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Reference Group Influences among Chinese Travelers

Cathy H. C. Hsu, Soo K. Kang and Terry Lam
Journal of Travel Research 2006 44: 474
DOI: 10.1177/0047287505282951

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 Reference Group Influences
among Chinese Travelers
CATHY H. C. HSU, SOO K. KANG, AND TERRY LAM
Interpersonal influence is known to contribute to an indi-
vidual’s psychological formation (e.g., personal value, norm,
attitude, perception). Reference group influence in the services
sector, however, has received limited attention, with most
works conducted in the setting of tangible products, not of
services. In particular, reference group influences are exerted
on a traveler when communication among group members
provides the opportunity to share direct experiences of others
about a particular destination or service and/or induces the
selection of a destination or other travel services. Therefore,
the purpose of the study was to segment travelers based on
their perceptions of various reference groups’ influences about
visiting Hong Kong as a destination and to profile each seg-
ment according to travelers’ benefits sought, attitudes, behav-
iors, and sociodemographic characteristics. A TwoStep® cluster
analysis generated three distinctive segments with different
benefits sought, perceived behavioral control, attitudes, and
behavioral intentions. Marketing implications for each seg-
ment were provided.
Keywords: reference group influence; benefits sought;
Chinese travelers; perceived behavioral con-
trol; segmentation
The characteristics of services—intangibility, perishability,
heterogeneity, and simultaneous production and consumption—
lead services to possess higher perceived risks with few objec-
tively measurable qualities before purchasing (Mehta, Lalwani,
and Ping 2001). These unique features of service make con-
sumer information search more difficult than that of goods,
which leads to a more complex consumer decision-making and
evaluation process (Lovelock 1991).
An important determinant of an individual’s decision-
making process is often others’ influences. The fact that con-
sumers obtain information about products and services from
other people, particularly family members, friends, and neigh-
bors, is well documented in the marketing literature (Bayus
1985). Consumers particularly tend to accept information pro-
vided by their peer groups and conform to the group norm on
the quality, style, and other product attributes, which are difficult
to evaluate objectively. Perry and Hamm (1969) enunciated
that the greater the perceived risk of a purchase decision, the
higher the degree of personal influence. Consumers who wish
to reduce prechoice uncertainty may be compelled to seek
information from other individuals who have experienced the
service directly or indirectly (Mehta, Lalwani, and Ping 2001).
Consumers appear to act in a manner that is consistent
with the social group with which they identify (Leigh and
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Gabel 1992; Venkatesan 1966). Stafford and Cocanougher
(1977) contended that consumer behavior cannot be fully
comprehended unless significant consideration is given to the
effects of interpersonal influence on the development of atti-
tudes, norms, values, aspirations, and purchase behavior.
According to Wernick’s (1994) typology, a trip or vaca-
tion is a symbolized commodity, which tends to be planned
and carried out with a great deal of interpersonal influence.
This notion is supported by the finding that word of mouth
(WOM) from friends, family members, and relatives is the
most frequently sought information source among potential
travelers when preparing for a trip (Bansal and Voyer 2000;
Bieger and Laesser 2004; Dodd 1998; Gitelson and Crompton
1983; Sarigollu and Huang 2005). Sarigollu and Huang (2005)
used the benefits sought approach to segment travelers to
Latin America and concluded that regardless of the segment
generated from a bundle of benefits sought included, WOM
from friends and family is the most effective information
source for travel decisions. Fodness and Murray (1999) indi-
cated that personal experience, travel agencies, and friends or
relatives were the three sources most likely to be used alone.
Because the interpersonal influence is known to contribute to
a potential traveler’s psychological formation (e.g., personal
value, norm, attitude, and perception) and lead to his or her
notable decision-making behaviors, marketers may need to
capitalize on favorable WOM in planning and executing their
marketing strategies and tactics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
It has been estimated that as much as 80% of all buying
decisions are influenced by someone’s direct recommenda-
tion (Voss 1984). Although the formal communication chan-
nels or mass media aim at persuading prospective buyers
Cathy H. C. Hsu, PhD, is a professor, associate head, and grad-
uate programs director in the School of Hotel and Tourism
Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Soo K.
Kang, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Food
Science and Human Nutrition, Colorado State University in Fort
Collins. Terry Lam, PhD, is an associate professor in the School of
Hotel and Tourism Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic
University. This research was financially supported by the Hong
Kong Polytechnic University (Project No. A-PD25).
Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 44, May 2006, 474-484
DOI: 10.1177/0047287505282951
© 2006 Sage Publications

