T o t a l adsorptive capacity: (N )(annual 0 c a r b o n volume) = 6.35 lb/ft χ 309 f t 3 3
=
1962 lb
Efficiency: (1445/1962) χ 100 = 73.6%
Based on D : 0 f r o m F i g . 8.6 for flow r a t e 3.6 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) , o n e r e a d s 2
D= 0 1.23 ft.
Efficiency: [ ( / > - D ) I D ] 100 = [ ( 6 - 1.23)/6] 100 = 79.5%

0
SOLUTION P a r t 5. E r r o r in n e g l e c t i n g f a c t o r o f u n i t y
KN D/V= 0 (10.7 χ 6.35 x6.0)/28.9 = 14.11
î4.n = ι > 3 4 2,44ΐ
e i 4 . ii _ j = ΐ 42,440
)3
E r r o r % = (1/1,342,440)100 = 7.45 χ 1 0 " % 5

3.5.4. Derivation of the Bohart and A d a m s

Equation [1]
C o n s i d e r a m a s s o f a d s o r b e n t . I t s r e s i d u a l c a p a c i t y (N) diminishes at a
r a t e g i v e n b y E q . (8.11).
dN/dt = -KNC (8.11)
w h e r e Ν is t h e r e s i d u a l a d s o r b i n g c a p a c i t y [ a t t = 0, Ν = N 0 = adsorptive
capacity ( l b / f t ) ] ; C the solute concentration (lb/ft ); t the time (hr); a n d Κ
3 3
the rate constant [ft /(lb)(hr)]. 3
C o n s i d e r n o w t h e s o l u t i o n f r o m w h i c h s o l u t e is r e m o v e d b y a d s o r p t i o n .
Solute concentration diminishes at a rate given by
BC/dD = -KNC/V (8.12)
w h e r e D is t h e d e p t h o f a d s o r b e n t ( t o t a l d e p t h , D = D ) 0 (ft); a n d V t h e
flow v e l o c i t y o f s o l u t i o n p a s t t h e a d s o r b e n t (ft/hr).
T h e f o l l o w i n g b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ( B C ) a p p l y : F o r B C - 1 a t t = 0, Ν = N 0
(initial s o l u t e c a p a c i t y o f a d s o r b e n t ) . F o r B C - 2 a t D = 0, C = C 0 (inlet c o n
centration).
Perform the following changes of variable. Let
N' = N/No (8.13)
. N= N N' 0
(8.14)
C = C/Co (8.15)
. c = CC 0
(8.16)
D' = KN DjV 0
(8.17)
D = D'V/KNo (8.18)
t' = KC t 0
(8.19)
: t = t'lKCo (8.20)
W i t h this change of variables, o n e writes t w o modified b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s :

F o r B C - 1 ' a t f' = 0 (i.e., t = 0 ) , since Ν = Λ^ , t h e n N' = N /N 0 = 1. F o r
0 0
B C - 2 ' a t D' = 0 (i.e., D = 0 ) , since C = C , t h e n C = C / C = 1. 0 0 0
E q u a t i o n s (8.11) a n d (8.12) a r e w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f t h e n e w v a r i a b l e s N',

C , D ' , a n d t \ s u b s t i t u t i n g N, C , D a n d / b y t h e i r v a l u e s given b y E q s . (8.14),
9
(8.16), (8.18), a n d (8.20). T h e final r e s u l t after simplification is
F r o m Eq. (8.11)
BN'Idt' = -N'C (8.21)
or
θ In N'/dt' = -C" (8.22)
F r o m Eq. (8.12)
dC'IdD' = -N'C (8.23)
or
dlnC'/dD' = -N' (8.24)
D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g - E q . (8.22) w i t h r e s p e c t t o D' a n d E q . (8.24) w i t h r e s p e c t t o

t' l e a d s t o
d InN'/dD'
2
dt' = -dC'IdD' = N'C (8.25)
3 2
In C'ldt' dD' = -dN'/dt' = N'C (8.26)
S u b t r a c t i n g E q . (8.25) f r o m E q . ( 8 . 2 6 ) ,
3 2
In C'ldt' dD' - B InN'/dD' 2
dt' = 0
or
d \n(C'/N')ldt'
2
dD' = 0 (8.27)
I n t e g r a t i o n o f E q . (8.27) y i e l d s
\n(C'/N') = f(D') +f(t') (8.28)
w h e r e f { D ' ) a n d f ( t ' ) a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f u n c t i o n s o f D' a n d t' alone? Imposing

b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s B C - Γ a n d B C - 2 ' , it f o l l o w s t h a t f
\n(C'/N') = t'-D' (8.29)

or
C'/N' = e ' '
r D
(8.30)
E q u a t i o n (8.23) is r e w r i t t e n a s [ d C ' / i - C O l / a D ' = N'. Dividing both mem

b e r s b y C" a n d e m p l o y i n g E q . ( 8 . 3 0 ) ,
-(dC'IC' )ldD2 f
= N'/C = e '- D v
(8.31)
* P r o o f that Eq. (8.28) is a solution for differential equation (8.27): differentiating Eq.
(8.28) with respect to D' and then with respect to yields Eq. (8.27), since
dfitydD' = 0
and
a df(D')
df dD'
[since f(D') a n d / ( / ' ) are, respectively, functions of D' and / ' alone],
t Application of B C - Γ and B C - 2 ' to E q . (8.29) leads to an identity
In 1/1 = 0 - 0 = 0.
T h e r e f o r e / ( D O and / ( / ' ) are satisfied by
/ ( D O = —D' and fit') = t'

358 8. Tertiary Treatment of W a s t e w a t e r s
E q u a t i o n (8.31) i n t e g r a t e s t o yield*
l/C" = * D
' - ' - ^ ( 0 (8.32)
w h e r e ψ(ί') is a f u n c t i o n o f / ' a l o n e .
F u n c t i o n \l/(t') is e v a l u a t e d b y i m p o s i n g b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n B C - 2 ' . f
ψ(ί') = e~ v
- 1 (8.33)
T h u s E q . (8.32) becomes
1 / C = e '-*' 0
-e-*' + \ (8.34)
F r o m E q . (8.34),
C = l/i^'-'-e-'+l) (8.35)
M u l t i p l y i n g b o t h n u m e r a t o r a n d d e n o m i n a t o r o f E q . (8.35) b y e*\
a = J'Ke^-l+e*') (8.36)
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n E q . (8.36) C , D', a n d t' b y t h e i r v a l u e s g i v e n b y E q s . (8.15),

(8.17), a n d (8.19), t h e r e s u l t is
= e 7(^
K C o o D / K
C/Co -1 + e K C o t
) (8.37)
S o l v i n g E q . (8.37) for t, t h e final r e s u l t is
E KN D/V
0 J
E q u a t i o n (8.38) is r e a r r a n g e d t o yield E q . (8.6). (t is t a k e n a s t h e service t i m e

a n d therefore concentration C equals C .) E
* Proof that Eq. (8.32) is a solution for Eq. (8.31) is obtained by differentiation of Eq.
(8.32) with respect to D ' . Notice that di/r(t')/dD' = 0, and therefore
d(\IC)ldD' = d ^ - ^ I d D '
or
-(dC'IdDyC 2
= e '- ' 0 1
and finally
-(dC'IC' )ldD' = 2
which is Eq. (8.31).

f
Application of BC-2' to Eq. (8.34) leads to an identity
1/1 = e - f - -t'
e + i = χ
Consequently, ^ ( O is satisfied by Eq. (8.33).

4. Ion Exchange 359
4. Ion E x c h a n g e
4.1. INTRODUCTION
I o n e x c h a n g e is a p r o c e s s w h e r e i o n s w h i c h a r e h e l d t o f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s
o n t h e s u r f a c e o f a solid b y e l e c t r o s t a t i c forces a r e e x c h a n g e d for i o n s o f a
different species in s o l u t i o n . T h i s t r e a t m e n t p r o c e d u r e h a s b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y
i m p o r t a n t in t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t .
S i n c e c o m p l e t e d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n is a c h i e v e d b y i o n e x c h a n g e , it is p o s s i b l e
t o u s e split s t r e a m t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s w h e r e p a r t o f t h e influent w a s t e w a t e r
is d e m i n e r a l i z e d a n d t h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h b y p a s s e d influent t o p r o d u c e a n
effluent o f specified q u a l i t y (e.g., a specified h a r d n e s s ) .
Ion exchange resins. U n t i l t h e 1940's n a t u r a l zeolites w e r e t h e o n l y i o n
e x c h a n g e r e s i n s a v a i l a b l e . E x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y w a s relatively l o w , w h i c h
l i m i t e d t h e i r e c o n o m i c feasibility in t h e field o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t . S i n c e
t h e n , n a t u r a l zeolites h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y s y n t h e t i c r e s i n s . T h e s e a r e i n
soluble polymers t o which acidic or basic groups are a d d e d by chemical
reaction procedures. These g r o u p s are c a p a b l e of reversible exchange with
i o n s p r e s e n t in a s o l u t i o n . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s p e r u n i t
w e i g h t ( o r u n i t v o l u m e ) o f resin d e t e r m i n e s e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y , w h e r e a s t h e
t y p e o f f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p d e t e r m i n e s i o n selectivity a n d p o s i t i o n o f e x c h a n g e
e q u i l i b r i u m . R e s i n p a r t i c l e s h a v e d i a m e t e r s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.5 m m a n d
a r e e m p l o y e d in p a c k e d c o l u m n s w i t h w a s t e w a t e r flows o f 5 - 1 2 g a l / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . 2
4.2. BASIC M E C H A N I S M OF ION E X C H A N G E :

CATION A N D A N I O N E X C H A N G E R S
T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c t y p e s o f i o n e x c h a n g e r s : (1) c a t i o n a n d (2) a n i o n
exchangers.
Cation exchangers. Cation exchange resins r e m o v e cations from a solu
t i o n , e x c h a n g i n g t h e m for s o d i u m i o n s ( s o d i u m cycle) o r h y d r o g e n i o n s
( h y d r o g e n cycle). R e m o v a l is r e p r e s e n t e d b y E q . (8.39). [ R d e n o t e s t h e r e s i n
and M 2 +
t h e c a t i o n (e.g., C u , Z n , N i , C a , M g ) . ]
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
Sodium cycle: Na R + M2
2 +
^ M R + 2Na +
(8.39a)
or
Hydrogen cycle: H R + Μ 2
2 +
^ M R + 2H +
(8.39b)
C u , Z n , N i , C a , and M g
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
a r e r e t a i n e d o n t h e r e s i n a n d a soft
2 +
effluent is p r o d u c e d . T h i s soft effluent c o n t a i n s m a i n l y s o d i u m salts (if s o d i u m

cycle is e m p l o y e d ) o r a c i d s (if h y d r o g e n cycle is e m p l o y e d ) .
W h e n t h e e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y o f t h e resin is e x h a u s t e d , i o n i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n
in effluent f r o m t h e e x c h a n g e c o l u m n e x c e e d s t h e specified v a l u e . T h i s c o n
d i t i o n is called b r e a k t h r o u g h . T h e resin m u s t t h e n b e r e g e n e r a t e d . P r i o r t o
r e g e n e r a t i o n , t h e c o l u m n s h o u l d b e b a c k w a s h e d t o r e m o v e solid d e p o s i t s .
Regeneration consists of passing t h r o u g h the c o l u m n either a brine solution
( N a C l f o r s o d i u m cycle) o r a n a c i d s o l u t i o n , u s u a l l y H S 0 2 4 o r H C I (for
h y d r o g e n cycle).
R e g e n e r a t i o n r e a c t i o n s for t h e s o d i u m a n d h y d r o g e n cycles a r e shown
below.
Regenerated Regenerant
resin waste
MR + 2 N a C l ^ Na R 4- MC1 2 2 (8.40a)
M R + 2HC1 (or H S 0 ) ^ 2 4 H R 2 + MC1 2 (8.40b)

(or M S 0 ) 4
T y p i c a l r e g e n e r a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e 2 - 5 % b y w e i g h t w i t h flow r a t e s o f
1-2 ( g a l ) / ( m i n ) ( f t ) . A s i n d i c a t e d b y E q . ( 8 . 4 0 ) , r e g e n e r a n t w a s t e c o n s i s t s o f
2
c a t i o n salts. T h i s w a s t e s t r e a m a m o u n t s t o 1 0 - 1 5 % o f i n f l u e n t v o l u m e t r e a t e d
b e f o r e b r e a k t h r o u g h . F o l l o w i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n t h e e x c h a n g e r b e d is r i n s e d w i t h
water to remove residual regenerant.
Regenerant
"BackwasKâste NaCl (sodium cycle)
TRinsing waste) or
HCI; H S 0 ( a c i d cycle);
2 4
Reactions
Removal:
(Sodium cycle)... N a R 2
2 Na*
or • Μ * * M R * or 2
(8.39)
(Hydrogen cycle)... H R 2
2H +
Cation exchanger Regeneration-. Regenerated Regenerant

resin: waste-.
2 NaCl (sodium cycle) Na R 2
MCI 2
MR • or - or or
2 HCI;H S02 4
H R 2
MSO4
. (Hydrogen cycle) (8.40)
Legend:
- Wastewater streams
-Regenerant streams
Rinsing streams
-Backwash_
Regenerant Sodium salts (sodium cycle)
(and rinsing)
waste stream or
(cation salts) Soft effluent
Acids (hydrogen cycle)
Fig. 8.7. Cation exchanger.

4. Ion Exchange 361
C a t i o n e x c h a n g e r r e a c t i o n s a n d d i r e c t i o n s o f flow for different streams

i n v o l v e d in t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r a r e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 8.7.
H y d r o g e n cycle c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n s a r e w e a k o r s t r o n g a c i d s . M o s t a c i d i c
r e s i n s u s e d in w a t e r p o l l u t i o n a b a t e m e n t a r e s t r o n g a c i d s .
Anion exchangers. A n i o n exchange resins r e m o v e anions from a solution,
e x c h a n g i n g t h e m for h y d r o x y l i o n s . R e m o v a l is r e p r e s e n t e d b y E q . (8.41)
(where A ~ represents an anion).
2
R(OH) + A " ^ 2
2
RA + 2 0 H - (8.41)
A n i o n s (e.g., S O ^ " , C r O . " ) a r e t h u s r e m o v e d f r o m s o l u t i o n .
2
R e g e n e r a t i o n is m a d e after b r e a k t h r o u g h , u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d b y b a c k -
w a s h i n g t o r e m o v e solid d e p o s i t s . R e g e n e r a n t s c o m m o n l y u s e d a r e s o d i u m
a n d a m m o n i u m h y d r o x i d e s . T h e r e g e n e r a t i o n r e a c t i o n is
Regenerated Regenerant
resin waste
RA + 2 N a O H ^ R(OH) + A " 2
2
(8.42)
or ' Na A ' 2
2NH OH 4 or
(NH ) A4 2
Typical regenerant concentrations are 5-10% by weight.

U s u a l l y , c a t i o n a n d a n i o n e x c h a n g e r s a r e u s e d in series. B y a d e q u a t e
selection of ion exchangers, almost any wastewater p r o b l e m of a n inorganic
n a t u r e can be h a n d l e d . Basic exchange resins are either strong or w e a k bases.
A n i o n e x c h a n g e r r e a c t i o n s a n d d i r e c t i o n o f flow for t h e different s t r e a m s
i n v o l v e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a n a n i o n e x c h a n g e r a r e i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 8.8.
4.3. D E S I G N O F I O N E X C H A N G E COLUMNS
T h e first s t e p in d e s i g n i n g a n i o n e x c h a n g e s y s t e m for a specific w a s t e w a t e r
is t o r u n a c o m p l e t e c a t i o n - a n i o n a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n f l u e n t t o b e t r e a t e d . I n
addition, d a t a o n total dissolved solids ( T D S ) , dissolved C 0 , S i 0 , a n d p H 2 2
are obtained.
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i o n s p r e s e n t a r e e x p r e s s e d in e i t h e r o f t w o
ways:
1. I n m e q / l i t e r ( m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s p e r liter), e.g., for a s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g
2 0 m g / l i t e r o f C u , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t e r m s o f m e q / l i t e r is
2 +
20/(63.5/2) = 0.63 meq/liter

w h e r e 6 3 . 5 is t h e a t o m i c w e i g h t o f C u a n d 2 is t h e v a l e n c e .
2. I n t e r m s o f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e e q u i v a l e n t s , e.g., for a s o l u t i o n c o n
taining 20 mg/liter of C u a n d the stoichiometric a m o u n t of C l ~ , the con
2 +
centration of C u 2 +
in t e r m s o f C a C 0 is c a l c u l a t e d a s
3
20(134.5/100) = 27 mg/liter of C a C Q 3
NaOH
Anionic waste Regenerant
or
_ _Bac^was_h^waste NH4OH
(Rinsing waste)
Reactions
Removal
R(OH) • A " 5 = 2 : R A + 20H~

2
2
(8.41)
Regeneration: Regenerated Regenerant

resin: waste.
RA • 2 NaOH 5 R(OH) • A " (8.42)
2
2
Anion exchanger or " Na A 2
2 NH4OH or
[(NH ) Aj 4 2
Legend.
Wastewater streams
Regenerant streams
Rinsing streams
^-Backwash
(and rinsing)
Regenerant"
waste] Soft effluent
Fig. 8.8. Anion exchanger.
w h e r e 100 a n d 134.5 a r e t h e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t s o f C a C 0 3 a n d C u C l , re

2
spectively.
D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s d e t e r m i n e d b y l a b o r a t o r y tests p r i o r t o d e s i g n o f a n
ion exchange column are
1. Exchange capacity of resin. C a t i o n - a n i o n resin c a p a c i t i e s a r e u s u a l l y
e x p r e s s e d a s e q u i v a l e n t s o f i o n r e m o v e d p e r u n i t b e d v o l u m e (e.g., e q u i v a l e n t s /
liter o f r e s i n o r e q u i v a l e n t s / f t o f r e s i n ) . T h e y m a y b e a l s o e x p r e s s e d p e r u n i t
3
w e i g h t o f b e d (e.g., e q u i v a l e n t s / l b o f r e s i n ) . E x c h a n g e c a p a c i t i e s a r e a l s o
e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f w e i g h t o f C a C 0 e q u i v a l e n t , e i t h e r p e r u n i t v o l u m e o r
3
p e r u n i t w e i g h t o f b e d (e.g., l b C a C 0 / f t o f r e s i n , l b C a C 0 / l b o f r e s i n ) .
3
3
3
2. Regenerant requirements. R e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e x p r e s s e d in
t e r m s o f w e i g h t p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f b e d (e.g., l b H S 0 / f t ) . T h e d e g r e e o f
2 4
3
t h e o r e t i c a l c a p a c i t y a t t a i n e d ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o fresh resin) d e p e n d s o n t h e
weight of regenerant employed. A n economic balance between degree of
theoretical capacity attained a n d weight of regenerant (lb r e g e n e r a n t / f t of 3
b e d v o l u m e ) is t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . P e r f o r m a n c e c u r v e s for r e g e n e r a n t s
4. Ion Exchange 363
(exchange capacity of regenerated resin vs. weight of regenerant), d e t e r m i n e d

from l a b o r a t o r y studies, are sometimes available from resin manufacturers.
T h e exchange capacity of the c o l u m n increases with weight of regenerant
utilized.
3. Rinsing water requirements. Following regeneration, the exchanger bed
is r i n s e d w i t h w a t e r t o r e m o v e r e s i d u a l r e g e n e r a n t . R i n s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
also d e t e r m i n e d from l a b o r a t o r y studies, are s o m e t i m e s available from resin
m a n u f a c t u r e r s . T h e y a r e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f g a l l o n s o f w a t e r p e r f t o f 3
resin (range, 100-200 gal/ft ). Characteristics of exchange resins are evaluated

3
f r o m b e n c h s c a l e u n i t s [ 5 ] . Plexiglass c o l u m n s o f 1 in. d i a m e t e r a r e u s e d a t
u n i t flow r a t e s c o m p a r a b l e t o p l a n t scale u n i t s . T a b l e 8.4 s h o w s t y p i c a l d a t a
o b t a i n e d f r o m b e n c h scale u n i t s .
T A B L E 8.4
Characteristics of Cation and Anion Exchange Resins Utilized in
Treatment of Plating Industry Wastewater
Cation Anion
Exchange capacity 7 0 e q / f t o f resin

