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Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

Unit # 2 • This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-
surface discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a
non-porous material.
Die penetrate test (liquid penetrate inspection), Principle, scope. Equipment & • In this method a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the
techniques, Tests stations, Advantages, types of penetrants and developers,
Zyglo test, Illustrative examples and interpretation of defects. 5 product for a certain predetermined time after which the excess
penetrant is removed from the surface.
Magnetic particle Inspection – scope and working principle, Ferro Magnetic
and Non-ferromagnetic materials, equipment & testing. Advantages, limitations • The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it.
Interpretation of results, DC & AC magnetization, Skin Effect, use of dye &
wet powders for magna glow testing, different methods to generate magnetic • The penetrant which remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the
fields, Applications. 5 developer to indicate the presence as well as the location, size and
nature of the discontinuity.

General procedure for liquid penetrant

inspection
• Cleaning the surface to be examined
• There should be no material such as plating, or coatings of oxide or loose dirt particles on
surface. This is to prevent false indications and to expose hidden discontinuities to the
penetrant.
• Solid contaminant such as carbon, engine varnish, paints and similar materials should be
removed by vapour blast, chemical dip or other acceptable methods.
• Methods such as shot blasting, emery cloth, wire brushing or metal scrapping should not be
used, especially for soft materials, since these cleaning methods will cover up defects by cold
working the surface.
• Contamination can occur due to the presence of lubricants, protective oils, metal dust
polymerization, oxidation, carbonaceous deposits, protective paints, etc. Various solvents have
been developed by different companies to remove them.
• Contamination due to inorganic corrosion products, heat treatment scale, operationally formed
refractory oxides, etc. is conveniently removed by abrasive blasting with glass beads, etc.
combined with a chemical cleaning.
• Whichever method is employed the use of trichloroethylene vapor degreasing as a final stage
is strongly recommended.
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General procedure for liquid penetrant General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection inspection
• Drying the surface • Application of penetrant
• If, for any reason, separations are filled with liquid, they will prevent entry of • The penetrant is applied with the help of a brush or by spray or by dipping the
penetrant, hence drying is an essential operation. test piece into a bath of penetrant.
• It should be realized that although the surface may seem dry, separations may • After this a certain residence time or 'dwell time' is allowed for the penetrant to
still be filled with liquid. seep into discontinuities.
• The lesson is that improper drying may be worse than no cleaning, because the • The residence time varies with the temperature, the type of penetrant, the
remaining solvent may present a barrier to the penetrant too. nature of the discontinuity and the material of the test specimen. It usually
• If penetrant liquid does reach into the separation, it will be diluted by the varies between 5 and 30 minutes. In special cases it may be as long as one
solvent, and this also makes the treatment less effective. hour.

General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Removal of superfluous penetrant
• The excess penetrant on the surface should be removed to obtain optimum
contrast and to prevent misleading indications.
• The appropriate remover is usually recommended by the manufacturer of the
penetrant. Some penetrants are water washable while others need application
of an emulsifier before they can be removed with water. The removal method
is to use a sponge or water spray. There are special penetrant removers which
are essentially solvents.
• It is most important that removal of the penetrant is restricted to the surface
and that no penetrant is washed out of the flaws which can easily happen when
the cleaning is too rigorous.
General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Removal of superfluous penetrant
• When the surface is smooth washing can be less intensive than for rough
surfaces; in the latter case there is a definite risk that penetrant may be washed
out of small imperfections.
• A general criterion for the removal operation is that it must be fast and should
be prolonged long enough to make the surface almost clean.
• It is better to leave small traces of penetrant on the surface than to carry out
excessive cleaning.
• When removing fluorescent penetrants, the effect of the treatment should
preferably be watched under black light.

