Solution-3678 Environmental Ethics in Built Environment Assgn 2

Department of Home & Health Sciences
Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.
Environmental Ethics in the Built (3678)

Assignment No. 02
Submitted to:
Muhammad Adil Rauf
Block No: 6
Dept. of Home & Health Sciences,
Allama Iqbal Open University, Sector H-8,
ISLAMABAD, (0335-5660090)
Submitted by:
Muhammad Hammad Manzoor
2nd Semester, Roll No. BN-523998
M. Sc Sustainable Environmental Design
OGIL, # 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC)
Block – 08, Clifton, KARACHI
explorationist@gmail.com / (0332-527 2364)
Environmental Ethics in the built (3678)
Q. No. 1 (a): How green building concept related to ecological concerns and
health of building occupants? (10 Marks)
Answer)
GREEN BUILDING
“ Green building is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are
environmentally responsible and resource efficient ‘’
The ideal green building would be a building project

that would allow you to preserve most of the natural
environment around the project site, while still being
able to produce a building that is going to serve a
purpose.The construction and operation will promote
a healthy environment for all involved, and it will not
disrupt the land, water, resources and energy in and
around the building. This is the actual definition of a
green building.
WHY GO GREEN?
Green buildings are designed in such a way to reduce overall impact on environment and
human health by:
• Reducing trash, pollution and degradation of environment.

• Efficiently using energy, water and other resources.
• Protecting occupant health and improving productivity.
BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING
With new technologies constantly being developed to complement current practices in

creating greener structures, the benefits of green building can range from environmental to
economic to social. By adopting greener practices, we can take maximum advantage of
environmental and economic performance. Green construction methods when integrated
while design and construction provide most significant benefits. Benefits of green building
include:
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By: M. Hammad Manzoor, M.Sc Sus. Env. Design, 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC), Clifton – 08, Karachi. (Roll No. BN-523998)
Environmental Benefits:
• Reduce wastage of water

• Conserve natural resources
• Improve air and water quality
• Protect biodiversity and ecosystems
Economic Benefits:
• Reduce operating costs

• Improve occupant productivity
• Create market for green product and services
Social Benefits:
• Improve quality of life

• Minimize strain on local infrastructure
• Improve occupant health and comfort
GREEN BUILDINGS IMPACTS ON OCCUPANTS' HEALTH
The effect of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in green buildings on occupants’ health,
well-being, and productivity is an important topic in occupational health and public health
research.IEQ can influence occupant’s health condition positively or negatively. IEQ can
negatively affect occupants’ physical health (e.g., asthma exacerbation and respiratory
allergies) through low air quality, high or low temperatures, excess humidity, and
insufficient ventilation and psychological health (e.g., depression and stress) through
inadequate lighting, acoustics, and ergonomic design (Baughman, 1996 Henneberger,
2005). Therefore to have a healthy life, we need to more concentrate on buildings impacts
on their occupants. It is an important issue for both residential and commercial buildings
The source of indoor pollution:
Benzene:
Benzene in indoor air can originate from outdoor air and also from sources indoors such as
building materials and furniture, attached garages, heating and cooking systems, stored
solvents and various human activities. Materials used in interior design and construction are
main contributors to indoor benzene concentrations (Hodgson et al., 2003)
Carbon Monoxide:
Carbon monoxide can be found in every place. It is produced by cooking and heating as
indoor resources and is also introduced from outdoor to indoor environment. In developed
countries the main source of carbon monoxide emission is lack of appropriate cooking and
heating ventilation system or poor maintenance and installation. But in developing countries
tobacco and biomass fuels are the main sources of carbon dioxide emission (Kleinman,
2009).
Formaldehyde:
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Formaldehyde Indoor sources may be ignition processes such as smoking, heating,

cooking in the building (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2006; Salthammer et
al., 2010).In the non-smoking buildings, formaldehyde originates from building materials
such as furniture and wooden products containing formaldehyde-based resins such as
particleboard, plywood and medium-density fibreboard; insulating materials (Hodgsonet al.,
2002). The level of formaldehyde in indoor environment is related to level of humidity and
high indoor temperature (Haghighatet al., 1998).
Other chemical factors such as Naphthalene, Nitrogen dioxide, Polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons,
Trichloroethylene and Tetrachloroethylene is found in indoor environment that may

influence residents’ health in negative side. To achieve healthier indoor environment, it is
essential to eliminate or at least decrease source these chemical factors in the buildings.
Green Material:
There is no a universally accepted definition for green materials. Majority of them more
considered as environmentally friendly or environmentally responsible materials
Green construction materials can be defined as:
Materials which are sustainable during life-cycleand their sustainability can be quantified by
the LCA methodology.
Not harmful for occupants’ health, such as negative impacts on indoor air quality. In
addition they must not be source of indoor air pollution or make uncomfortable indoor
environment for the users.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ):

Indoor air may be defined as “the air within a building occupied for a period of at least one
hour by people in varying states of health” (Laquatra et al., 2008). Indoor air pollutants (IAP)
are categorized as chemical and biological pollutants. Chemical pollutants which potentially
affect occupants’ health include VOCs, asbestos, radon, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), respirable suspended particulates (RSPs),
construction chemicals, ozone. Biological pollutants include molds, dust mites, certain
animals, cockroaches, endotoxins, houseplants, pollen, etc (Hongxianget al., 2004). IOM
(2000) showed evidences of relationship between indoor chemical pollutants and asthma
among occupants who lived in buildings with poor IAQ.
Biological pollutants such as: molds, dust mites, certain animals have same relationships
too. NOx, CO and RSPs were addressed as cause of sick building syndrome (SBS) and
several respiratory allergic. Ozone may lead to slow mental development learning problems
in children and high blood pressure. Green buildings by using new technology and green
material provide higher indoor air quality for their residents. Removing hazardous factors in
indoor air will lead healthier environment for people and increase their satisfaction.
According to Leeet al (2009), 56% of LEED certified buildings occupants are satisfy with
IAQ. Indoor air quality is one of the main environmental factors that affects occupants’
health and can improve their productivity. Some researches explored thatlow quality of
indoor air will lead to rising SBS and drop residents’ performance (Sundell, 2004).
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Temperature:
Indoor temperature is an important factor of occupants’ satisfaction with air quality and
effects on SBS.
High temperatures have relationship with the prevalence of SBS. A rise in temperature
above 25°C will lead to productivity decrement in indoor environment (Seppanenet al.,
2004). Temperature also has direct impact on biological pollutants. According to Nielsen
(2002)temperature has essential role in the growth of molds inside the buildings. Indoor
temperature also can affect off-gassing from decorative materials. Exceed standard
temperature can increase allergen factors and drop occupants’ satisfaction and productivity.
In the green buildings with thermal control devices, productivity is 11% higher than
traditional buildings (Warren et al., 2008).
Humidity:
Many studies argued associations between humidity rate and indoor air pollutants. Humidity
can speed up prevalence biological indoor air pollutants. In the humidity climate
temperature appears warmer than normal climate condition. Therefore level of humidity is
importance for IAQ and occupants’ thermal satisfaction. High level of humidity also affects
residents’ health and increase respiratory illnesses (Rieset al., 2007).
Ventilation:
Main role of ventilation is to bring outside air into building and eliminate indoor air
pollutants. Ventilation can be natural or mechanical such as HVAC or air conditioning AC.
Ventilation is the main contributor to the indoor air quality (Chan et al., 2009). The air
supplied can be entirely from outdoor, therefore outdoor air must be filtered to avoid
outdoor pollutants enter to building. Efficient and effective ventilation will improve indoor air
quality, satisfy occupants by comfortable temperature and would minimize negative effects
on occupants’ health and wellbeing. Ventilation is important factor in most of green building
rating systems (Chuck et al., 2011). Therefore green buildings facilitated with better
ventilation system compared normal buildings and they can provide healthier indoor
environment for their occupants.
Lighting:
Lighting has significant impact on indoor environment quality. It affects occupants in both
physical and psychological way. Lighting can affectoccupants’ comfort, safety, level of
fatigue, as well as productivity (Hwang et al., 2011). To achieve good lighting environment,
many dimensions must be considered by building designers. Dimensions are as follow: light
levels such as illuminance and luminance, control of glare, distribution and uniformity
(Hwang et al., 2011).
Inadequate lighting environment may lead symptoms such as allergic reaction, dry eyes,
headache, as well as eye fatigue. Daylight can decrease health problem incidence which
caused by artificial lighting. For example, classrooms without daylight may influence
students’ ability to concentrate or decrease their performance (Boyce, 2010). Green
buildings use sun light as much as possible in order to 1) decreasing consuming energy 2)
provide visual comfort environment for the occupants.
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Appropriate lighting system such as: natural and artificial lighting in green buildings not only
improve occupants’ health and satisfaction, but also improve productivity and performance
too.Rommet al (1994) found out substantial improvement in term of employee’s productivity
and performance through improving lighting condition in green offices.
Acoustics:
Indoor noises may be related to indoor sources, outdoor sources or bad acoustics.
Acoustics can protect indoor environment from outside sound pollution. Sound pollution
can be cause of negative impacts on hearing ability. Long term exposure to load noise may
lead to hearing loss and permanent damage to hearing system. Personal motivation to
complete a task will be less under a noisy condition; therefore sound pollutions negatively
affect occupants’ performance and productivity (Evans et al., 2004).
Occupant Health and Wellbeing:

Enormous of studies identified an association between indoor environment quality (IEQ)
and asthma and allergies (Goe, 2004; Fletcheret al., 2006; Henneberger, 2007; Moorman,
2007). Main cause of illness and disorder in the united state is allergies. The main indoor
allergens are mold and dust. Molds grow in warm and humid condition, produce liquids and
gases which create allergic reaction. In 2005, 22.2 million people in U.S infected by asthma.
Indoor environment design can increase or decrease allergens factors in buildings. Humid
rooms, visible mold and moldodor, high temperature and indoor pollutants can promote
environment for thriving allergens and irritants (Fletcher et al., 2006).
IEQ occupant wellbeing and productivity structure.