3
3.5 l b C r 0 / f t o f resin
3
3
Regenerant H S0
2 4 NaOH
Requirement (lb/ft o f resin)3
11.0 (inlbH S0 ) 2 4 4.7 (in lb N a O H )
Concentration (%) 5.0 10.0
F l o w rate [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
1.0 1.0
Rinsing water requirements
(gal/ft o f resin)
3
130.0 100.0
Additional considerations concerning design of ion exchange systems are

as follows:
1. R e c o v e r y o f v a l u a b l e w a s t e w a t e r c o n s t i t u e n t s , a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n
d e t e r m i n i n g e c o n o m i c feasibility o f i o n e x c h a n g e , is i l l u s t r a t e d b y E x a m p l e
8.3. C h r o m a t e s ( C r 0 ~ ) f r o m a p l a t i n g p l a n t w a s t e w a t e r a r e h e l d b y a n a n i o n
4
e x c h a n g e r a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c o v e r e d a s c h r o m i c a c i d ( H C r 0 ) in a h y d r o
2 4
gen cation exchanger. Nickel ions are salvaged from plating plant wastes.
2. C a l c u l a t i o n o f b e d d e p t h is i l l u s t r a t e d in E x a m p l e 8.3. A d d i t i o n a l free
h e i g h t is p r o v i d e d t o a l l o w for e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b e d for b a c k w a s h i n g a n d
c l e a n i n g . A s a r u l e o f t h u m b a 5 0 % a l l o w a n c e is t a k e n .
4.4. D E S I G N O F A N I O N E X C H A N G E S Y S T E M [ 5 ]
E x a m p l e 8.3
D e s i g n a n i o n e x c h a n g e s y s t e m t o t r e a t 120,000 gal o f w a s t e w a t e r p e r d a y
f r o m a m e t a l - p l a t i n g i n d u s t r y . T h e m a i n m e t a l i o n s p r e s e n t in t h e w a s t e
w a t e r a r e c h r o m i u m , e q u i v a l e n t t o 120 m g / l i t e r o f C r 0 ( p r e s e n t a s c h r o m a t e ,
3
C r O " ) ; C u , 30 m g / l i t e r ; Z n , 15 m g / l i t e r ; a n d N i , 2 0 m g / l i t e r .
2 2 + 2 + 2 +
I t is d e s i r e d t o r e m o v e C u , Z n , a n d N i 2 +
in a h y d r o g e n cycle c a t i o n
2 + 2 +
e x c h a n g e r ( c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r n o . 1) a n d C r 0 ~ in a n a n i o n e x c h a n g e r d o w n
4
s t r e a m f r o m t h e c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r . T h e h y d r o g e n cycle c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r is
regenerated by a 5% solution of H S 0 . T h e anion exchanger employed to 2 4
r e m o v e C K ) ~ is r e g e n e r a t e d b y a 1 0 % s o l u t i o n o f N a O H . Effluent f r o m t h i s
4
r e g e n e r a t i o n c o n t a i n s s o d i u m c h r o m a t e ( N a C r 0 ) . V a l u a b l e C r 0 ~ is 2 4 4
r e c o v e r e d in a n o t h e r h y d r o g e n c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r ( c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r n o . 2) a s
c h r o m i c a c i d ( H C r 0 ) . T h i s c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r is a l s o r e g e n e r a t e d b y a 5 %
2 4
s o l u t i o n o f H S 0 . A c i d effluents f r o m r e g e n e r a t i o n o f c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r s
2 4
n o . 1 a n d 2 are c o m b i n e d , neutralized, a n d then discarded t o a sewer. Figure

8.9 s h o w s a flowsheet o f t h e p r o p o s e d p r o c e s s .
Characteristics of the cation a n d a n i o n exchangers t o be employed are
p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 8.4. B o t h c a t i o n a n d a n i o n u n i t s o p e r a t e 6 d a y s b e t w e e n
r e g e n e r a t i o n s . D e s i g n t h e t h r e e i o n e x c h a n g e r s in t h e s y s t e m a n d e s t i m a t e
regeneration a n d rinse water requirements.
SOLUTION T h e flow d i a g r a m is s h o w n in F i g . 8.9, a n d c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s

involved are
Hydrogen cycle cation—exchanger n o . 1
Removal
H R + M 2
2 +
MR + 2H +
Start
Metal-plating
To neutralization unit
wastewater
[Cu ',Zn ,
z 2 >
CuS0 4
Ni 'CrO|-]
2
ZnS0 4 CrO£ _Na_2Cr_04 ^ j [Na S0 ] 2 4
|NiS0
(H Cr0 )
4
2 4
Hydrogen Anion Hydrogen Legend

cation exchanger cation
— Wastewater
exchanger exchanger
streams
#1 #2
[to remove [to remove [to recover — Regenerant
Cu \Zn *
2 2 streams
CrO "] 2
OO /] 2
S Ni ] 2+
NaOH
regenerant
Η2Ο H Cr0
2 4
(recovered)
H S0
2 4
regenerant
Fig. 8.9. Ion exchanger flow diagram (Example 8.3).

4. Ion E x c h a n g e 365
where M = Cu2 + 2 +
, Zn 2 +
, and N i 2 +
.
Regeneration
MR + H S 0 2 4 -> H R + M S 0
2 4
A n i o n exchanger
Removal
R(OH) + H C r 0 2 2 4 ^ RCr0 4 + 2H 0 2
Regeneration
RCr0 4 + 2NaOH ^ R ( O H ) -f N a C r 0
2 2 4
H y d r o g e n cycle cation—exchanger n o . 2
Removal
H R + Na Cr0
2 2 4 ^ Na R + H Cr0
2 2 4 (recovered)
Regeneration
Na R + H S 0
2 2 4 ^ H R + Na S0
2 2 4
Design of hydrogen cycle cation—exchanger no. 1

Step 1. C a l c u l a t e e q u i v a l e n t s o f m e t a l i o n s t o b e r e m o v e d (see t a b u l a t i o n
below).
Ion concentration Equivalent wt meq/liter
30 mg/liter C u 2+
63.5/2 = 31.7 30/31.7 = 0.95
15 mg/liter Z n 2+
65.4/2 = 32.7 15/32.7 = 0.46
2 0 mg/liter N i 2 +
58.7/2 = 29.4 20/29.4 = 0.68
Total = 2.09
Step 2. D e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l e q u i v a l e n t s / d a y t o b e r e m o v e d .
2.09 meq/liter χ 3.78 liter/gal χ 120,000 gal/day χ eq/1000 m e q = 948 e q / d a y
Step 3. C a l c u l a t e t o t a l r e s i n r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e b a s i s o f 7 0 e q u i v a l e n t s / f t 3
o f r e s i n ( T a b l e 8.4) a n d 6 - d a y o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n r e g e n e r a t i o n s .
948 e q / d a y χ 6 days/cycle
Resin requirement = 70 e q / f t 3 =
resm/cycle
Step 4. Select a c o l u m n d i a m e t e r o f 3 ft a n d c a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d d e p t h o f
resin bed.
Cross section = (i)n3 2
= 7.07 ft 2
D e p t h = 81/7.07 = 11.5 ft
A l l o w i n g 5 0 % free s p a c e for b e d e x p a n s i o n for b a c k w a s h i n g a n d c l e a n i n g ,

t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e q u i r e d c o l u m n is (1.50) (11.5) = 17.3 ft. U t i l i z e t w o c o l u m n s
in series, e a c h 8.5 ft in h e i g h t , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g a 11.5/2 = 5.75-ft r e s i n d e p t h
(free s p a c e , 2.75 ft for e a c h c o l u m n ; r a t i o , 8.5/5.75 = 1.48).
Step 5. C a l c u l a t e r e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e g e n e r a n t is a 5 % s o l u t i o n
of H S 02 4 a s i n d i c a t e d in T a b l e 8.4, a n d 11.0 l b H S 0 / f t 2 4
3
o f resin a r e r e
q u i r e d . T h e lb o f H S 0 2 4 required are
11 lb/ft χ 81 ft
3 3
= 891 lb of H S 02 4 per cycle
or
891 (100/5) = 17,820 lb of 5% solution
Step 6. C a l c u l a t e r i n s e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . F r o m T a b l e 8.4, 130 g a l o f

w a t e r a r e r e q u i r e d for r i n s i n g e a c h c u b i c f o o t o f r e s i n . R e q u i r e d r i n s e w a t e r is
130 gal/ft χ 81 ft /cycle = 10,530 gal per cycle

3 3
Design of anion exchanger

C h r o m i c a c i d ( H C r 0 ) p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c a t i o n u n i t is r e m o v e d in t h e
2 4
a n i o n e x c h a n g e u n i t , w h i c h is d e s i g n e d a s f o l l o w s :
Step 1. T o t a l c h r o m e r e m o v e d p e r d a y ( a s C r 0 ) is 3
120 mg/liter χ 3.78 liter/gal χ g / 1 0 m g χ lb/454 g χ 120,000 gal/day = 120 lb/day

3
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e resin r e q u i r e m e n t s . B a s i s : 3.5 l b C r 0 / f t 3

3
of resin
( T a b l e 8.4) a n d 6-day o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n r e g e n e r a t i o n s .
. 120 lb/day χ 6 days/cycle ^ p , r . , t
Resin requirement = 3 5 lb/ft 3 =

resm/cycle
Step 3. Select a c o l u m n d i a m e t e r o f 3 ft a n d c a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d d e p t h o f
resin bed.
Cross section = ( ± ) π 3 = 7.07 f t , d e p t h = 206/7.07 = 29 ft

2 2
A l l o w i n g a 5 0 % free s p a c e f o r b e d e x p a n s i o n , t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e q u i r e d
c o l u m n is ( 1 . 5 0 ) ( 2 9 . 0 ) = 4 3 . 5 ft. U t i l i z e f o u r c o l u m n s in series, e a c h 11 ft in
h e i g h t ( 1 1 x 4 = 4 4 ) , a n d e a c h c o n t a i n i n g 2 9 / 4 = 7.25-ft r e s i n d e p t h (free
s p a c e , 3.75 ft for e a c h c o l u m n ; r a t i o , 11/7.25 = 1.5).
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e g e n e r a n t is a 1 0 % s o l u t i o n
o f N a O H a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 8.4, a n d 4.7 l b o f N a O H s o l u t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d
per ft of resin. T h e lb of N a O H required are
3
4.7 lb/ft χ 206 ft

3 3
= 968 lb of N a O H per cycle
or
968(100/10) = 9680 lb of 10% solution
Step 5 . C a l c u l a t e r i n s e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . F r o m T a b l e 8.4, 100 g a l o f

w a t e r a r e r e q u i r e d for r i n s i n g e a c h c u b i c f o o t o f r e s i n . R e q u i r e d r i n s e w a t e r is
100 gal/ft χ 206 f t 3 3

= 20,600 gal
Design of hydrogen cycle cation—exchanger no. 2

C h r o m i c a c i d ( H C r 0 ) is r e c o v e r e d f r o m s p e n t r e g e n e r a n t l e a v i n g t h e
2 4
a n i o n e x c h a n g e r ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s N a C r 0 ) b y p a s s i n g it t h r o u g h a c a t i o n
2 4
e x c h a n g e r ( F i g . 8.9). A s c a l c u l a t e d i n S t e p 4 o f t h e d e s i g n for t h e a n i o n e x
changer, 968 lb of N a O H are required.
Step 1. C a l c u l a t e s o d i u m h y d r o x i d e e q u i v a l e n t s t o b e r e m o v e d b y t h e
cation exchanger.
968 lb χ 454 g/lb χ eq/40 g = 10,987 eq
since t h e e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t o f N a O H is 4 0 g.
Step 2. C a l c u l a t e resin r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e b a s i s o f 7 0 e q u i v a l e n t s / f t 3
o f r e s i n ( T a b l e 8.4).
« . 10,987eq „ , . i r r r
Resin requirement = — — — r = 157 f t of resin 3
70 e q / f t 3
Step 3. Select a c o l u m n d i a m e t e r o f 3 ft, a n d c a l c u l a t e r e q u i r e d d e p t h o f

the resin bed.
Cross section = (ί)π3 2
= 7.07 ft 2
D e p t h = 157/7.07 = 22.2 ft
A l l o w i n g 5 0 % free s p a c e for b e d e x p a n s i o n , t h e h e i g h t o f t h e r e q u i r e d c o l u m n
is ( 1 . 5 0 ) ( 2 2 . 2 ) = 33.3 ft. U t i l i z e t h r e e c o l u m n s i n series, e a c h 3 3 . 3 / 3 « 11 ft
d e e p , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g a 2 2 . 2 / 3 = 7.4-ft r e s i n d e p t h (free s p a c e , 3.6 ft for e a c h
c o l u m n ; r a t i o , 1 1 / 7 . 4 = 1.48).
Step 4. C a l c u l a t e r e g e n e r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s . R e g e n e r a n t is a 5 % s o l u t i o n
of H S 0 2 4 a s i n d i c a t e d in T a b l e 8.4, a n d 11.0 l b o f H S 0 / f t 2 4
3
of resin are
required. T h e lb of H S 0 2 4 required are
11 lb/ft 3
χ 157 f t 3
= 17271bH S0 2 4
or
1727(100/5) = 34,540 lb of 5 % solution
Step 5. C a l c u l a t e r i n s e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . F r o m T a b l e 8.4, 130 g a l o f

w a t e r a r e r e q u i r e d for r i n s i n g e a c h c u b i c f o o t o f r e s i n . R e q u i r e d r i n s e w a t e r
is t h e r e f o r e
130 gal/ft χ 157 f t3 3
= 20,410 gal
5. R e v e r s e O s m o s i s
5.1. O S M O S I S A N D O S M O T I C P R E S S U R E
A l t h o u g h o s m o t i c p h e n o m e n a h a v e b e e n k n o w n for o v e r 2 0 0 y e a r s , t h e
first p r e c i s e e x p e r i m e n t s l i n k i n g o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e t o t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s o l u t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n w e r e p e r f o r m e d in t h e l a t e 1800's b y Pfeffer. A t y p i c a l e x p e r i
m e n t w i t h a s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 8.10.
Glass tube—Η
Η -Pressure at
Dilute solution
of sucrose-
•Pressure at
A* - Ρ • 7Γ
Bag made of
semipermeable •Passage of
membrane — solvent
Water (water)
Fig. 8.10. Osmosis experiment.
T h e b a g s h o w n in F i g . 8.10 is m a d e o f a m e m b r a n e p e r m e a b l e t o t h e s o l v e n t
( w a t e r in F i g . 8.10) b u t i m p e r m e a b l e t o t h e s o l u t e ( s u c r o s e ) . T h e s e a r e k n o w n
a s s e m i p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s . E a r l y s e m i p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s u t i l i z e d in
o s m o s i s w e r e a n i m a l m e m b r a n e s (e.g., p i g b l a d d e r s ) . S y n t h e t i c m e m b r a n e s w e r e
d e v e l o p e d later, cellulose a c e t a t e m e m b r a n e s n o w b e i n g t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d .
A d i l u t e s o l u t i o n o f s u c r o s e (e.g., a 0.001 Μ s o l u t i o n ) is p l a c e d i n s i d e t h e
s e m i p e r m e a b l e b a g , w h i c h is t h e n d i p p e d i n t o a v a t c o n t a i n i n g p u r e w a t e r .
T h e w a t e r diffuses s p o n t a n e o u s l y f r o m t h e v a t t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e s e m i
p e r m e a b l e bag, as indicated by the a r r o w . A s a result, a c o l u m n of liquid
rises t h r o u g h t h e glass t u b e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e d i l u t e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n , r e a c h i n g
a t e q u i l i b r i u m a h e i g h t π a b o v e t h e level o f w a t e r in t h e v a t . A t t h i s m o m e n t ,
passage of solvent stops. Pressure exerted on points A ' a n d A situated at the
s a m e e l e v a t i o n differs b y t h e i n c r e m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o h e i g h t π o f l i q u i d .
T h i s v a l u e is c a l l e d t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n . O s m o s i s is
defined a s t h e s p o n t a n e o u s p a s s a g e o f a s o l v e n t f r o m a d i l u t e s o l u t i o n ( p u r e
w a t e r in t h e c a s e o f F i g . 8.10) t o a m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n e t h r o u g h a s e m i
permeable membrane.
Let Ρ be the pressure at point A (atmospheric pressure plus pressure cor
r e s p o n d i n g t o a c o l u m n o f w a t e r o f h e i g h t H). T h e p r e s s u r e a t A ' is ( Ρ + π ) .
O s m o t i c p r e s s u r e π is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p for π a s a f u n c t i o n o f c o n
c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e (c) a n d a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e (T) is given b y t h e v a n ' t
Hoff equation.
5.2. V A N ' T H O F F E Q U A T I O N F O R O S M O T I C
PRESSURE
D e r i v a t i o n o f t h e v a n ' t H o f f e q u a t i o n is f o u n d in s t a n d a r d p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y
texts [ 3 ] . T h e e q u a t i o n is
π = nRT/V = cRT (8.43)
w h e r e π is t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e ( a t m ) ; η t h e g m o l e o f s o l u t e (e.g., s u c r o s e ) ;
Vthe v o l u m e o f t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n ; n\V— c t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u c r o s e s o l u
t i o n (g m o l e / l i t e r ) ; R t h e i d e a l g a s c o n s t a n t [ 0 . 0 8 2 ( a t m ) ( l i t e r ) / ( g m o l e ) ( ° K ) ] ;
and Τ the absolute temperature (°K).
T h e v a n ' t Hoff e q u a t i o n shows a startling similarity t o the ideal gas law,
the solvent corresponding to the e m p t y space between gas molecules a n d these
latter c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the molecules of solute, in the case of osmosis. T h u s ,
one could consider osmotic pressure t o be the result of b o m b a r d m e n t exerted
b y m o l e c u l e s o f s o l u t e o n t h e m e m b r a n e . D e s p i t e t h i s a n a l o g y , it is d e c e p t i v e
t o c o n s i d e r o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e a s a s o r t o f p r e s s u r e w h i c h is e x e r t e d b y t h e
s o l u t e . R a t h e r o s m o s i s is t h e p a s s a g e o f s o l v e n t t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e d u e
t o m o m e n t a r y i n e q u a l i t y o f t h e c h e m i c a l p o t e n t i a l o n t h e t w o sides o f t h e
m e m b r a n e [3.] O s m o t i c pressure results from this passage of solvent.
A p p l i c a t i o n o f E q . (8.43) t o a 0.001 Μ s o l u t i o n o f s u c r o s e (i.e., n/V = c =
0.001 g m o l e / l i t e r ) a t 2 0 ° C l e a d s t o a v a l u e o f t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t e d
as
n = RT=
C 0.001 g mole/liter χ 0.082 (atm)(liter)/(g m o l e ) ( ° K ) χ 293.2°K
= 0.024 a t m
A s s u m i n g t h e specific g r a v i t y o f t h e d i l u t e s o l u t i o n t o b e t h a t o f p u r e w a t e r ,
t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a h e i g h t π ( F i g . 8.10) e q u a l t o
π = 0.024 a t m χ 34 ft w a t e r / a t m = 0.82 ft ( « 1 0 in.)
If t h e v a n ' t H o f f e q u a t i o n c o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o r e l a t i v e l y concentrated
s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n s (e.g., a 1.0 Μ s o l u t i o n ) , h e i g h t π w o u l d b e 1000 t i m e s t h a t
j u s t c a l c u l a t e d , i.e., 820 ft. I n a s m u c h a s t h e i d e a l g a s l a w d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e
a c c u r a t e l y g a s b e h a v i o r a t h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s , t h e v a n ' t H o f f e q u a t i o n is n o t a n
a d e q u a t e m o d e l for o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e a t h i g h e r s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
5.3. PRINCIPLE OF REVERSE O S M O S I S

