SEMINAR REPORT

ON
UNIT OPERATION
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for Bachelor of
Technology Degree in Chemical Engineering (2017-18)

Submitted by:

SHIVAM DWIVEDI
Chemical (3rd Year)
Roll.no-1516651038

Department of Chemical Engineering

Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology for Handicapped
Kanpur (208024)
2017-18
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2. INTRODUCTION OF UNIT OPERATIONS
3. HISTORY
4. CLASSIFICATION
5. FLUID TRANSPORTATION
5.1 FILTRATION
5.2 FLUIDIZATION
6. HEAT TRANSFER
6.1 EVAPORATION
6.2 HEAT EXCHANGE
7. MASS TRANFER
7.1 SORPTION
7.2 DISTILLATION
7.3 DRYING
7.4 ADSORPTION
8. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
8.1 LIQUIFICATION
8.2 REFRIGERATION
8.2.1 NON CYCLIC REFRIGERATION
8.2.2 CYCLIC REFRIGERATION
9. MECHANICAL PROCESSES
9.1 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
9.2 CRUSHING
9.3 SCREENING
10.CONCLUSION
 Acknowledgement
Ability is of little account without opportunity.I think myself to
be fortunate enough as I got the opportunity to show off my
abilities.I learned a lot as no man is wiser for his learnings.I
wish to acknowledge with great appreciation the assistance of
many individuals who were helpful during the course of
preparation of this report.

I express my sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to

MR. ASHUTOSH MISHRA, Chemical Engineering
department (HOD), Dr. AITH, KANPURfor his inspiring
guidance, constant encouragement and motivation. I am also
deeply grateful to MR. RAKESH SACHAN and MR.ATUL
AWASTHI for his kind cooperation persistence in providing
guidance.

I am deeply thankful to MR.SUMIT PRAJAPATI for his

constant guidance, help and encouragement without which this
report would never have been completed.

I want to thankMISS ANU GUPTA, MR.SUBHASH SHARMA

and MR.MANEESH KUREEL for their immense guidance and
clearing my doubts that helped me in completing the report
and at various stages.

SHIVAM DWIVEDI
B.TECH 3rd Year

CHEMICAL ENGG.

Dr.AITH, Kanpur
UNIT OPERATION

In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is

a basic step in a process. Unit operations involve a physical
change or chemical transformation such as separation,
crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization,
isomerization, and other reactions. For example, in milk
processing,
homogenization, pasteurization, and packaging are each unit
operations which are connected to create the overall process. A
process may require many unit operations to obtain the desired
product from the starting materials, or feedstocks.
HISTORY
Historically, the different chemical industries were regarded as
different industrial processes and with different
principles. Arthur Dehon Little propounded the concept of "unit
operations" to explain industrial chemistry processes in 1916.
In 1923, William H. Walker, Warren K. Lewis and William H.
McAdams wrote the book The Principles of Chemical
Engineering and explained that the variety of chemical
industries have processes which follow the same physical
laws.[2] They summed up these similar processes into unit
operations. Each unit operation follows the same physical laws
and may be used in all relevant chemical industries. For
instance, the same engineering is required to design a mixer for
either napalm or porridge, even if the use, market or
manufacturers are very different. The unit operations form the
fundamental principles of chemical engineering.
Chemical engineering unit
operations consist of five classes:
1. Fluid flow processes, including fluids
transportation, filtration, and solids fluidization.

2. Heat transfer processes,

including evaporation and heat exchange.

3. Mass transfer processes, including gas

absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption,
and drying.

4. Thermodynamic processes, including gas

liquefaction, and refrigeration.

5.Mechanical processes, including solids

transportation, crushing and pulverization,
and screening and sieving.
Chemical engineering unit operations also fall
in the following categories which involve
elements from more than one class:
 Combination (mixing)
 Separation (distillation, crystallization)
 Reaction (chemical reaction)
Furthermore, there are some unit operations which combine
even these categories, such as reactive distillation and
stirred tank reactors. A "pure" unit operation is a physical
transport process, while a mixed chemical/physical process
requires modeling both the physical transport, such as
diffusion, and the chemical reaction. This is usually
necessary for designing catalytic reactions, and is
considered a separate discipline, termed chemical reaction
engineering.
 Chemical engineering unit operations and chemical
engineering unit processing form the main principles of all
kinds of chemical industries and are the foundation of
designs of chemical plants, factories, and equipment used.