Indoor environment quality (IEQ) influences occupants’
psychological health (Spector, 2006).
Psychological health includes such issues as anxiety, depression, stress as well as feelings
of confidence, energy, and generally being in good spirits. Studies stated that access to
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natural view; improved ventilation and temperature condition in working environment

positively influence employee’s performance and productivity (HMG, 2003). In addition
students’ learning ability improved up to 21% in classes with the most daylight compared
students who study in classrooms with the least daylight (HMG, 1999). Accordingly people
who living in a good indoor environment quality not only enjoy better physical condition but
also they have better psychological condition compared those living in poor indoor
environment condition.
According to Fisk(2002) higher IEQ in U.S buildings resulted in 6-14 b$ annually. In addition
1-4 billion $ gained from reduced allergies and asthma cases among the workforces. These
figures represent enhanced indoor environment quality through controlled ventilation, and
avoidance of moisture problems. Lower death ratio from CO poisoning and lung cancer
caused by radon can be add to these economic benefits.
Process to health and economic gains.
Indoor environment quality interrelated with occupants’ health. Green buildings because of
using green materials with lower impacts on occupants’ health and lower indoor pollution,
have high quality of indoor environment compared non-green buildings. These buildings
provide better IAQ and ventilation, comfort thermal, standard humidity level as well as
sufficient lighting and acoustics system. These facilities positively affect IEQ. Consequently
occupants will enjoy healthier and comfortable environment. High indoor environment
quality not only improves occupants’ health, but also ameliorates their performance,
productivity and wellbeing. Thus it brings enormous of social and economic benefits in local
and national level.
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Q. No. 1 (b): Is building design and construction practices conscious on these

parameters? (10 Marks)
Answer)
Sick Building Syndrome and Building-Related Illness

The term "sick building syndrome" (SBS) is used to describe situations in which building
occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that appear to be linked to time
spent in a building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified.
The complaints may be localized to a particular room or zone, or may be widespread

throughout the building. In contrast, the term "building related illness" (BRI) is used when
symptoms of diagnosable illness are identified and can be attributed directly to airborne
building contaminants.
Sick building syndrome and building-related illness

A 1984 World Health Organization Committee report suggested that up to 30 percent of
new and remodeled buildings worldwide may be the subject of excessive complaints related
to indoor air quality (IAQ). Often this condition is temporary, but some buildings have long-
term problems. Frequently, problems result when a building is operated or maintained in a
manner that is inconsistent with its original design or prescribed operating procedures.
Sometimes indoor air problems are a result of poor building design or occupant activities.
Indicators of SBS include:

Building occupants complain of symptoms associated with acute discomfort, e.g.,
headache; eye, nose, or throat irritation; dry cough; dry or itchy skin; dizziness and nausea;
difficulty in concentrating; fatigue; and sensitivity to odors. The cause of the symptoms is
not known. Most of the complainants report relief soon after leaving the building.
Indicators of BRI include:

Building occupants complain of symptoms such as cough, chest tightness, fever, chills, and
muscle aches. The symptoms can be clinically defined and have clearly identifiable causes.
Complainants may require prolonged recovery times after leaving the building.
It is important to note that complaints may result from other causes. These may include an
illness contracted outside the building, acute sensitivity (e.g., allergies), job related stress or
dissatisfaction, and other psychosocial factors. Nevertheless, studies show that symptoms
may be caused or exacerbated by indoor air quality problems.
Causes of sick building syndrome

The following have been cited causes of or contributing factors to sick building syndrome:
Inadequate ventilation: In the early and mid 1900's, building ventilation standards called for
approximately 15 cubic feet per minute (cfm) of outside air for each building occupant,
primarily to dilute and remove body odors. As a result of the 1973 oil embargo, however,
national energy conservation measures called for a reduction in the amount of outdoor air
provided for ventilation to 5 cfm per occupant. In many cases these reduced outdoor air
ventilation rates were found to be inadequate to maintain the health and comfort of building
occupants. Inadequate ventilation, which may also occur if heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems do not effectively distribute air to people in the building, is
thought to be an important factor in SBS. In an effort to achieve acceptable IAQ while
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minimizing energy consumption, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) recently revised its ventilation standard to provide a
minimum of 15 cfm of outdoor air per person (20 cfm/person in office spaces). Up to 60
cfm/person may be required in some spaces (such as smoking lounges) depending on the
activities that normally occur in that space.
Chemical contaminants from indoor sources: Most indoor air pollution comes from
sources inside the building. For example, adhesives, carpeting, upholstery, manufactured
wood products, copy machines, pesticides, and cleaning agents may emit volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde. Environmental tobacco smoke contributes
high levels of VOCs, other toxic compounds, and respirable particulate matter. Research
shows that some VOCs can cause chronic and acute health effects at high concentrations,
and some are known carcinogens. Low to moderate levels of multiple VOCs may also
produce acute reactions. Combustion products such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
as well as respirable particles, can come from unvented kerosene and gas space heaters,
woodstoves, fireplaces, and gas stoves.
Chemical contaminants from outdoor sources: The outdoor air that enters a building
can be a source of indoor air pollution. For example, pollutants from motor vehicle
exhausts; plumbing vents, and building exhausts (e.g., bathrooms and kitchens) can enter
the building through poorly located air intake vents, windows, and other openings. In
addition, combustion products can enter a building from a nearby garage.
Biological contaminants: Bacteria, molds, pollen, and viruses are types of biological
contaminants. These contaminants may breed in stagnant water that has accumulated in
ducts, humidifiers and drain pans, or where water has collected on ceiling tiles, carpeting,
or insulation. Sometimes insects or bird droppings can be a source of biological
contaminants. Physical symptoms related to biological contamination include cough, chest
tightness, fever, chills, muscle aches, and allergic responses such as mucous membrane
irritation and upper respiratory congestion. One indoor bacterium, Legionella, has caused
both Legionnaire's Disease and Pontiac Fever.
These elements may act in combination, and may supplement other complaints such as
inadequate temperature, humidity, or lighting. Even after a building investigation, however,
the specific causes of the complaints may remain unknown.
Building investigation procedures

The goal of a building investigation is to identify and solve indoor air quality complaints in a
way that prevents them from recurring and which avoids the creation of other problems. To
achieve this goal, it is necessary for the investigator(s) to discover whether a complaint is
actually related to indoor air quality, identify the cause of the complaint, and determine the
most appropriate corrective actions.
An indoor air quality investigation procedure is best characterized as a cycle of information

gathering, hypothesis formation, and hypothesis testing. It generally begins with a
walkthrough inspection of the problem area to provide information about the four basic
factors that influence indoor air quality:
• The Occupants
• The HVAC system
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• Possible pollutant pathways

• Possible contaminant sources
Preparation for a walkthrough should include documenting information about the history of
the building and of the complaints; identifying known HVAC zones and complaint areas;
notifying occupants of the upcoming investigation; and identifying key individuals needed
for information and access. The walkthrough itself entails visual inspection of critical
building areas and consultation with occupants and staff.
The initial walkthrough should allow the investigator to develop some possible explanations
for the complaint. At this point, the investigator may have sufficient information to formulate
a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, and see if the problem is solved. If it is, steps should be
taken to ensure that it does not recur. However, if insufficient information is obtained from
the walk through to construct a hypothesis, or if initial tests fail to reveal the problem, the
investigator should move on to collect additional information to allow formulation of
additional hypotheses. The process of formulating hypotheses, testing them, and evaluating
them continues until the problem is solved.
Although air sampling for contaminants might seem to be the logical response to occupant
complaints, it seldom provides information about possible causes. While certain basic
measurements, e.g., temperature, relative humidity, CO2, and air movement, can provide a
useful "snapshot" of current building conditions, sampling for specific pollutant
concentrations is often not required to solve the problem and can even be misleading.
Contaminant concentration levels rarely exceed existing standards and guidelines even
when occupants continue to report health complaints.
Air sampling should not be undertaken until considerable information on the factors listed
above has been collected, and any sampling strategy should be based on a comprehensive
understanding of how the building operates and the nature of the complaints.
Solutions to sick building syndrome

Solutions to sick building syndrome usually include combinations of the following:
Pollutant source removal or modification is an effective approach to resolving an IAQ
problem when sources are known and control is feasible. Examples include routine
maintenance of HVAC systems, e.g., periodic cleaning or replacement of filters;
replacement of water-stained ceiling tile and carpeting; institution of smoking restrictions;
venting contaminant source emissions to the outdoors; storage and use of paints,
adhesives, solvents, and pesticides in well ventilated areas, and use of these pollutant
sources during periods of non-occupancy; and allowing time for building materials in new or
remodeled areas to off-gas pollutants before occupancy. Several of these options may be
exercised at one time.
Increasing ventilation rates and air distribution often can be a cost effective means of
reducing indoor pollutant levels. HVAC systems should be designed, at a minimum, to meet
ventilation standards in local building codes; however, many systems are not operated or
maintained to ensure that these design ventilation rates are provided. In many buildings,
IAQ can be improved by operating the HVAC system to at least its design standard, and to
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 if possible. When there are strong pollutant sources, local
exhaust ventilation may be appropriate to exhaust contaminated air directly from the
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building. Local exhaust ventilation is particularly recommended to remove pollutants that

accumulate in specific areas such as rest rooms, copy rooms, and printing facilities.
Air cleaning can be a useful adjunct to source control and ventilation but has certain
limitations. Particle control devices such as the typical furnace filter are inexpensive but do
not effectively capture small particles; high performance air filters capture the smaller,
respirable particles but are relatively expensive to install and operate. Mechanical filters do
not remove gaseous pollutants. Some specific gaseous pollutants may be removed by
adsorbent beds, but these devices can be expensive and require frequent replacement of
the adsorbent material. In sum, air cleaners can be useful, but have limited application.
Education and communication are important elements in both remedial and preventive
indoor air quality management programs. When building occupants, management, and
maintenance personnel fully communicate and understand the causes and consequences
of IAQ problems, they can work more effectively together to prevent problems from
occurring, or to solve them if they do.
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Q. No. 1 (C): Identify the gaps that you observe in your locality (10 Marks)
Answer)
Teen Talwar, Karachi
There are a number of commonly cited reasons to explain the performance gap, which
include:
• Changes to the building design and/or the design intent is not delivered on site
• Poor build quality (such as gaps in insulation and accidental thermal bridging)
• Substitution of building elements and/or services equipment from those originally
specified
• Inadequate or incomplete commissioning
• Changes in the way that the building is occupied and operated from that assumed
during the design
• Building controls that operators and users find difficult to understand and operate
effectively
• Lack of facilities management, energy monitoring and/or maintenance of building
services
• Behavior of occupants (e.g. opening windows, blocking air inlets/outlets)
• While all the buildings were performing as designed for most performance aspects,
there were instances in all cases where performance gap issues were found, both in
terms of energy consumption and occupant comfort.
Unsurprisingly, these instances all align with the commonly cited reasons to explain the
performance gap, notably:
• Inadequate commissioning Building Management Systems (BMS) and energy sub-

meters in three of the buildings were not operating correctly due to poor installation
and commissioning. This imposed limitations on the extent of energy monitoring
possible for each building. On-going technical issues with the secondary school’s
biomass boiler meant this was offline for the majority of the monitoring period,
leading to increased gas consumption compared to design predictions.
• The building not being occupied as intended Space designed as a

corridor/intermittent break out area in the primary school was being used as
permanent teaching space causing ventilation and noise problems in adjoining
classrooms. The design assumptions on use patterns in this space were critical to
maintaining comfort in classroom areas, so this change of use means it is difficult for
the school to mitigate these unintended impacts.
• Poor understanding of building controls In all four buildings the occupants lacked
knowledge of heating and cooling controls and how these could be used to alleviate
comfort issues with the internal environment. This was highlighted by one of the
commercial office units, where the heating set point was too high, leading to thermal
comfort issues and unnecessary gas consumption.
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• Behavior of occupants In one of the commercial office units, there was reluctance
by occupants to open windows due to a noisy external environment. As the servicing
strategy relied on open able windows in certain conditions, this contributed to
ventilation and thermal comfort issues and led to the widespread use of electric fans
for cooling. In the secondary school building, the automated opening windows was
restricted by management during working hours to minimize disturbance to teaching
activities, leading to ventilation and thermal comfort issues.
• Lack of energy management policies and procedures Both office buildings had
no policy/initiative to encourage staff to turn off IT equipment at the end of the
working day, so computers tended to remain switched on, which was contributing to
higher than ‘typical’ practice electricity consumption.
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Q. No. 2: How would you describe Transformative Architecture in the

context of Synthesis of Ecological and Participatory Design (20 Marks)
Answer)
TRANSFORMATIVE ARCHITECTURE
Transformation by definition requires change. Transformative architecture promotes a
change in use, a change in appearance, and a change in efficiency and sustainability.
The specific nature of this type of architectural work requires that architects closely analyze
the brief data drawn up by the contracting authorities in view of respecting the history of the
building.
TRANSFORMATION DESIGN
In broad terms, transformation design is a human-centered, interdisciplinary process that
seeks to create desirable and sustainable changes in behavior and form – of individuals,
systems and organizations – often for socially progressive ends.
It is a multi-stage, iterative process applied to big, complex issues – often social issues.
Its practitioners examine problems holistically rather than reductively to understand
relationships as well as components to better frame the challenge. They then prototype
small-scale systems – composed of objects, services, interactions and experiences – that
support people and organizations in achievement of a desired change. Successful
prototypes are then scaled.
Because transformation design is about applying design skills in non-traditional territories, it

often results in non-traditional design outputs. Projects have resulted in the creation of new
roles, new organizations, new systems and new policies. These designers are just as likely
to shape a job description, as they are a new product.
ECOLOGICAL DESIGN
Ecological design is defined by Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan as "any form of design
that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living
processes." Ecological design is an integrative ecologically responsible design discipline.
It helps connect scattered efforts in green architecture, sustainable agriculture, ecological
engineering, ecological restoration and other fields.
What is Ecological Design?