T h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e v e r s e o s m o s i s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 8 . 1 1 . F i g u r e 8 . 1 1 ( a )
depicts direct osmosis [e.g., condition existing at beginning of experiment
w i t h s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n ( F i g . 8 . 1 0 ) ] . S o l v e n t flows s p o n t a n e o u s l y t h r o t y g h t h e
semipermeable m e m b r a n e . Figure 8.11(b) illustrates the equilibrium con
dition. H e r e the liquid head which has developed as a result of solvent flow
t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e is e q u a l t o t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e . S o l v e n t flow s t o p s .
F i g u r e 8.11 (c) i l l u s t r a t e s w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n a f o r c e F i n excess o f t h e v a l u e
o f o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e is a p p l i e d t o t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n . S o l v e n t flow is r e v e r s e d ,
i.e., f r o m t h e c o m p a r t m e n t c o n t a i n i n g t h e s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n t o t h e water
c o m p a r t m e n t . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is c a l l e d r e v e r s e o s m o s i s ( h e n c e a b b r e v i a t e d
as R O ) .
Semipermeable | Semipermeable
U—membrane r*—membrane
'·..·•·'·.'•'·'·· . ί '
• · · . I
• • ' ' · ' . ' • ' - . 1 Liquid head
•' · . · ' · . ' · ' . . 1 equal to
' ' ; . ·' ' ' 1 osmotic
"•'.•••'".·· I pressure
. 1
• . 1
Sucrose solution Water ' ' * " ' ' · -i ι
' . ' ·..'·· ' ι
Sucrose solution { _ Water
. ·· · . : · · Ί
' ·' · ' . · · . ! -
. " · · I-
(a) (b)
Direct osmosis: Equilibrium condition:
solvent flows spontaneously through solvent flow s t o p s
the semipermeable membrane
ι- , ι Semipermeable
Force F equal to | . _ m e m b r a n e
(osmotic pressure r _ —
plus liquid head
Water
F F F F '
M i l !
Sucrose solution '
(c)
Reverse osmosis:
requires applied force in excess
of the osmotic pressure
Fig. 8.11. Illustration of the principle of reverse osmosis.
I n the t r e a t m e n t of wastewaters by reverse osmosis, c o n t a m i n a t e d influent

is p l a c e d i n c o n t a c t w i t h a s u i t a b l e m e m b r a n e a t a p r e s s u r e i n excess o f t h e
o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f t h e s o l u t i o n [ s a m e s i t u a t i o n a s i n F i g . 8.11(c), e x c e p t
t h a t t h e left c o m p a r t m e n t c o n t a i n s w a s t e w a t e r i n s t e a d o f s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n ] .
U n d e r these conditions, water with a very small a m o u n t o f c o n t a m i n a n t s
permeates the m e m b r a n e . Dissolved contaminants are concentrated in t h e
w a s t e w a t e r c o m p a r t m e n t . T h i s c o n c e n t r a t e , w h i c h h o p e f u l l y i s a s m a l l frac
t i o n o f t h e t o t a l v o l u m e o f w a s t e w a t e r t o b e t r e a t e d , i s d i s c a r d e d . Purified
w a t e r is o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e o t h e r c o m p a r t m e n t .
T h e c o m p a r t m e n t s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 8.11 a r e a s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
R O p r o c e s s . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e R O p r o c e s s is c o n d u c t e d i n a t u b u l a r c o n f i g u r a
t i o n s y s t e m ( F i g . 8.12). R a w w a s t e w a t e r flows u n d e r h i g h p r e s s u r e (in excess
o f t h e v a l u e o f its o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e ) t h r o u g h a n i n n e r t u b e m a d e o f a s e m i -
p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e m a t e r i a l a n d d e s i g n e d for h i g h p r e s s u r e operation.
Purified w a t e r is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e o u t e r t u b e , w h i c h is a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s
s u r e a n d is m a d e o f o r d i n a r y t u b u l a r m a t e r i a l . T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f o p e r a t i n g
p r e s s u r e s , w a t e r fluxes (yield o f p u r i f i e d w a t e r p e r u n i t a r e a o f m e m b r a n e ) ,
a n d p r o d u c t quality are discussed in the following sections.
5.4. P R E P A R A T I O N O F R O M E M B R A N E S
R e v e r s e o s m o s i s f o u n d its e a r l i e r a p p l i c a t i o n s in d e s a l i n a t i o n o f o c e a n
water. C o n s i d e r a b l e research a n d pilot-plant w o r k are being d o n e for utiliza
t i o n o f R O in r e m o v a l o f c o n t a m i n a n t s f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s . S o m e o f t h e s e
(e.g., n i t r o g e n a n d p h o s p h o r u s c o m p o u n d s , c h r o m a t e s , a n d s o m e o r g a n i c
c o m p o u n d s ) are not adequately removed by other processes. Consequently,
usual processes m a y be complemented by R O , provided economic con
siderations are favorable. Research indicates t h a t in principle, R O can be
u s e d t o o b t a i n a n effluent o f v i r t u a l l y a n y d e s i r e d d e g r e e o f p u r i t y w h i l e still
m a i n t a i n i n g r e a s o n a b l e flow r a t e s .
M a n y natural materials have semipermeable characteristics. A n i m a l a n d
plant membranes are well-known examples. Collodion, cellophanes, porous
g l a s s frits, finely c r a c k e d g l a s s , a n d i n o r g a n i c p r e c i p i t a t e s s u c h a s c o p p e r
ferrocyanide, a n d zinc and uranyl p h o s p h a t e s have been used. All these,
however, have the shortcomings of developing leaks a n d exhibiting short
lived selectivity a n d p o o r r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y .
Cellulose acetate m e m b r a n e s (hence denoted as C A m e m b r a n e s ) are the
m o s t successful s e m i p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s d e v e l o p e d . S o u r i r a j a n a n d L o e b
[ 9 ] d e v e l o p e d a t e c h n i q u e for p r e p a r a t i o n o f C A m e m b r a n e s y i e l d i n g b o t h
high permeabilities a n d high degrees of solute separation from a q u e o u s
s o l u t i o n s o f s o d i u m c h l o r i d e . T h e i r t e c h n i q u e is a s f o l l o w s :
^Raw
wastewater
in
Concentrate
removal Λ
Purified water removal
Fig. 8.12. Diagram of a tubular configuration system for wastewater

treatment by reverse osmosis.
1. Casting step. T h e film-casting s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n s cellulose a c e t a t e

d i s s o l v e d in a c e t o n e , t o w h i c h is a d d e d a n a d d i t i v e s o l u b l e in w a t e r a n d n o t
affecting t h e s o l u b i l i t y o f cellulose a c e t a t e i n a c e t o n e (e.g., m a g n e s i u m p e r -
c h l o r a t e ) . W i t h t h i s s o l u t i o n , m e m b r a n e s a r e c a s t o n flat o r t u b u l a r s u r f a c e s
(e.g., g l a s s p l a t e s o r t u b u l a r s u r f a c e s ) , e i t h e r a t l a b o r a t o r y o r l o w e r t e m
p e r a t u r e s ( « — 10°C). O n e o f t h e m o s t significant d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e field
o f C A m e m b r a n e t e c h n o l o g y is c a s t i n g in t u b u l a r f o r m . T u b u l a r - s h a p e d
m e m b r a n e s a r e e n t i r e l y lined w i t h i n a p o r o u s fiberglass r e i n f o r c e d t u b e .
2. Evaporation step. A f t e r c a s t i n g , p a r t o f t h e s o l v e n t ( a c e t o n e ) is a l l o w e d
t o e v a p o r a t e from the surface of the m e m b r a n e at casting t e m p e r a t u r e .
3. Gelation step. T h e m e m b r a n e is i m m e r s e d in ice-cold w a t e r f o r a t
least 1 h r . T h e film sets t o a gel, f r o m w h i c h t h e a d d i t i v e (e.g., m a g n e s i u m
perchlorate) a n d the solvent (acetone) are leached out, leaving a t o u g h solid
p o r o u s film o n t h e flat o r t u b u l a r s u r f a c e .
4. Shrinkage step. M e m b r a n e s f r o m t h e g e l a t i o n s t e p e x h i b i t p o r e s w h i c h
a r e t o o large t o p e r m i t efficient o p e r a t i o n ( d i a m e t e r s « 4 0 0 0 A). T h e s e l a r g e
pores are a result of the leaching process. Consequently, the m e m b r a n e
receives a t h e r m a l t r e a t m e n t b y s h r i n k i n g it in h o t w a t e r f o r a b o u t 10 m i n .
A d j u s t i n g t h e h o t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e , it is p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n v a r i a b l e p o r o s
ities, w h i c h r e s u l t s in different d e g r e e s o f w a s t e w a t e r s e p a r a t i o n . H i g h e r h o t
w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s ( u s u a l r a n g e is 7 0 ° - 9 8 ° C ) yield s m a l l e r p o r e s .
5.5. P R E F E R E N T I A L S O R P T I O N - C A P I L L A R Y F L O W
M E C H A N I S M FOR R E V E R S E O S M O S I S
S e v e r a l m e c h a n i s m s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d b y different i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o e x
p l a i n r e v e r s e o s m o s i s . O f t h e s e , o n l y t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l s o r p t i o n - c a p i l l a r y flow
m e c h a n i s m is d e s c r i b e d h e r e . T h i s m e c h a n i s m , p r o p o s e d b y S o u r i r a j a n [ 9 ] ,
is s u m m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s : R O s e p a r a t i o n is t h e c o m b i n e d r e s u l t o f a n i n t e r
facial p h e n o m e n o n a n d fluid t r a n s p o r t u n d e r p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h c a p i l l a r y
p o r e s . F i g u r e 8.13 is a c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l o f t h i s m e c h a n i s m for r e c o v e r y o f
fresh w a t e r f r o m a q u e o u s salt s o l u t i o n s ( o c e a n w a t e r ) .
T h e s o l u t i o n is in c o n t a c t w i t h a p o r o u s m e m b r a n e , t h e s u r f a c e o f w h i c h
h a s a p r e f e r e n t i a l s o r p t i o n for w a t e r a n d / o r p r e f e r e n t i a l r e p u l s i o n for t h e
s o l u t e . A c o n t i n u o u s r e m o v a l o f p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s o r b e d i n t e r f a c i a l w a t e r is
effected b y flow u n d e r p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e c a p i l l a r i e s . T h e
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s o r b e d w a t e r l a y e r a t t h e i n t e r f a c e is o f a m o n o m o l e c u l a r
n a t u r e ( i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 8.13 b e l o w t h e single d o t t e d line), a n d r e s u l t s f r o m
interaction between interfacial surface tension a n d a d s o r p t i o n of solute.
F o r a m a x i m u m s e p a r a t i o n a n d p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h i s m o d e l gives rise t o t h e
c o n c e p t o f critical p o r e d i a m e t e r , w h i c h is e q u a l t o t w i c e t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s o r b e d i n t e r f a c i a l w a t e r l a y e r ( F i g . 8.14). F r o m a n i n d u s t r i a l
s t a n d p o i n t , a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e v e r s e o s m o s i s t e c h n i q u e for a g i v e n s e p a r a t i o n
Pressure
H0 2
NaXf H0 2 Na C f HoO
Na Cf
+
H0 2 Na Cf
+
Bulk of the
solution
H0 2
Na CI"
+
H0 2
Na Cf
+
H02
H0 2
Na Cf +
H0 2
Na Cf
+
H02
Pure water H0 2
Na Cf +
H0 2
Na Cf
+
H02
interface
H0 2 H0 2 HoO H 0 2
H02
\Porous film surface ΗίΟ Porous1

film surfaci
of appropriate of appropriate
chemical nature chemical nature
HoO
- P o r o u s film '—Pore of c r i t i c a l size
Fig. 8.13. Schematic representation of preferential sorption-capillary flow

mechanism [ 9 ] . (Reprinted with permission from Ind. Eng. Chem. Copyright by the
American Chemical Society.)
Demineralized water at the interface
T" 11!!! · V
1
P o r o u s film Porous film
ι ϋ !ί ιι
2t
Critical pore diameter
on the a r e a o f t h e f i l m a t t h e i n t e r f a c e
Fig. 8.14. Critical pore diameter for maximum separation and permeability
[ 9 ] . (Reprinted with permission from Ind. Eng. Chem. Copyright by the American Chemical
Society.)
p r o b l e m i n v o l v e s t h e c h o i c e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c h e m i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e film
surface a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f m e t h o d s for p r e p a r i n g films c o n t a i n i n g t h e
l a r g e s t n u m b e r of p o r e s o f t h e r e q u i r e d size. T h i s a p p r o a c h is t h e b a s i s o f t h e
successful d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S o u r i r a j a n - L o e b t y p e of p o r o u s C A m e m b r a n e s
for saline w a t e r c o n v e r s i o n a n d o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .
5.6. C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O N O F M E M B R A N E
PERFORMANCE
T h e t w o b a s i c p a r a m e t e r s for c h a r a c t e r i z i n g R O s y s t e m s a r e (1) p r o d u c t i o n
o f purified w a t e r p e r u n i t a r e a o f m e m b r a n e ( w a t e r flux) a n d (2) p r o d u c t
q u a l i t y , i.e., p u r i t y o f purified w a t e r ( r e j e c t i o n f a c t o r ) . T h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e
d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n s 5.7 a n d 5.8.
5.7. W A T E R F L U X
P r o d u c t i o n o f purified w a t e r is m e a s u r e d b y t h e w a t e r flux, defined a s
quantity of p r o d u c t recovered per day per unit area of m e m b r a n e . English
u n i t s a r e u s e d for w a t e r flux i n field w o r k [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] , w h e r e a s m e t r i c
2
units [g/(sec) ( c m ) ] a r e used in l a b o r a t o r y tests.

2
F l u x t h r o u g h a specific m e m b r a n e is d e t e r m i n e d b y ( 1 ) p h y s i c a l c h a r a c
teristics o f t h e m e m b r a n e , e.g., t h i c k n e s s , c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d p o r o s i t y ,
a n d ( 2 ) s y s t e m c o n d i t i o n s , e.g., t e m p e r a t u r e , differential p r e s s u r e a c r o s s t h e
m e m b r a n e , salt c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t i o n s t o u c h i n g t h e m e m b r a n e , a n d
velocity o f feed m o v i n g a c r o s s t h e m e m b r a n e .
I n p r a c t i c e , p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m e m b r a n e a s well a s t e m p e r a t u r e
a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s o l u t e i n feed a n d p r o d u c t s t r e a m s a r e fixed f o r a g i v e n
p r o c e s s . T h e r e f o r e , w a t e r flux is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e differential p r e s s u r e a c r o s s
the m e m b r a n e , being given a p p r o x i m a t e l y by
FH O2 « Λ(ΔΡ-Δπ) (8.44)
where
ΔΡ = P- F ΡΡ (8.45)
Απ = 7Tf — ηρ (8.46)
and F HlQ is t h e w a t e r flux [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ] ; A t h e p e r m e a t i o n coefficient f o r a

2
unit area of m e m b r a n e [ g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) ( a t m ) ] . This term includes physical

2
v a r i a b l e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e a n d is relatively c o n s t a n t ; AP = (P — P ) F P the
p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d o n feed s o l u t i o n (P ) m i n u s p r e s s u r e o n p r o d u c t (P )
F P (atm);
a n d An = (n —n ) F P t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f feed s o l u t i o n (n ) F minus osmotic
p r e s s u r e o f p r o d u c t (n ) P (atm).
F o r a l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a feed o f p u r e w a t e r An = 0 , E q . ( 8 . 4 4 )
r e d u c e s t o a classical flux e q u a t i o n :
F H O = A AP
2 (8.47)
i.e., flux = r e s i s t a n c e χ d r i v i n g force. W h e n w a s t e w a t e r feed is relatively c o n

c e n t r a t e d i n s o l u t e a n d p r o d u c t is a v e r y d i l u t e s o l u t i o n ( n e a r l y p u r e w a t e r ) ,
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r Δ π is s u b t r a c t e d f r o m differential p r e s s u r e AP. A c t u a l l y ,
An s h o u l d b e e q u a l t o t h e difference i n o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n s o l u t i o n s
t o u c h i n g t h e m e m b r a n e o n e a c h side (i.e., feed a n d p r o d u c t sides). T h i s is
not e x a c t l y e q u a l t o n — n b e c a u s e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n , a c o n d i t i o n
F P
d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5 . 1 5 . T h i s is w h y E q . ( 8 . 4 4 ) is a p p r o x i m a t e . A n a c c u r a t e
v e r s i o n is w r i t t e n i n S e c t i o n 5 . 1 5 .
5.8. R E J E C T I O N F A C T O R
I m p r o v e m e n t o f q u a l i t y b e t w e e n feed a n d p r o d u c t s t r e a m s is e x p r e s s e d
q u a n t i t a t i v e l y b y t h e r e j e c t i o n f a c t o r , defined a s
/ = (C -C )/C
F P F (8.48)
w h e r e / i s t h e rejection f a c t o r ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) ; C t h e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
F
in feed s o l u t i o n ; a n d C t h e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p r o d u c t .
P
T h u s , / = 0.9 m e a n s t h a t C = 0 . 1 C , i.e., t h e p r o d u c t c o n t a i n s o n e - t e n t h
P f
t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e in t h e f e e d ; t h e r e f o r e , 9 0 % o f t h e s o l u t e is rejected
b y t h e m e m b r a n e . R e j e c t i o n f a c t o r is t h e r e f o r e a m e a s u r e o f m e m b r a n e
selectivity. S o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s C a n d C a r e o b t a i n e d b y d e t e r m i n a t i o n
F P
o f t o t a l d i s s o l v e d solids ( e v a p o r a t i o n t o d r y n e s s ) . W h e n t h e s o l u t e is a n
e l e c t r o l y t e (e.g., N a C l ) , a n a l y s i s is c o n v e n i e n t l y p e r f o r m e d b y c o n d u c t i v i t y
measurements.
T h e ability o f a m e m b r a n e t o reject s o l u t e s is a c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m
depending o n a combination of physicochemical characteristics of solute,
m e m b r a n e , a n d w a t e r . P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o l u t e w h i c h h a v e t h e m o s t influence
o n rejection o f i n d i v i d u a l species a r e (1) v a l e n c e c h a r g e — r e j e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s
w i t h v a l u e o f c h a r g e o f i o n ; (2) m o l e c u l a r s i z e — r e j e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h
m o l e c u l a r size o f s o l u t e ; a n d (3) h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g t e n d e n c y — p e r m e a t i o n
i n c r e a s e s w i t h s t r e n g t h o f h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g . A b i l i t y o f a m e m b r a n e t o reject
salts d e c r e a s e s w i t h o p e r a t i n g t i m e . V a r i a t i o n o f r e j e c t i o n w i t h t i m e is illus
t r a t e d b y F i g . 8.15.
100
Monovalent rejection ions

85
1000 3000 5000 7000
Operating time (hr)
Fig. 8.15. Variation of salt rejection with operating time [6]. (Reprinted by
special permission from Chemical Engineering, April 1973. Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
New York N.Y.t t 10020)
A t first, d e c r e a s e is m o r e p r o n o u n c e d f o r s m a l l , u n i v a l e n t i o n s s u c h a s
sodium ( N a ) a n d chloride (Cl~). These are normally a m o n g the most
+
p e r m e a b l e , s h o w i n g t h e l o w e s t initial r e j e c t i o n a n d h a v e t h e h i g h e s t r a t e o f
decline. D i v a l e n t i o n s s u c h a s c a l c i u m ( C a ) a n d m a g n e s i u m ( M g ) a n d
2 + 2 +
a n i o n s s u c h a s sulfate ( S 0 ~ ) a r e initially rejected v e r y well a n d s h o w a v e r y