through paid advertising, brochures, sales promotions, public
relations, and the Internet, much research suggested that
interpersonal information channels, also known as WOM,
are as influential on purchase decisions as the formal chan-
nels (Bearden and Etzel 1982; Childers and Rao 1992; Leigh
and Gabel 1992) because of an extensive amount of infor-
mation accessible to individuals informally through their
family, friends, and reference groups, or the groups of people
with whom they interact at work and socially (Middleton
2002).
Reference groups are defined as social groups that are
important to a consumer and against which he or she compares
him or herself in forming attitudes and behaviors (Escalas
and Bettman 2003). Among various reference groups exert-
ing significant influences on the consumer decision-making
process, parents, teachers, and friends (or peers) are represen-
tatives of normative referents. Furthermore, family remains
as the most significant reference group because an individ-
ual’s values and expectations are built through family influ-
ences (Moutinho 1987). Reference groups are also claimed
as a major source of personal norms, attitudes, and values
through direct interactions (Kelly 1947; Kemper 1968; Park
and Lessig 1977), which was empirically confirmed and sup-
ported by numerous marketing, psychology, and sociology
research studies (e.g., Bearden and Etzel 1982; Burnkrant and
Cousineau 1975; Childers and Rao 1992; Johar and Sirgy
1991; Leigh and Gabel 1992; Lessig and Park 1978; Mehta,
Lalwani, and Ping 2001).
Reference Group Influence Research
The degree of reference group influences was reported
to vary across different product types and social-cultural
groups. With regard to product types, one of the seminal
works on reference group influence in consumer marketing is
Bearden and Etzel’s (1982) research, which has served as a
foundation for various works in the arena (e.g., Childers and
Rao 1992; Leigh and Gabel 1992; Mehta, Lalwani, and Ping
2001). They examined how reference group influences var-
ied for products consumed publicly versus privately and for
products considered as luxuries versus necessities. Results of
their study showed that products and brands selected by indi-
viduals could be influenced to different degrees by their ref-
erence groups. Specifically, the reference group influence
was stronger both in publicly consumed necessities (e.g., a
haircut) and luxuries (e.g., fine dining) than in privately con-
sumed products (e.g., a toothbrush). This finding may be
explained by the fact that consumers were able to observe the
products and brands purchased by reference group members
or to interact with referents regarding the appropriate prod-
ucts and brands to buy. Johar and Sirgy (1991) also reported
similar findings supporting this result that the purchase of
publicly consumed or socially visible products, due to their
value expressiveness, received more reference group influ-
ence than did the purchase of privately consumed products.
From a social-cultural perspective, Childers and Rao
(1992) studied the simultaneous effects of ethnicity and prod-
uct on consumers’ purchase decision making by examining
two types of reference group influences—familial and peer
based—with consumers in Thailand and the United States.
Peer influence was stronger on products considered as a lux-
ury for American consumers compared to their Thai counter-
parts, whereas familial influence was more significant on Thai
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 475
consumers than on American consumers for both luxuries and
necessities. Findings of the study also reported that in general,
for privately consumed goods, familial influence on brand
decisions was stronger in both countries because of the lim-
ited opportunity to observe the brand preference of peers. As
an extension of Bearden and Etzel’s (1982) study, Mehta,
Lalwani, and Ping (2001) investigated the relationships between
consumers’ susceptibility to reference group influence and the
perceived risk of services on consumer behavior for four
service categories (i.e., fine dining, beauty care services, a
haircut, and dental care services) among working women in
Singapore. Findings of the study showed that fine dining was
identified as the most susceptible decision to be influenced
by reference groups. They concluded that the finding is espe-
cially common in Asian societies, where consumers are less
individualistic and adhere more to social norms, and where
their closely knit family structure and ties may help explain
this finding.
Hispanic consumers are subject to more family and
peer influences compared to white consumers (Hoyer and
Deshpande 1982). Black consumers were also found to be
strongly attached to their family values, thus being influ-
enced strongly by their reference groups’ opinions compared
to their white counterparts (Fisher 1996). Reference groups
with high credibility, such as those having presumed exper-
tise (e.g., travel agents), often serve as sources of information-
based influence for uncertain or uninformed consumers
(Childers and Rao 1992), whereas family and peers tend to
be sources for utilitarian and value-expressive functions
(Johar and Sirgy 1991). Kim and Kang (2001) investigated
three main ethnic consumer groups (i.e., blacks, Hispanics,
and whites) in their clothes and small electronics purchasing
decisions. Although no significant differences were found
among the three groups on familial reference group influ-
ences, white and black consumers were more influenced
than Hispanics by their friends and coworkers overall, which
was inconsistent with findings from Hoyer and Deshpande
(1982).
Reference Group Influences in
Travel and Tourism Research
Numerous studies have been conducted on reference group
influence in conjunction with information search behavior
during a trip- or vacation-planning process (e.g., Fodness and
Murray 1997; Moutinho 1987; Nicholas and Snepenger 1988).
Assael (1987) enunciated that different information search
strategies can serve as a useful basis to categorize vacationers
because this is the means by which service and product offer-
ings are communicated to the vacationers. As a result, an exam-
ination of information sources in traveler decision making has
been popularly used as a market segmentation criterion (e.g.,
Bieger and Laesser 2004; Dodd 1998; Fodness and Murray
1997).
Snepenger et al. (1990) investigated three information search
strategies among first-time Alaska visitors (i.e., destination-
naïve vacationers). Findings of the study indicated that travel
agents were a pivotal source of information sought among
respondents. In particular, those who used travel agents were
mostly women, and they differed from others who used differ-