For centuries, humans have chosen to force their natural environments to conform to their
wants and desires. This attitude of transformation rather than conformation has led to a
host of problems. Buildings and other structures are built without consideration of their
environments. This leads to inefficient energy use, pollution, and water shortages.
Ecological design seeks to conform to the environment and substantially reduce energy
consumption. By carefully considering the impact the natural environment has on a
structure, it is possible to utilize the environment to improve overall energy consumption
and quality of life.
Technology has improved, but energy-efficient appliances can only do so much. In order to
be truly environmentally sound, a building must incorporate ecological design principles
from the ground up. Architects that focus on ecological design when designing a building
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will plan to minimize land use, conserve heat during the winter and cool the home during
the summer, reduce pollutants, and use landscaping to blend into the natural landscape.
Land Use
Incorporating a home into the natural flow of the land has many benefits. Not only is the
home aesthetically pleasing, it uses less energy to heat and cool.
Incorporating Solar Into Overall Design

Ecological design takes advantage of the sun’s energy. Even without installing solar panels,
the sun’s energy can be used to heat the home. By simply, orienting a building so that the
most used rooms face south, designers can take advantage of the sun’s energy to heat a
building.
Use of Sustainable Building Materials

Ecological design utilizes sustainable building materials that minimally affect the
environment. Reused building materials are preferable, but using sustainable materials
such as bamboo rather than old growth hardwoods is also environmentally friendly.
Incorporating Traditional Regional Design Elements

Prior to the popularization of HVAC systems, buildings were designed to take advantage of
the sun and wind to heat and cool a home. Ecological design often makes use of the same
design principles that were in use at the turn of 20th century. Many examples of local
ecological design principles can be found by examining older homes in the region.
Waste Reduction
Using energy efficient appliances can help to reduce a building’s overall energy
consumption. The installation of low flow toilets and showerheads, as well as dual
plumbing, will conserve water.
Landscaping
A building should be aesthetically pleasing. A structure that incorporated ecological design
elements will also attempt to make the surrounding landscaped area conform to the natural
landscape. By incorporating indigenous plants into landscape design, ecological design
professionals reduce the need for expensive and potentially wasteful irrigation systems.
Ecological design is less about using state of the art technology to reduce overall energy
consumption and more about using the natural landscape as a guide for designing
structures.
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Participatory Design
A design development approach which requires all participants from the target population to
field experts to be involved in design processes based on putting forward a product and
which requires each participant to have an effective role in the processes of analysis,
synthesis, design, development and evaluation.
Participatory design is a product design method to design digital services. It involves

stakeholders, end-users and the team into the design process in order to help ensure that
the end-product meets the needs of users.
ECOLOGICAL AND PARTICIPATORY DESIGN OF URBAN FARM (CORRELATION

BETWEEN ECOLOGICAL AND PARTICIPATORY DESIGN)
Along with the human economic development and constantly growing population, the
earth’s resources are depleted day by day. The propose of urban farm is the exploration for
the series of actual problems. It initiates to explore new mode of agricultural production in
the open space of city in order to solve the contradiction and problems between the natural
environmental deterioration in future city and human survival and further create new urban
farm experiential landscape value by utilizing city open space.
Introduction – the definition and significance of the study

The landscape architecture, as a manifestation pattern for architecture landscape, could
make a spatial form of different sizes and a building form featuring figure-ground relation
mutually utilizable, owing to blurring the six interfaces under the traditional Euclid system.
Architecture landscape essentially is a process in reconstructing topography. The
successive landscape architecture makes space accessibility possible. In urban context, a
mixture of buildings, farming fields and landscape offers opportunities for people’s self-
organized activities and thus creates a vigorous public space.
Thanks to the integrated design for building, field and landscape, a rich and attractive, and
active space and field can be created. As a kind of active corresponding building tactics,
landscape architecture, with its fluid space, rich scenery and modest posture makes
building from obstruction to open and from monotony to multi element, which infuse new
vigor to outdoor environment. Urban farm refers to the farming and farming industry
conducted and scattered in cities or suburbs by adopting intensive method, utilizing natural
resources and city wastes in order to meet the needs of urban consumers. From the
perspective of society, economy and environment, the essential attribute of urban farm
could be mainly summarized as productivity, edibility, landscape, ecological and energy
efficiency.
Most modern cities are characterized by high-density but are not always mean a high
efficient utilization for space. Owing to the professional and proprietary functional space, a
great deal of city open space leaves underused. Urban farm could efficiently use the space.
The open space suitable for urban farm include Greenbelt, city square, street, surrounding
areas of infrastructure, and abandoned land. Fusing multi-functional urban farm, the design
on city open space could efficiently integrate natural habitat, production, education,
advertisement and leisure in completing the transformation from traditional agriculture to
urban one and driving the industrial chain of leisure tourism, as well as turning ecological
advantages into economic efficiency. Meanwhile, with the help of urban farm landscape, we
can create an active and vigorous community public spatial form and build a city public
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space featuring the sense of nature, domain and belonging. This will contribute to solve the
problems such as indifferent relation with neighborhood and the deficiency for the sense of
security. Presently, most urban farms show monotony, inadequate architecture and
landscape coordination, large in dimension, rigid physique, stiff image, lofty colors, too
urbanization in design technique, which is hard to bring out all-new enjoyment and
experience.
The issue how to integrate farming into urban environment and build an experiencing space
with suitable landscape will be the most important issues in building urban farm. In
continuing the natural ecology of agricultural environment, the research for the landscape
design on urban farm means a lot. Only with a physical form carrier full of natural traits and
spiritual connotation, the landscape characteristic of natural space could be vastly
exhibited. The creation for urban farm not only need to enrich and complete the functions of
city open space, but also need to manifest the features of agriculture. In fact, people even
more want to obtain an authentic life experience in this gradually fictitious world. A build
agglomerating the senses of site, artistic, ecological and fashionable is sure to make urban
citizens to return to nature and taste a life of original simplicity.
Theoretical bases and analysis criteria

Landscape has a very close relationship with city and buildings. Urban green areas, both
public open spaces like parks and private planted areas around buildings, can have a
marked effect on many aspects of the quality of the urban environment and the richness of
life in a city
Principle One: Ecology Farming

City landscape maintenance, energy-resource consumption becomes a big problem and
should be minimized. This can be achieved by careful selection of indigenous plants,
imported wildlife species and proper landscape design layout. Local plants in their natural
setting effectively need no manual labor, energy or resource input except the sun, and can
grow well depending on their own species competition regime.
Principle Two: Participation

In urban landscapes address not only environmental protection but also the
interrelationship between people and nature. Landscaping should help to form sustainable
communities that offer opportunities for participation that encourage new modes of
interaction among residents. Planners cannot create sustainable communities without
having the commitment from residents to modify or adapt their behavior or attitudes towards
caring for the landscape around them. Residents may take part in the design process to
express themselves in the surrounding environment; work together to take care of the
landscape; or obtain knowledge about planting and ecology.
Tactics of landscape design on urban farm in case study
Field reconstruction
Through the analysis and reconstruction for the information of various sites such as road
network, river, route and old building, an internal order will be built to realize a multi-level
echo for a complex environment. Single minded response to the complex environment is to
be avoided. For instance, a “Valuable Farm” transformed from an abandoned glass
workshop in Shenzhen Port covers an area of roughly 2000 square meters. In this project
the former stairs area is changed into activity platform. The land is divided by brick walls to
17
plant vegetables. In addition, a pond is built to irrigate vegetables by sufficiently utilizing

underground water. “People create values for the Valuable Farm by collective efforts. We
explore to set up urban farm and think how to integrate urban farm with community
building.” The design efficiently integrates and efficiently utilizes original resources and
make more rich site functions and shape space. (Fig 1) The case is an good example to
utilize abundant place and activating it into a social place by urban farming. However the
scale is limited and confined by ground land. Therefore it has limitation in efficiency and
citizens’ participation.
Space integration
Natural environment possesses successive landscape base material while spatial
integration is to realize the consolidation and coordination of landscape through excavating
the relevance among spatial inscapes and overcoming the tattered inclination of shape
constitution. Through landscape design, the small-sized scattered and mixed building with
complex functions could be integrated under a consolidated roof and be merged into an
earth landscape.
London Bridge is a compressive building integrating with agriculture, energy and commerce
and the like, The design idea comes from its history.,London Bridge was the place for
traders and citizens to gather for transaction. The judges think it is “a marvelous scheme
with clever conception and thorough consideration”. Both buildings and field environment
are wonderful. The design also concerns surrounding buildings and take them into
consideration. Meanwhile, it is filled with interesting ecological philosophy as well. (Fig.2)
The case is visionary instead of practical. It is over structured, but it may create additional
artificial land for the urban density. It may become ecology pending on the maintenance.
However, participatory of local citizens seems not interests of the proposers.
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Vague boundary
The elimination of the boundaries between building interface leads to a dynamic and
successive linkage and no longer a static one. A vague boundary seeks after the dialogues
with venues. The “vague” fluid border can also make building imitate a natural from with its
gesture shaped to integrate into surrounding environment, flexibly cope with diverse
complex base situation, prolong city texture. For example, FAB in the center of Los Angeles
concentrates fine food, arts and social intercourse events, which further encourages the
public to actively participate in community activities aiming to create diversity of the city and
build a particular space. The entire form complies with topography, restore the natural
landscape of field, weaken the new elements built as far as possible and shape the artful
explanation of building for field. (Fig.3)
Figure-ground conversion- design for the urban farm landscape concept

The relation mutually revealed between base and boundary is figure-ground
relation.Landscape architecture is just to make the ordinary figure-ground relation vague
and rewrite field and boundary. The vague building boundary makes landscape architecture
to cope with base situation with a flexible and dynamic style. As a map, building is liberated
from the bottom (Base) ultimately and produces a place capable of identifying perception as
the continuation of base and the extension of landscape. In addition, it will create new
urban landscapes, together with former landscapes. The conceptual design strives to probe
into a flexibly-combined modular urban farm shape to adapt to the city open space of
various space. Therefore, it doesn’t appoint specific topography.
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Conclusion
Sustainable cities call for new urban space and design concepts to maximize the efficiency
of resources, rebuilt ecological systems with greenery by citizens’ participation. Urban
farming in open space can address the three issues on the same. Firstly urban farming
make city more productive. Secondly it has potential of introducing ecological farming in
relation to biodiversity. And thirdly it provides a field of cooperation, interaction, and
participation among people. In addition, urban agriculture will efficiently utilize city open
space, infuse new vigor into city greenbelt, square, street and abandoned land to give
agricultural produce and meanwhile create a diversified urban landscape.
The ecological tactics of the landscape design on urban farm, starting from the
characteristics of agricultural landscape, demonstrates the natural specialty of urban farm
and reshapes the vitality of city open space in a way of dialogue between space modelling
and distinctive environment.
The landscape design on urban farm embodies the diverse layers and a whole process of
city open space so as to create a current harmonious dwelling environment with nature.
The designers of urban farm cannot create sustainable communities without having the
commitment from people to modify or adapt their behavior or attitudes towards caring for
the landscape around them. Residents may take part in the design process to express
themselves in the surrounding environment; work together to take care of the farming
landscape; or obtain knowledge about planting and ecology. Urban farm is also a social
network.
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Q. No. 3: What Ethical concerns are emerged due to rapid urbanization?