General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Drying the surface
• The surface can be dried with a dry cloth or an air blower.
• Drying is generally needed to prepare the surface for the application of a
powder developer, which would otherwise clot at wet places.
• It also decreases the adverse effect of insufficiently removed traces of
penetrant.
• Here again excess should be avoided. Penetrant liquid left in flaws should not
be allowed to dry, and this can happen when hot air is used for drying.
General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Application of developer
• Wet developer consists of a powdered material suspended in a suitable liquid
such as water or a volatile solvent.
• It is applied to the parts immediately following the water washing operation.
Developers should be such that they provide a white coating that contrasts
with the colored dye penetrant, and draw the penetrant from the discontinuities
to the surface of the developer film, thus revealing defects.
• The dry developers are applied generally with fluorescent penetrants. They are
applied just prior to the visual inspection process.
• The wet developers are also used in connection with fluorescent penetrants.
They are applied after the washing operation and before the drying operation.
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General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Application of developer
• Developers are usually of two types namely dry and wet developer.
• Dry developer consists of a dry, light colored powdery material.
• It is applied to the surface after removal of excess penetrant and drying of the
part.
• It can be applied either by immersing the parts in a tank containing powder, or
by brushing it on with a paint brush (usually not a desirable technique) or by
blowing the powder onto the surface of the part.
General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Application of developer
• The solvent based developers are generally used with the visible dye-
penetrants. They are applied after cleaning off extra penetrant.
• A short time should be allowed for development of indications after the
developer has been applied. This time should be approximately one half that
allowed for penetration.
• Developer coating is removed after inspection by water stream, spray nozzle,
brush, etc.
• The powder concentration of the liquid developer should be carefully
controlled to obtain the required thin and uniform layer over the surface.

General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Observation and interpretation of indications
• An indication in the developer will become visible after a certain lapse of time.
Because all penetrant inspection methods rely upon the seeing of an indication
by the inspector, the lighting provided for this visual examination is extremely
important.
• For best results, inspection for fluorescent indications should be done in a
darkened area using black light.
• For the interpretation of indications, it is very important to observe their
characteristics at the very moment they appear. As soon as the flaws have bled
out the indications may run to larger spots, depending on size and depth, and at
this stage it is difficult to derive characteristic information from a flaw.
General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Observation and interpretation of indications
• A brief guide to the penetrant indications is given here.
• With fluorescent penetrants, the whole surface may glow feebly. With dye penetrants, the
background may be pink instead of white. Depth of defects will be indicated by richness
of color and speed of bleed out.
• The time required for an indication to develop is inversely proportional to the volume of
the discontinuity.
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General procedure for liquid penetrant
inspection
• Observation and interpretation of indications
• A brief guide to the penetrant indications is given here.
• A crack usually shows up as a continuous line of penetrant indication.
• A cold shut on the surface of a casting also appears as a continuous line, generally a
relatively narrow one.
• A forging lap may also cause a continuous line of penetrant indication.
• Rounded areas of penetrant indication signify gas holes or pit holes in castings.
• Deep crater cracks in welds frequently show up as rounded indications.
• Penetrant indications in the form of small dots result from a porous condition. These may
denote small pin holes or excessively coarse grains in castings or may be caused by a
shrinkage cavity.
Penetrant Materials
• Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:
• Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants
• Type 2 - Visible Penetrants
• Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when
exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
• Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the
white developer background.
• Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant
systems because the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication.
• However, visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an
ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also
less vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that can
significantly reduce the strength of a fluorescent indication.
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Penetrant Materials Penetrant Materials

• Penetrants are then classified by the method used to remove the excess
penetrant from the part. The four methods are listed below:
• Method A - Water Washable
• Method B - Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
• Method C - Solvent Removable
• Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
• Water washable (Method A) penetrants can be removed from the part by rinsing
with water alone. These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that
makes it possible to wash the penetrant from the part surface with water
alone. Water washable penetrants are sometimes referred to as self-emulsifying
systems.
• Post-emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic.
• In post-emulsifiers, lipophilic systems (Method B), the penetrant is oil soluble and
interacts with the oil-based emulsifier to make removal possible.
• Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), use an emulsifier that is a
water soluble detergent which lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of the
part with a water wash. Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent
to remove the penetrant from the part.