ent information sources in terms of benefits sought, trip char-
acteristics (e.g., expenditure and length of stay), and the degree
of activity involvement.
476 MAY 2006
Gitelson and Crompton (1983) reported that family
groups rely more on media information for their vacation
information, whereas people older than 50 consulted travel
agents for information, and college-educated travelers used
specific destination-produced brochures, materials, and/or
literature. Woodside and Ronkainen (1980) identified that
white-collar travelers appeared to use travel agencies exten-
sively compared to their counterparts. Shoemaker (1984)
found that older travelers were influenced by travel agents
regarding their during-trip decisions, such as travel modes,
attractions, and lodging. In addition, families and friends
were identified as a great influence source on vacation des-
tinations for those older than 60.
Although WOM is a significant information source among
travelers, no existing study was found regarding how reference
group influences affected travelers’ decisions in choosing
a travel destination and further their associations with other
perceptual-behavioral variables. This one-dimensional approach
could be complemented by examining in detail the reference
group influence construct.
RATIONALE FOR RESEARCH
As mentioned earlier, the recognition of reference group
influence has led to a proliferation of research in psychology
(Batra, Homer, and Kahle 2001; Quellett and Wood 1998),
sociology (e.g., Cochran et al. 2004), and consumer behavior
(e.g., Bearden and Etzel 1982; Childers and Rao 1992; Hoyer
and Deshpande 1982; Johar and Sirgy 1991). Reference group
influence in the services sector has, however, received limited
attention, with most works conducted in the setting of tangible
products, not of services (Mehta, Lalwani, and Ping 2001). In
the services sector, the topic has been investigated within a cer-
tain boundary, mainly focusing on beauty services, life insur-
ance, legal services, dry cleaners, and banks (Mitchell and
Greatorex 1993). Limited literature on travel and tourism
products and services regarding reference group influences
was identified.
Travel decisions are strongly affected by external factors
because travel, one of the exemplary service products, is a
purely intangible consumption (Moutinho 1987). In addition,
WOM from reference groups is one of the primary sources
from which travelers acquire information when making
purchasing decisions. Reference group influences are exerted
on a traveler when communication among group members
induces the selection of a destination or other services, and/or
provides the opportunity to share direct experiences of others
about a particular destination or service (Moutinho 1987).
Although the type of information sources sought by travelers
is a popular variable in tourist segmentation studies, no stud-
ies attempted to segment travelers by the reference group
influences. This study also delineated the segments in terms
of benefits sought, attitude, behavioral intention, and sociode-
mographic characteristics. The profiling of segments by dif-
ferent perceptual and behavioral interests complements the
reference group influence and helps destination marketers and
suppliers to develop more attractive packages and pro-
motional strategies. These are more likely to be successful
because they are based on travelers’ benefits sought, attitudes,
and opinions, and are more conducive to predicting travel
behavior (Abbey 1979; Sarigollu and Huang 2005; Woodside
and Pitts 1976). Therefore, the importance of reference group
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influences and its consequences on travel/tourism marketing
should be investigated and highlighted.
RESEARCH PURPOSES
AND OBJECTIVES
The purpose of the study was to segment travelers based
on their perceptions of various reference groups’ influences
about selecting Hong Kong as a travel destination, and to pro-
file each segment according to travelers’ benefits sought, atti-
tudes, behaviors, as well as sociodemographic characteristics.
Specific objectives of the study were to (1) segment travelers
based on respondents’ perceptions about three major reference
groups’ influences and their likelihood to comply, (2) investi-
gate the relationships between traveler benefits sought and
reference group segments, (3) identify differences on per-
ceived behavioral control by the emergent segments, (4) exam-
ine differences of attitudes and behavioral intentions among
the resultant segments, and (5) identify differences among the
segments by their sociodemographic characteristics and past
travel experiences.
METHODOLOGY
Research Instrument
A questionnaire was developed based on previous research
in the fields of tourism marketing and behaviors. The con-
struct of reference group influence was assessed from two
perspectives: (1) a respondent’s perception about specific ref-
erents’ (i.e., family, friends/relatives, and travel agents) opin-
ions on whether a respondent should or should not visit Hong
Kong, and (2) a respondent’s willingness to comply with each
referent’s opinion about visiting Hong Kong in the future. The
perception about referents’ opinions (“My family, friends/
relatives, or travel agent thinks I should/should not choose
Hong Kong as a travel destination”) was measured with a
7-point Likert-type scale (7 = should and 1 = should not). The
likelihood to comply with what referents say about traveling
to Hong Kong (“The likelihood for me to listen to what my fam-
ily, friends/relatives, travel agents, say(s) about my visit to
Hong Kong is . . .”) was assessed with another 7-point Likert-
type scale (7 = extremely likely and 1 = extremely unlikely).
The 16-item benefits-sought measurement was adapted
from Zhang and Lam’s (1999) study that investigated Chinese
travelers’ motivation to visit Hong Kong. Respondents were
asked to rate the importance of each benefit-sought statement
during their visit to Hong Kong with a 7-point Likert-type
scale (7 = very important and 1 = very unimportant).
Perception about behavioral control on the possibility of
visiting Hong Kong was defined as the perception of whether
one possesses necessary resources and opportunities to visit
Hong Kong (Ajzen 1985). This construct was evaluated
by using five statements. One example of the statements is
“There are factors outside of my control that could prevent
me from visiting Hong Kong,” rated from 7 (strongly agree)
to 1 (strongly disagree). A set of semantic differential scales
was used to assess respondents’ attitudes toward Hong Kong
as a travel destination. Five statements were used to measure
the concept “All things considered, I think visiting Hong
Kong would be . . .”; these were (1) enjoyable-unenjoyable,