In general, unit operations are designed by writing down the

balances for the transported quantity for each elementary
component (which may be infinitesimal) in the form of
equations, and solving the equations for the design parameters,
then selecting an optimal solution out of the several possible
and then designing the physical equipment. For instance,
distillation in a plate column is analyzed by writing down the
mass balances for each plate, wherein the known vapor-liquid
equilibrium and efficiency, drip out and drip in comprise the
total mass flows, with a sub-flow for each component.
Combining a stack of these gives the system of equations for
the whole column. There is a range of solutions, because a
higher reflux ratio enables fewer plates, and vice versa. The
engineer must then find the
 optimal solution with respect to acceptable volume holdup,
column height and cost of construction.

FLUID TRANSPORTATION
Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods or material
through a pipe. The latest data from 2014 gives a total of
slightly less than 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipeline in
120 countries of the world. The United States had 65%, Russia
had 8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 75% of all pipeline were in
these three countries.
Pipeline and Gas Journal's worldwide survey figures indicate
that 118,623 miles (190,905 km) of pipelines are planned and
under construction. Of these, 88,976 miles (143,193 km)
represent projects in the planning and design phase; 29,647
miles (47,712 km) reflect pipelines in various stages of
construction. Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines
and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a
pipeline. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined
petroleum, fuels – such as oil, natural gas and biofuels – and
other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, and beer. Pipelines
are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigationover
long distances when it needs to move over hills, or
where canals or channels are poor choices due to
considerations of evaporation, pollution, or environmental
impact. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to
transport solid capsules.

Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are
usually buried. The oil is moved through the pipelines
by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar
gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurised into liquids known as
Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Natural gas pipelines are
constructed of carbon steel. Hydrogen pipeline transport is the
transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. District
heating or teleheatingsystems use a network of insulated pipes
which transport heated water, pressurized hot water, or
sometimes steam to the customer.
Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as
natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns and there have
been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target
of theft, vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war,
pipelines are often the target of military attacks.

Materials that are generally transported are:

1. Oil and Natural gas
2. Ammonia
3. Alcohol fuels
4. Coal and Ore
5. Hydrogen
6. Water
7. Beer
8. Brine
9. Milk
FILTRATION
Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological
operations that separate solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The
fluid that passes through is called the filtrate. In physical filters
oversize solids in the fluid are retained and in biological filters
particulates are trapped and ingested and metabolites are
retained and removed. However, the separation is not
complete; solids will be contaminated with some fluid and
filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size,
filter thickness and biological activity). Filtration occurs both
in nature and in engineered systems; there
are biological, geological, and industrial forms. For example,
in animals (including humans), renal
filtration removes wastes from the blood, and in water
treatment and sewage treatment, undesirable constituents are
removed by absorption into a biological film grown on or in the
filter medium, as in slow sand filtration.
APPLICATION
 Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a
suspension, where the fluid can be a liquid, a gas or
a supercritical fluid. Depending on the application, either one
or both of the components may be isolated.

 Filtration, as a physical operation is very important in

chemistry for the separation of materials of different
chemical composition. A solvent is chosen which dissolves
one component, while not dissolving the other. By dissolving
the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go
into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other
will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques
used by chemists to purify compounds.
 Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit
operations of chemical engineering. It may be
simultaneously combined with other unit operations to
process the feed stream, as in the biofilter, which is a
combined filter and biological digestion device.
 Filtration differs from adsorption, where it is not the physical
size of particles that causes separation but the effects
of surface charge. Some adsorption devices
containing activated charcoal and ion exchange resin are
commercially called filters, although filtration is not their
principal function.
 Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants from
fluids with magnets (typically lubrication oil, coolants and fuel
oils), because there is no filter medium. Commercial devices
called ‘magnetic filters’ are sold, but the name reflects their
use, not their mode of operation.
 METHODS
1.HOT FILTRATION

2.COLD FILTRRATION

3. VACCUM FILTRATION

FILTER MEDIA
Two main types of filter media are employed in laboratories:
a surface filter, a solid sieve which traps the solid particles,
with or without the aid of filter paper (e.g. Büchner funnel, Belt
filter, Rotary vacuum-drum filter, Cross-flow filters, Screen
filter); and a depth filter, a bed of granular material which
retains the solid particles as it passes (e.g. sand filter). The first
type allows the solid particles, i.e. the residue, to be collected
intact; the second type does not permit this. However, the
second type is less prone to clogging due to the greater surface
area where the particles can be trapped. Also, when the solid
particles are very fine, it is often cheaper and easier to discard
the contaminated granules than to clean the solid sieve.