Penetrant Materials Penetrant Materials

• Penetrants are then classified based on the strength or detectability of • The major US government and industry specifications currently rely on the
US Air Force Materials Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base to
the indication that is produced for a number of very small and tight classify penetrants into one of the five sensitivity levels.
fatigue cracks. The five sensitivity levels are shown below: • This procedure uses titanium and Inconel specimens with small surface
• Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity cracks produced in low cycle fatigue bending to classify penetrant
• Level 1 - Low Sensitivity systems. The brightness of the indication produced is measured using a
photometer. The sensitivity levels and the test procedure used can be found
• Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity in Military Specification MIL-I-25135 and Aerospace Material
• Level 3 - High Sensitivity Specification 2644, Penetrant Inspection Materials.
• Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity • An interesting note about the sensitivity levels is that only four levels were
originally planned. However, when some penetrants were judged to have
sensitivities significantly less than most others in the level 1 category, the ½
level was created.
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Emulsifiers
• When removal of the penetrant from a defect due to over-washing of
the part is a concern, a post-emulsifiable penetrant system can be used.
Post-emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to break the
penetrant down and make it water-washable. Most penetrant
inspection specifications classify penetrant systems into four methods
of excess penetrant removal. These are listed below:
• Method A: Water-Washable
• Method B: Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
• Method C: Solvent Removable
• Method D: Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
Emulsifiers
• Method C relies on a solvent cleaner to remove the penetrant from the
part being inspected.
• Method A has emulsifiers built into the penetrant liquid that makes it
possible to remove the excess penetrant with a simple water wash.
• Method B and D penetrants require an additional processing step
where a separate emulsification agent is applied to make the excess
penetrant more removable with a water wash.

Developers Developer Forms

• The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of • The AMS 2644 and Mil-I-25135 classify developers into six standard
defects and spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an forms. These forms are listed below:
inspector.
• Form a - Dry Powder
• The fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet • Form b - Water Soluble
light, allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more
efficient fluorescence. • Form c - Water Suspendable
• The developer also allows more light to be emitted through the same • Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (Solvent Based)
mechanism. This is why indications are brighter than the penetrant itself • Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)
under UV light. • Form f - Special Applications
• Another function that some developers perform is to create a white
background so there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication
and the surrounding background.

Developer Forms
• Dry Powder
• Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensive to use and easy to apply.
• Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can be applied to a thoroughly
dry surface in a number of ways.
• The developer can be applied by dipping parts in a container of developer, or
by using a puffer to dust parts with the developer.
• Parts can also be placed in a dust cabinet where the developer is blown around
and allowed to settle on the part.
• Electrostatic powder spray guns are also available to apply the developer. The
goal is to allow the developer to come in contact with the whole inspection
area.
Developer Forms
• Water Suspendable
• Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer particles
suspended in water.
• Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the
particles from settling out of suspension.
• Water suspendable developers are applied to parts in the same manner as water
soluble developers.
• Parts coated with a water suspendable developer must be forced dried just as
parts coated with a water soluble developer are forced dried.
• The surface of a part coated with a water suspendable developer will have a
slightly translucent white coating.
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Developer Forms
• Water Soluble
• As the name implies, water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that
are dissolved in water and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away.
• The best method for applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part.
• The part can be wet or dry.
• Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but
these methods are less desirable.
• Aqueous developers contain wetting agents that cause the solution to function much
like dilute hydrophilic emulsifier and can lead to additional removal of entrapped
penetrant.
• Drying is achieved by placing the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm
air dryer with the temperature held between 70 and 75°F. If the parts are not dried
quickly, the indications will be blurred and indistinct.
• Properly developed parts will have an even, pale white coating over the entire surface.
Developer Forms
• Nonaqueous
• Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are
typically applied with a spray gun.
• Nonaqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol spray cans for
portability.
• The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by solvent action.
Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required.
• A nonaqueous developer should be applied to a thoroughly dried part to form a
slightly translucent white coating.
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Developer Forms Nature of the Defect

• Special Applications
• Plastic or lacquer developers are special developers that are primarily used
when a permanent record of the inspection is required.
• The nature of the defect can have a large affect on sensitivity of a liquid
penetrant inspection. Sensitivity is defined as the smallest defect that can be
detected with a high degree of reliability.
• Typically, the crack length at the sample surface is used to define size of the
defect.
• A survey of any probability-of-detection curve for penetrant inspection will
quickly lead one to the conclusion that crack length has a definite affect on
sensitivity. However, the crack length alone does not determine whether a
flaw will be seen or go undetected.
• The volume of the defect is likely to be the more important feature. The
flaw must be of sufficient volume so that enough penetrant will bleed back
out to a size that is detectable by the eye or that will satisfy the dimensional
thresholds of fluorescence.