(2) positive-negative, (3) fun-boring, (4) pleasant-unpleasant,
and (5) favorable-unfavorable. In addition, three questions
were used to identify behavioral intention to visit Hong Kong,
with a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 7 (strongly
agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). A sample statement is “I want
to visit Hong Kong.”
Demographic questions, including age, gender, education,
income, and marital status, were also included. Past travel
experience was identified with two questions adapted from
Quellett and Wood (1998). Respondents were first asked to
indicate whether they had ever visited Hong Kong, and the
choices were “Yes” and “No.” If the response was positive,
respondents were then asked of the frequency of their visit(s)
with the question “How many times have you visited Hong
Kong in the past?” Five frequency categories were provided:
once, 2-3 times, 4-5 times, 6-10 times, and more than 10 times.
Responses from the two questions were recoded into five cat-
egories, never, once, 2-3 times, 4-5 times, 6-10 times, and
more than 10 times. Respondents who had visited Hong Kong
were also asked to identify the time of last visit with five
choices, within the past 6 months, 7 months to 1 year ago, 2
to 3 years ago, 4 to 5 years ago, and more than 5 years ago.
Data Collection
Brislin’s (1976) blind translation-back-translation method
was used to translate the questionnaire into Chinese. A pilot
study with 28 mainland Chinese residents was conducted. The
instrument was revised based on feedback to enhance the for-
mat and layout of the scales and question clarity. A second
pilot test was then carried out with 20 Chinese travelers in
Hong Kong. Three cities—Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou,
China—were chosen for data collection. These three cities
were selected because the respective disposable income
per capita in Beijing and Shanghai municipalities as well as
Guangdong Province, of which Guangzhou is the capital, was
among the highest in China (National Bureau of Statistics of
China 2003).
A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the
data. In China, travel agencies have grown rapidly and become
the essential agents for handling outbound travel arrangements
(Zhang 2004). To identify potential travelers, individuals in
shopping malls where travel agencies were located were inter-
cepted with no particular pattern to invite their participation in
the study. The acceptance rate of the invitation was approxi-
mately 60%. Once potential respondents agreed, they were
screened by asking if they had heard of Hong Kong and knew
where it was. Only individuals who had some awareness
of Hong Kong were asked to complete the questionnaire.
Interestingly, all potential respondents knew that Hong Kong
is a special administrative region of China, bordering the main-
land Chinese city of Shenzhen. Once potential respondents
were selected, a briefing was then given to introduce the pur-
pose of the study and provide directions for completing the
questionnaire. To ensure a high return and usable rate, the
questionnaires were collected onsite and checked for com-
pleteness. A total of 464 questionnaires were completed and
used in ensuing data analysis.
Data Analysis
All data collected were analyzed using the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences for Windows 12.0 (SPSS 2003).
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 477
First, a series of descriptive analysis, including frequencies,
means, and standard deviations, was conducted for all survey
questions. Second, a factor analysis with VARIMAX rotation
was carried out on the 16 benefits-sought items to detect under-
lying dimensions. Third, TwoStep® cluster analysis with a
Euclidean distance method was conducted to segment respon-
dents into mutually exclusive groups according to their per-
ception on reference groups’ opinions about visiting Hong
Kong and their likelihood to comply with those opinions.
The TwoStep® cluster analysis is a relatively new cluster-
ing technique consisting of two stages: (1) preclustering the
cases (or records) into many small subclusters by constructing
a cluster features (CF) tree, and (2) clustering the subclusters
resulting from the first stage into a desired number of clusters—
a probabilistic hierarchical cluster analysis (Chiu et al. 2001;
SPSS 2003). One of the advantages of using the TwoStep®
cluster analysis is that it is applicable with a relatively large
data set (n = 464 in this study), compared to conventional
cluster analyses, in reducing processing time. The TwoStep®
cluster analysis automatically chooses the “best” number of
clusters (like hierarchical cluster analysis) by examining the
Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) values. In interpreting
BIC scores, the smaller values of the BIC indicate better
models, and the “best” cluster solution has the smallest BIC.
In addition, ratios of BIC changes and ratios of distance
measures are evaluated to determine the “best” number of
clusters.
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was then
carried out to determine whether significant differences existed
among emergent clusters by factor mean scores. MANOVAs
were also used to identify significant differences among the
emergent three clusters by respondents’ perceived behavioral
control of, attitudes toward, and behavioral intention of visit-
ing Hong Kong. Finally, a series of chi-square analyses was
conducted to examine the emergent clusters by sociodemo-
graphic characteristics and past travel experiences.
RESULTS
Demographic Profile
Almost equal numbers of each gender participated in the
study (male = 50.4% and female = 48.9%). Slightly more than
half (54.0%) of the respondents were younger than 30, with
38.6% between 30 and 49. Approximately half (50.1%) of the
respondents were single, with 42.6% being married. About
two-thirds (62.4%) were college/university educated or higher,
and 70.0% reported a monthly income of less than 3,001RMB
(approximately US$370).
When asked about their previous travel experience to Hong
Kong, almost three-fourths (74.2%) indicated that they had
never visited Hong Kong. Of those who had visited Hong
Kong (24.4%), nearly half (47.9%) of them had visited once,
and 25.2% had visited 2 to 3 times. Also, three-fourths (73.1%)
of the previous visitors indicated that their last trip to Hong
Kong had occurred during the past year.
Benefits-Sought Dimensions
(Factor Analysis)
The appropriateness of factor analysis was determined
by examining the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of
478 MAY 2006