4
2
s l o w r a t e o f d e c l i n e . R e j e c t i o n o f s u c h i o n s m a y a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e for a w h i l e
( F i g . 8.15), b e c o m i n g n e a r l y c o n s t a n t after t h a t . O v e r a l l salt r e j e c t i o n t e n d s
t o follow the m o n o v a l e n t curve.
P r o g r e s s i v e d e c r e a s e in salt r e j e c t i o n m a y b e c a u s e d b y h y d r o l y s i s o f t h e
m e m b r a n e , w i t h s u b s e q u e n t loss o f b o n d i n g sites. A n o t h e r c a u s e m a y b e
i n c r e a s e in p o r e size d u e t o m e m b r a n e swelling. M o s t p r o b a b l y , b o t h effects
p l a y a p a r t in t h e r e s u l t .
5.9. E F F E C T O F S H R I N K A G E T E M P E R A T U R E O N
P E R F O R M A N C E OF C A M E M B R A N E S
A d j u s t i n g h o t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e s h r i n k a g e s t e p for p r e p a r a t i o n o f
C A m e m b r a n e s ( S e c t i o n 5.4) p e r m i t s c o n t r o l o f m e m b r a n e p o r o s i t y , t h u s
leading to various degrees of wastewater separation. A t higher shrinkage
t e m p e r a t u r e s , p o r e sizes o b t a i n e d a r e s m a l l e r , l e a d i n g t o g r e a t e r r e j e c t i o n .
W a t e r flux, h o w e v e r , d e c r e a s e s a t h i g h e r s h r i n k a g e t e m p e r a t u r e s , a s e x p e c t e d .
F o r specific R O a p p l i c a t i o n s o n e seeks a n e c o n o m i c b a l a n c e b e t w e e n w a t e r
flux a n d rejection. F i g u r e 8.16 s h o w s r e j e c t i o n a n d flux d a t a o b t a i n e d b y
K o p e c e k a n d S o u r i r a j a n for t h r e e t y p e s o f C A m e m b r a n e s .
LCA-NRC-25
74 78 82 86 90 94 98
Shrinkage temperature (°C)
Fig. 8.16. Effect of shrinkage temperature on the performance of different
CA membranes [ 9 ] . (Reprinted with permission from Ind. Eng. Chem. Copyright by the
American Chemical Society.)
5.10. E F F E C T O F F E E D T E M P E R A T U R E O N
F L U X [6]
F l u x is a l s o affected b y feed t e m p e r a t u r e . W a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y for t h e m e m
b r a n e i n c r e a s e s a b o u t 1.5% p e r ° F . F l u x for a m e m b r a n e is u s u a l l y specified
a t 7 5 ° - 7 7 ° F , a n d a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is a p p l i e d a t o t h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h i s
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r c a n b e d e r i v e d b y t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f r o m diffusivity
a n d viscosity values, b u t experimentally d e t e r m i n e d corrections are m o r e
reliable.
A c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r w h i c h is a m u l t i p l i e r o f t h e r e q u i r e d m e m b r a n e a r e a is
p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 8.17. T h i s c u r v e w a s d e v e l o p e d b y G u l f E n v i r o n m e n t a l
S y s t e m s C o . for m o d i f i e d cellulose a c e t a t e m e m b r a n e s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is i l l u s t r a t e d in E x a m p l e 8.4.
Feedwater temperature ( ° C )
Fig. 8.17. Flux/temperature correction curve [6]. (Reprinted by special permission

from Chemical Engineering, April 2, 1973. Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
Ν. Y., 10020.)
Example 8.4 [6]
I t is d e s i r e d t o specify t h e m e m b r a n e a r e a for a 100,000 g a l / d a y R O s y s t e m

to treat brackish water. R e c o r d s indicate that the lowest water t e m p e r a t u r e
e x p e c t e d for a n y p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d is 6 8 ° F ( 2 0 ° C ) . T h e cellulose a c e t a t e
m e m b r a n e c h o s e n is e x p e c t e d t o h a v e a n a v e r a g e flux o f 15 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) 2
d u r i n g its 2 - y e a r life, o p e r a t i n g a t 6 0 0 p s i g . A v e r a g e flux w a s d e t e r m i n e d a t

a b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 7 7 ° F . D e t e r m i n e r e q u i r e d m e m b r a n e a r e a for o p e r a t i o n
at 68°F.
SOLUTION M e m b r a n e a r e a is s h o w n in E q . (8.49).
A t 7 7 ° F t h e r e q u i r e d m e m b r a n e a r e a is
100,000 gal/day
Area (77°F) = ' ' J = 6667 ft
8 2
15gal/(day)(ft ) 2
F o r operation at 68°F (20°C), the correction factor C F f r o m F i g . 8.16 is

C = 1.15. T h e r e f o r e ,
F
A r e a ( 6 8 ° F ) = 1.15 χ 6667 = 7667 ft 2
If a d d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t is n o t r e q u i r e d w h e n t e m p e r a t u r e is a b o v e 6 8 ° F , o p e r a t
i n g p r e s s u r e is r e d u c e d .
5.11. F L U X D E C L I N E [6]
A p p l i c a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e t o t h e m e m b r a n e r e s u l t s in c o m p a c t i o n a n d c o n
s e q u e n t l y i n a d e c l i n e o f flux. C o m p a c t i o n r e s u l t s f r o m d e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
thin m e m b r a n e layer a n d corresponds t o n a r r o w i n g of the pores t h r o u g h
w h i c h w a t e r m u s t p a s s . A s t h e c h a n n e l s n a r r o w , flow d e c r e a s e s .
A n o t h e r c a u s e o f flux d e c l i n e is h y d r o l y s i s o f a c e t y l g r o u p s w h i c h t a k e s
p l a c e d u r i n g t h e life o f t h e m e m b r a n e . T h e r e f o r e , R O m e m b r a n e s a r e l i m i t e d
to a p H operating range of 3-7, outside of which rapid hydrolysis a n d m e m
b r a n e d e g r a d a t i o n o c c u r . T h e o p t i m u m r a n g e is b e l i e v e d t o b e p H 5 - 6 .
H y d r o l y s i s o f a c e t y l g r o u p s r e s u l t s in loss o f h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g sites, w h i c h
r e d u c e s t h e w a t e r t r a n s p o r t . T h i s h y d r o l y s i s is a l s o a s o u r c e o f salt l e a k a g e
b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e fewer w a t e r b r i d g e s b l o c k i n g p a s s a g e o f f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s
through the pores.
L o s s in p r o d u c t i v i t y h a p p e n s slowly t o e v e r y m e m b r a n e a n d is p e r m a n e n t .
C h e m i c a l r e j u v e n a t i o n a n d l o w p r e s s u r e o p e r a t i o n t o r e l a x a n d swell t h e
m a t r i x h a v e b e e n t r i e d w i t h o u t s u c c e s s ; t h e m e m b r a n e s i m p l y a g e s a n d flux
decreases until economics dictate replacement.
5.12. F O U L I N G : C A U S E S A N D C U R E S [6]
F o u l i n g , r e s u l t i n g in t e m p o r a r y flux r e d u c t i o n , is c a u s e d b y f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s
coating the m e m b r a n e surface, as only hydrogen b o n d i n g substances (water,
a m m o n i a ) pass t h r o u g h the discriminating pores of the m e m b r a n e . N o n -
b o n d i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e left in t h e q u i e s c e n t film k n o w n a s t h e l i q u i d b o u n d a r y
layer.
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f d e p o s i t s in b o u n d a r y l a y e r s reflects t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
feedwater. A s expected, the m o s t c o m m o n constituents are calcium car
b o n a t e , sulfate scales, h y d r a t e s o f i r o n a n d a l u m i n u m o x i d e s , silicates,
miscellaneous particulates, a n d biological growths.
F o u l i n g is m i n i m i z e d b y t a k i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e c a u t i o n s : (1) p r e t r e a t i n g
feed t o r e m o v e i r o n a n d c o n t r o l p H , (2) l i m i t i n g t h e p r o c e s s t o n o n s c a l i n g
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r , (3) filtration o f w a s t e w a t e r feed, a n d (4) injec
t i o n o f s m a l l a m o u n t s o f b i o c i d e s (e.g., c h l o r i n e ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o m a t t e r
h o w t h o r o u g h the protection, fouling always occurs a n d the m e m b r a n e s
s h o u l d b e p e r i o d i c a l l y c l e a n e d . T h e u s u a l c l e a n i n g p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s :
1. F l u s h t h e m e m b r a n e w i t h feed w a t e r a t r e d u c e d p r e s s u r e o f t w o o r
t h r e e t i m e s n o r m a l v e l o c i t y ; t h e t u r b u l e n t a c t i o n o f t h e fluid l o o s e n s f o u l i n g
d e p o s i t s a n d c a r r i e s t h e m a w a y . W a t e r flushing is t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p i n
every cleaning operation.
2. H a r d n e s s scales ( c a r b o n a t e s a n d s u l f a t e s s a l t s o f c a l c i u m a n d m a g
n e s i u m ) a r e s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d b y s o a k i n g t h e m e m b r a n e i n distilled w a t e r
for l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e . S i n c e t h i s is t i m e c o n s u m i n g , m o r e o f t e n a w a r m
s o l u t i o n o f 1-2% citric a c i d is v i g o r o u s l y c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e u n i t , d i s
solving large a m o u n t s of metallic ions a n d keeping t h e m in solution by
chelation.
3. M i c r o b i o l o g i c a l g r o w t h s o c c u r in m o s t n a t u r a l w a t e r s , a n d a r e a
p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m w h e n t r e a t i n g effluents f r o m b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e s e
a r e often r e m o v e d b y r e c i r c u l a t i n g w a s h e s o f e n z y m e d e t e r g e n t s .
Theoretical flux
Averaged flux
C Actual flux
Periodic cleaning
of membrane
- Υ Ί
Fig. 8.18. Effect of membrane cleaning on flux [6]. (Reprinted by special permiss
ion from Chemical Engineering•, April 2 , 1973. Copyright by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
Ν. Y, 10020.)
F l u x d e g r a d a t i o n b y f o u l i n g is a n a d d i t i o n a l loss s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e
p e r m a n e n t losses d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . T h i s is s h o w n in F i g . 8.18, w h i c h
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e effect o f m e m b r a n e c l e a n i n g o n flux. A s s h o w n in F i g . 8.18,
t h e a c t u a l flux c u r v e follows a d e c l i n i n g , s a w - t o o t h e d p a t t e r n w h e n t h e m e m
b r a n e is c l e a n e d p e r i o d i c a l l y . W i t h o u t c l e a n i n g , flux w o u l d follow t h e l o w e s t
c u r v e , a p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e initial s m o o t h d e c l i n e . F l u x f r o m a h y p o t h e t i c a l
m e m b r a n e t h a t is n e v e r f o u l e d ( t h e o r e t i c a l flux) is s h o w n b y t h e u p p e r line,
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l flux c u r v e w h i c h t o u c h e s o n l y t h e p e a k s o f t h e s a w - t o o t h e d
curve.
5.13. P R E D I C T I O N O F F L U X [6]
W a t e r o u t p u t f r o m a m e m b r a n e b e g i n s t o d e c l i n e a s s o o n a s p r e s s u r e is
a p p l i e d , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o d e g r a d e slowly t h e r e a f t e r . T h e loss is i r r e v e r s i b l e ,
a n d if m o r e flux is r e q u i r e d feed p r e s s u r e m u s t b e i n c r e a s e d . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e
is self-defeating s i n c e a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e , w h i l e p r o d u c i n g m o r e w a t e r , a l s o
c o m p r e s s e s t h e m e m b r a n e f u r t h e r a n d h a s t e n s flux d e c l i n e . N o r m a l p r a c t i c e
is t o overspecify t h e m e m b r a n e a r e a slightly a n d t o k e e p t h e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e
c o n s t a n t a s l o n g a s p o s s i b l e , r e s o r t i n g t o a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e l a t e in t h e life
of the m e m b r a n e .
T h e o u t p u t o f a m e m b r a n e is p r e d i c t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e d e c l i n e p e r u n i t a r e a
o f t h e m e m b r a n e is q u i t e u n i f o r m a n d c a n b e p r o j e c t e d . A p l o t o f flux v s .
o p e r a t i n g t i m e a t a specified p r e s s u r e (like t h e l o w e r c u r v e in F i g . 8.18) yields
a c u r v e w i t h a n initial s t e e p d e s c e n t f o l l o w e d b y a p r o l o n g e d a n d m o d e r a t e
d e c l i n e . A l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t line w h i c h is a d e q u a t e f o r p r e d i c
t i o n p u r p o s e s for 1 a n d p r o b a b l y 2 y e a r s . T h u s , flux c a n b e p r e d i c t e d f r o m
s u c h p l o t s o n c e t h e initial flux a n d s l o p e a r e k n o w n .
M a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o v i d e initial flux v a l u e s a n d e s t i m a t e s o f s l o p e s a t v a r i o u s
o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s . I n i t i a l flux is t h e p r o d u c t i o n for t h e first 2 4 h r d i v i d e d
b y t h e m e m b r a n e a r e a in t h e t e s t u n i t . D e c l i n e s l o p e is c o m p u t e d o r d e t e r
m i n e d g r a p h i c a l l y f r o m flux v a l u e s t a k e n a t t i m e i n t e r v a l s s u c h a s 10, 100,
a n d 1000 h r . T i m e i n t e r v a l s in m u l t i p l e s o f 10 a r e c o n v e n i e n t l y selected
b e c a u s e c o m p u t a t i o n is simplified. D e c l i n e r a t e is g i v e n b y E q . (8.50).
m = ( l o g F i - l o g F J / G o g / i - l o g ^ ) = log(F,/F,)/log(/,// ) x (8.50)
w h e r e F is t h e i n i t i a l flux [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] ; F t h e flux a t t i m e χ [ g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) ] ;
f
2
x
2
t t h e o p e r a t i n g t i m e ( h r ) for initial flux ( o b t a i n e d b y c o m p u t i n g initial flux

t
a n d determining from a logarithmic plot of F vs. t the time t c o r r e s p o n d i n g

x t
t o this calculated value); a n d t the operating time (hr).

x
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f flux o v e r t h e life o f t h e m e m b r a n e is b a s i c t o t h e d e s i g n
of R O systems, because these values are used to estimate m e m b r a n e area
r e q u i r e d for a d e s i r e d p l a n t c a p a c i t y b y u t i l i z i n g E q . (8.49). T h r e e p o s s i b l e
approaches are
1. T a k e a n a v e r a g e o f t h e initial a n d final flux a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o o b t a i n
a n a v e r a g e a r e a . W h e n t h i s c h o i c e is m a d e , it is e x p e c t e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e l a t e r
life o f t h e m e m b r a n e , flux will b e b r o u g h t u p t o its initial v a l u e b y i n c r e a s i n g
the operating pressure.
2. Specify m e m b r a n e a r e a f r o m final o r s m a l l e s t flux v a l u e . A l t h o u g h
fixed c o s t s a r e h i g h e r , l o w e r s y s t e m p r e s s u r e s d e c r e a s e o p e r a t i n g c o s t s .
3. Select initial flux a s t h e d e s i g n b a s i s . T h i s m i n i m i z e s m e m b r a n e a r e a
a n d c a p i t a l c o s t s , b u t raises o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a s p r e s s u r e s a r e i n c r e a s e d t o m a i n
t a i n p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s is a logical c h o i c e for i n t e r m i t t e n t a n d short-term
p r o j e c t s i n w h i c h initial c o s t s m u s t b e m i n i m i z e d .
5.14. M E M B R A N E L E A K A G E [6]
C a l c u l a t e d s o l u t e r e j e c t i o n is a l w a y s h i g h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s , e v e n
those t h a t are d e t e r m i n e d u n d e r the m o s t careful conditions. F o r example,
t h e o r e t i c a l r e j e c t i o n o f s o d i u m c h l o r i d e f r o m a m o d i f i e d C A m e m b r a n e is
calculated as 99.7%, b u t experimental results show n o better t h a n 9 7 - 9 9 %
r e j e c t i o n . T h e difference is c a u s e d b y m i n u t e i m p e r f e c t i o n s in t h e m e m b r a n e
t h r o u g h w h i c h p r e s s u r i z e d b r i n e c a n flow a n d c o n t a m i n a t e t h e p r o d u c t w a t e r .
All m e m b r a n e s have imperfections; these are p r o b a b l y n o t m a n u f a c t u r i n g
faults, b u t a p r o p e r t y of the m e m b r a n e t h a t m u s t be adjusted o r optimized
t o s u i t a specific service. H e n c e , v e r y p o r o u s C A m e m b r a n e s a r e u s e d t o
screen o u t large molecules (20-500 A diameter) a n d very small particles for
u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s . L e s s p o r o u s m e m b r a n e s a r e selected f o r h i g h
w a t e r flow a n d m o d e r a t e salt r e j e c t i o n service in saltless s o f t e n e r s , a n d m e m
b r a n e s h e a t t r e a t e d t o l o w p o r o s i t y a r e u s e d for a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g h i g h
rejection.
Fortunately, most imperfections are small a n d easily p l u g g e d . D i s t r i b u t i o n
r u n s f r o m n u m e r o u s h o l e s w i t h d i a m e t e r s 100 A a n d s m a l l e r t o a few o f
l - μ ι η in d i a m e t e r . T h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f p r o d u c t c o n t a m i n a t i o n results from
s o l u t e p a s s a g e t h r o u g h l a r g e r h o l e s , since f r o m P o i s e u i l l e ' s l a w for v i s c o u s
flow, salt l e a k a g e i n c r e a s e s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o the fourth power of pore
diameter.
A n u m b e r of techniques have been tried t o reduce m e m b r a n e leakage:
1. Heat treating and modifying dope formula. T h i s is t h e o n l y p e r m a n e n t
w a y t o r e d u c e l e a k a g e . M e m b r a n e s f o r sea w a t e r m u s t b e h e a t t r e a t e d a t
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s t o yield a film t h a t c a n reject 9 9 . 5 % o f t h e salt in t h e feed.
2. Addition of certain chemicals to the feed. C h e m i c a l s o f l a r g e m o l e c u l a r
size a d d e d t o t h e feed a r e utilized t o p l u g l e a k i n g p o r e s . L o e b [ 7 ] d i s c o v e r e d
t h a t t r a c e a m o u n t s o f a l u m i n u m salts o c c u r r i n g in L o s A n g e l e s t a p w a t e r
p l u g g e d l e a k i n g p o r e s o f test m e m b r a n e s a n d i m p r o v e d salt r e j e c t i o n . Z e p h i r a n
(tetraalkylaluminum chloride) was used at University of California at Los
A n g e l e s ( U C L A ) t o g a i n a s i m i l a r a n d m o r e r e p r o d u c i b l e effect. O t h e r m a t e r i a l s
t h a t i m p r o v e rejection include polyvinyl methyl ether a n d D o w f a x .
Unfortunately, leak-stopping additives have serious d r a w b a c k s t h a t limit
t h e i r u s e : (1) t h e y a r e m o r e effective o n l o w flux t h a n o n h i g h flux s t a n d a r d
C A m e m b r a n e s , n o w a l m o s t exclusively u s e d ; (2) t h e y d i s s i p a t e q u i c k l y a n d
m u s t b e r e g u l a r l y r e p l e n i s h e d ; (3) m o s t o f t h e m r e d u c e w a t e r flux a s t h e y
r e d u c e s o l u t e l e a k a g e ; a n d (4) t h e y a r e e x p e n s i v e a n d t h e r e f o r e useful o n l y i n
special s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e c o s t is n o t a f a c t o r .
5.15. S O L U T E P E R M E A B I L I T Y A N D
CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , s o l u t e flux is a f u n c t i o n o f m e m b r a n e p e r m e a b i l i t y a n d t h e
difference b e t w e e n s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e h i g h a n d l o w p r e s s u r e sides
o f t h e m e m b r a n e , i.e.,
Fsoiuu = fi(C -C )
H L = β AC « fiC H (8.51)
where F solute is t h e s o l u t e flux [ g / ( c m ) ( s e c ) ] ; β t h e s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o
2
efficient ( c m / s e c ) ; C H the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of solute o n high pressure side of