Penetrant inspections are more effective at

• It is an
example of finding
fluorescent • small round defects than small linear defects. Small round defects
penetrant are generally easier to detect for several reasons.
inspection • First, they are typically volumetric defects that can trap significant amounts of
probability of penetrant.
detection • Second, round defects fill with penetrant faster than linear defects.
(POD) curve • One research effort found that elliptical flaw with length to width ratio of 100,
from the will take the penetrant nearly 10 times longer to fill than a cylindrical flaw
Nondestructi with the same volume.
ve Evaluation • deeper flaws than shallow flaws. Deeper flaws will trap more
(NDE) penetrant than shallow flaws, and they are less prone to over washing.
Capabilities
Data Book.
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Penetrant inspections are more effective at

Inspecting Welds with Liquid Penetrants
finding
• flaws with a narrow opening at the surface than wide open • Inspecting Welds with Liquid Penetrants
flaws. Flaws with narrow surface openings are less prone to over
washing.
• flaws on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces. The surface
roughness of the part primarily affects the removability of a penetrant.
Rough surfaces tend to trap more penetrant in the various tool marks,
scratches, and pits that make up the surface. Removing the penetrant
from the surface of the part is more difficult and a higher level of
background fluorescence or over washing may occur.

Zyglo test Advantages

• The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
• The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic,
magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials
may be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly
and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a
visual representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.

Disadvantages
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
• Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must
be removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
• Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Magnetic particle Inspection
• Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive testing method
used for defect detection
• MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. iron
filings) to detect flaws in components.
• The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the
component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material
such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys.
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Magnetic particle Inspection
• Magnetic particle Inspection – scope and working principle, Ferro
Magnetic and Non-ferromagnetic materials, equipment & testing.
Advantages, limitations Interpretation of results, DC & AC
magnetization, Skin Effect, use of dye & wet powders for magna glow
testing, different methods to generate magnetic fields, Applications.
Basic Principles
• It can be considered as a combination of two
nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage
testing and visual testing.
• The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to
magnetize the component that is to be inspected.
• If any defects on or near the surface are present, the
defects will create a leakage field.
• After the component has been magnetized, iron
particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are
applied to the surface of the magnetized part.
• The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux
leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the
inspector can detect.

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and
Ferromagnetic Materials
• When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces
of the material's electrons will be affected. This effect is known as
Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.
• However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an
external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of
factors, such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and
the net magnetic field associated with the atoms.
• The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins.
These are the electron motion, the change in motion caused by an
external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and
Ferromagnetic Materials
• Diamagnetic materials have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic
fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and
the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field
is removed.
• Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
• Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are
able to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been
removed.
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Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and
Ferromagnetic Materials
• In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin in
opposite directions.
• So, when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause their
magnetic fields to cancel each other.
• Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.
• Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net
magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
• Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic.
Quantifying Magnetic Properties
• The units for magnetic field strength H is ampere/meter. A magnetic
field strength of 1 ampere/meter is produced at the center of a single
circular conductor with a one-meter diameter carrying a steady current
of 1 ampere.
• The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a
given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density, B.
• The flux density or magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit. One
tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m).
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The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic

Quantifying Magnetic Properties
Properties
• The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic • A hysteresis loop shows
flux, f. The strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic the relationship between
domains that are aligned within a material. The total flux is simply the flux the induced magnetic flux
density applied over an area. Flux carries the unit of a weber, which is simply a
density (B) and the
tesla- meter2.
magnetizing force (H).
• The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized.
SI Units SI Units CGS Units
Quantity
(Somerfield) (Kennelly) (Gaussian)
Field strength H A/m A/m oersteds
Flux Density
B tesla tesla gauss
(Magnetic Induction)
Flux f weber weber maxwell
Magnetization M A/m - erg/Oe-cm 3

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic

Permeability
Properties
• Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a • permeability (µ is a material property that describes the ease with
magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual
magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value which a magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of
of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)
the flux density (B) created within a material to the magnetizing field
• Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when
the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the (H) and is represented by the following equation:
µ =B/H
material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism
may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation
level.
• Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic • It is clear that this equation describes the slope of the curve at any
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis point on the hysteresis loop.
curve.)
• Permeability, µ- A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is • The maximum permeability is the point where the slope of the B/H
established in the component. curve for the unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is often
• Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a
magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
taken as the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent to the
B/H curve. µ(relative) = µ (material) /µ (air)
where: µ (air) = 1.256 x 10-6 H/m
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Portable Magnetizing Equipment