TABLE 1
RESPONDENTS’ DEMOGRAPHIC AND PAST TRAVEL CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics (N = 464) %

Gender (n = 460) Male 48.9

Female 50.4
Age (n = 456) 18 or younger 5.3
19-29 48.7
30-39 25.0
40-49 13.6
50-59 5.9
60 or older 1.3
Marital status (n = 455) Single 50.1
Married 42.6
Divorced 4.4
Widowed 1.3
Education (n = 452) Primary school or below 3.6
Secondary school 11.9
Technical institution 22.3
Tertiary college 39.6
University or higher 22.8
Average monthly income (n = 451) Not steady 4.4
1,000 or less RMBa 10.6
1,001 to 2,000 RMB 26.2
2,001 to 3,000 RMB 28.8
3,001 to 4,000 RMB 14.2
4,001 or more RMB 15.7
Previous visit to Hong Kong (n = 454) Yes 24.4
No 74.2
Number of trips to Hong Kong (n = 119) Once 47.9
2-3 times 25.2
4-5 times 11.8
6-10 times 4.2
More than 10 times 10.1
Last trip to Hong Kong (n = 115) Within the past 6 months 47.9
7 months–1 year ago 25.2
2 to 3 years ago 11.8
4 to 5 years ago 4.2
More than 5 years ago 10.1

a. RMB 1,000 = US$123.00.

sampling adequacy and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity. A value
of .60 or higher from the KMO measure of sampling adequacy
test indicates that the data are appropriate for factor analysis
(Tabachnick and Fidel 1989). A significant Bartlett’s test of
sphericity (3,017, p < .000) also fulfilled the requirement for
factor analysis.
Results of the factor analysis with VARIMAX rotation
generated three factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1.0 and
each loading value exceeding .40 (Hair et al. 2002; Hatcher
and Stepansk 1994). None of the items had a loading lower
than .40 on any of the three factors. As a result, the three fac-
tors represented 16 items with 63.82% of the total variance
explained (see Table 2). Reliability alphas of the three factors
were .86, .88, and .88, respectively. The three factors emerged
were labeled general exposure, culture/system experience, and
socialization/entertainment, respectively.
Reference Group Influences
(Cluster Analysis)
The TwoStep® cluster analysis was conducted to seg-
ment respondents by their perceptions on three reference
group influences. A three-cluster option was chosen because
it had the smallest BIC (1,418.12) value, with a relatively
large ratio of BIC change (.353) and of distance measure
(2.711) (see Table 3). Specifically, the first cluster accounted
for 43.3% (n = 201) of the respondents, the second cluster
represented 28.7% (n = 133), and the third cluster included
28.0% (n = 130).
Overall, among the three clusters, respondents in cluster
1 showed the strongest belief that their reference groups had
positive opinions about visiting Hong Kong, whereas those
in cluster 3 perceived that their reference groups were least
positive about them traveling to Hong Kong in the future
(see Figure 1). With respect to respondents’ likelihood to
comply with what their reference groups opined about their
visit to Hong Kong, members in cluster 2 indicated that they
were more likely to comply with their reference groups’
views. Alternatively, those in cluster 3 showed the least desire
to comply with their referents’ opinions.
Among the three types of reference groups examined, family,
friends/relatives, and travel agents, cluster 1 members per-
ceived most positive opinions from all three referents, whereas
those in cluster 3 indicated the lowest ratings about whether

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 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 479

TABLE 2
FACTOR ANALYSIS OF BENEFITS SOUGHT
a
Benefits Sought Factor Loading Eigenvalue % of Variance Factor Mean by Clusterb

General exposure (a = .860) 6.471 24.90

To fulfill own curiosity about Hong Kong .806 C1 = 4.80
To sightsee .734 C2 = 5.24
To visit the metropolitan city .687 C3 = 4.10
To interact with Hong Kong people .675
To experience a new and different lifestyle .665
To see movie stars and celebrities .599

Culture/system experience (a = .884) 1.386 22.74

To see the city under one-country-two-systems .859 C1 = 4.78
To experience the capitalist society .829 C2 = 5.18
To experience different culture .816 C3 = 4.02
To experience the mysterious city .645

Socialization/entertainment (a = .883) 1.078 16.18

To shop .861 C1 = 4.73
To share travel experience with friends .702 C2 = 4.89
To visit the Ocean Park .514 C3 = 3.66
To visit friends and relatives .429

Total variance explained 63.82

Total scale reliability .92
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) = .909
Bartlett’s Test = 3,017, p < .000

a. Scale: 7 = very important; 1 = very unimportant.

b. C1: family-influenced visitors. C2: friends/relatives-influenced visitors. C3: independent-thinking visitors.