Elaborate the layout and transport routes in this regard (20 Marks)
Answer)
What is Urbanization?
Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban area, enabling
cities and towns to grow. It can also be termed as the progressive increase of the number
of people living in towns and cities. It is highly influenced by the notion that cities and towns
have achieved better economic, political, and social mileages compared to the rural areas.
Accordingly, urbanization is very common in developing and developed worlds as more and
more people have the tendency of moving closer to towns and cities to acquire “privileged”
social and economic services as well as benefits. These include social and economic
advantages such as better education, health care, sanitation, housing, business
opportunities, and transportation.
Majority of people move to cities and towns because they view rural areas as places with
hardship and backward/primitive lifestyle. Therefore, as populations move to more
developed areas (towns and cities) the immediate outcome is urbanization. This normally
contributes to the development of land for use in commercial properties, social and
economic support institutions, transportation, and residential buildings. Eventually, these
activities raise several urbanization issues.
Causes of Urbanization
1. Industrialization
Industrialization is a trend representing a shift from the old agricultural economics to novel
non-agricultural economy, which creates a modernized society. Through industrial
revolution, more people have been attracted to move from rural to urban areas on the
account of improved employment opportunities. Industrialization has increased employment
opportunities by giving people the chance to work in modern sectors in job categories that
aids to stir economic developments.
2. Commercialization
Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and
services and commercial transactions in the modern era has developed modern marketing
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institutions and exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the growth of
towns and cities. Commercialization and trade comes with the general perception that the
towns and cities offer better commercial opportunities and returns compared to the rural
areas.
3. Social benefits and services

There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in the cities and towns. Examples
include better educational facilities, better living standards, better sanitation and housing,
better health care, better recreation facilities, and better social life in general. On this
account, more and more people are prompted to migrate into cities and towns to obtain the
wide variety of social benefits and services which are unavailable in the rural areas.
4. Employment opportunities
In cities and towns, there are ample job opportunities that continually draw people from the
rural areas to seek better livelihood. Therefore, the majority of people frequently migrate
into urban areas to access well paying jobs as urban areas have countless employment
opportunities in all developmental sectors such as public health, education, transport,
sports and recreation, industries, and business enterprises. Services and industries
generate and increase higher value-added jobs, and this leads to more employment
opportunities.
5. Modernization and changes in the mode of living

Modernization plays a very important role in the process of urbanization. As urban areas
become more technology savvy together with highly sophisticated communication,
infrastructure, medical facilities, dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization, and other
social amenities availability, people believe they can lead a happy life in cities. In urban
areas, people also embrace changes in the modes of living namely residential habits,
attitudes, dressing, food, and beliefs. As a result, people migrate to cities and the cities
grow by absorbing the growing number of people day after day.
6. Rural urban transformation

As localities become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of minerals,
resource exploitation, or agricultural activities, cities start emerging as the rural areas
transform to urbanism. The increase in productivity leads to economic growth and higher
value-added employment opportunities.
This brings about the need to develop better infrastructure, better education institutions,
better health facilities, better transportation networks, establishment of banking institutions,
better governance, and better housing. As this takes place, rural communities start to adopt
the urban culture and ultimately become urban centers that continue to grow as more
people move to such locations in search of a better life.
EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION
1. Positive effects of urbanization
Urbanization yields several positive effects if it happens within the appropriate limits. Some
of the positive implications of urbanization therefore include creation of employment
opportunities, technological and infrastructural advancements, improved transportation and
communication, quality educational and medical facilities, and improved standards of living.
However, extensive urbanization mostly results in adverse effects. Below listed points are
few of them.
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2. Housing problems
Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns which lead to high population increase.
With the increase in the number of people living in urban centers, there is continued
scarcity of houses. This is due to insufficient expansion space for housing and public
utilities, poverty, unemployment, and costly building materials which can only be afforded
by few individuals.
3. Overcrowding
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space. This
form of congestion in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is an
aspect that increases day by day as more people and immigrants move into cities and
towns in search of better life. Most people from rural or undeveloped areas always have the
urge of migrating into the city that normally leads to congestion of people within a small
area.
4. Unemployment
The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher among the
educated people. It is estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe
live in metropolitan cities. And, as much as income in urban areas is high, the costs of living
make the incomes to seem horribly low. The increasing relocation of people from rural or
developing areas to urban areas is the leading cause of urban unemployment.
5. Development of slums
The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined with random and
unexpected growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful resident
settlements represented by slums and squatters. The growth of slums and squatters in
urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization, lack of developed
land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of better life, and the
elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.
6. Water and sanitation problems

Because of overpopulation and rapid population increase in most urban centers, it is
common to find there are inadequate sewage facilities. Municipalities and local
governments are faced with serious resource crisis in the management of sewage facilities.
As a result, sanitation becomes poor and sewages flow chaotically, and they are drained
into neighboring streams, rivers, lakes, or seas. Eventually, communicable diseases such
as typhoid, dysentery, plague, and diarrhea spread very fast leading to suffering and even
deaths. Overcrowding also highly contributes to water scarcity as supply falls short of
demand.
7. Poor health and spread of diseases
The social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affects access and
utilization of public health care services. Slum areas in particular experience poor sanitation
and insufficient water supply which generally make slum populations susceptible to
communicable diseases. The environmental problems such as urban pollution also cause
many health problems namely allergies, asthma, infertility, food poisoning, cancer and even
premature deaths.
8. Traffic congestion
When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges posed is in the
transport system. More people means increased number of vehicles which leads to traffic
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congestion and vehicular pollution. Many people in urban areas drive to work and this
creates a severe traffic problem, especially during the rush hours. Also as the cities grow in
dimension, people will move to shop and access other social needs/wants which often
cause traffic congestion and blockage.
9. Urban crime
Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social
services and education habitually leads to many social problems including violence, drug
abuse, and crime. Most of the crimes such as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault, theft,
robbery, and hijacking are reported to be more prominent in the urban vicinities. Besides,
poverty related crimes are the highest in fast-growing urban regions. These acts of urban
crime normally upset the peace and tranquility of cities/towns.
SOLUTIONS OF URBANIZATION
1. Building sustainable and environmentally friendly cities
Governments should pass laws that plan and provide environmentally sound cities and
smart growth techniques, considering that people should not reside in unsafe and polluted
areas. The objective here is to build sustainable cities that embrace improved
environmental conditions and safe habitats for all urban populations. Governments should
also encourage sustainable use of urban resources and support an economy based on
sustainable environment such as investment in green infrastructure, sustainable industries,
recycling and environmental campaigns, pollution management, renewable energy, green
public transportation, and water recycling and reclamation.
2. Provision of essential services

Urban stakeholders must ensure all populations within the urban areas have access to
adequate essential social services namely education, health, sanitation and clean water,
technology, electricity, and food. The objective here is to provide and implement
employment opportunities and wealth creation activities so that people can earn a living to
pay for the maintenance of the services. Subsidies can also be availed by the government
to lower the costs of basic healthcare, basic education, energy, education, public
transportation, communication systems and technology.
3. Creation of more jobs

To lessen the negative effects of rapid urbanization while at the same time conserving
natural ecosystems, private investments should be encouraged so as to utilize natural
resources and create more job opportunities. Tourism promotion and the sustainable
exploitation of natural resources can create more jobs for the urban populations. Subsidies
and grants may as well be provided to foreign and private investment in environmentally
friendly development projects that encourage job creation.
4. Population control
Key stakeholders in urban areas must provide campaigns and counseling for effective
medical health clinics and family planning to help reduce the high rates of population
growth. Medical health clinics oriented towards family planning options must be made
accessible across the entire urban area with the objective of controlling diseases and
population growth.
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THE ETHICS OF URBANIZATION

While we focus on designing organized and supportive architecture, much of urbanization
is created through informal settlements.
90 percent of urbanization currently occurs in the developing world. In Africa, the

urban population is expected to rise from 400 million to 1.2 billion in the next 30 years;
and more than 60 percent of the current population lives in informal settlements.
This growth is creating a need for complex developments that accommodate demographics
on opposite ends of the spectrum. Developments designed to account for lower income
activities can help to avoid informal settlements that give rise to weak—and even
dangerous—structures, and where fresh water and proper sanitation are only a faint
shadow of what they should be.
Having a large piece of vacant land is not enough to make a place: Developers need a
location with natural advantages. That singular feature can be the focus of a design around
which that city operates as if it grew organically, because it is working with rather than
against the natural forces around it.
URBAN TRANSPORT CHALLENGES

1. Urban Transportation at the Crossroads
Cities are locations having a high level of accumulation and concentration of economic
activities and are complex spatial structures supported by transport systems. The larger the
city, the greater its complexity and the potential for disruptions, particularly when this
complexity is not effectively managed. The most important transport challenges are often
related to urban areas and take place when transport systems, for a variety of reasons,
cannot satisfy the numerous requirements of urban mobility. Urban productivity is highly
dependent on the efficiency of its transport system to move labor, consumers and freight
between multiple origins and destinations. Additionally, transport terminals such as ports,
airports, and railyards are located within urban areas, contributing to a specific array of
problems. Some problems are ancient, like congestion (which plagued cities such as
Rome), while others are new like urban freight distribution or environmental impacts.
Traffic Congestion And Parking Difficulties