Permeability
for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Relative to other materials, a material with a • primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic
wider hysteresis loop has:
• Lower Permeability material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept
• Higher Retentivity the defect at a 45 to 90-degree angle. Flaws that are normal (90
• Higher Coercivity
• Higher Reluctance degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications
• Higher Residual Magnetism because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
• Relative to other materials, a material with the
narrower hysteresis loop has:
• Higher Permeability
• Lower Retentivity
• Lower Coercivity
• Lower Reluctance
• Lower Residual Magnetism.

Portable Magnetizing Equipment Portable Magnetizing Equipment

for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Permanent magnets
• Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic
particle inspection as the source of magnetism. The two
primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and
horseshoe (yoke) magnets.
• Some permanent magnets require over 50 pounds of force
to remove them from the surface. Because it is difficult to
remove the magnets from the component being inspected,
and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the
magnets, their use is not particularly popular.
for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Electromagnets
• Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in
MPI is based on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current
to produce the magnetic field. An electromagnetic yoke is a very
common piece of equipment that is used to establish a magnetic field.
It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of
soft ferromagneticsteel. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so
that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on and
off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall socket
or by direct current from a battery pack.

Portable Magnetizing Equipment
for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Prods
• Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of
the component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical
current through the metal. The current passing between the prods
creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that can be used in
magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copper
and have an insulated handle to help protect the operator. One of the
prods has a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily
turned on and off. Sometimes the two prods are connected by any
insulator (as shown in the image) to facilitate one hand operation.
Portable Magnetizing Equipment
for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Portable Power Supplies
• Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to
the prods, coils or cables. Power supplies are commercially available
in a variety of sizes. Small power supplies generally provide up to
1,500A of half-wave direct current or alternating current when used
with a 4.5 meter 0000 cable. They are small and light enough to be
carried and operate on either 120V or 240V electrical service. When
more power is necessary, mobile power supplies can be used. These
units come with wheels so that they can be rolled where needed. These
units also operate on 120V or 240V electrical service and can provide
up to 6,000A of AC or half-wave DC when 9 meters or less of 0000
cable is used.
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Portable Magnetizing Equipment
for Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
• Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a
longitudinal magnetic field within a component. When a
preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the
inside surface on the coil. Coils typically have three or five
turns of a copper cable within the molded frame. A foot
switch is often used to energize the coil. Conductive cables
are wrapped around the component. The number of wraps is
determined by the magnetizing force needed and of course,
the length of the cable. Normally, the wraps are kept as close
together as possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped into
a coil, amperage is usually expressed in ampere-turns.
Ampere-turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter
times the number of turns in the coil.
Stationary Equipment for Magnetic
Particle Inspection
• wet horizontal (bench) unit
• The units have head and tail stocks (similar to a lathe)
with electrical contact that the part can be clamped
between.
• A circular magnetic field is produced with direct
magnetization.
• Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved
into place so the indirect magnetization can be used to
produce a longitudinal magnetic field.
• Either the visible or fluorescent particles can be used.

Stationary Equipment for Magnetic
Particle Inspection
• wet horizontal (bench) unit
• To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is clamped
between two electrical contact pads.
• The magnetic solution, called a bath, is then flowed over the
surface of the part.
• The bath is then interrupted and a magnetizing current is
applied to the part for a short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5
seconds.
• A circular field flowing around the circumference of the part
is created. Leakage fields from defects then attract the
particles to form indications.
Magnetizing Current
• Direct Current
• Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage.
A battery is the most common source of direct current. As previously
mentioned, current is said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal. In
actuality, the electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is very desirable
when inspecting for subsurface defects because DC generates a magnetic field
that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the
magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of
the component. Conversely, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
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Stationary Equipment for Magnetic
Particle Inspection
• wet horizontal (bench) unit
• When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal magnetic
field within the part, the part is placed on the inside surface
of the coil.
• Just as done with a head shot, the bath is then flowed over
the surface of the part.
• A magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short
duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds, just after coverage
with the bath is interrupted.
• Leakage fields from defects attract the particles to form
visible indications.
Magnetizing Current
• Alternating Current
• Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per
second. In the United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50
cycle current is common in many countries. Since AC is readily available in
most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle
inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at
the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect"
and occurs because the changing magnetic field generates eddy currents in the
test object. The eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the
primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux below the
surface. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the
inspection is limited to surface defects.
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Magnetizing Current
• Rectified Alternating Current
• Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection
applications call for the detection of subsurface defects. However, the
convenient access to AC, drives its use beyond surface flaw
inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much
like DC through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers,
the reversing AC can be converted to a one directional current. The
three commonly used types of rectified current are described below.
• Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)
• Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
• Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current