Achieving flow through the filter

Fluids flow through a filter due to a difference in pressure—fluid

flows from the high-pressure side to the low-pressure side of
the filter, leaving some material behind. The simplest method to
achieve this is by gravity and can be seen in
the coffeemaker example. In the laboratory, pressure in the
form of compressed air on the feed side (or vacuum on the
filtrate side) may be applied to make the filtration process
faster, though this may lead to clogging or the passage of fine
particles. Alternatively, the liquid may flow through the filter by
the force exerted by a pump, a method commonly used in
industry when a reduced filtration time is important. In this case,
the filter need not be mounted vertically.

FILTER AID
Certain filter aids may be used to aid filtration. These are often
incompressible diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, which is
composed primarily of silica. Also used are wood cellulose and
other inert porous solids such as the cheaper and safer perlite.
These filter aids can be used in two different ways. They can be
used as a precoat before the slurry is filtered. This will prevent
gelatinous-type solids from plugging the filter medium and also
give a clearer filtrate. They can also be added to the slurry
before filtration. This increases the porosity of the cake and
reduces resistance of the cake during filtration. In a rotary filter,
the filter aid may be applied as a precoat; subsequently, thin
slices of this layer are sliced off with the cake.
The use of filter aids is usually limited to cases where the cake
is discarded or where the precipitate can be chemically
separated from the filter.
 FLUIDIZATION
Fluidization is a process similar to liquefaction whereby
a granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to
a dynamic fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid
(liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular material.
When a gas flow is introduced through the bottom of a bed of
solid particles, it will move upwards through the bed via the
empty spaces between the particles. At low gas velocities,
aerodynamic drag on each particle is also low, and thus the
bed remains in a fixed state. Increasing the velocity, the
aerodynamic drag forces will begin to counteract the
gravitational forces, causing the bed to expand in volume as
the particles move away from each other. Further increasing
the velocity, it will reach a critical value at which the upward
drag forces will exactly equal the downward gravitational
forces, causing the particles to become suspended within the
fluid. At this critical value, the bed is said to be fluidized and will
exhibit fluidic behavior. By further increasing gas velocity, the
bulk density of the bed will continue to decrease, and its
fluidization becomes more violent, until the particles no longer
form a bed and are "conveyed" upwards by the gas flow.
When fluidized, a bed of solid particles will behave as a fluid,
like a liquid or gas. Like water in a bucket: the bed will conform
to the volume of the chamber, its surface remaining
perpendicular to gravity; objects with a lower density than the
bed density will float on its surface, bobbing up and down if
pushed downwards, while objects with a higher density sink to
the bottom of the bed. The fluidic behavior allows the particles
to be transported like a fluid, channeled through pipes, not
requiring mechanical transport (e.g. conveyor belt).
 APPLICATIONS
Most of the fluidization applications use one or more of three
important characteristics of fluidized beds:

1. Fluidized solids can be easily transferred between

reactors.
2. The intense mixing within a fluidized bed means that its
temperature is uniform.
3. There is excellent heat transfer between a fluidized bed
and heat exchangers immersed in the bed.
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that
concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange
of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat
transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal
conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer
of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the
transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or
hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have
distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the
same system.
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic
exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary
between two systems. When an object is at a
different temperature from another body or its
surroundings, heat flows so that the body and the surroundings
reach the same temperature, at which point they are in thermal
equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs
from a region of high temperature to another region of lower
temperature, as described in the second law of
thermodynamics.
Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid)
carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid. The flow
of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in
gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal
energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus
influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called
"natural convection". All convective processes also move heat
partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced
convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a
pump, fan or other mechanical means.
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or
any transparent medium (solid or fluid). It is the transfer of
energy by means of photons in electromagnetic
wavesgoverned by the same laws.
 CONDUCTION
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly
moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with
neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their
energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words,
heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate
against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to
another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat
transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal
contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less
conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat
conduction between solid bodies in contact.[8]The process of
heat transfer from one place to another place without the
movement of particles is called conduction. Example: Heat
transfer through Metal rods.