Congestion is one of the most prevalent transport problems in large urban agglomerations,
usually above a threshold of about 1 million inhabitants. By the 21st century, drivers would
spend about 3 times more time in congestion as they did in the later part of the 20th
century. Congestion is particularly linked with motorization and the diffusion of the
automobile, which has increased the demand for transport infrastructures. However, the
supply of infrastructures has often not been able to keep up with the growth of mobility.
Since vehicles spend the majority of the time parked, motorization has expanded
the demand for parking space, which has created space consumption problems particularly
in central areas; the spatial imprint of parked vehicles is significant.
Congestion and parking are also interrelated since street parking consumes transport
capacity, removing one or two lanes for circulation. Further, looking for a parking space
(called “cruising”) creates additional delays and impairs local circulation. In central areas of
large cities cruising may account for more than 10% of the local circulation as drivers can
spend 20 minutes looking for a parking spot. This practice is often judged more
economically effective than using a paying off-street parking facility as the time spent
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looking for a free (or low cost) parking space is compensated by the monetary savings.
Also, many delivery vehicles will simply double-park at the closest possible spot to unload
their cargo.
Identifying the true cause of congestion is a strategic issue for urban planning since
congestion is commonly the outcome of specific circumstances such as the lack of parking
or poorly synchronized traffic signals.
Longer commuting
On par with congestion people are spending an increasing amount of
time commuting between their residence and workplace. An important factor behind this
trend is related to residential affordability as housing located further away from central
areas (where most of the employment remains) is more affordable. Therefore, commuters
are trading time for housing affordability. However, long commuting is linked with several
social problems, such as isolation, as well as poorer health (obesity).
Public transport inadequacy

Many public transit systems, or parts of them, are either over or under used. During peak
hours, crowdedness creates discomfort for users as the system copes with a temporary
surge in demand. Low ridership makes many services financially unsustainable, particularly
in suburban areas. In spite of significant subsidies and cross-financing (e.g. tolls) almost
every public transit system cannot generate sufficient income to cover its operating and
capital costs. While in the past deficits were deemed acceptable because of the essential
service public transit was providing for urban mobility, its financial burden is increasingly
controversial.
Difficulties for non-motorized transport

These difficulties are either the outcome of intense traffic, where the mobility of pedestrians,
bicycles and other non-motorized vehicles is impaired, but also because of a blatant lack of
consideration for pedestrians and bicycles in the physical design of infrastructures and
facilities.
Loss of public space

The majority of roads are publicly owned and free of access. Increased traffic has adverse
impacts on public activities which once crowded the streets such as markets, agoras,
parades and processions, games, and community interactions. These have gradually
disappeared to be replaced by automobiles. In many cases, these activities have shifted to
shopping malls while in other cases, they have been abandoned altogether. Traffic flows
influence the life and interactions of residents and their usage of street space. More traffic
impedes social interactions and street activities. People tend to walk and cycle less when
traffic is high.
High infrastructure maintenance costs

Cities with an aging of their transport infrastructure are facing growing maintenance costs
as well as pressures to upgrade to more modern infrastructure. In addition to the involved
costs, maintenance and repair activities create circulation disruptions. Delayed
maintenance is rather common since it conveys the benefit of keeping current costs low,
but at the expense of higher future costs and on some occasions the risk of infrastructure
failure. The more extensive the road and highway network, the higher the maintenance cost
and the financial burden.
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Environmental impacts and energy consumption

Pollution, including noise, generated by circulation has become a serious impediment to the
quality of life and even the health of urban populations. Further, energy consumption by
urban transportation has dramatically increased and so the dependency on petroleum.
These considerations are increasingly linked with peak mobility expectations where high
energy prices incite a shift towards more efficient and sustainable forms of urban
transportation, namely public transit.
Accidents and safety

Growing traffic in urban areas is linked with a growing number of accidents and fatalities,
especially in developing countries. Accidents account for a significant share of recurring
delays. As traffic increases, people feel less safe to use the streets. The diffusion of
information technologies leads to paradoxical outcomes. While users have access to
reliable location and navigation information, portable devices create distractions linked with
a rise of accidents for drivers and pedestrians alike.
Land consumption
The territorial imprint of transportation is significant, particularly for the automobile. Between
30 and 60% of a metropolitan area may be devoted to transportation, an outcome of the
over-reliance on some forms of urban transportation. Yet, this land consumption also
underlines the strategic importance of transportation in the economic and social welfare of
cities.
Freight distribution
Globalization and the materialization of the economy have resulted in growing quantities of
freight moving within cities. As freight traffic commonly shares infrastructures with the
circulation of passengers, the mobility of freight in urban areas has become increasingly
problematic. City logistics strategies can be established to mitigate the variety of challenges
faced by urban freight distribution.
Many dimensions to the urban transport challenge are linked with the dominance of the
automobile.
2. Automobile Dependency
Automobile use is obviously related to a variety of advantages such as on demand
mobility, comfort, status, speed, and convenience. These advantages jointly illustrate
why automobile ownership continues to grow worldwide, especially in urban areas and
developing economies. When given the choice and the opportunity, most individuals will
prefer using an automobile. Several factors influence the growth of the total vehicle fleet,
such as sustained economic growth (increase in income and quality of life), complex
individual urban movement patterns (many households have more than one automobile),
more leisure time and suburbanization. Therefore, rising automobile mobility can be
perceived as a positive consequence of economic development. The automotive sector is a
factor of economic growth and job creation with several economies actively promoting it.
The acute growth in the total number of vehicles also gives rise to congestion at peak traffic
hours on major thoroughfares, in business districts and often throughout the metropolitan
area. Cities are important generators and attractors of movements, which have created a
set of geographical paradoxes that are self-reinforcing. For instance, specialization leads to
additional transport demands while agglomeration leads to congestion. Over time, a state of
automobile dependency has emerged which results in a declining role of other modes,
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thereby limiting still further alternatives to urban mobility through path dependency. In
addition to the factors contributing to the growth of driving, two major factors contributing to
automobile dependency are:
• Underpricing and consumer choices. Most road infrastructures are subsidized as

they are considered a public good. Consequently, drivers do not bear the full cost of
automobile use, such as parking. Like the “Tragedy of the Commons”, when a resource is
free of access (road), it tends to be overused and abused (congestion). This is also
reflected in consumer choice, where automobile ownership is a symbol of status, freedom
and prestige, especially in developing countries. Single home ownership also reinforces
automobile dependency and if this ownership is favored through various subsidies .
• Planning and investment practices. Planning and the ensuing allocation of public
funds aim towards improving road and parking facilities in an ongoing attempt to avoid
congestion. Other transportation alternatives tend to be disregarded. In many cases, zoning
regulations impose minimum standards of road and parking services and de facto impose a
regulated automobile dependency.
There are several levels of automobile dependency, ranging from low to acute, with their
corresponding land use patterns and alternatives to mobility. Among the most
relevant indicators of automobile dependency are the level of vehicle ownership, per capita
motor vehicle mileage and the proportion of total commuting trips made using an
automobile. A situation of high automobile dependency is reached when more than three
quarters of commuting trips are done using the automobile.
For the United States, this proportion has remained around 88% over the recent decades.
Automobile dependency is also served by a cultural and commercial system promoting the
automobile as a symbol of status and personal freedom, namely through intense
advertising and enticements to purchase new automobiles. Not surprisingly, many
developing countries perceive motorization as a condition for development. Even if the term
automobile dependency is often negatively perceived and favored by market distortions
such as the provision of roads, its outcome reflects the choice of individuals who see the
automobile more as an advantage than an inconvenience.
World Automobile Production and Fleet, 1965-2016
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Urban Transport Development Paths

The second half of the 20th century saw the adaptation of many cities in North America and
Europe to automobile circulation. Motorized transportation was seen as a powerful symbol
of modernity and development. Highways were constructed, streets were enlarged, and
parking lots were set often disrupting the existing urban fabric with the creation of motorized
cities. However, from the 1980s, motorization started to be seen more negatively and
several cities implemented policies to limit automobile circulation, at least in specific areas,
by a set of strategies including:
• Discussion. Although automobile circulation is permitted, it is impeded by

regulations and physical planning. For instance, parking space can be severely limited or
subject to pricing and speed bumps placed to force speed reduction.
• Prohibition of downtown circulation. During most of the day the downtown area is
closed to automobile circulation but deliveries are permitted during the night. Such
strategies are often undertaken to protect the character and the physical infrastructures of
an historical city. They do however, like most policies, have unintended consequences. If
mobility is restrained in certain locations or during certain time periods, people will simply
go elsewhere (longer movements) or defer their mobility for another time (more
movements).
• Tolls. Imposing tolls for parking and entry (congestion pricing) to some parts of the
city has been a strategy being considered seriously in many area as it confers the potential
advantage of congestion mitigation and revenue generation. Most evidence underlines
however that drivers are willing to bear additional toll costs for the convenience of using a
car, especially for commuting since it is linked with their main source of income.
Tentative solutions have been put forth such as transport planning measures (synchronized
traffic lights, regulated parking), limited vehicle traffic in selected areas, the promotion of
bicycle paths and public transit.
In Mexico City, vehicle use is prohibited according to license plate numbers and the date
(even-uneven). Affluent families have solved this issue by purchasing a second vehicle,
29
thus worsening the existing situation. Singapore is the only country in the world which has
successfully controlled the amount and growth rate of its vehicle fleet by imposing a heavy
tax burden and purchasing permits on automobile owners. Such a command-based
approach is unlikely to be possible in other contexts.
There is a growing body of evidence underlining that a peak level of car mobility is
unfolding, at least in developed countries. Higher energy prices, congestion, less economic
prospects and the general aging of the population are all countervailing forces to car
dependency. For instance, since 2006 the amount of vehicle-miles traveled in the United
States has peaked, a process associated with higher energy prices and an economic
recession. There are many alternatives to automobile dependency such as intermodality
(combining the advantages of individual and collective transport), carpooling or non-
motorized transportation (walking and cycling). These alternatives can only be partially
implemented as the automobile remains on the short and medium terms the prime choice
for providing urban mobility. A significant potential change remains the development of
mobile car sharing applications enabling a better utilization of vehicle assets. Although this
would not reduce the level of automobile dependency, it can offer enough flexibility for
some users not to require the ownership of an automobile.
3. Congestion
Congestion occurs when transport demand exceeds transport supply at a specific point
in time and in a specific section of the transport system. Under such circumstances, each
vehicle impairs the mobility of others.
Congestion can be perceived as an unavoidable consequence of the usage of scarce

transport resources, particularly if they are not priced. The last decades have seen the
extension of roads in urban areas, most of them free of access. Those infrastructures were
designed for speed and high capacity, but the growth of urban circulation occurred at a rate
higher than often expected. Investments came from diverse levels of government with a
view to provide accessibility to cities and regions. There were strong incentives for the
expansion of road transportation by providing high levels of transport supply. This has
created a vicious circle of congestion which supports the construction of additional road
capacity and automobile dependency. Urban congestion mainly concerns two domains of
circulation, often sharing the same infrastructures:
• Passengers. In many regions of the world incomes have significantly increased; one
automobile per household or more is becoming common. Access to an automobile conveys
flexibility in terms of the choice of origin, destination and travel time. The automobile is
favored at the expense of other modes for most trips, including commuting. For instance,
automobiles account for the bulk of commuting trips in the United States. The majority of
automobile related congestion is the outcome of time preferences in the usage of vehicles
(during commuting hours) as well as a substantial amount of space required to park
vehicles. About 95% of the time an automobile is idle.
•
• Freight. Several industries have shifted their transport needs to trucking, thereby
increasing the usage of road infrastructure. Since cities are the main destinations for freight
flows (either for consumption or for transfer to other locations) trucking adds to further
congestion in urban areas. The “last mile” problem remains particularly prevalent for freight
distribution in urban areas. Congestion is commonly linked with a drop in the frequency of
deliveries tying additional capacity to insure a similar level of service.
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It is important to underline that congestion in urban areas is dominantly caused

by commuting patterns and little by truck movements. On average, infrastructure
provision was not able to keep up with the growth in the number of vehicles, even more with
the total number of vehicles-km. During infrastructure improvement and construction,
capacity impairment (fewer available lanes, closed sections, etc.) favors congestion.
Important travel delays occur when the capacity limit is reached or exceeded, which is the
case of almost all metropolitan areas. In the largest cities such as London, road traffic is
actually slower than it was 100 years ago. Marginal delays are thus increasing and driving
speed becomes problematic as the level of population density increases. Once a population
threshold of about 1 million is reached, cities start to experience recurring congestion
problems. This observation must be nuanced by numerous factors related to the urban
setting, modal preferences (share of public transit) and the quality of existing urban
transport infrastructures.
Large cities have become congested most of the day, and congestion was getting more
acute in the 1990s and 2000s and then leveled off in many cases. For instance, average
car travel speeds have substantially declined in China, with many cities experiencing an
average driving speed of less than 20 km/hr with car density exceeding 200 cars per km of
road, a figure comparable to many developed countries. Another important consideration
concerns parking, which consumes large amounts of space and provides limited economic
benefit. In automobile dependent cities, this can be very constraining as each land use has
to provide an amount of parking space proportional to their level of activity. Parking has
become a land use that greatly inflates the demand for urban land.
Vicious Circle of Congestion