Magnetization of Materials Magnetization of Materials

• Magnetic Field Using an Electric Current • Surge Method
• Direct as well as alternating currents are used to magnetize components for • If a surge of high current is passed through a ferromagnetic material
the magnetic particle test.
for a short duration and the current is then reduced to its steady lower
• The choice of current depends on the strength, direction and distribution of value, the component is magnetized to its saturation value. It is not
the desired magnetic field.
possible to attain this high state of magnetization with a lower steady
• A magnetic field produced by direct current (DC) penetrates the cross- current.
section of a component, whereas the field produced by an alternating
current (AC) is largely confined to the surface of the component due to the
skin effect.
• The direct current obtained from a rectified AC is invariably used for the
magnetic particle test.
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Magnetization of Materials Magnetization of Materials

• Induction Method
• This method is used to magnetize ring shaped components. Here, AC
or DC is passed through the primary winding of a transformer, where
the ring-shaped component forms a single turn secondary as shown in
Fig.
• Solenoid Coil Method
• Solenoids carrying current produce a magnetic field along the axis of the
solenoid as shown in Fig. When a part is placed inside a solenoid coil, a
magnetic field is created parallel to the solenoid axis. The field strength inside
the solenoid is proportional to the product of current (Amps) and the number
of turns of the coil. The strength can be varied either by varying the current or
the number of turns.

• The magnetic field is produced because of induced current in the part.

This type of magnetization helps in the detection of circumferential
defects.

Magnetization of Materials
• Alternating Current Method
• A 50-60 cycle frequency AC from commercial power lines is directly
used for magnetization in this method. only single phase is used and
voltage is stepped up by using suitable transformers.
• Depending upon the requirements of magnetization, size and shape of
the components, the following arrangements are employed:
• Circular magnetization
• Longitudinal magnetization
• Coil magnetization
• Prod magnetization
• Yoke magnetization

Methods of demagnetization
Dry Particle Inspection
• Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
• Prepare the part surface - the surface should be relatively clean but this is
not as critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free
of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A
thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes
be left in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003
inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch
max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the
surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
• Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic
yoke, prods, a coil or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
• Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic
particles.
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Dry Particle Inspection
• In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted
onto the surface of the test object as the item is magnetized. Dry
particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on
rough surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half
wave DC current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides
mobility to the powder.
Dry Particle Inspection
• Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
• Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied,
remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air.
The force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles
but not strong enough to dislodge particles held by a magnetic flux leakage
field.
• Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated
with an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force
should be terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in
place.
• Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered.
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Wet Suspension Inspection Wet Suspension Inspection

• Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, more commonly known as wet
magnetic particle inspection, involves applying the particles while they are
suspended in a liquid carrier. Wet magnetic particle inspection is most
commonly performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit but
suspensions are also available in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic
yoke.
• A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. First, all of
the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a
relatively uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides
mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which allows
enough particles to float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication.
Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very small
discontinuities on smooth surfaces.
• Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
• Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections,
the surface should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil
and other moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface
and preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or
scale will reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with
adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a
nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a
ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt,
paint, rust or scale must be removed.
• Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the
surface of the part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part
just before the magnetizing field is applied.

Wet Suspension Inspection

• Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions
• Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied
immediately after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a
wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short busts
(1/2 second) which helps to improve particle mobility.
• Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are
clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The
indications from subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as
depth increases.