TABLE 3
CLUSTER SELECTION WITH BIC VALUES

Schwarz’s Bayesian Ratio of BIC Ratio of Distance

Number of Clusters Criterion (BIC) BIC Changea Changesb Measuresc
1 2,000.399
2 1,643.922 –356.477 1.000 2.156
3 1,418.119 –125.803 .353 2.711
4 1,475.194 –42.925 .120 1.544
5 1,473.359 –1.836 .005 1.284
6 1,488.229 140.870 –.042 1.090
7 1,507.957 19.728 –.055 1.110
8 1,533.042 25.085 –.070 1.193
9 1,565.986 32.944 –.092 1.191
10 1,605.459 39.473 –.111 1.025
11 1,645.753 40.294 –.113 1.005
12 1,686.219 40.467 –.114 1.135
13 1,730.634 44.415 –.125 1.170
14 1,779.299 48.666 –.137 1.062
15 1,829.430 50.130 –.141 1.083

a. Changes are from the previous number of clusters in the table.

b. Ratios of changes are relative to the change for the two-cluster solution.
c. Ratios of distance measures are based on the current number of clusters against the previous
number of clusters.

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480 MAY 2006

FIGURE 1
THREE CLUSTERS BY PERCEPTION OF REFERENCE GROUPS AND LIKELIHOOD TO COMPLY

Family Family Family Friends/relatives

6 Influenced Influenced Influenced Influenced
Friends/relatives Friends/relatives
Influenced 5.66 Influenced
5.56 5.60 5.53
5 5.26
5.12

Independent Independent Independent

4
Thinking Thinking Thinking
3.48 3.47 3.50
3

0
Family Influence Friends/Relatives Influence Travel Agents Influence

Scale: 7 = should, 1 = should not

Friends/relatives Friends/relatives
Influenced Friends/relatives
6 Influenced
Influenced
5.85
Family 5.66 5.50
5 Influenced Family
Influenced Family
4.61 Independent Independent
4 Influenced
Thinking 4.13 Thinking Independent
3.64 Thinking
3 3.41 3.45
3.02

0
Comply to Family Comply to Friends/Relatives Comply to Travel Agents

Scale: 7 = extremely likely, 1 = extremely unlikely

they should visit Hong Kong. With regard to respondents’
willingness to comply, members of the three clusters showed
more differences, even though motivation to comply with
travel agents’ opinions was the lowest for all three clusters.
Those in cluster 1 showed that they were more likely to be
attentive to what their family says about visiting Hong Kong.
Consequently, cluster 1 was labeled family-influenced visi-
tors. Respondents in cluster 2 indicated that they were more
likely to listen to their friends’/relatives’ opinions about visit-
ing Hong Kong. Therefore, this cluster was named friends/
relatives-influenced visitors. cluster 3 was named independent-
thinking visitors because respondents in this cluster indicated
that they were neutral in their motivation to comply with their
reference groups.
To identify whether each cluster showed differences on the
benefits-sought factors, a MANOVA was conducted with the
three factor mean scores. Findings of the analysis indicated
that the three factor scores were significantly different among
the three clusters (F = 19.62, p < .000). For all three benefits-
sought factors, respondents in the friends/relatives-influenced
visitors cluster indicated the highest importance on all three
dimensions, whereas those in the independent-thinking visitors
cluster indicated the lowest importance (see factor means of
each cluster in Table 2).
Perceived Behavioral Control (MANOVA)
Perceived behavioral control is the perception of ease or
difficulty in performing a behavior (Ajzen 1991; Shim et al.
2001). Therefore, the level of perceived behavioral control
that an individual feels can play the role of a motivator or
barrier in purchasing decisions (e.g., Shim et al. 2001).