m e m b r a n e , i.e., c o n c e n t r a t e side ( g / c m ) ; a n d C 3
L the concentration of solute
o n l o w p r e s s u r e side o f m e m b r a n e , i.e., p r o d u c t side ( g / c m ) . 3
U n l i k e w a t e r flux [ E q . ( 8 . 4 4 ) ] , n o r m a l s o l u t e flux is i n d e p e n d e n t o f p r e s s u r e
[ E q . ( 8 . 5 1 ) ] . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , if p r e s s u r e in t h e R O s y s t e m is i n c r e a s e d , s o l u t e
diffuses a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e w h i l e w a t e r flow i n c r e a s e s . T h e r e s u l t is g r e a t e r
production of pure water.
Since C L is u s u a l l y s m a l l a s c o m p a r e d t o C , H E q . (8.51) is w r i t t e n a p p r o x i
m a t e l y a s i n d i c a t e d , i.e., salt flux is e s s e n t i a l l y g o v e r n e d b y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
s o l u t e in t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r n e x t t o t h e m e m b r a n e o n t h e c o n c e n t r a t e side.
Solute concentration C H can be substantially higher than the concentration
i n t h e feed C F o w i n g t o a n effect c a l l e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n . I n m e m
b r a n e p r o c e s s e s s o l u t e a c c u m u l a t e s in a relatively s t a b l e l a y e r ( b o u n d a r y
layer) n e x t t o t h e m e m b r a n e . C o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n is t h e r a t i o o f s o l u t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h i s b o u n d a r y l a y e r t o t h a t in t h e b u l k o f t h e s o l u t i o n .
Initially, s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r is t h e s a m e a s in t h e
b u l k o f t h e s o l u t i o n . H o w e v e r , since t h e m e m b r a n e is p e r m e a b l e t o s o l v e n t
a n d i m p e r m e a b l e t o solute, the b o u n d a r y layer becomes heavily p o p u l a t e d
with solute as solvent leaves t h r o u g h the channels o f t h e m e m b r a n e . T h e
b o u n d a r y layer grows thicker a n d m o r e concentrated, because the rate of
s o l u t e diffusion a w a y f r o m t h e m e m b r a n e c a n n o t k e e p p a c e w i t h s o l v e n t
flow t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e .
T h e r e s u l t o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n follows f r o m E q . (8.51). W r i t e
C H = C B L , where C B L s t a n d s for t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g s o l u t e c o n
c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y layer. T h e r e f o r e
Fsolute * fiC Bh (8.52)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n r e s u l t s in a n i n c r e a s e d s o l u t e flux
o r a l o w e r p r o d u c t q u a l i t y . T h i s is u n d e s i r a b l e , s o o n e strives t o r e d u c e t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n effect. T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d i n t w o w a y s :
1. Higher feed velocity. T h i s r e d u c e s t h i c k n e s s a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e
b o u n d a r y layer a s it is s c o u r e d a w a y b y t h e feed s t r e a m a t h i g h v e l o c i t y . T h e
e x t r a flow t h r o u g h t h e u n i t r e s u l t s in a n o v e r a l l l o w e r p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y , i.e.,
s m a l l e r r a t i o o f p r o d u c t t o feed. T h i s i n c r e a s e s p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n a n d
a m o u n t of concentrate (waste) p r o d u c e d .
2. Addition of turbulence promoters. T h i s is a m o r e efficient w a y t o r e d u c e

the b o u n d a r y layer. T u b u l a r m e m b r a n e units a r e p r o v i d e d with plastic balls
o n t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e side t o b r e a k u p t h e s m o o t h flow o f feed s o l u t i o n . T u r b u
lence p r o m o t e r s m a y r e q u i r e p r e f i l t r a t i o n o f t h e feed s o t h a t p a r t i c u l a t e s o r
p r e c i p i t a t e s d o n o t g e t l o d g e d i n n a r r o w flow s p a c e s a n d p l u g t h e m e m b r a n e .
T h e u s u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n r a t i o is 1.2-2.0, w h i c h m e a n s that
s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r is 1.2-2.0 t i m e s t h a t i n t h e b u l k
o f t h e feed.
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e e q u a t i o n f o r w a t e r flux, E q . (8.44), is r e w r i t t e n t a k i n g
i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n effect, i n w h i c h c a s e Δ π is
Δπ = 7TBL — TCP (8.53)
w h e r e n is t h e o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y
BL
l a y e r (n BL > n ). S i n c e Δ π , g i v e n b y E q . (8.53), is h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e c a l
F
c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (8.46), t h i s i m p l i e s f r o m E q . (8.44) a d e c r e a s e d w a t e r flux

o w i n g t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o l a r i z a t i o n effect. S u b s t i t u t i o n o f E q s . (8.53) a n d
(8.45) i n E q . (8.44) yields
F o = A[(P -P )-(n -n )]
H2 F P Bh P (8.54)
T h e r e is n o s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e a v a i l a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e s o l u t e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r ( a n d t h e r e f o r e n ). A n i n d i r e c t a p p r o a c h
BL
c o n s i s t s o f d e t e r m i n i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l l y w a t e r flux, F o, H2 and permeation

coefficient A ( S e c t i o n 5.16). T h e n n BL is t h e o n l y u n k n o w n i n E q . (8.54),
a n d therefore
* B L = n + (P - P ) - (F /A)
P F P H20 (8.55)
T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r is t h e n o b t a i n e d f r o m a p r e
viously p r e p a r e d plot of osmotic pressure vs. solute c o n c e n t r a t i o n [ π =
f(c)l
5.16. E X P E R I M E N T A L T E C H N I Q U E F O R
LABORATORY PREDICTION OF
MEMBRANE PERFORMANCE
A laboratory a p p a r a t u s for t h e prediction of m e m b r a n e performance in
r e v e r s e o s m o s i s is d e s c r i b e d b y S o u r i r a j a n a n d A g r a w a l [ 9 ] , a n d a s c h e m a t i c
flow d i a g r a m is s h o w n i n F i g . 8.19. F e e d s o l u t i o n is p u m p e d t h r o u g h a s u r g e
t a n k i n t o t h e cell c o n t a i n i n g t h e m e m b r a n e . P r e s s u r e is c o n t r o l l e d b y a p r e s s u r e
regulator operating o n a nitrogen back pressure system.
E x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d v a r i a b l e s a t a specific p r e s s u r e a r e (1) r e j e c t i o n
f a c t o r [ E q . (8.48)]; (2) p r o d u c t r e c o v e r y , i.e., r a t i o o f p r o d u c t t o f e e d ; a n d
(3) p e r m e a t i o n coefficient A. P e r m e a t i o n coefficient A, w h i c h i n c l u d e s p h y s i c a l
v a r i a b l e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e , is relatively c o n s t a n t ( S e c t i o n 5.7). T h e r e f o r e , it
N 2 g a s under pressure-H
Surge tank
Feed solution inlet Feed solution outlet
7)
Feed
solution out
Fig. 8.19. Schematic flow diagram of RO laboratory unit [ 9 ] . (Reprinted with

permission from Ind. Eng. Chem. Copyright by the American Chemical Society.)
c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d o n c e a n d for all b y o p e r a t i n g t h e s y s t e m a t a specific p r e s

s u r e w i t h p u r e w a t e r a n d m e a s u r i n g t h e r a t e a t w h i c h it p e r m e a t e s t h r o u g h
t h e m e m b r a n e . E q u a t i o n (8.53) f o r p u r e w a t e r o p e r a t i o n yields
Δπ = n L B — 7TP = 0
F r o m E q . (8.54),
A = F /AP H20 (8.56)
where
AP = P F - PP
and F H 2 o is t h e p u r e w a t e r flux [ g / ( h r ) ( c m ) ] . P r o d u c t flow ( g / h r ) in t h i s

2
c a s e is called p u r e w a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y (PWP). T h e r e f o r e f r o m E q . (8.56),
A = Ρ WP/(Mx S χ 3600ΔΡ) (8.57)
w h e r e A is t h e p e r m e a t i o n coefficient [ g m o l e o f w a t e r / ( s e c ) ( c m ) ( a t m ) ] ; 2
PWP t h e p u r e w a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y ( g / h r ) ; Μ t h e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f w a t e r
( 1 8 ) ; S t h e effective m e m b r a n e a r e a ( c m ) (7.6 c m for S o u r i r a j a n ' s a p p a r a t u s
2 2
in F i g . 8.19); a n d AP t h e differential p r e s s u r e ( a t m ) .
5.17. F I N A L R E M A R K S O N R E V E R S E O S M O S I S
R e v e r s e o s m o s i s is still t o o e x p e n s i v e for w i d e s p r e a d u t i l i z a t i o n in w a s t e
w a t e r t r e a t m e n t . I t is a l s o l i m i t e d t o t r e a t i n g s o l u b l e w a s t e s since s u s p e n d e d
solids c l o g t h e m e m b r a n e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , p r e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e feed is r e
quired whenever there are suspended solids, t h u s raising costs.
6. Electrodialysis 385
O p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s e m p l o y e d v a r y f r o m 6 0 0 u p t o 1500 p s i g . O n e o f t h e
m a i n g o a l s in c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h is t o d e v e l o p b e t t e r m e m b r a n e s t h a t c a n
o p e r a t e a t l o w e r p r e s s u r e s ( a r o u n d 2 5 0 p s i g ) a n d still yield relatively h i g h
p r o d u c t r a t e s , o f t h e o r d e r o f 4 0 g a l / ( d a y ) ( f t ) . O n c e t h e s e difficulties a r e
2
o v e r c o m e , R O c o u l d b e c o m e a p r o c e s s o f w i d e s p r e a d a p p l i c a t i o n in t h e field
of wastewater treatment.
6. Electrodialysis
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Electrodialysis was originally developed for desalination of o c e a n water.
I t is a p r o m i s i n g m e t h o d for r e m o v a l o f i n o r g a n i c n u t r i e n t s ( p h o s p h o r u s a n d
n i t r o g e n ) f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s , a n d t h u s it is a p o s s i b l e final s t a g e in w a s t e w a t e r
treatment processes.
A d i a g r a m o f a n e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s cell is s h o w n in F i g . 8.20. T h e b a s i c c o m
p o n e n t s o f t h e cell a r e a series o f m e m b r a n e s m a d e o f i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n s .
T h e s e m e m b r a n e s a r e p e r m e a b l e o n l y t o i o n i c species a n d a r e selective t o a
specific t y p e o f i o n . T h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f m e m b r a n e s u t i l i z e d in a n e l e c t r o
dialysis c e l l : (1) c a t i o n m e m b r a n e s , w h i c h p o s s e s s a fixed n e g a t i v e c h a r g e ,
allowing cations (positive ions) t o pass t h r o u g h t h e m b u t repelling a n i o n s
( n e g a t i v e i o n s ) ; a n d (2) a n i o n m e m b r a n e s , w h i c h p o s s e s s a fixed p o s i t i v e
charge, allowing anions (negative ions) to pass t h r o u g h t h e m b u t repelling
cations (positive ions).
P a s s a g e o f i o n s t h r o u g h t h e m e m b r a n e s is a c c e l e r a t e d b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f a
c o n s t a n t v o l t a g e a c r o s s a series o f c a t i o n - a n d a n i o n - p e r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e s ,
a s i n d i c a t e d in F i g . 8.20. T h e c a t h o d e a n d a n o d e a r e l o c a t e d a t t w o e x t r e m e s
o f t h e cell, s o t h a t t h e m e m b r a n e c l o s e s t t o t h e c a t h o d e is c a t i o n p e r m e a b l e
a n d t h a t c l o s e s t t o t h e a n o d e is a n i o n p e r m e a b l e . R a w w a s t e w a t e r is fed
continuously into the concentrating compartments, and treated wastewater
is w i t h d r a w n c o n t i n u o u s l y f r o m t h e d i l u t i n g c o m p a r t m e n t s .
6.2. V O L T A G E R E Q U I R E D F O R E L E C T R O D I A L Y S I S
V o l t a g e r e q u i r e d is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m O h m ' s l a w [ E q . ( 8 . 5 8 ) ] .
Ε = IR (8.58)
w h e r e Ε is t h e a p p l i e d v o l t a g e ( V ) , / t h e c u r r e n t ( A ) , a n d R t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t a n c e o f m e m b r a n e s a n d s o l u t i o n s in cells ( o h m s ) .
6.3. C U R R E N T R E Q U I R E D F Q R E L E C T R O D I A L Y S I S
T h e c u r r e n t r e q u i r e d is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i o n i c s t r e n g t h o f s o l u t i o n
( e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f n o r m a l i t y ) , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f cells. I t is c a l c u l a t e d
-Diluting compartment-
Cathode \ Concentrating Anode
compartment +
A j C
Legend:Δ - Cation
© - Anion
A - Anion-permeable membrane
C - Cation-permeable membrane
Fig. 8.20. Diagram of an electrodialysis cell.
f r o m F a r a d a y ' s l a w : 9 6 , 5 0 0 A χ sec o f electricity t r a n s f e r o n e g r a m - e q u i v a l e n t

weight of an electrolyte from o n e electrode t o another. T h u s , current required
f o r e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s f o r a fixed a p p l i e d v o l t a g e Ε is g i v e n i n E q . (8.59).
/ = FqNe/ηε (8.59)
w h e r e / is t h e c u r r e n t ( A ) , F t h e F a r a d a y c o n s t a n t ( 9 6 , 5 0 0 A χ s e c / g e q u i v
a l e n t ) , q t h e flow r a t e (liters/sec), TV t h e n o r m a l i t y o f s o l u t i o n (g e q u i v a l e n t s /
l i t e r ) , e t h e r e m o v a l efficiency (0 < e < 1.0), η t h e n u m b e r o f cells b e t w e e n
e l e c t r o d e s , a n d ε t h e c u r r e n t efficiency ( 0 < ε < 1.0).
I n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r o f cells for a fixed a p p l i e d v o l t a g e Ε r e s u l t s i n a n
i n c r e a s e o f t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e R. C o n s e q u e n t l y , f r o m O h m ' s l a w
the current / decreases.
6.4. P R E T R E A T M E N T O F W A S T E W A T E R S
IN E L E C T R O D I A L Y S I S
F o r p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s cell, p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r , l a r g e
o r g a n i c i o n s , a n d c o l l o i d a l m a t t e r m u s t b e r e m o v e d p r i o r t o t h e p r o c e s s . If
t h i s is n o t d o n e , t h e s e m a t e r i a l s c a u s e f o u l i n g o f m e m b r a n e s , w h i c h r e s u l t s i n
a n increase of t o t a l electrical resistance. F o r a c o n s t a n t applied voltage, t h e
c u r r e n t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e cell is t h u s l o w e r e d . T h e r e f o r e , d e m i n e r a l i z i n g
c a p a c i t y o f t h e e q u i p m e n t is l o w e r e d .
7. Chemical Oxidation Processes 387
F o u l i n g o f m e m b r a n e s is t h e g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m t o b e o v e r c o m e i n o r d e r t o
achieve e c o n o m i c operation of electrodialysis in t r e a t m e n t of wastewaters.
F o u l i n g is m i n i m i z e d b y
1. P r e t r e a t m e n t o f r a w w a s t e w a t e r in o r d e r t o r e m o v e p a r t i c u l a t e a n d
c o l l o i d a l m a t t e r a n d l a r g e o r g a n i c i o n s . T h i s is d o n e b y a d d i t i o n o f c o a g u l a n t s ,
filtration through microscreens, and/or adsorption in activated carbon
c o l u m n s . C o s t of p r e t r e a t m e n t m a y r e n d e r the process u n e c o n o m i c a l .
2. F o u l i n g is m i n i m i z e d b y p e r i o d i c p l a n t s h u t d o w n f o r c l e a n i n g .
3. F r e q u e n t c u r r e n t r e v e r s a l s t e n d t o m i n i m i z e t h e effects o f f o u l i n g .
7. Chemical Oxidation P r o c e s s e s
(Chlorination and Ozonation)
7.1. C H L O R I N A T I O N O F W A S T E W A T E R S
7.1.1. Utilization and Purposes of Chlorination
C h l o r i n a t i o n is a w i d e l y u s e d p r o c e s s in t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d o m e s t i c a n d i n
d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s . S o m e i n d u s t r i a l effluents w h i c h a r e c o m m o n l y c h l o
rinated prior t o discharge into receiving waters are those from beet sugar,
c a n n e r y , d a i r y , p u l p a n d p a p e r , textile, t a n n i n g , p e t r o c h e m i c a l , p h a r m a
ceutical, a n d metal processing ( c h r o m i u m , electroplating) plants.
Purposes of chlorination are summarized as follows:
1. Disinfection. P r i m a r i l y a d i s i n f e c t a n t o w i n g t o its s t r o n g o x i d i z i n g
capacity, chlorine destroys or inhibits g r o w t h of bacteria a n d algae.
2. BOD reduction. Chlorine accomplishes B O D reduction by oxidation
o f o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s p r e s e n t in w a s t e w a t e r s .
3. Elimination or reduction of colors and odors. C o l o r a n d o d o r - p r o d u c i n g
s u b s t a n c e s p r e s e n t in w a s t e w a t e r s a r e o x i d i z e d b y c h l o r i n e . T h e o x i d i z i n g
ability o f c h l o r i n e is e m p l o y e d for o d o r c o n t r o l a n d c o l o r r e m o v a l i n t r e a t
m e n t o f m a n y i n d u s t r i a l effluents ( b e e t s u g a r , c a n n e r y , d a i r y , p u l p a n d p a p e r ,
textiles).
4. Oxidation of metal ions. M e t a l i o n s w h i c h a r e in a r e d u c e d s t a t e a r e
o x i d i z e d b y c h l o r i n e (e.g., f e r r o u s t o ferric i o n a n d m a n g a n o u s t o m a n g a n i c
ions).
5. Oxidation of cyanides to innocuous products. T h i s a p p l i c a t i o n is d e
s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 7.1.4.
7.1.2. Reactions of Chlorine in W a t e r

A d d e d to water as either a gas or solution, chlorine reacts to form h y p o -
c h l o r o u s a c i d ( H O C l ) , w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s s o c i a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e fol
lowing chemical equations:
Cl + H 0 ^
2 2 HOCl + H H Cl~
HOCl ^ H +
+ OCl"
In the presence of a m m o n i a , h y p o c h l o r o u s acid reacts t o form m o n o c h l o r -

amine, dichloramine, a n d nitrogen trichloride. Relative p r o p o r t i o n s of these
p r o d u c t s depend on p H a n d concentration of a m m o n i a present. C o r r e s p o n d
ing chemical equations are
NH 3 + HOCl ^ NH C1 + H 0
2 2
(monochloramine)
NH C1 + HOCl ^
2 NHC1 + H 0 2 2
(dichloramine)
NHC1 + HOCl ^
2 NC1 + H 0 3 2
(nitrogen trichloride)
R e a c t i o n s o f c h l o r i n e in w a t e r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 8 . 2 1 , w h i c h s h o w s t h e
relationship between chlorine added and chlorine residual.
-Zone I: -Zone 3:
Destruction of 1 Destruction of chloramines and
1 chlorine by \ chloro organic compounds
\reducing compounds
. Zone 4 :
Formation of free
0.6 Zone 2: chlorine and presence of
Formation of chloro organic compounds
0.5
chloro organic not destroyed
0.4 compounds and
chloramines
0.3
Free residual
0.2 Combined residual
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Chlorine added (mg/liter)
Fig. 8.21. Reactions of chlorine in water [8].
T h e i n i t i a l a m o u n t o f c h l o r i n e a d d e d is r e d u c e d b y c o m p o u n d s w h i c h
r e a c t r a p i d l y w i t h c h l o r i n e (e.g., F e 2 +
and M n ) . This corresponds to
2 +
Z o n e 1 for w h i c h r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e is n e a r l y z e r o . C o n t i n u e d a d d i t i o n o f
c h l o r i n e r e s u l t s in r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e i n t h e f o r m o f c h l o r o o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s
o r c h l o r a m i n e s ( c o m b i n e d r e s i d u a l ) . C h l o r i n e r e s i d u a l is a l w a y s less t h a n
t h e c h l o r i n e a d d e d . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o Z o n e 2 o f t h e c u r v e in F i g . 8 . 2 1 . B y
adding m o r e chlorine, chloro organic c o m p o u n d s are frequently oxidized:
t h e m o l e c u l e is b r o k e n d o w n a n d c h l o r i n e is l i b e r a t e d . T h i s r e s u l t s in a decrease
o f r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e ( Z o n e 3 i n F i g . 8.21). F i n a l l y , w h e n all r e d u c i n g c o m
p o u n d s have been oxidized, the additional quantity of chlorine a d d e d t o the
7. Chemical Oxidation Processes 389
w a t e r r e s u l t s in a n e q u i v a l e n t r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o Z o n e 4
in F i g . 8 . 2 1 , w h i c h d i s p l a y s a 4 5 ° s t r a i g h t line for t h e free r e s i d u a l , a n d a
s t r a i g h t line p a r a l l e l t o t h e a b s c i s s a for t h e c o n s t a n t c o m b i n e d r e s i d u a l .
7.1.3. Chlorine a s a Disinfectant