Urban mobility also reveals congestion patterns. Daily trips can be either “mandatory”
(workplace-home) or “voluntary” (shopping, leisure, visits). The former is often performed
within fixed schedules while the latter complies with variable and discretionary schedules.
Correspondingly, congestion comes in two major forms:
• Recurrent congestion. The consequence of factors that cause regular demand

surges on the transportation system, such as commuting, shopping or weekend trips.
However, even recurrent congestion can have unforeseen impacts in terms of its duration
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and severity. Mandatory trips are mainly responsible for the peaks in circulation flows,
implying that about half the congestion in urban areas is recurring at specific times of the
day and on specific segments of the transport system.
• Non-recurrent congestion. The other half of congestion is caused by random

events such as accidents and unusual weather conditions (rain, snowstorms, etc.), which
are unexpected and unplanned. Non-recurrent congestion is linked to the presence and
effectiveness of incident response strategies. As far as accidents are concerned, their
randomness is influenced by the level of traffic as the higher the traffic on specific road
segments the higher the probability of accidents.
Behavioral and response time effects are also important as in a system running close to
capacity, simply breaking suddenly may trigger what can be known as a backward
traveling wave. It implies that as vehicles are forced to stop, the bottleneck moves up the
location it initially took place at, often leaving drivers puzzled about its cause. The spatial
convergence of traffic causes a surcharge on transport infrastructures up to the point where
congestion can lead to the total immobilization of traffic. Not only does the massive use of
the automobile have an impact on traffic circulation and congestion, but it also leads to
the decline in public transit efficiency when both are sharing the same road
infrastructures.
4. Mitigating Congestion
In some areas, the automobile is the only mode for which adequate transportation
infrastructures are provided. This implies less capacity for using alternative modes such
transit, walking and cycling. At some levels of density, no public infrastructure investment
can be justified in terms of economic returns. Longer commuting trips in terms of average
travel time, the result of fragmented land uses and congestion levels are a significant trend.
Convergence of traffic at major highways that serve vast low density areas with high levels
of automobile ownership and low levels of automobile occupancy. The result is energy
(fuel) wasted during congestion (additional time) and supplementary commuting distances.
In automobile dependent cities, a few measures can help alleviate congestion to some
extent:
• Ramp metering. Controlling the access to a congested highway by letting

automobiles in one at a time instead of in groups. The outcome is a lower disruption on
highway traffic flows.
• Traffic signal synchronization. Tuning the traffic signals to the time and direction
of traffic flows. This is particularly effective if the signals can be adjusted on an hourly basis
to reflect changes in commuting patterns.
• Incident management. Making sure that vehicles involved in accidents or

mechanical failures are removed as quickly as possible from the road. Since accident on
average account between 20 and 30% of all the causes of congestion, this strategy is
particularly important.
• Car ownership restrictions. Several cities and countries (e.g. Singapore) have
quotas in the number of license plates that can be issued or require high licensing fees. To
purchase a vehicle an individual thus must first secure through an auction a license.
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• Sharing vehicles. Concerns two issues. The first is an individual providing ridership
to people (often co-workers) having a similar origin, destination and commuting time. Two
or more vehicle trips can thus be combined into one, which is commonly referred as
carpooling. The second involves a pool of vehicles (mostly cars, but also bicycles) that can
be leased or shared for short duration when mobility is required. Adequate measures must
be taken so that supply and demand are effectively matched with information technologies
providing an effective support.
• HOV lanes. High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes insure that vehicles with two or
more passengers (buses, taxis, vans, carpool, etc.) have exclusive access to a less
congested lane, particularly during peak hours.
• Congestion pricing. A variety of measures aimed at imposing charges on specific

segments or regions of the transport system, mainly as a toll. The charges can also change
during the day to reflect congestion levels so that drivers are incited to consider other time
periods or other modes.
• Parking management. Removing parking or free parking spaces can be an effective

dissuasion tool since it reduces cruising and enables those willing to pay to access an area
(e.g. for a short shopping stop). Parking spaces should be treated as a scarce asset subject
to a price structure reflecting the willingness to pay. Further, planning regulations provide
an indirect subsidy to parking by enforcing minimum parking space requirements based
upon the type and the density of the land use.
• Public transit. Offering alternatives to driving that can significantly improve

efficiency, notably if it circulates on its own infrastructure (subway, light rail, buses on
reserved lanes, etc.) and is well integrated within a city’s development plans. However,
public transit has its own set of issues (see next section).
• Non-motorized transportation. Since the great majority of urban trips are over
short distances, non-motorized modes, particularly walking and cycling, have an important
roll to play in supporting urban mobility. The provision of adequate infrastructure, such as
sidewalks, is often a low priority as non-motorized transportation is often perceived as not
modern in spite of the important role it needs to assume in urban areas.
5. The Urban Transit Challenge

Among the most difficult challenges facing urban transit are:
• Decentralization. Public transit systems are not designed to service low density and
scattered urban areas that are increasingly dominating the landscape. The greater the
decentralization of urban activities, the more difficult and expensive it becomes to serve
urban areas with public transit. Additionally, decentralization promotes long distance trips
on transit systems causing higher operating costs and revenue issues for flat fare transit
systems.
• Fixity. The infrastructures of several public transit systems, notably rail and subway
systems are fixed, while cities are dynamical entities, even if the pace of change can take
decades. This implies that travel patterns tend to change and that a transit system built for
servicing a specific pattern may eventually face “spatial obsolescence”.
• Connectivity. Public transit systems are often independent from other modes and
terminals. It is consequently difficult to transfer passengers from one system to the other.
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This leads to a paradox between the preference of riders to have direct connections and the
need to provide a cost efficient service network that involves transfers.
• Automobile competition. In view of cheap and ubiquitous road transport systems,
public transit faced strong competition and loss ridership in relative terms and in some
cases in absolute terms. The higher the level of automobile dependency, the more
inappropriate the public transit level of service. The public service being offered is simply
outpaced by the convenience of the automobile.
• Construction and maintenance costs. Public transit systems, particularly heavy
rail, are capital intensive to build, operate and maintain. Cost vary depending on local
conditions such as density and regulations, but average construction costs are around $300
million per km. There are however exceptions where cost overruns can be substantial
because of capture by special interests groups such as labor unions, construction
companies and consulting firms. When there is inefficient regulatory oversight, these actors
will converge to extract as much rent as possible from public transit capital improvements.
The world’s highest subway construction costs are in New York. For instance, the Second
Avenue subway extension in Manhattan, completed in 2015, was done at a cost of $1.7
billion per km, five to seven times the average in comparable cities such as Paris or
London. This project employed four times more labor with construction costs 50% higher.
• Fare structures. Historically, most public transit systems have abandoned a
distance-based fare structure for a simpler flat fare system. This had the unintended
consequence of discouraging short trips for which most transit systems are well suited for,
and encouraging longer trips that tend to be costlier per user than the fares they generate.
Information systems offer the possibility for transit systems to move back to a more
equitable distance based fare structure, particularly with the usage of smartcards that
enable to charge according to the point of entry and exit within the public transit system.
• Legacy costs. Most public transit systems employ unionized labor that have
consistently used strikes (or the threat of a strike) and the acute disruptions they create as
leverage to negotiate favorable contracts, including health and retirement benefits. Since
public transit is subsidized these costs were not well reflected in the fare systems. In many
transit systems, additional subsidies went into compensation or to cover past debt, and not
necessarily into performance improvements or additional infrastructure. As most
governments are facing stringent budgetary constraints because of social welfare
commitments, public transit agencies are being forced to reassess their budgets through an
unpopular mix of higher fares, deferred maintenance and the breaking of labor contracts.
• Self-driving vehicles. Development in information technologies let anticipate in the
coming years the availability of self-driving vehicles. Such a development would entail point
to point services by on demand vehicles and a much better utilization level of such assets.
This system could compete directly with transit systems due to its convenience, comfort
and likely affordability.
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Q. No. 4: Review commercial and utility urban spaces and explain in the
local context with examples (20 Marks)
Answer)
PUBLIC /URBAN SPACE

A public space is a place that is generally open and accessible to people. Roads (including
the pavement), public squares, parks and beaches are typically considered public space.
To a limited extent, government buildings which are open to the public, such as public
libraries are public spaces, although they tend to have restricted areas and greater limits
upon use. Although not considered public space, privately owned buildings or property
visible from sidewalks and public thoroughfares may affect the public visual landscape, for
example, by outdoor advertising. Recently, the concept of Shared space has been
advanced to enhance the experience of pedestrians in public space jointly used by
automobiles and other vehicles.
Public space has also become something of a touchstone for critical theory in relation
to philosophy, (urban) geography, visual art, cultural studies, social studies and urban
design. The term 'public space' is also often misconstrued to mean other things such as
'gathering place', which is an element of the larger concept of social space.
One of the earliest examples of public spaces are commons. For example, no fees or
paid tickets are required for entry. Non-government-owned malls are examples of 'private
space' with the appearance of being 'public space'.
Public space in design theory

Public space, as a term and as a concept in design, is volatile. There is much conversation
around what constitutes public space, what role it plays, and how design should approach
and deal with it.
Historical shift
Historically, public space in the west has been limited to town centres, plazas, church
squares, i.e. nearly always engineered around a central monument, which informs the
program of the space. These spaces acted as the 'commons' of the people; a political,
social and cultural arena.
Modern critique
Modern architectural critics have lamented on the 'narrative of loss' within the public sphere.
That is, modern society has withdrawn from public life that used to inform city centres.
Political and social needs, and forums for expression, can now be accessed from the home.
This sentiment is reflected in Michael Sorkin's and Mike Davis' declaration of "the end of
public space" and the "destruction of any truly democratic urban spaces." Another side of
the debate, however, argues that it is people who apply meaning to public space, wherever
it may be. It has been suggested that the concepts of public, space, democracy, and
citizenship are being redefined by people through lived experience.
Approaching urban design

Contemporary perception of public space has now branched and grown into a multitude of
non-traditional sites with a variety of programs in mind. It is for this reason that the way in
35
which design deals with public space as a discipline, has become such a diverse and
indefinable field.
Iris Aravot puts forward an interesting approach to the urban design process, with the idea
of the 'narrative-myth'. Aravot argues that "conventional analysis and problem solving
methods result in fragmentation...of the authentic experience of a city...[and] something of
the liveliness of the city as a singular entity is lost." The process of developing a narrative-
myth in urban design involves analysing and understanding the unique aspects of the local
culture based on Cassirer's five distinctive "symbolic forms". They are myth and religion,
art, language, history and science; aspects often disregarded by professional practice.
Aravot suggests that the narrative-myth "imposes meaning specifically on what is still
inexplicable", i.e. the essence of a city.
Urban underground space: Solving the problems of today’s cities Highlights
• Use of underground space in solving the problems of modern cities is discussed.