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TABLE 4
PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL BY CLUSTER
Family-Influenced
Perceived Behavioral Control Visitors
The likelihood that I shall be able to visit 5.42e
Hong Kong in the future is . . .a
Visit to Hong Kong is . . .b 4.89e
If I want to, I could easily visit 4.31f
Hong Kong from now on.c
There are plenty of opportunities for me 3.78e
to visit Hong Kong.c
The amount of control I have on whether or not 5.00
I shall visit Hong Kong in the future is . . .d
Wilks’s lambda = .926
F = 3.54
p < .000
a. Scale: 7 = very likely; 1 = very unlikely.
b. Scale: 7 = very easy; 1 = very difficult.
c. Scale: 7 = strongly agree; 1 = strongly disagree.
d. Scale: 7 = complete control; 1 = very little control.
e. Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < .05.
f. Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < .05.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
To identify how the emergent segments differed on their
perceived behavioral control about visiting Hong Kong, a
MANOVA was conducted with cluster membership as an
independent variable and the five statements of perceived
behavioral control as dependent variables. Findings of the
analysis (see Table 4) indicated that three segments differed on
four of the five statements (Wilks’s lambda = .926, F = 3.54,
p < .000).
Specifically, family-influenced visitors indicated higher
ratings on four behavioral control statements compared to the
other visitor segments. Independent-thinking visitors, in con-
trast, showed the lowest means for all perceived behavioral
control items. This finding appeared to be parallel to the ref-
erence group influence perceptions (see Figure 1). Independent-
thinking travelers perceived an overall lower level of behav-
ioral control and motivation to comply with reference groups
when it came to the decision of visiting Hong Kong. These
travelers may have different psychographic characteristics
that may affect their perceived self–behavioral control as well
as external influences exerted by others.
Overall Attitude and Intention
to Visit (MANOVA)
A series of MANOVAs used cluster membership as the
independent variable, and five and three statements on travel-
ers’ attitude toward and behavioral intention of visiting Hong
Kong, respectively, as the dependent variables (see Tables 5
and 6). First, in the examination of significant differences on
respondents’ attitude of visiting Hong Kong, results of the
MANOVA showed significant differences on attitude among
the clusters (Wilks’s lambda = .792, F = 10.83, p < .000).
Overall, respondents in the independent-thinking visitors cluster
showed the least positive attitude toward visiting Hong Kong,
whereas their counterparts in the other two clusters showed
more positive attitudes on all five statements.
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 481
Friends/
Relatives-Influenced Independent-Thinking
Visitors Visitors F Value
5.13f 4.44ef 14.07***
4.81f 4.17ef 8.10***
4.08 3.58f 5.15*
3.80f 3.16ef 4.77*
4.74 4.56 2.03
Results of the MANOVA on respondents’ intention
of visiting Hong Kong also indicated that the three clusters
were significantly different on all three statements (Wilks’s
lambda = .836, F = 13.20, p < .000). Those in the independent-
thinking visitors cluster, again, showed the least positive res-
ponse for future trips to Hong Kong, whereas respondents in
the other two clusters indicated stronger intention to visit Hong
Kong in the future.
Profile by Sociodemographics
and Past Travel Experiences
(Chi-square Analysis)
No significant differences were found on demographic
characteristics that could distinguish the three clusters. This
finding was interesting because previous studies indicated that
social-economic status may dictate to some degree the level of
reference group influences and susceptibility (Kemper 1968;
Leigh and Gabel 1992; Perry and Hamm 1969). Because few
studies on reference group influences were conducted in Asian
countries, previous study results may only apply to Western
cultures.
In addition, no significant differences were found among
the three clusters by past travel experiences to Hong Kong.
This result was also unexpected because people with more
travel experience tend to rely more on their internal informa-
tion (i.e., retained memory) and are less likely to be influ-
enced by external information sources (Hayes-Roth 1977;
Moutinho 1987). In contrast, those who have no experience
with a product are more likely to be influenced by personal
and/or social sources, such as salespersons, agents, reference
groups, or family members who are trustworthy and easy to
understand (Alba and Hutchinson 1987; Bettman and Park
1980). The unique characteristics of the sample—a major-
ity of them had never visited Hong Kong (74%) and were
younger than 30 (54%)—may offer some level of explanation
482 MAY 2006

TABLE 5
ATTITUDE OF VISITING HONG KONG BY CLUSTER

All Things Considered, I Think Family-Influenced Friends/Relatives-Influenced Independent-Thinking

Visiting Hong Kong Would Be . . .a Visitors Visitors Visitors F Value
b c bc
Enjoyable—Unenjoyable 5.48 5.62 4.35 39.86***
Positive—Negative 5.53b 5.48c 4.41bc 32.42***
Fun—Boring 5.60b 5.30c 4.39bc 26.22***
Pleasant—Unpleasant 5.55b 5.56c 4.63bc 22.67***
Favorable—Unfavorable 5.67b 5.73c 4.57bc 30.31***
Wilks’s lambda = .792
F = 10.83
p < .000

a. Scale: 7 = positive descriptor, 1 = negative descriptor

b. Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < .05.
c. Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < .05.
***p < .001.

TABLE 6
BEHAVIORAL INTENTION ON VISITING HONG KONG BY CLUSTER

Friends/
Family-Influenced Relatives-Influenced Independent-Thinking
Behavioral Intentiona Visitors Visitors Visitors F value
I intend to visit Hong Kong within 4.51b 4.25c 3.20bc 21.35***
the next 12 months.
I want to visit Hong Kong. 5.78b 5.95c 4.73bc 29.35***
It is likely that I will visit Hong Kong 4.45b 4.59c 3.82bc 9.29***
in the next 12 months.
Wilks’s lambda = .836
F = 13.20
p < .000

a. Scale: 7 = extremely agree; 1 = extremely disagree.

b. Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < .05.
c. Means in the same row followed by the same superscript were significantly different at p < .05.
***p < .001.

for this result. More research should be conducted to delineate
possible cultural implications on this issue.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Consumers are more likely to use reference groups for
services than for goods (Guseman 1981). Perry and Hamm
(1969) also stated that the greater the perceived risk of a pur-
chase decision (e.g., service), the higher the degree of per-
sonal influence becomes, emphasizing the importance of
interpersonal (reference group) influences in the service
consumption process. The dearth of research in travel and
tourism literature about reference group influences, however,
suggests that limited information is available to marketers
and other professionals in understanding the magnitude and
nature of interpersonal influences in the traveler decision-
making process.
This study investigated Chinese travelers’ perception on
three reference groups’ opinions and motivations to comply
with them regarding the trip decision to Hong Kong. Overall,
different reference groups’ opinions were perceived differently
when it comes to the decision of choosing Hong Kong as a
travel destination. Respondents were more likely to comply
with their primary reference group’s (i.e., family and friends/
relatives in this study) opinions than their secondary reference
group’s (i.e., travel agents) views regarding visiting Hong
Kong. Findings of this study also indicated that the three trav-
eler segments, categorized by respondents’ perceptions about
reference groups’ opinions and susceptibility to their opinions,
showed different benefits sought, perceived behavioral con-
trol, overall attitude, and intent to visit a destination. This
supported the assertion that reference group influences are
strongly related to an individual’s value, attitude, motivation,
perception, and other psychological traits in the travel and
tourism context (Bieger and Laesser 2004; Middleton 2002).
Therefore, destination managers should monitor how their
target markets interact with their reference groups in dissemi-
nating or collecting travel-related information. Results of the
study also made an important contribution to the literature on
reference group influences by placing them as an important
segmentation criterion that may be conducive to explain trav-
elers’ perceptual and behavioral differences.
In contrast with what was reported earlier, sociodemo-
graphic characteristics (i.e., gender, age, income, education,