T y p i c a l c h l o r i n e d o s a g e s r e q u i r e d for d i s i n f e c t i o n a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 8.5.
T h e effectiveness o f c h l o r i n e for killing b a c t e r i a is given b y C h i c k ' s l a w [ 4 ] ,
w h i c h is w r i t t e n in differential f o r m a s E q . (8.60).
dN/dt = -kN (8.60)
T A B L E 8.5
Typical Chlorine Dosages for Disinfection [8]
D o s a g e range
Effluent from (mg/liter)
Untreated wastewater (prechlorination) 6-25

Primary sedimentation 5-20
Chemical precipitation plant 2-6
Trickling filter plant 3-15
Activated sludge plant 2-8
Multimedia filter following activated sludge plant 1-5
w h e r e Ν is t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t , t t h e t i m e , dN/dt t h e r a t e o f b a c t e r i a kill, a n d
k t h e r a t e o f kill c o n s t a n t .
S e p a r a t i n g t h e v a r i a b l e s a n d i n t e g r a t i n g f r o m t i m e t = 0 t o a n y t i m e i,
N/No = e~ kt
(8.61)
w h e r e N is t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t a t ί = 0 a n d Ν t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t a t t i m e t.
0
T h e r a t e o f kill c o n s t a n t k is a f u n c t i o n o f p H , t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d a p p l i e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h l o r i n e . I t is e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e s l o p e o f a s t r a i g h t line p l o t
o f \nN/N 0 v s . t b a s e d o n E q . (8.61), w h i c h w r i t t e n in l o g a r i t h m i c f o r m is
\n(N/N ) 0 = -kt (8.62)
T h e effectiveness o f c h l o r i n a t i o n for d e s t r u c t i o n o f v a r i o u s o r g a n i s m s c o r
r e s p o n d s t o v a l u e s o f k f r o m 0.24 t o 6.3 for 9 9 % kill (i.e., N/N = 1/100 =
0
0.01) a t 0 ° - 6 ° C .
C h i c k ' s l a w is a n i d e a l i z e d p o r t r a y a l o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . U s u a l l y , i d e a l c o n
d i t i o n s d o n o t exist o w i n g t o v a r i a t i o n s in cell r e s i s t a n c e , d e c r e a s e in c h l o r i n e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , e t c . R a t e s o f kill s o m e t i m e s i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e w i t h t i m e .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , a m o d i f i e d f o r m o f E q . (8.61) c o n t a i n i n g a n e x t r a c o n s t a n t m
t o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a is w r i t t e n a s
Ν IN 0 = e~ ktm
(8.63)
If m is less t h a n 1, t h e r a t e o f kill d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e , a n d if m is g r e a t e r t h a n 1,
it i n c r e a s e s . C o n s t a n t s i n E q . ( 8 . 6 3 ) a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y p l o t t i n g -ln(N/N ) 0
vs. c o n t a c t t i m e t o n l o g a r i t h m i c p a p e r . T h e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p is
l o g [ - ln(N/N )] 0 = l o g £ + m log / (8.64)
T h e effect o f c h l o r i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n is defined b y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
C % = constant = Κ (8.65)
w h e r e C is t h e c h l o r i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( m g / l i t e r ) ; t p the t i m e required for a

given percentage kill; a n d η the c o n s t a n t t o be evaluated from the experi
mental data.
C o n s t a n t s in E q . (8.65) a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y p l o t t i n g o n l o g a r i t h m i c p a p e r t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h l o r i n e v s . t i m e for a g i v e n p e r c e n t a g e kill. T h e l i n e a r f o r m
o f E q . (8.65) is
log C = - (\/n) log t + (IIn) log Κ

p (8.66)
T h e s l o p e o f t h i s line c o r r e s p o n d s t o v a l u e o f — ( 1 / n ) .
7.1.4. Utilization of Chlorine for

Destruction of C y a n i d e s
C h l o r i n e is utilized t o o x i d i z e c y a n i d e t o i n n o c u o u s p r o d u c t s . T h i s is d o n e
i n a n a l k a l i n e m e d i a a t v a l u e s o f p H g r e a t e r t h a n 8.5. O x i d a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e
i n t w o s t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o E q s . (8.67) a n d (8.68).
First stage: C N ~ + 2 0 H ~ + C\ 2 -> C N O " + 2 C 1 " + H 0 2 (8.67)
Second stage: 2 C N O " + 4 0 H ~ + 3Cl 2 2C0 2 + N 2 + 6C1~ + 2 H 0

2 (8.68)
F r o m E q s . (8.67) a n d (8.68) t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o is 5 C 1 / 2
2 C N " o r 2 . 5 C 1 / 1 C N ~ . I n p r a c t i c e , a l a r g e excess o f c h l o r i n e is u t i l i z e d , o f
2
t h e o r d e r o f 7.5 p a r t s c h l o r i n e p e r o n e p a r t C N ~ .
7.1.5. E c o n o m i c s of Chlorination
of W a s t e w a t e r s
A l t h o u g h t h e u s e o f c h l o r i n a t i o n is w i d e s p r e a d , it s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t c h l o r i n e is a relatively e x p e n s i v e c h e m i c a l . If e c o n o m i c s is a c o n s i d e r a t i o n
for a given a p p l i c a t i o n , o t h e r m e t h o d s s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d . C h l o r i n e o x i d e s
( C 1 0 , C 1 0 , C 1 0 ) have been used in the disinfection of waters. A mixture
2 2 5 2 7
of C 1 0 / C 1 0
2 5 2 7 is a v a i l a b l e c o m m e r c i a l l y .
7.2. O Z O N A T I O N O F W A S T E W A T E R S
C h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n w i t h o z o n e is a n effective m e t h o d for t r e a t i n g w a s t e
waters, based o n the following factors [ 5 ] :
1. O z o n e r e a c t s r e a d i l y w i t h u n s a t u r a t e d o r g a n i c s i n w a s t e w a t e r s .
2. F o a m i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f w a s t e w a t e r s a r e r e d u c e d f o l l o w i n g o z o n e
treatment.
3. R i n g o p e n i n g a n d p a r t i a l o x i d a t i o n o f a r o m a t i c s r e n d e r s t h e w a s t e
water m o r e susceptible t o conventional biological treatment.
4 . O z o n e in t h e effluent q u i c k l y r e v e r t s t o o x y g e n o n c e it h a s s e r v e d its
p u r p o s e . T h i s d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is beneficial t o t h e r e c e i v i n g s t r e a m a n d h e l p s
s u p p o r t a q u a t i c life. I n c o n t r a s t , c h l o r i n e ( w h i c h is t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d
b a c t e r i a kill a g e n t ) lingers in t h e effluent a n d b e c o m e s a p o l l u t a n t itself).
L a b o r a t o r y scale o z o n a t i o n e q u i p m e n t for e v a l u a t i n g a m e n a b i l i t y o f w a s t e
w a t e r t o o z o n e o x i d a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d b y E c k e n f e l d e r a n d F o r d [ 5 ] .
O z o n e m a y r e p l a c e c h l o r i n e in t r e a t m e n t o f c y a n i d e w a s t e w a t e r s . O x i d a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e in t w o s t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o E q s . (8.69) a n d (8.70).
First stage: CN" + 0 3 -+ C N O " + 0 2 (8.69)
Second stage: 2CNO~ + 3 0 3 + H 0 -

2 2HC0 " + N3 2 + 30 2 (8.70)
8. N u t r i e n t Removal
R e m o v a l of nutrients ( p h o s p h o r u s a n d nitrogen c o m p o u n d s ) from waste
w a t e r s is a n i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e s e c o m p o u n d s p l a y a critical
r o l e i n l a k e e u t r o p h i c a t i o n ( C h a p t e r 1, S e c t i o n 7). E m p h a s i s h a s b e e n g i v e n
t o p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l for t w o r e a s o n s : (1) p h o s p h o r u s is t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l
n u t r i e n t , a n d (2) n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s a r e less efficient a n d m o r e e x
p e n s i v e . M o s t n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s in o p e r a t i o n t o d a y a r e
d e s i g n e d for p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l a l o n e .
8.2. P H O S P H O R U S R E M O V A L
8.2.1. Processes for P h o s p h o r u s Removal
P r o c e s s e s for p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l i n c l u d e (1) c h e m i c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
(2) a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s ( C h a p t e r 5), (3) s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s ( C h a p t e r 6,
S e c t i o n 6), (4) r e v e r s e o s m o s i s ( C h a p t e r 8, S e c t i o n 5), a n d (5) e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s
( C h a p t e r 8, S e c t i o n 6).
T h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s , a l t h o u g h p r i m a r i l y i n t e n d e d for r e m o v a l o f
o r g a n i c c o n t a m i n a n t s , r e m o v e s b o t h p h o s p h o r u s a n d n i t r o g e n , since b i o l o g
ical cells c o n t a i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 . 0 % p h o s p h o r u s a n d 1 2 % n i t r o g e n b y
weight. F o r domestic sewage this a m o u n t s t o a p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l rate of
2 0 - 4 0 % ( o r 1-2 m g / l i t e r ) .
S t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s yield relatively h i g h p h o s p h o r u s a n d n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l ,
p r o v i d e d light a n d t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e f a v o r a b l e t o t h e g r o w t h o f
algae. D u r i n g the summer, removal of a b o u t 80% of the nutrients m a y be
o b t a i n e d , w h e r e a s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r it m a y d r o p t o 2 0 % o r less. R e v e r s e
o s m o s i s a n d e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s a r e still t o o c o s t l y f o r g e n e r a l i z e d u s e . T h e d i s
c u s s i o n o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l i n t h i s s e c t i o n is exclusively c o n c e r n e d w i t h
chemical precipitation processes.
8.2.2. Chemical Precipitation Processes for

P h o s p h o r u s Removal
P r e c i p i t a n t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n m a i n l y e m p l o y e d in p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l a r e
Fe 3 +
(as F e C l ) , C a
3
2 +
(as l i m e ) , A l [as alum, A 1 ( S 0 ) . 1 6 H 0 ] , and
3 +
2 4 3 2
c o m b i n a t i o n s of F e 3 +
a n d l i m e . T h e m e c h a n i s m o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l is
mostly precipitation in the form of phosphates of C a , F e , a n d A l . 2 + 3 + 3 +
3Ca 2 +
+ 2P<V- - Ca (P0 ) i
3 4 2
Fe 3 +
+ P0 4
3 _
-> F e P 0 j 4 (8.71)
Al 3 +
+ P0 4
3
- AlP0 j 4
A d s o r p t i o n a l s o p l a y s a r o l e in t h e r e m o v a l o f s o m e p h o s p h a t e s w h i c h a r e
a d s o r b e d o n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g floe. C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n u t i l i z a t i o n o f different
precipitants are as follows:
1. F e (as F e C l ) . F e C l (in d o s a g e s o f 10 m g / l i t e r ) is t h e m o s t c o m
3 +
3 3
m o n l y e m p l o y e d p r e c i p i t a t i n g a g e n t for p h o s p h o r u s , y i e l d i n g a r o u n d 9 0 %
removal.
2. C a 2 +
(as l i m e ) . L i m e is less efficient t h a n F e C l . U t i l i z e d in d o s a g e s o f
3
5 0 0 - 7 0 0 m g / l i t e r yields r e m o v a l o f a t m o s t 8 0 % a t p H v a l u e s o f 1 0 . 5 - 1 1 .
A n o t h e r d r a w b a c k o f l i m e u t i l i z a t i o n r e s i d e s in t h e l a r g e v o l u m e s o f s l u d g e
p r o d u c e d , which causes a disposal p r o b l e m . Recovery of lime by calcination
of this sludge m a y be performed. Because of the presence of organic materials,
t h e s l u d g e m a y b e c a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t i n g its o w n c o m b u s t i o n .
3. A l 3 +
[as alum, A 1 ( S 0 ) . 1 6 H 0 ] . Although alum precipitation
2 4 2
yields a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 5 % p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l a t d o s a g e s o f 2 0 0 - 2 5 0 m g /
liter, it is less f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d o w i n g t o t h e h i g h c o s t o f a l u m . R e m o v a l o f
5 0 - 6 0 % o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s ( c a r b o n a c e o u s a n d n i t r o g e n o u s ) is o b t a i n e d
simultaneously with phosphorus removal.
4. C o m b i n a t i o n o f F e a n d lime. C o m b i n a t i o n s of F e C l solutions
3 +
3
a n d l i m e in r e s p e c t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 m g / l i t e r a n d 2 - 5 m g / l i t e r h a v e
been used, yielding p h o s p h o r u s removal of approximately 9 5 % .
T h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n is u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n a t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s . F i g u r e 8.22 s u m m a r i z e s t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s for
p h o s p h o r u s removal within an activated sludge plant.
Alternative No. 1—precipitation in primary clarifier. The precipitant,
usually a c o m b i n a t i o n of F e C l a n d lime with typical dosages indicated pre
3
v i o u s l y , is a d d e d t o r a w s e w a g e , p h o s p h a t e s b e i n g p r e c i p i t a t e d a n d r e m o v e d in
-Alternative no. I
Precipitation in primary clarifier
-Alternative no. 2 -Alternative no. 3

Simultaneous Subsequent
precipitation precipitation
Additional
clarifier
for
Alternative
\ n o . 3 /
Y
•
Wastage
Fig. 8.22. Alternative precipitation operations for phosphorus removal.
t h e p r i m a r y clarifier. P h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l is 9 0 - 9 5 % , a n d a c o n s i d e r a b l e
a m o u n t o f s l u d g e is o b t a i n e d . T h e a d d i t i o n o f l i m e in t h i s p r o c e s s r a i s e s t h e
p H o f t h e effluent f r o m t h e p r i m a r y clarifier t o n e a r l y 10.0. T h i s is n o t a n
obstacle to the p r o p e r operation of the biological process in the aerator,
w h i c h r e q u i r e s a p H n e a r n e u t r a l i t y . T h e n a t u r a l buffering c a p a c i t y o f t h e
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is sufficient t o p r o v i d e t h e r e q u i r e d n e u t r a l i z a t i o n ,
owing to p r o d u c t i o n of c a r b o n dioxide.
Alternative No. 2—simultaneous precipitation. P r e c i p i t a n t is a d d e d d i r e c t
ly t o t h e a e r a t i o n t a n k . T h e p r e c i p i t a t e settles in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier t o g e t h e r
with the activated sludge. It seems t h a t the chemicals d o long-term d a m a g e t o
t h e b i o l o g i c a l cells, a n d t h a t t h e i r o r g a n i c r e m o v a l efficiency is i m p a i r e d t o
s o m e extent. O n the other h a n d , addition of chemicals aids settling a n d c o m
p a c t i o n o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e in t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier.
Alternative No. 3—subsequent precipitation. Precipitating chemicals are
a d d e d t o t h e effluent f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y clarifier. A n a d d i t i o n a l clarifier is
required to remove precipitated phosphates, thereby increasing capital costs.
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l efficiencies o b t a i n e d a r e s o m e
w h a t h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e for t h e t w o p r e v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s .
E s t i m a t i n g c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l c a n n o t b e d o n e
from simple stoichiometric relationships, because the actual mechanism of
p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l is n o t k n o w n . E m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e b e e n d e
v e l o p e d for e s t i m a t i n g c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t w o o f t h e s e a r e m e n t i o n e d
next.
1. F o r e s t i m a t i n g F e 3 +
or A l 3 +
requirements,
ε = d + 0.5 l o g ( m / P i ) (8.72)
w h e r e ε is t h e efficiency o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l [ε = (Ρι — Ρ/)/Ρ ί9 where P (

is t h e initial p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in w a s t e w a t e r ( m o l e s o f P / l i t e r ) ;
P f t h e final p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n after p r e c i p i t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n ( m o l e s
of P/liter)]; C x a c o n s t a n t w i t h a v a l u e o f 0 . 6 1 4 for F e C l a n d 0 . 6 6 2 f o r a l u m ;
3
a n d m the required molality of precipitant (moles F e 3 +

or Al /liter).
3 +
Solving for m,
m = p lo - i
( e c l ) / 0
- 5
(8.73)
E q u a t i o n s (8.72) a n d (8.73) a p p l y f o r a r a n g e 0.45 < ε < 0 . 9 5 .

2. F o r e s t i m a t i n g l i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s , a r u l e o f t h u m b c o n s i s t s in u t i l i z i n g
a quantity of lime (moles/liter of C a 2 +
) e q u a l t o 1.5 t i m e s t h e c a r b o n a t e
hardness of the wastewater.
Laboratory evaluation of p h o s p h o r u s removal can be performed. These
tests n o t o n l y p e r m i t p l o t t i n g c u r v e s o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l efficiency v s .
d o s a g e o f p r e c i p i t a n t , b u t a l s o e v a l u a t i o n o f effects o f p H a n d t e m p e r a t u r e .
C u r v e s o f p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l efficiency v s . d o s a g e o f p r e c i p i t a n t a r e e x
ponential. They reach a plateau b e y o n d a certain concentration of chemical
a d d e d . I t is u s u a l l y u n e c o n o m i c a l , t h e r e f o r e , t o a t t e m p t r e d u c i n g p h o s p h o r u s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e l o w 0.10 m g / l i t e r o w i n g t o e x t r e m e l y h i g h c h e m i c a l r e
quirements.
8.3. N I T R O G E N R E M O V A L
8.3.1. Introduction
N i t r o g e n together with p h o s p h o r u s contributes t o the process of lake
e u t r o p h i c a t i o n . A l s o , n i t r o g e n in t h e f o r m o f N H 4
+
or nitrites (N0 ~)
2
e x e r t s a n o x y g e n d e m a n d b e c a u s e o f its o x i d a t i o n t o n i t r a t e s ( N 0 ~ ) . 3
NH 4
+
-» N 0 ~ - • N 0 -
2 3
(8.74)
T h e s e facts j u s t i f y t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l f r o m w a s t e w a t e r s
p r i o r t o discharge into receiving waters.
F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r s t h e split a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f n i t r o g e n is
relatively c o n s t a n t : N H 4 nitrogen, 50-60%; organic nitrogen, 4 0 - 5 9 % ; and
+
n i t r i t e s a n d n i t r a t e s , 0 - 5 % . I n t h e effluent f r o m a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t ,
m o s t n i t r o g e n is p r e s e n t e i t h e r a s n i t r i t e s o r n i t r a t e s , o w i n g t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e
o f nitrification. N i t r i f i c a t i o n i n v a r i a b l y o c c u r s d u r i n g a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e t r e a t
m e n t a t v a l u e s o f F/M r a t i o less t h a n 1.0. ( O p t i m u m r a n g e o f F/M r a t i o s f o r
t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s is f r o m 0.3 t o 0 . 7 ; see C h a p t e r 5, S e c t i o n 5.)
8.3.2. Processes for N i t r o g e n Removal

P r o c e s s e s for n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l i n c l u d e (1) n i t r i f i c a t i o n - d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n p r o
c e s s ; (2) a m m o n i a s t r i p p i n g ; (3) i o n e x c h a n g e ; (4) b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s s u c h
a s a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o n d s ; a n d (5) p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r o c e s s e s .
1. Nitrification-denitrification. T h e m a i n p r o c e s s g e a r e d specifically for

n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l is n i t r i f i c a t i o n - d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h is a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f
the activated sludge process a n d takes place in t w o steps:
(a) N i t r i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s in a e r a t i o n e m p l o y i n g F/M r a t i o s less t h a n
1.0, u s u a l l y F/M « 0 . 3 , a n d a longer a e r a t i o n p e r i o d t h a n for t h e conven
tional activated sludge process. N i t r o g e n compounds are converted to
n i t r i t e s ( N 0 ~ ) a n d n i t r a t e s ( N 0 ~ ) in t h e p r e s e n c e o f Nitrosomonas
2 3 and
Nitrobacter microorganisms.
NH 4
+
" T NCV
(8.75)
^ _
T Nitrobacter Tj_
N0 - 2 > N0 - 3
(b) Denitrification is a n a n a e r o b i c s t e p w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e i n the

s e c o n d a r y clarifier b y e x t e n d i n g r e s i d e n c e t i m e a n d a d d i n g a n o r g a n i c c a r b o n
source, usually methanol. Nitrites a n d nitrates are converted t o nitrogen gas
and nitrogen oxide, which are vented out.
denitrification ^ T _
N0 ~ 2 orNCV > N 2 + N 0 2
(8.76)
S l u d g e a g e in s e c o n d a r y clarifier is a t least 2 - 3 d a y s , h i g h e r v a l u e s b e i n g
r e q u i r e d a t l o w e r o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e n i t r i f i c a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d e v e n
without addition of the organic c a r b o n source t o help meet denitrifying
bacteria requirements. E n d o g e n o u s respiration provides these requirements,
b u t a d d i t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n s o u r c e is h e l p f u l . A t w o - s t e p n i t r i f i c a t i o n - d e
n i t r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s is s h o w n in F i g . 8.23.
A m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d three-step nitrification-denitrification process is s h o w n
in F i g . 8.24. T h e first s t e p is a h i g h r a t e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s w h e r e 7 5 - 8 5 %
o f t h e c a r b o n a c e o u s m a t e r i a l is r e m o v e d . R e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e a e r a t o r is
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 h r . T h e s e c o n d s t e p is n i t r i f i c a t i o n in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n
-STEP - S T E P 2:
Nitrification step: Denitrification step:
N H 4 - N O g - N C £ NOil
N 0
NO:
2
Raw sewage Primary

j Aerator
ί
Secondary
Effluent
ί
clarifier 1
! clarifier
Recycled ^sludge *l Wastage
Fig. 8.23. Two-step nitrification-denitrification process.