Wet Suspension Inspection
• Fluorescent method: In this method, magnetic particles are coated with a
fluorescent dye and used where the surface finish is fine. The components are
examined under ultraviolet light (A = 3650 A). The method is particularly useful in
locating discontinuities in comers, key ways, deep holes etc.
• Residual method: In this method, the magnetizing field is withdrawn after
magnetizing the component. Magnetic particles are applied on the surface of the
component after the field is withdrawn. The method is applicable for components
that show high retentivity. It is essential that residual magnetism be strong enough
to produce a leakage field at discontinuities.
• Continuous method: In this method, a magnetic powder is applied on the
component surface when the magnetic field is still on. To produce a meaningful
indication during the test, the level of magnetization must be sufficient to produce
a strong leakage field to attract and hold fine magnetic particles.
Interpretation and evaluation
• Nonmetallic inclusions: Insufficient cleaning of the metal during or after
melting gives rise to this defect. These defects may or may not show a
sharp indication, depending on their severity. Generally, these defects show
up as stringers running along the axis of the product or along the fibers in
the forging.
• Seams: These defects are observed in rolled products and are formed during
rolling due to the presence of laps, surface tears or scales. These defects are
generally elongated. A single, deep seam shows a sharp indication but
clusters of tiny seams may give misleading a indication.
• Cooling cracks: This defect occurs in steel with high hardenability, such as
tool steel. Cracks are deep and give a strong indication along the grain
fibers.
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Interpretation and evaluation
• After magnetization and the application of magnetic particles, the surface of
the component is examined.
• In case non-fluorescent particles are used, the examination is carried out
under daylight with the help of a magnifying glass at an illumination of 500
lux.
• If artificial light is used, this illumination can be achieved by a 80 W
fluorescent tube or a tungsten filament lamp of 100 W.
• The fluorescent method makes use of dyes that glow when exposed to black
light.
• While examining the component one has to be careful in distinguishing flaw
indications from false indications.
• Some of the defects and their observed indications are discussed next.
Interpretation and evaluation
• Laminations: These are usually found in plates and are due to the separation
of layers, due to the presence of non-metallic film. These defects are
parallel to the surface and indications occur only at the sides and cut
portions of the plate.
• Piping: These are internal defects and the magnetic particle test does not
usually reveal them unless the defects are present at the end of the part.
Indications at the end of the part represent a cross-section of the piping.
• Forging laps: These are folds of metal squeezed together during forging.
They have irregular contours and occur at right angles to the direction of
metal flow. The indications of forging laps are not well defined due to a
weak leakage field.

Interpretation and evaluation
• Flash line cracks: These are associated with and run along the flash
line of the forging. They are deep and give strong indications.
• Forging bursts: These are ruptures that occur when forging is carried
out at a temperature that is too cold or too hot. Bursts may be on the
surface or internal. They consist of numerous small and large cracks
all over the forging and are more concentrated at thicker regions of the
forgings.
• Flakes: The reason for the occurrence of flakes is the evolution of
dissolved gases. Flakes are usually observed on machined surfaces.
Interpretation and evaluation
• Grinding cracks: These are seen on highly finished ground surfaces.
Cracks are fine, sharp and shallow and occur in groups.
• Fatigue cracks: These occur only in parts that have been in service.
Fatigue is a progressive type of brittle fracture, which occurs under
cyclic loads. These are mostly surface cracks and give sharp
indications, lying in a direction transverse to the direction of local
stress.
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Interpretation and evaluation
• Hot tears and thermal cracking: These are surface cracks occurring due to
non-uniform cooling from the casting stage or during heat treatment. In this
case, indications are well defined as cracks and are sharp and deep.
• Gas porosity: The magnetic particle test sometimes locates gas porosity and
sub-surface blowholes. The indications are not sharp. Some experience is
needed to identify these defects.
• Weld cracks and other weld defects: Longitudinal or transverse cracks and
parent metal cracks give sharp indications and are easy to detect. However,
weld defects such as porosity, slag inclusions, inadequate penetration, lack
of fusion and undercuts create fuzzy indications. One should be very
careful in interpreting such indications.
Quiz on LPT
• https://goo.gl/forms/E2M9jYY3UbzC8hrJ3 (case sensitive)
• MPI quiz will be on 16.03.2018