• Common infrastructure and environmental problems are paired with urban underground
solutions.
• Awareness of engineers, planners and decision makers as an essential first step is
discussed.
The world is increasingly an urban environment. Since 2008 more than half of the world
population lives in cities and the world population is expected to increase to roughly
10 billion people over the next four decades. As the world’s population is projected to
remain stable in this period, that increase will occur in urban areas.
By 2050, 70% of all people will live in cities and the world urban population will have more
than doubled compared to the turn of the century (UN, 2007, 2013).
In developing countries, where most of this uncontained population growth will take place,
the rapidly expanding cities will need to meet the increased demands for infrastructure.
Without efficient transport infrastructure, cities will sprawl away from the urban core,
which strains the environment by creating more congestion and travel time, loss of valuable
farm land, and inequitable allocation of resources (Longman, 1998; Chen, 2000). In the
developed countries the urban expansion is less rapid, but the demographics of the
population will change, with an increasingly large group over 60 (Angel et al., 2011). These
population changes bring about new demands on the functions a city must provide and on
the layout of the city, and call for continuous improvement in sustainable and resource
efficient urban development (Camagni et al., 2002; Jenks and Burgess, 2000).
Although high urban density can help cities become more energy and resource efficient,
urban density alone is not sufficient to obtain a high standard of living. Comparing the most
densely populated cities with the most liveable ones (Wikipedia, 2015; Mercer, 2015) shows
there must be other factors involved. This paper proposes that an efficient and integrated
use of the underground is one of these factors and gives a brief overview of the possible
solutions the underground offers to improve the factors contributing to quality of live: safety,
health, convenience, and comfort (UN, 1961).
An urban population that is increasingly aware of the factors that improve quality of living,
poses increased demands on their environment with respect to: reliable and safe transport
of people and goods; dependable utilities, water distribution and sewerage systems;
36
sustainability of the environment and limited urban sprawl; green spaces and recreational
areas; reduced energy use and reduced emissions and noise levels; aesthetics and
conservation of heritages; efficient use of real-estate and public space (Broere, 2012).
In existing urban areas these demands pose significant challenges, as the space needed
for developing new functions or relocating and improving existing ones is often not readily
available. Placement of infrastructure and other facilities underground presents an
opportunity to find the needed space, but it is often considered only as a last resort. This
stems from a paradox, as the underground is considered only when surface space is
exhausted and no other solutions exist any more for the complex urban problems to be
tackled. This complexity and the obstructed access to the underground, created by the lack
of space for the problem to be solved, almost inevitably lead to higher cost, giving
underground solutions an expensive image, which in turn leads it to be considered less
readily (Bosch, 2003; Bobylev, 2009).
In newly developing metropolises that paradox need not exist, as initially the access to the
underground is not obstructed and unique opportunities exist, if engineers, city planners
and decision makers can come together and recognize that in order to reach an optimal
solution, the underground option needs to be considered and used from the start (Sterling
et al., 2012). The rapid and unconstrained expansion of these cities is only part of the
problem. Structured city planning that includes underground options is still limited to a few
examples, see for example Vähäaho (2009) and Li et al. (2013). In general the awareness
that the underground offers a possible solution for urban problems remains low, even
though the issue has been raised on numerous occasions, e.g. Webster (1914) and Sterling
and Carmody (1993). Recently Working Group 20 “Urban Problems – Underground
Solutions” of the International Tunneling and Underground Space Association (ITA)
presented an overview of exemplary projects highlighting underground solutions to typical
urban problems, in a renewed attempt to raise this awareness (Thewes et al., 2012). WG20
was founded in 2002 as part of ITA in order to identify urban problems that have been
solved, or could have been solved, by the use of underground space or facilities, and to
increase the awareness inside and outside the ITA. Other groups active in raising such
awareness include the Committee on Underground Space (ITACUS), also part of ITA, and
the Associated research Centers for Urban Underground Space (ACUUS), an international
interdisciplinary association.
2. Urban underground solutions

Many dense urban environments face problems due to lacking infrastructure for transit,
distribution of resources, goods and services. When paired with the demands listed above,
these problems can be elaborated to include: traffic congestion; poor environmental
conditions due to noise and air pollution; lack of safety, security, and protection
against natural disasters and flooding; crowding and lack of space for work and recreation;
restrictions when preserving aesthetic qualities and (cultural) heritages of the urban
environment; aging infrastructure for distribution of resources, sewage conveyance and
treatment; and combination effects of the above.
2.1. Traffic congestion

Probably the most recognized problem is the need for congestion relief in city streets. Time
can be saved by using separated rail systems in order to reduce the rush hour traffic
pressure. Hundreds of hours per worker per year can be saved in this way, as the cost of
37
congestion in OECD countries is estimated to be equivalent to about 2 percent of the GDP

(Godard, 2008).
But mass transit systems offer other benefits, as they tend to require less surface area than
road traffic. Studies show that car traffic takes up 30 to 90 times more space than metro
systems. Similarly, public road transport takes 3 to 12 times more space (Thewes et al.,
2012). By moving from above ground car traffic to underground mass transit systems,
enormous amounts of surface land can be freed up for other uses.
Continually improving tunnelling and excavation support technology adds to the success of
urban rail systems. Advances in Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) technology now allow
tunnelling in more difficult ground conditions – even below the ground water table – with
little disturbance to the surface. The surface influence is nowadays limited enough to realize
bored tunnels even in highly sensitive city environments with protected cultural heritages,
such as for example the historic city centres of Amsterdam and Rome (Burghignoli et al.,
2013).
2.2. Pollution and noise

Highway noise and emissions from vehicles are recognized as pressing problems in urban
areas. In order to reduce the noise impact, sound barriers may be erected, but the visual
impact of such measures is major. It is often the case that residential property values near
freeways are reduced due to high noise levels from cars and exhaust emissions. Also, there
are associated health and safety issues for living close to a freeway.
Once again, moving passenger transport from cars to mass transit systems can reduce the
noise and pollution impact at the local level, but also at a larger scale as mass transit
systems tend to be more energy efficient and substantial energy savings can be obtained
by the increased use of metro systems.
Alternatively, over the last few decades, many cities have constructed ring roads and
roadway tunnels to improve their traffic conditions and to adapt the road network to the
predicted demand. At the same time the travel times have improved and the impact of
traffic on the surrounding residents has been reduced. Now, with city developments
encroaching on existing ring roads, several cities have started to move surface sections of
these ring roads below ground in order to further reduce their impact. Some examples are
the double-deck tunnels in the A86 in Paris, the large diameter tunnels for the M30 in
Madrid or the cut-and-cover tunnels for the A10 in Amsterdam (Samuel, 2006; Arnáiz and
Bueno, 2009; ZuidAs, 2015).
An even greater impact on their surroundings may be caused by the elevated highways,
mainly constructed in the 1950s and 60s in a number of, mainly US, cities; for example
Boston, Seattle, and San Francisco. These giant elevated structures through down-town
areas are now seen as unsightly, noisy, possibly unsafe, and provide only limited access to
areas adjacent to the freeway. Many cities are considering or in the process to replace the
elevated highways by urban road tunnels. An example is the Alaskan Highway in Seattle,
which when completed will be the largest diameter bored tunnel in the world (Gatti et al.,
2013).
These transitions from surface or above-surface roads to underground solutions in more or

less the same location are often complex and costly. While the original decision to build
these roads above ground often focused only on direct construction costs, decision makers
38
should include real-estate impacts, structural life span, and long-term sustainability when
making such choices. This would help to avoid such unfavourable situations and reduce the
life time cost of urban transport.
2.3. Protection against natural disasters

With concentration of population, urban areas are particularly vulnerable to failures in
infrastructure due to ageing of the systems or those caused by other natural forces. Growth
of population not only means more people are relying on the infrastructure, but at the same
time that the man-made facilities may increase the severity of the disaster. For
example, urbanization means more paved area leading to more severe flooding, as well as
loss of water resources recharging groundwater.
Underground rivers can be constructed to increase run-off or divert storm water. Large
diameter tunnels have been bored below cities such as Buenos Aires and Tokyo for this
purpose (Dal Negro et al., 2012; Miyao et al., 2000). The SMART tunnel in Kuala Lumpur
takes this concept a step further, as this tunnel functions as a road tunnel during dry
periods and is closed off for traffic and used as a storm-water tunnel during flooding periods
(Abraham, 2008).
Also, it should be realized that the underground may provide a setting that is difficult to build
in, but that underground structures offers better natural protection against environmental
elements, including destructive weather and seismic events. Underground facilities and
metro systems are less prone to earthquake damagehave suffered little or no damage in
major earthquakes (Wallis, 2010; Tashiro and Mutou, 2013).
2.4. Lack of space and preservation of heritage and environment

Most of the underground examples above are not intended for a long-term human
presence. This stems from the human preference to live, work and recreate above ground.
Historically, underground structures were primarily intended for shelter or served as entry
and connection points for mass transit systems. Over time, a wider range of functional
facilities has taken up underground residence, but often still with a short intended stay for
individuals below ground. Mostly the aim was to free surface space for other human needs
and to improve the living conditions of cities. Examples such as underground car parks,
shopping malls or storage facilities have been documented by Thewes et al. (2012).
Recently, the aim is more and more to not only keep surface space free and to create new
space and functions, but to do so in a manner that preserves existing buildings and cultural
heritages. This is especially true for public functions housed in historic monuments. A few
examples of museums with newer underground extensions are the Louvre in Paris, the
Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam and the Mauritshuis in The Hague. In all these cases additions
to existing monuments have been realized without lowering the visual quality of the original
buildings, and at the same time creating new floor space, with limited access points and a
small footprint in order to preserve the security of the buildings and their collections.
And such underground extensions to monumental buildings are not limited to public
buildings, but nowadays also include private residences, with the iceberg houses of London
as the grander examples of the possibilities the underground offers (Reynolds, 2015).
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2.5. Utilities and infrastructure