• S T E P I: - S T E P 2:
High rate activated sludge Nitrification step:
process:
Organics - C 0 • H 0
2 2
N H ; * N 0 g *N03
Raw Primary Aerator I Secondary Aerator 2 Secondary

sewage clarifier t=2 hr clarifier t=3 hr clarifier
No. I No. 2
[Recycled sludge Recycled sludge

(50%) (50%)
Wastage Wastage
- S T E P 3.-
I
Denitrificotion step:
uermr
Methanol addition
•Np + NoO
Anaerobic Secondary Final
tank clarifier
effluent
No. 3
Recycled sludge f~X

(50%) ~
Wastage
Fig. 8.24. Three-step nitrification-denitrif/cation process.
e n r i c h e d c u l t u r e o f n i t r i f y i n g b a c t e r i a . R e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e a e r a t o r is a p
p r o x i m a t e l y 3 h r . T h e t h i r d s t e p is d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h is a n a n a e r o b i c
o p e r a t i o n , m e t h a n o l b e i n g a d d e d t o p r o v i d e a n a d e q u a t e C/N r a t i o .
2. Ammonia stripping. This process consists of adjusting p H of the
w a s t e w a t e r t o a v a l u e a b o v e 10 ( l i m e is utilized for t h i s p u r p o s e ) , a n d t h e n
a i r - s t r i p p i n g t h e a m m o n i a ( a t p H > 10 n i t r o g e n is p r e s e n t a s N H ) in a 3
s t r i p p i n g t o w e r . N i t r o g e n r e m o v a l efficiencies o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 % a r e
o b t a i n e d a t a i r / l i q u i d r a t i o s o f 3 5 0 f t / g a l a n d l i q u i d r a t e s o f a b o u t 3.0 g a l /
3
( m i n ) ( f t ) . R e m o v a l efficiency is i n c r e a s e d close t o 9 8 % w i t h a n a i r / l i q u i d
2
r a t i o o f 8 0 0 f t / g a l . H o w e v e r , r e m o v a l efficiency d r o p s c o n s i d e r a b l y in c o l d
3
weather.
A m m o n i a s t r i p p i n g is e m p l o y e d e i t h e r b e f o r e o r after s e c o n d a r y t r e a t
m e n t . If t h e s t r i p p i n g o p e r a t i o n is f o l l o w e d b y b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t , it is
n e c e s s a r y t o l o w e r t h e p H t o a v a l u e n e a r t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t . T h i s is u s u a l l y
d o n e b y r e c a r b o n a t i o n , i.e., b u b b l i n g t h r o u g h flue g a s c o n t a i n i n g c a r b o n
d i o x i d e . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o leave e n o u g h n i t r o g e n u n r e m o v e d t o satisfy n u t r i
t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s .
Simultaneously with nitrogen removal, air-stripping accomplishes phos

p h o r u s removal, B O D reduction, a n d r e m o v a l of suspended solids. T h e
p r i m a r y v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d in t h e a m m o n i a - s t r i p p i n g p r o c e s s a r e p H , a i r / l i q u i d
ratio, hydraulic loading [gal/(min)(ft )], packed height, a n d characteristics
2
of the p a c k i n g elements.
3. Ion exchange. A c a t i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n ( c l i n o p t i l o l i l e ) w h i c h is selective
for N H 4
+
is utilized i n t r e a t m e n t o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e effluents f r o m the
s e c o n d a r y clarifier. T h i s r e s i n is r e g e n e r a t e d w i t h l i m e , a n d t h e r e g e n e r a n t is
r e u s e d after b e i n g a i r - s t r i p p e d o f a m m o n i a i n a s t r i p p i n g t o w e r . T h e c o s t o f
o p e r a t i o n is h i g h , a n d u s u a l l y , t h i s p r o c e s s is n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible.
A n i o n e x c h a n g e r e s i n s a r e u s e d for r e m o v a l o f n i t r a t e s ( N 0 ~ ) . P h o s p h a t e s
3
a n d o t h e r a n i o n s a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e m o v e d . T h e r e s i n is r e g e n e r a t e d w i t h
brine a n d restored by treatment with acid a n d methanol. Pretreatment by
filtration m a y be required in ion exchange processes, thereby increasing costs.
4 . Biological processes, i.e., a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d s t a b i l i z a t i o n ponds,
h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d in S e c t i o n 8.2.1 in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p h o s p h o r u s
removal.
5. Precipitation processes. S e c t i o n 8.2.2 d e s c r i b e s t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n c o n
n e c t i o n w i t h p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l . A s f a r a s n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l is c o n c e r n e d ,
p r e c i p i t a t i o n m e t h o d s a r e r a t h e r inefficient, a c c o u n t i n g for less t h a n 3 0 %
removal of total nitrogen.
8.4. A D D E D B E N E F I T S I N N U T R I E N T R E M O V A L
A l t h o u g h initial c o s t s i n t h e p r o c e s s e s s t u d i e d a r e h i g h , t h e r e a r e a d d e d
benefits i n n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h in s o m e c a s e s j u s t i f y t h e c o s t s .
A m o n g t h e s e a r e (1) B O D r e d u c t i o n , (2) s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s r e m o v a l , (3) b a c
terial a n d viral r e m o v a l , a n d (4) r e m o v a l o f v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c s .
9. S o n o z o n e W a s t e w a t e r
Purification P r o c e s s
This tertiary treatment process has been developed at the University of
Notre D a m e (Lobund Laboratory), and sonozone plants are commercially
available from the Ecology Division of T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s Industries, Inc.
(Lindenhurst, N e w Y o r k ) . A pilot plant at the University of I n d i a n a with a
c a p a c i t y o f 2 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d a y is b e i n g u s e d a s a r e s e a r c h m o d e l , t r e a t i n g o n -
c a m p u s s e w a g e . A full-size p l a n t ( c a p a c i t y , 5 7 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d a y ) is in o p e r a t i o n
at Indiantown, Florida.
Telecommunications Industries, Inc. claims that the sonozone process
provides tertiary treatment at costs c o m p a r a b l e to secondary treatment.
T h e sonozone process combines ultrahigh frequency s o u n d a n d ozone treat-
A C O 2 + O 2
(1) (2) (3)

Physical-chemical section Filtration Sonozone
section section
Effluent
sewage
Sludge 0 3 0 3
Fig. 8.25. Flow diagram of sonozone process [10]. (Courtesy of Telecommuni

cations Industries, Inc.)
m e n t . A simplified flow d i a g r a m is s h o w n in F i g . 8.25. T r e a t m e n t i n v o l v e s

t h r e e s t a g e s , o f w h i c h t h e t w o initial o n e s a r e p r e t r e a t m e n t u n i t s .
1. Physical-chemical section. S l u d g e is r e m o v e d b y a series o f p r i m a r y
t r e a t m e n t contacts utilizing c o a g u l a t i o n followed by clarification.
2 . Filtration section. T h e filtration s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d t o r e m o v e m i c r o -
sized solids a n d o r g a n i c s f r o m clarified w a s t e w a t e r .
3. Sonozone section. T h e c e n t r a l u n i t is t h e o z o n e a n d s o n i c s u n i t . I t
consists of a small vibrating metal disk a t the b o t t o m of a t a n k t h r o u g h which
w a s t e w a t e r flows. A s t e a d y s t r e a m o f u l t r a s o n i c w a v e s is s e n t o u t b y t h e
v i b r a t i n g d i s k , a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o z o n e is b u b b l e d i n t o t h e t a n k f r o m a
n e a r b y g e n e r a t o r , w h i c h p r o d u c e s o z o n e b y s h o o t i n g electric a r c s t h r o u g h
t h e air.
T h e e x a c t m e c h a n i s m for t h e p h e n o m e n a t a k i n g p l a c e w h e n w a s t e w a t e r is
s u b j e c t e d t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f o z o n e a n d u l t r a s o n i c w a v e s is still u n d e r i n
vestigation. H i g h frequency s o u n d waves rattle bacteria a n d dissolved par
ticles, b r e a k i n g t h e m i n t o s u b m i c r o n size. I n t h i s f o r m , t h e y b e c o m e h i g h l y
s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e s t r o n g o x i d i z i n g effect o f o z o n e , s o less o f it is r e q u i r e d .
C a r b o n a c e o u s materials are oxidized, yielding C 0 a n d 0 . This corresponds
2 2
t o t h e simplified e q u a t i o n [ E q . ( 8 . 7 7 ) ]
20 3 + C - C0 2 + 20 2 (8.77)
I n tests c o n d u c t e d a t t h e 2 0 , 0 0 0 - g a l / d a y p i l o t u n i t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
N o t r e D a m e , less t h a n 6 0 sec o f s o n o z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e s t r o y e d 1 0 0 % o f fecal
bacteria a n d viruses, 9 3 % of p h o s p h a t e s , a n d 7 2 % of nitrogen c o m p o u n d s .
Effluent p u r i t y w a s j u s t s h o r t o f t h a t o b t a i n e d b y d i s t i l l a t i o n .
I n t h e effluent, o z o n e q u i c k l y r e v e r t s t o o x y g e n . T h i s d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n is
beneficial t o t h e r e c e i v i n g s t r e a m a n d h e l p s s u p p o r t a q u a t i c life. I n c o n t r a s t ,
c h l o r i n e , t h e m o s t l a r g e l y u s e d b a c t e r i a kill, lingers i n t h e effluent a n d b e c o m e s
a p o l l u t a n t itself.
Sludge from the physical-chemical section of the sonozone system is

processed by any of the s t a n d a r d m e t h o d s such as sand bed drying, v a c u u m
filtration, centrifugation, or incineration. T h e I n d i a n t o w n plant uses sand bed
drying, with liquid waste from the sludge reprocessed t h r o u g h the s o n o z o n e
s y s t e m . S l u d g e is c o l l e c t e d a n d p e r i o d i c a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d t o a s l u d g e d i s p o s a l
area.
O n e i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p r o c e s s is its c o m p a c t n e s s . I t is e s t i m a t e d
that the sonozone system requires approximately 2 0 % of the land area of
conventional systems; t h u s real estate acquisition costs are considerably
r e d u c e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s m a l l e r h o u s i n g o f t h e p l a n t is m o r e a t t r a c t i v e t h a n
the large horizontal aeration a n d sedimentation t a n k s of conventional systems.
Problems
I. F o r the activated carbon column in E x a m p l e 8.2, calculate the residual concentration
(C ) if depth is increased to 10 ft, keeping the same service time. Prepare a plot o f C vs. d e p t h
E E
utilizing depths o f 5 , 1 0 , 1 5 , and 2 0 ft.
II. Verify if the carbon adsorption data in the tabulation below are fit by the Langmuir
isotherm. If s o , determine constants Κ and b.
C (mg/liter) A7M(g/g)
10 0.20
20 0.28
30 0.33
III. T h e wastewater stream from a plating industry has the following characteristics: flow
rate, 50 gal/min for 12 hr a day; chemical c o m p o s i t i o n : copper, 30 mg/liter as C u ; zinc, 2 +
12 mg/liter as Z n ; nickel, 2 0 mg/liter as N i ; and chromate, 125 mg/liter as C r 0 .

2 + 2 +
3
Characteristics of cation and anion exchange resins used are as given in the tabulation below.
Cation Anion
Regenerant H S0 2 4
NaOH
D o s a g e (lb/ft ) 3
11.0 4.7
Concentration (%) 5 10.0
F l o w rate [gal/(min)(ft )] 2
0.5 0.5
Exchange capacity 1.5 eq/liter 3.8 lb C r 0 / f t
3
3
Rinsing water (gal/ft o f resin) 3

130 100
1. D e s i g n a n anion exchange system t o remove chromate. Calculate volume o f resin

required, N a O H for daily regeneration, and rinsing water requirements.
2. D e s i g n a cation exchanger t o remove C u , Z n , and N i . Calculate v o l u m e o f
2 + 2 + 2+
resin required, H S 0 for daily regeneration, and rinsing water requirements.

2 4
References
1. Bohart, G . S . , and A d a m s , E . Q., / . Am. Chem. Soc. 42, 523 (1920).
2. Business Week, " I s Ozone the W a y to Treat Sewage." M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1973.
3. Castellan, G . W . , "Physical Chemistry," p. 263. Addison-Wesley, Reading, M a s s a
chusetts, 1964.
4. Chick, H . , / . Hyg. 8, 92 (1908).
5. Eckenfelder, W . W . , Jr., and F o r d , D . L., "Water Pollution Control." Pemberton Press,
Austin and N e w Y o r k , 1970.
6. K a u p , E . C , Chem. Eng. (N.Y.) 80, N o . 8, 46 (1973).
7. Loeb, S . , "Sea Water Demineralization by Means of a Semi-permeable Membrane,"
Rep. 63-32. Department of Engineering, University of California, L o s Angeles, 1963.
8. Metcalf & E d d y , Inc., "Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, Disposal."
M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1972.
9. Sourirajan, S . , and Agrawal, J. P., Ind. Eng. Chem. 6 1 , N o . 11, 62 (1969).
10. Telecommunications Industries, Inc., " A n Introduction to Sonozone Waste Water
Treatment Systems," Tech. Bull. Telecommun. I n d . , Inc., Lindenhurst, N e w Y o r k , 1974.
Appendix
C o n v e r s i o n F a c t o r s from English t o M e t r i c U n i t s
LENGTH
in. χ 2.54 = c m
ft χ 30.48 = c m
ft χ 0.3048 = c m
AREA
i n . χ 6.4516 = c m
2 2
f t χ 929.03 = c m
2 2
f t χ 0.092903 = m
2 2
acre χ 4046.8 = m 2
(1 acre = 43,560 f t ) 2
V O L U M E ( U . S . G A L UTILIZED)
in. 3
χ 0.01638 = liter
in. 3
χ 16.386 = c m 3
ft3
χ 28.316 = liter
ft3
χ 0.02831 = m 3
ft3
χ 2.8316 χ 1 0 = c m 4 3
gal χ 3.7854 = liter

gal χ 3785.4 = c m 3
FLOW RATE ( U . S . G A L UTILIZED)

gal/min χ 0.0631 = liter/sec
gal/hr χ 1.052 χ 1 0 " = liter/sec 3
gal/day χ 4.381 χ 1 0 " = liter/sec 5
M G D χ 43.81 = liter/sec (Note: M G D = million gallons/day)
FLOW RATE PER UNIT A R E A ( U . S . G A L UTILIZED)

gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 40.75 = liter/(min) ( m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 0.679 = liter/(sec) ( m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 0.004075 = liter/(min) ( c m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 0.2445 = liter/(hr) ( c m ) 2
gal/(min)(ft 2
) X 2445 = liter/(hr) ( m ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 0.679 = liter/(min) ( m ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 0.0113 = l i t e r / ( s e c ) ( m ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 6.79 X I O ' = l i t e r / ( m i n ) ( c m )
6 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 0.004075= liter/(hr) (cm ) 2
gal/(hr)(ft ) 2
X 40.75 = l i t e r / ( h r ) ( m ) 2
FLOW RATE PER UNIT V O L U M E ( U . S . G A L UTILIZED)

g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) X 2.2277 = liter/(min) ( m )
3 3
g a l / ( h r ) ( f t ) X 0.0371 = liter/(sec) ( m )
3 3
401
402 Appendix
MASS
lb χ 453.59 = g
lb χ 0.45359 = kg
QUANTITY OF HEAT
B T U χ 0.25198 = kg calorie
B T U χ 251.98 = g calorie
TEMPERATURE
°C = ( l / 1 . 8 ) ( ° F - 3 2 )
Index
A parameter b, definition, 178
parameter b\ definition, 179
Acclimation, 35, 189 ratio 6 7 6 , 179
Activated sludge p r o c e s s , 157-235 typical values of parameters for
batch reactor, laboratory, 164 aerobic biological oxidation, for dif
calculation of S , material balance, 207
0
ferent wastewaters, 185
comparison with e x t e n d e d aeration, 238, recycle ratio, material balance for
239 determination of r e c y c l e ratio of
completely-mixed activated sludge M L V S S , 206, 209
p r o c e s s , 248 relationship b e t w e e n parameters a and
contact stabilization p r o c e s s , 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 a , 175, 177
continuous reactor residence time, calculation for reactor,
formulation, 166 208
laboratory, 189-193 sludge settling, optimum conditions, 185
sampling schedule, 193 sludge volume index, 186
design procedure for activated sludge z o n e settling velocity, 185
plant, 2 1 2 - 2 1 9 sludge yield, total, 183
determination of k (rate constant), 169, step aeration, 233, 247
194, 200 substrate removal rate constant, 167, 220
extended aeration, 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 tapered aeration, 248
factor 1.42, 176 Adsorption, see Carbon adsorption
kinetics relationships, 164 A d v a n c e d treatment, see Tertiary treat
material balance relationships, 169 ment of wastewaters
mathematical modeling, 163 Aerated lagoons, see L a g o o n s , aerated
neutralization requirements, 210 Aeration
nonbiodegradable matter, 165, 169 e x t e n d e d (total oxidation), 2 3 8 - 2 4 4
nutrient requirements, 211 conventional units, 239
o x y g e n utilization, material balance for design criteria for, 241
determination of, 179 nitrification in, 241
parametera oxidation ditch, 239
definition (synthesis phase), 174 settling of sludge from, 241
in different units, 177 step, 223, 247
parameter a, definition (synthesis tapered, 248
phase), 172 units, see Aerators
parameter a ' Aerators, 140-154
definition (oxidation), 172 basic function of, in -aerobic biological
in different units, 177 p r o c e s s e s , 140
parameters for design of aerobic biologi diffusion units, 140
cal reactors, determination by design procedure for aerator s y s t e m s ,
laboratory-scale continuous reactors, 143
189 fine-bubble, 140
parameters for e n d o g e n o u s respiration, large-bubble, 141
178 performance, 142
403
404 Index
surface units, 149-154 dilution test, 3 3 - 3 6