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and marital status) and previous travel experiences were not
significantly different among the three cluster groups sur-
veyed in this study. Particularly, it was reported that women
are more communal in nature with a stronger affiliation ori-
entation (McClelland 1975), thereby showing a higher level
of susceptibility to reference group influences; this was not
confirmed in this study. These unprecedented findings sug-
gested that objective descriptors, such as sociodemographic
characteristics used in this study, could not fully explain the
level of reference group influences, which may differ by
decision types. Some consumers are also more independent
and autonomous in nature. This provision warrants future
studies that include psychological or personal traits, which
were not investigated in the study, to further enunciate ref-
erence group influences in the travel and tourism arena.
The friends/relatives-influenced visitors were most likely
to comply with all groups’ opinions. These individuals are an
important target market due to their susceptibility to peer pres-
sure and the market size (43.3% of respondents). Because no
significant differences were found between the friends/
relatives-influenced visitors and family-influenced visitors in
terms of perceived control, attitude, and intention, these two
potential markets could be targeted together before further
distinguishing factors become available. To induce these two
market segments, marketers should be attentive to existing
WOM activities in the marketplace.
Traveling to Hong Kong is still regarded as a luxury among
some Chinese. For luxury services, financial and psychologi-
cal risks are considered high. Although it is difficult to mini-
mize financial risks because prices are influenced by a number
of factors, including costs, quality perception, and competi-
tion, psychological risks can be reduced by positive WOM
from family members, relatives, friends, and colleagues. Travel
agents appeared to exert the least influence among Chinese
travelers; thus, travel agents should encourage their existing
customers to engage in WOM activities about visiting Hong
Kong as positive experience carriers rather than try to persuade
customers directly. Another tactic they may use is to use testi-
monials from their previous customers as a pull motivation
trigger.
Respondents in the independent-thinking visitors cluster
were least susceptible to reference groups and had the least
favorable attitude toward and intention to visit Hong Kong.
It is, however, too risky to conclude that they are not subject
to other types of reference group influences. Therefore, it is
the marketers’ task to identify what would make those trav-
elers interested in visiting Hong Kong by examining other
factors that have been known to influence travelers’ destination
selection.
The unexpected findings contradicting results of previous
studies conducted in Western countries suggested that con-
sumers with various cultural backgrounds, Chinese in particu-
lar, may be different, and that existing travel motivation and
behavior theories may be insufficient in explaining their behav-
ior and decision making. Unlike previous consumer marketing
literature concluding that people in Asian societies tend to be
less individualistic and adhere more to social norms, findings
in this study showed that different levels of reference group
influence existed within a single nation. Therefore, generalized
implications from consumer marketing literature should be
cited with caution especially when they are applied to Chinese,
whose economic, social, and political changes have been sig-
nificantly noted in recent years.
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 483
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Several cautionary remarks should be made in interpreting
the results of the study. First, this study used only three refer-
ence groups, excluding other reference group influences that
may affect Chinese travelers’ destination selection decisions.
The inclusion of external promotional communications to
compare the extent of their influence with that of the reference
groups will generate a more comprehensive picture to judge
the importance of reference group influences in the traveler
decision-making process.
Hong Kong was the only travel destination included in the
questionnaire. Because Hong Kong is part of China’s territory,
even though traveling to Hong Kong still requires special
travel documents for some, trips to Hong Kong may not have
been seen as having a high level of risk as compared to travel-
ing to other countries. Therefore, comparison with other domes-
tic or international travel destinations will provide important
benchmarks to contextualize the understanding of the findings.
Future studies may also use more diverse nationalities to inves-
tigate cultural differences on travel decisions to provide cross-
cultural implications. In addition, as more mainland Chinese
travel to Hong Kong, the nature of information sought will
change; people will seek more specific information regarding
activities to participate in, restaurants to dine at, hotels to stay
in, places to visit, and shopping outlets, as opposed to a gen-
eral inquiry about whether they should visit Hong Kong. Thus,
future research could include various trip/travel components to
further delineate reference group influences as an important
decision-making determinant. Furthermore, this study only
considered perceived behavioral control as a generic concept;
more research is warranted to delineate the exact nature of
“control” factors, such as time, resources, logistics, and travel
permission.
Due to the small sample size from limited data collection
sites (i.e., shopping malls), generalization of results to all
potential Chinese travelers to Hong Kong is uncalled for.
Probabilistic sampling design, such as geographical cluster
and random digit dialing, could be considered for future
research. Additional studies could also expand the geo-
graphic coverage in data collection because residents in rural
areas may have different opinions and travel behavior. Finally,
the majority of respondents in this study were relatively
young (younger than 40); therefore, future studies with a
more representative sample could further fine-tune the results
of this study.
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