Focusing on the larger underground facilities it is easy to overlook the many utilities that are
traditionally placed below ground. As discussed in Bosch and Broere (2011)the increasing
amount of different utilities that is placed in the shallow subsurface strains the available
space in the utility layer. Especially the addition of separated sewage systems for
household waste water streams and storm water and of distributed heat-and-cold storage
systems or shallow geothermal systems requires a large underground footprint if all placed
directly in the ground. If not properly regulated and zoned, the increasing number of utilities
creates underground space shortages in the shallow subsurface utility layer, and often
causes increased surface disruptions given the increased number of parties that needs to
inspect, repair or replace their underground utilities.
Utility tunnels, small tunnels placed at shallow depth that in turn contain cables and ducts
for different utilities, are a solution here. Not only do they reduce the effective footprint for
utilities, as they can be placed closer together inside the utility tunnel, but these utilities can
also be inspected and repaired without the need to dig in the subsurface. Hunt et al.
(2014) shows that already for a limited number of utilities such a multi-utility tunnels can be
cost effective.
Not only utility pipelines, but also the associated treatment plants and facilities can be
placed underground. Underground waste water treatment plants such as in Stockholm,
Rotterdam or Guangzhou City show how such facilities not only free up space at surface,
but also reduce the olfactory impact to neighbouring residences normally associated with
these plants and help reduce the overall environmental impact of waste water
(Watertechnology, 2015; Waterworld, 2010).
3. Conclusions
Underground development is an important tool in developing and reshaping urban areas to
meet the challenges of the future. Placement of infrastructure and other facilities
underground presents an opportunity for realizing new functions in urban areas without
destroying heritages or negatively impacting the surface environment, and at the same time
brings opportunities for long-term improvements in the environmental impact of cities and
more efficient use of space and resources. These benefits are there for existing,
redeveloping cities, but can be implemented for newly developing cities more easily and
more cost effectively, for even greater benefits.
It can be observed that many of these underground solutions can solve or help improve
multiple of the problems that urban developments face: traffic congestion; environmental
problems; lack of (green) space; need for protection against disasters; lack of infrastructure
for food, energy, water and sanitation.
When planning and developing cities, the underground should not be overlooked by
planners, engineers and decision makers. Raising the awareness of the benefits
underground space can bring is a first step towards a systematic use of underground space
in urban environments.
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Q. No. 5: How would you make a ethical judgment on vernacular

architecture in Pakistan. (20 Marks)
Answer)
Vernacular architecture is characterized by its reliance on needs, construction

materials and traditions specific to its particular locality. It is a type of architecture which is
indigenous to a specific time and place and not replicated from elsewhere.
Historically, vernacular architecture has incorporated the skills and expertise of
local builders as opposed to formally-trained architects.
Whilst often synonymous with primitive, nomadic or traditional architecture, can also apply
to certain types or architecture in developed countries and urban societies.
The development of vernacular architecture centres on the functions that the building type
is required to perform. The design then generally evolves over time, becoming more refined
and tailored to the contexts in which it exists, including:
The availability of resources, skilled workforce, and so on.

Local technology.
Climate: The amount of sunshine, humidity, rain, wind, temperature profiles, and so
on.
Local culture: The way of life of the occupiers greatly influences the building form.
This can include the size of families, the way the building is used, social conditions,
local customs, religious values, and so on.
Environment: Whether it is located near water, woodland, desert or mountainous
terrain, and so on.
Economic conditions.
Historical influences.
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Historical context
This is a concept, the term ‘vernacular’ became commonly used in the 1800s, at a time
when western colonial powers were exploring the new worlds that were being discovered. It
is sometimes used as a derogatory term, suggesting something that may be quaint, but is
derivative and has not been ‘properly’ designed by a professional.
During the first quarter of the 20th century, high profile architects such as Adolf Loos, Frank
Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier began to extol the virtues of vernacular architecture.
However, it wasn’t until 1964 that a successful exhibition by Bernard Rudofsky called
‘Architecture without Architects’ that the form became popularized.
Benefits of vernacular architecture
The benefits of vernacular architecture include:

Capitalizing on local knowledge and traditions.
Taking advantage of local materials and resources, meaning that they are relatively
Energy efficient and sustainable.
Providing a vital connection between humans and the environment in which they live.
They can be designed specifically with the local climatic conditions in mind, and
Often perform well.
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF PAKISTAN
The people of Pakistan share a common history of half a million years of cultural
development. Each stage of development in this long history is marked by interactions and
mutual exchanges between the people of its several regions. With each stage of
development the cultural centre has shifted from region to region. From the Potwar plateau in
the Punjab and the Baluchistan hills, to the Sindh (Indus) valley, from Gandhara in the North
West Frontier to the Gangetic plain of India. Yet at no stage has this evolution been uniform
or thorough in the sense of extending equally to and including all the regions of the country at
the same time.
Even today, modern industrialization has made little or no impact beyond the few pockets of
urban concentration, and most of the population of Pakistan continues to live in rural
communities, the patterns of their daily lives governed by herding and grazing economies of
tribal people or backward agricultural practices of feudal societies. Out of the persistence of
these patterns over a long period of time have evolved forms of rural habitat corresponding to
the livelihood of the people, the forms of society, material resources and climates of each of
the regions of Pakistan.
A closer analysis reveals a number of climatic variations within each of the major topographic
regions. For instance, the central plain can be divided into three distinct climatic zones : the
humid coastal and delta ; the dry Sindh and Southern Punjab ; and the monsoon plain of the
central Punjab. Similarly, the mountains have a narrow humid coastal strip along the Arabian
Sea ; the Arid Baluchistan plateau ; the milder North West Frontier and Potwar plateau ; the
moist and wooded northern valleys ; and the drier extreme north. The traditional forms of
rural habitat in each of these regions reflect the variations in climatic conditions as much as
the variations in available materials within each environment.
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To the north-east of Peshawar, in the Catchment Areas of the Swat, Indus and Jhelum rivers,
the slopes are covered with dense pine forests. Timber naturally forms an essential part of
the building traditions of these valleys. One of the richest of these timber building traditions is
found in the Swat valley. Decorative timber carving, artistry in the handling of structural
elements and attention to sophisticated compositions and careful proportioning of every
detail; such refinements are usually reserved for the construction of the exquisite mosques of
this region. The domestic architecture is much simpler and functional. An occasional door or
column capital may be elaborately carved, but the usual house has a powerful rustic
simplicity.
The external walls are usually thick, rough masonry, often reinforced by crudely hewn timber
sections, or given a coat of mud plaster. The stones are often packed in courses into a rough
timber frame. Slenderer sections of timber make up the post and beam frames which support
the lean-to verandah roofs and internal timber paneled partitions. Doors and windows are
similarly framed and paneled.
The roofs are invariably flat and made up of a heavy layer of compacted earth on timber
boards and joists, and they overhang the walls to provide generous eaves. The cantilevered
joists under the eaves are closed by a fascia board, often with a decorative lower edge. A
second board above the joists acts as a retaining edge for the compacted earth with which
the roof is finished.
On sloping valley sides these simple houses are often half built into the hill, which is cut to
form a convenient rear wall. In such stepped clusters each roof becomes a terrace for the
house above. These open terraces serve as sun decks in cool weather and are used very
much like the courtyards in the plains.
43
References & Researches Cited:
o http://businessfeed.sunpower.com/articles/written-what-is-a-green-building
o http://environment-ecology.com/environment-and-architecture/80-green-building.html
o https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK54149/
o https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-07-green-health-occupants.html
o https://www.therealestateconversation.com.au/2017/11/10/how-do-green-buildings-
improve-the-health-and-productivity-their-occupants/1510253952
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_design
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
o https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Ecological+architecture
o https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/participatory-design-approach/39110
o http://www.uia2017seoul.org/P/papers/Abstract/Design_Works/Oral/DW3-11/O-
0309.pdf
o http://www.building4change.com/article.jsp?id=2637#.WwQAKzSFPIU
o https://www.zurich.com/en/knowledge/articles/2015/01/the-risks-of-rapid-urbanization-
in-developing-countries
o https://www.bdcnetwork.com/ethics-urbanization
o https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-urbanization.php
o https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4621
o http://parisinnovationreview.com/articles-en/urban-transportation-trends-challenges-
and-opportunities
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_space
o https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0886779815302923
o https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02697459308722898
o http://www.davidstancu.com/downloads/david_stancu_thesis.pdf
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_architecture
o https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Vernacular_architecture
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_architecture
o http://arifhasan.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Thatta-YasmeenCheema.pdf
o https://iqbalaalam.wordpress.com/category/vernacular-architecture/
o http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000437/043702eo.pdf
o https://issuu.com/cayserhussain/docs/punjab_____vernacular_study_cayser
44

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Solution-3678 Environmental Ethics in Built Environment Assgn 2

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Department of Home & Health Sciences

Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Environmental Ethics in the Built (3678)

The ideal green building would be a building project

• Reducing trash, pollution and degradation of environment.

BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING

With new technologies constantly being developed to complement current practices in

• Reduce wastage of water

• Reduce operating costs

• Improve quality of life

GREEN BUILDINGS IMPACTS ON OCCUPANTS' HEALTH

The source of indoor pollution:

Formaldehyde Indoor sources may be ignition processes such as smoking, heating,

Other chemical factors such as Naphthalene, Nitrogen dioxide, Polycyclic aromatic

Trichloroethylene and Tetrachloroethylene is found in indoor environment that may

Green construction materials can be defined as:

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ):

Occupant Health and Wellbeing:

IEQ occupant wellbeing and productivity structure.

natural view; improved ventilation and temperature condition in working environment

Process to health and economic gains.

Q. No. 1 (b): Is building design and construction practices conscious on these

Sick Building Syndrome and Building-Related Illness

The complaints may be localized to a particular room or zone, or may be widespread

Sick building syndrome and building-related illness

Indicators of SBS include:

Indicators of BRI include:

Causes of sick building syndrome

Building investigation procedures

An indoor air quality investigation procedure is best characterized as a cycle of information

• Possible pollutant pathways

Solutions to sick building syndrome

building. Local exhaust ventilation is particularly recommended to remove pollutants that

Teen Talwar, Karachi

• Inadequate commissioning Building Management Systems (BMS) and energy sub-

• The building not being occupied as intended Space designed as a

Q. No. 2: How would you describe Transformative Architecture in the

Because transformation design is about applying design skills in non-traditional territories, it

What is Ecological Design?

Incorporating Solar Into Overall Design

Use of Sustainable Building Materials

Incorporating Traditional Regional Design Elements

Participatory design is a product design method to design digital services. It involves

ECOLOGICAL AND PARTICIPATORY DESIGN OF URBAN FARM (CORRELATION

Introduction – the definition and significance of the study

Theoretical bases and analysis criteria

Principle One: Ecology Farming

Principle Two: Participation

Tactics of landscape design on urban farm in case study

plant vegetables. In addition, a pond is built to irrigate vegetables by sufficiently utilizing

Figure-ground conversion- design for the urban farm landscape concept

Q. No. 3: What Ethical concerns are emerged due to rapid urbanization?

3. Social benefits and services

5. Modernization and changes in the mode of living

6. Rural urban transformation

6. Water and sanitation problems

2. Provision of essential services

3. Creation of more jobs

THE ETHICS OF URBANIZATION

90 percent of urbanization currently occurs in the developing world. In Africa, the

URBAN TRANSPORT CHALLENGES

Traffic Congestion And Parking Difficulties

Public transport inadequacy

Difficulties for non-motorized transport