correlation b e t w e e n transfer efficiency g l u c o s e - g l u t a m i c acid check for B O D
and level o f agitation, 149 test, 36
design procedure for aerator s y s t e m s , manometric m e t h o d s , 38
151 mathematical model for B O D c u r v e ,
turbine units, 144-148 47-61
design procedure for aerator s y s t e m s , log difference method for determina
147 tion o f parameters k and L , 480
optimum power split b e t w e e n rotor method of m o m e n t s for determination

and compressor, 146 o f parameters k and L , 51 c
performance, 145 Thomas* graphical method for deter

power requirements, 145 mination of parameters k and L > 56 0
Aerobic degradation ratio of C O D and B O D , 35M
endogenous respiration phase, 165, 178 relationship b e t w e e n k and ratio

mechanism, 169-171 BODj/BODu, 58
synthesis phase, 165, 172 ultimate o x y g e n demand ( B O D J , 34
A m m o n i a stripping, 394 Biological treatment, evaluation of feasibil
Anaerobic treatment of wastewaters, ity for industrial wastewater, 61
282-293 batch reactor evaluation, 65
acid and methane fermentation stages, Warburg respirometer, 61
282
bench-scale reactors, 288
C
B O D removal rate, 284
design procedure for anaerobic Carbon adsorption, 3 4 5 - 3 5 8
digesters, 289 activated carbons, 345
detention time, calculation, 287 preparation, 345
gas production, 288 reactivation, 346
mathematical formulation, 284 adsorptive capacity, 348
quantitative study o f anaerobic degrada B o h a r t - A d a m s equation, 348, 356
tion of organic w a s t e , 283 break point, 348
volatile solids in anaerobic reactor, 285 c o l u m n s , bench-scale, 349
Animal s p e c i e s , higher forms in receiving critical bed depth, 349
waters, 20 design procedure for activated carbon
AquaRator, 31 c o l u m n s , 347, 353
Freundlich isotherm, 347
Assimilative capacity, of river, 4 isotherms (adsorption), 346, 347
laboratory simulation: determination of
design parameters, 349
Β
Langmuir isotherm, 346
Bacteria (and ciliates), 19 operation of carbon adsorption s y s t e m s ,
Bacterial cell, 186 347
B O D , see Biochemical o x y g e n demand Carbon parameter methods for measure
B o h a r t - A d a m s equation, 348, 356 ment o f organic content, 27, 4 4 - 4 7
Biochemical o x y g e n demand ( B O D ) , Cell
3 3 - 3 9 , 58 bacterial, 186
acclimation and seeding, effect on B O D residence time, mean, 226, 300
test, 35 Centrifugation of sludges, 328, 329
algae effect on B O D test, 36 Clarifiers, see Sedimentation
B O D test, environmental effects o n , 58 Chemical engineering, curriculum, 4
of p H , 59 Chemical o x y g e n demand ( C O D ) , 2 8 - 3 3
of temperature, 58
Index 405
instrumental C O D m e t h o d s , 3 1 - 3 3 E n d o g e n o u s respiration, 165, 171, 177

permanganate oxidation test, 30 Engineer
rapid C O D tests, 31 role in water pollution abatement, 2
standard dichromate oxidation method, survey o f contribution to water pollution
29 abatement, 2
Chick's l a w , 389 Equalization, 1 1 4 - 1 1 6
Chlorination of wastewaters, 3 8 7 - 3 9 0 constant level equalization basins, 114
Chick's l a w , 389 variable level equalization basins, 115
chlorine as disinfectant, 389 Eutrophication, 22
c y a n i d e s , destruction by, 390 eutrophic, mesotrophic, and oligotrophic
e c o n o m i c s of, 390 lakes, 22
reactions of chlorine in water, 387
utilization and purposes of, 387 F
Ciliates (and bacteria), 19
Clarifiers, see Sedimentation Filters, trickling, see Trickling filters
C O D , see Chemical o x y g e n demand Filtration, sludge in v a c u u m filters,
Contact stabilization p r o c e s s , 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 311-328
advantages v s . conventional activated Buchner funnel test, 315
sludge p r o c e s s , 244 compressible c a k e s , 318
design of contact stabilization s y s t e m s , c y c l e time, 312
246 design equations, 3 1 9 - 3 2 8
solubility index (SI) and overall effi dry time, 312
c i e n c y , 245 equations, 314
Cost-benefit ratio, 10 form time, 312
Cyanides form-loading equation, 320
destruction by chlorine, 390 leaf t e s t s , 3 2 1 - 3 2 4
by o z o n e , 391 optimum coagulant d o s a g e , 315
pressure filtration, 328
D specific resistance o f c a k e , 314, 316,
317
D e c o m p o s i t i o n , of carbonaceous and ni
variables in vacuum filtration, 312
trogenous organic matter, 17
Flotation, 107, 113
Dichromate, standard method for C O D de
air-to-solids ratio, 108, 110
mand, 29
s y s t e m s with and without r e c y c l e , 108,
Digesters o f sludge, see Sludge
112, 113
Digestion o f sludges, see Sludge
Fluidized-bed disposal of sludges, 340
D i s s o l v e d o x y g e n (DO), 3 6 - 3 8
Food-to-microorganism ratio, 186
instrumental m e t h o d s , 37
optimum, 186, 238
Winkler's method, 37
Freundlich isotherm, 347
Drag coefficient, 7 2 - 7 4
Ε G
E d d e - E c k e n f e l d e r equation, 310 G l o y n a - H e r m a n n equation, 263

Effluent standards, 9 Growth rate, specific (of sludge), 225
Electrodialysis, 3 8 5 - 3 8 7
current required for, 385
Η
pretreatment of wastewaters in, 386
voltage required for, 385 H e n r y ' s line, statistical correlation of
End-of-pipe control, see Wastewater treat waste survey data, 67
ment H e r m a n n - G l o y n a equation, 263
406 Index
I requirements, in activated sludge

p r o c e s s , 210
Industrial wastewater treatment, c a s e his
N e w t o n ' s law (sedimentation), 73
tory, 3
N i c h o l s heat treatment p r o c e s s for
Inplant control, see Wastewater treatment,
sludges, 3 3 6 - 3 3 9
inplant
N i c h o l s - H e r r e s h o f f furnace, 340, 341
Ion e x c h a n g e (exchangers), 3 5 9 - 3 6 7
Nitrates, contamination, 24
anion exchangers, 361
Nitrification, 5 9 - 6 1 , 241
cation exchangers, 359
Nitrification-denitrification, 3 9 4 - 3 9 6
design of, 3 6 1 , 3 6 3 - 3 6 7
Nitrobacter microorganisms, 59
mechanism of, 359
Nitrogen, 18, 3 9 4 - 3 9 7
regeneration, 362
Nitrogen removal, 3 9 4 - 3 9 7
rinsing water requirements, 363
Nitrosomonas microorganisms, 59
Nutrient removal, 3 9 1 - 3 9 7
L Nutrient requirements, see Activated
sludge p r o c e s s
Lagooning, of sludges, 340
L a g o o n s , aerated, 2 4 9 - 2 5 9 Ο
completely mixed, 249
design procedure, 256 O s m o s i s , reverse, 3 6 7 - 3 8 5
effluent B O D concentration polarization, 382
soluble, 253 critical pore diameter for membranes,
total, 255 372
facultative, 250 flux
M L V S S concentration, 253 decline, 378
o x y g e n requirements, 253 effect o f feed temperature, 377
retention period, 254 prediction, 380
temperature, estimate, 251 water, 374
Langmuir isotherm, 346 fouling, c a u s e s and cure, 378
Light, effect o n dissolved o x y g e n , 16 laboratory-scale studies, 383
L i n e w e a v e r - B u r k plot, 223 mechanism of reverse o s m o s i s , 369
membranes
effect o f shrinkage temperature o n
Μ
performance, 376
Mercury, contamination of waters, 24 fouling, 378
M i c h a e l i s - M e n t e n relationship, 2 1 9 - 2 2 5 leakage, 381
corollaries, 166, 221 performance characterization, 373
Microscreens, 344 preparation, 371, 372
M o o r e s method of m o m e n t s , 51
1
osmotic pressure, 367
Multiple-heart furnaces, 340, 341 preferential sorption, capillary flow
mechanism, 372
rejection factor, 374
Ν
solute permeability, 382
Neutralization 114-123 turbulence promoters, 383
acidic w a s t e s , by direct p H control van't Hoff equation, 368
m e t h o d s , 116-123 Oxidation
alkaline w a s t e s , by direct p H control ditch, 239
methods, 123 total oxidation p r o c e s s , 2 3 8 - 2 4 4
c u r v e , 120 Oxygen
lime, slurried, 116, 120-123 demand curve, 34
limestone b e d s , 1 1 6 - 1 1 9 carbonaceous, 6 0
Index 407
c o m b i n e d , 60 mathematical formulation, 261

nitrification, 60 o x y g e n production in aerobic, 262
parameter m e t h o d s , for measurement of symbiotic relationship, algae and bac
organic content, 27 teria, 259
sag curve, 14 temperature, effect o n reaction rate
saturation v a l u e s , 127 constant K, 262
transfer coefficient, determination, Porteus p r o c e s s , 336
129-135 Pretreatment, 70
by steady state method for activated Primary treatment, 7 0 - 1 2 3
sludge liquor, 134
B y unsteady state aeration of acti R
vated sludge liquor, 133
o f tap water, 129 Reactors
transfer arbitrary-flow, 230
effect of mixing intensity, 138 batch (bench-scale), 164
of wastewater characteristics, 138 complete-mix, 230, 248
steps i n v o l v e d , 128 continuous (bench-scale), 1 8 9 - 1 9 3 , 288
two-film theory, 127 plug flow, 188, 230, 233
transfer efficiency, aeration units, 140 R e c y c l e ratio of sludge
transfer p r o c e s s , 128 activated sludge p r o c e s s , 206, 209
transfer rate equation, 128 e x t e n d e d aeration p r o c e s s , 242
transfer coefficient Respiration, e n d o g e n o u s , 165, 171, 177
pressure correction, 135 Respirometer, see Warburg respirometer
temperature correction, 135 R e v e r s e o s m o s i s , see O s m o s i s , reverse
uptake rate, 195, 1%
utilization in activated sludge p r o c e s s , S
see Activated sludge p r o c e s s
Scour velocity, 81
Oxygenation capacity, 135
Screening, 71
corrections with temperature and pres
Secondary treatment
sure (for bubble and surface
aerators), 135 activated sludge p r o c e s s , 157-235
Ozonation, 390, 397 other aerobic and anaerobic wastewater
treatment p r o c e s s e s , 2 3 6 - 2 9 5
Ρ Sedimentation, 7 1 - 1 0 7
clarifiers, t y p e s of, 105-107
Permanganate oxidation test, 30 c o l u m n , laboratory, 84
Phosphorus, 18, 171, 391 discrete settling, 7 2 - 8 4
Phosphorus removal, 3 9 1 - 3 9 4 flocculent settling, 8 4 - 9 8
Photosynthesis, 17 ideal sedimentation tank c o n c e p t , 76
Ponds z o n e settling, 9 8 - 1 0 5
anaerobic, 264 Segregation, 3
facultative, 263 S e w a g e , characteristics of municipal, 65
stabilization, 2 5 9 - 2 6 8 Shredders, 71
anaerobic, 264 Sludge, see also Activated sludge p r o c e s s
depth of o x y g e n penetration, 263 aerobic digester, bench-scale, 301
design calculations, 264 aerobic digestion, 2 9 7 - 3 0 7
design criteria, 264 a g e , c o n c e p t of, for sludge digesters, 300
facultative: Hermann and Gloyna's for complete-mix, no r e c y c l e reactors,
equation, 263 226
kinetics of B O D removal, 260 for complete-mix reactor with r e c y c l e ,
laboratory simulation, 261 227
408 Index
Anaerobic digestion, 3 0 7 - 3 0 9 Theoretical organic carbon (ThOC), 44

single state digesters, 308 Theoretical o x y g e n demand (ThOD), 27
sizing o f anaerobic sludge digesters, 309 Thickening of sludges, see Sludge
t w o stage digesters, 308 T h O C , see Theoretical organic carbon
centrifugation of, 328, 329 T h O D , see Theoretical o x y g e n demand
chemical coagulation, 334 T h o m a s ' graphical m e t h o d , 56
deposits and aquatic plants, 18 T O C , see Total organic carbon
disposal, 340 T O D , see Total o x y g e n demand
fluidized bed disposal, 340 Total organic carbon (TOC), 27, 4 4
Heat treatment, 3 3 6 - 3 3 9 carbon analyzer, 44
N i c h o l s p r o c e s s , 337 correlation with o x y g e n d e m a n d , 46
Porteus and Zimpro p r o c e s s e s , 336 w e t oxidation method, 44
Incineration, 340 Total o x y g e n demand ( T O D ) , 27, 39
fluidized bed disposal, 340 T O D analyzer, 40
multiple-hearth furnace ( N i c h o l s - H e r r e - Trickling filters, 2 6 8 - 2 8 2
shoff), 340, 341 bench-scale, 273
Lagooning, 340 comparison with activated sludge
Oxidation p o n d s , 340 p r o c e s s , 269
Pre-dewatering treatment, 334 data treatment to determine constants η
Sand-bed drying, 3 3 1 - 3 3 4 and K, 275
Constant and falling rate periods, 330 design formulation, 271
Construction of b e d s , 331 design of plant-scale, 279
design o f b e d s , 3 3 1 - 3 3 4 design procedure w h e n experimental data
mechanisms o f dewatering in sandbeds, are not available, 282
330 mathematical m o d e l s , 272
settling, in extended aeration, 241 packings, ordinary and synthetic, 270
specific growth rate, 225 physical arrangement of, 270
thickening of, 3 0 9 - 3 1 1 pretreatment, 271
Edde and Eckenfelder equation, 310 slime layer, thickness of, 269
flotation thickeners, 311 s y s t e m s , 270
gravity thickeners, 310
treatment and disposal, 2 9 6 - 3 4 2
V
Solubility index, 245
Sonozone process, 397-399 Van't Hoff equation for osmotic pressure,
Species diversity index, 22 368
Stabilization ponds, see P o n d s
Standards for water quality, see Water,
W
quality standards
Statistical correlation of industrial waste Warburg respirometer, 6 1 - 6 5
survey data, 66 W a s t e w a t e r s ) , see also Water, Waste
Stream standards, 9 water treatment
Substrate removal rate, 166, 220 contaminants, measurement of c o n c e n
Suspended solids tration, 26
nonvolatile, N V S S , 159 flow measurements of streams, 66
removal (tertiary treatment), 344 industrial s u r v e y s , 66
total suspended solids, T S S , 161 sources, 9
volatile, V S S , 159, 161 Wastewater treatment
chemical Engineering curriculum a s
Τ preparation for field, 4
Tertiary treatment of wastewaters, 8, degrees of, 8
343-400 e c o n o m i c s of, 10
Index 409
industrial, case history, 3 supply

inplant, 4-7 ground waters, meteorological waters,
case histories, 6 and surface waters, 22
"end-of-pipe" and, 4 types, 22
what is involved in, 5 Water pollution
processes, selection, 70 abatement
types of (classification), 8, 9 multidisciplinary approach in, 2
Water, see also Water pollution, Waste role of engineer, 2
water survey of contribution of engineers, 2
contaminants systems approach, 2
biological, 25 biological, 25
chemical (organic and inorganic), 24 chemical, 24
classification, 24 effect on environment and biota, 14-22
physical, 25 physical, 25
contamination by mercury, 24 thermal, 25
by nitrates, 24 Winkler's method, see Dissolved oxygen
fluorides in water, 24 (DO)
quality standards, stream and effluent
standards, 9 Ζ
receiving, 10
reuse, economic balance, 10 Zimpro process, 336

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Introduction to

ACADEMIC PRESS New York San Francisco London 1977

United Kingdom Edition published by

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Ramalho, Rubens Sette.

force of humanity, and man is equipped to correct the deterioration of his

2. The Role of t h e Engineer in

involved in the treatment sequence. Traditional methods of treatment in­

2.5. " I N P L A N T " A N D E N D - O F - P I P E "

without m u c h regard to water pollution abatement, and then considering

2.5.2. W h a t Is Involved in Inplant W a s t e w a t e r

2.5.3. C a s e Histories of Inplant W a s t e w a t e r

Inplant savings $/year

Excerpted by special permission from

SOLUTION A b l o c k flow d i a g r a m for t h e p r o c e s s is p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 1.3.

T h e p r o c e d u r e for s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a s s u m i n g several v a l u e s for t h e w a t e r

R = (0.7)(Λ) = (0.7)(10,000) = 7000 gal/hr [stream 2]

T h u s , s t r e a m 5 in F i g . 1.3 a l s o c o r r e s p o n d s t o a flow r a t e o f 7 0 0 0 g a l / h r since

F = A - R = 10,000 - 7000 = 3000 gal/hr

Step 8. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t in t h e p l a n t effluent [ s t r e a m 4 ] is

10 [from stream 3] + 100 [from stream 9] = 110 lb/hr

Stream 5 : (7000/9000) χ 110 = 85.5 lb/hr

Step 10. S i n c e t h e m a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t i n s t r e a m 7 is 2 0 l b / h r ,

24.5 - 20.0 = 4.5 lb/hr

Step 11. M a s s flow r a t e o f c o n t a m i n a n t r e m o v e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t f o r

85.5 - 8.5 = 77.0 lb/hr

T r e a t m e n t for reuse: (77/85.5) χ 100 = 90%

T r e a t m e n t for reuse (90% r e m o v a l ) : $0.42/1000 gal

Effluent treatment for discharge to river:

Step 15. T h i s c o s t is p l o t t e d in F i g . 1.4 v s . 7 0 % reflux. A s i m i l a r series o f

Fig. 1.5. DO and BOD curves for a stream [1 ] .

Net oxygen-sag curve

Fig. 1.6. Oxygen sag curve.

is g i v e n off. D u r i n g d a y l i g h t , a l g a e m a y yield o x y g e n in excess o f t h a t n e e d e d

Fig. 1.7. Aerobic decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter [1],

Anaerobic: acids, alcohols, C0 , 2 H ,

Fig. 1.8. Sludge deposits and aquatic plants [1 ] .

6.5. BACTERIA A N D CILIATES

waters. S t r e a m waters subject t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n exhibit a variable quality

so|- + *o -> soj- 2

H e a v y metal ions which are toxic to h u m a n s are i m p o r t a n t c o n t a m i n a n t s .

concentrations) causes serious problems.

F o r this reason, a n u m b e r of empirical m e t h o d s for evaluation of c o n ­

T o illustrate t h e calculation of T h O D , consider the simple case of a n

30 (wt. lactose) _ 32 (wt. 0 ) 2

.'. T h O D = (32/30)1000 = 1067 mg/liter

Multiplying this unit by a factor o f 12 o n e obtains Q 2 H 2 4 O 1 2 , which is the molecular

w h i c h is essentially n o n i o n i z e d . A 10:1 r a t i o o f H g S 0 : C l " is r e c o m m e n d e d . 4

This corresponds to the following chemical reaction [Eq. (2.4)].

Cl~ precipitates the A g S 0 catalyst, thus leading to erroneously low values

Details concerning preparation a n d standardization of reagents a n d cal­

2.2.2. Permanganate Oxidation Test

2.2.3. Rapid C O D Tests

are then passed through a second platinum catalytic treatment. T h e C O con­

Fig. 2.1. Flow diagram of Precision AquaRator [ 1 1 ] . (Courtesy of Precision

Ο,Η,,Ν,Ο, + (w/2)0 - 2 aC0 2 + (6/2) H 0 + ( c / 2 ) N

required. Therefore, instrument readings of c a r b o n m o n o x i d e formed are

which are oxidized by dissolved oxygen.

2.3.1. B O D Dilution Test

P h o s p h a t e s o l u t i o n utilized is a buffer. F o r samples containing caustic

y (mg/liter) = D O (control bottle) - D O (sample bottle) (2.11)

t: Incubation time (days)

Fig. 2.2. Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials.

involved in the treatment sequence. Traditional methods of treatment in

F o r this reason, a n u m b e r of empirical m e t h o d s for evaluation of c o n

Details concerning preparation a n d standardization of reagents a n d cal

are then passed through a second platinum catalytic treatment. T h e C O con