CONVECTION
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat
from one place to another by the movement of fluids, a process
that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk
motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical
situations, such as (for example) between a solid surface and
the fluid.[10]Convection is usually the dominant form of heat
transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as
a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to
describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the
fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow
streaming.

RADIATION
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any
transparent medium (solid or fluid). It is the transfer of energy
by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by
the same laws.
Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as
electromagnetic waves, due to the pool of thermal energy in all
matter with a temperature above absolute zero. Thermal
radiation propagates without the presence of matter through
the vacuum of space.
Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of
atoms and molecules in matter. Since these atoms and
molecules are composed of charged particles
(protons and electrons), their movement results in the emission
of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from
the surface.

Evaporation
Evaporation is a type of vaporization, that occurs on
the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gaseous
phase.[1] The surrounding gas must not be saturated with the
evaporating substance. When the molecules of the liquid
collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they
collide. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough
energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will "escape" and
enter the surrounding air as a gas.[2] When evaporation occurs,
the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the
temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.[3]
On average, only a fraction of the molecules in a liquid have
enough heat energy to escape from the liquid. The evaporation
will continue until an equilibrium is reached when the
evaporation of the liquid is the equal to its condensation. In an
enclosed environment, a liquid will evaporate until the
surrounding air is saturated.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The sun
(solar energy) drives evaporation of water from oceans,
lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water.
In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which involves
evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively
termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when
the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to
escape and form water vapor; this vapor can then rise up and
form clouds. With sufficient energy, the liquid will turn into
vapor.

Heat exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between a
solid object and a fluid, or between two or more fluids. The
fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or
they may be in direct contact.[1] They are widely used in space
heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical
plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural-gas
processing, and sewage treatment.

FLOW ARRANGEMENT
There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers
according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat
exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same
end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side.
In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger
from opposite ends. The counter current design is the most
efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat
(transfer) medium per unit mass due to the fact that the
average temperature difference along any unit length is higher.
See countercurrent exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger,
the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through
the exchanger.
 TYPES
1. SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
2.PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER
3.PLATE AND SHELL HEAT EXCHANGER
4.PLATE FIN HEAT EXCHANGER
5.FLUID HEAT EXCHANGER
6.PILLOW PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER
 MASS TRANSFER
Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location,
usually meaning stream, phase, fraction or component, to
another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such
as absorption, evaporation, drying, precipitation, membrane
filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is used by different
scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms.
The phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical
processes that involve diffusive and convective transport
of chemical species within physical systems.

SORPTION
Sorption is a physical and chemical process by which
one substancebecomes attached to another. Specific cases of
sorption are treated in the following articles:

 Absorption – "the incorporation of a substance in one state

into another of a different state"[1] (e.g., liquids being
absorbed by a solid or gasesbeing absorbed by a liquid);
 Adsorption – the physical adherence or bonding
of ions and moleculesonto the surface of another phase
(e.g., reagents adsorbed to a solid catalyst surface);
 Ion exchange – an exchange of ions between
two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and
a complex
 DISTILLATION
Distillation is the process of separating the components or
substances from a liquid mixture by
selective boiling and condensation. Distillation may result in
essentially complete separation (nearly pure components), or it
may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of
selected components of the mixture. In either case the process
exploits differences in the volatility of the mixture's components.
In industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of
practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation
process and not a chemical reaction.

DRYING
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of
water or another solvent[1] by evaporation from a solid, semi-
solid or liquid. This process is often used as a final production
step before selling or packaging products. To be considered
"dried", the final product must be solid, in the form of a
continuous sheet, long pieces, particles or powder . A source
of heatand an agent to remove the vapor produced by the
 process are often involved. In bioproducts like food, grains,
and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be removed
is almost invariably water. Desiccation may
be synonymous with drying or considered an extreme form of
drying.

ADSORPTION
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a
gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface.[1] This process
creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent.
This process differs from absorption, in which
a fluid (the absorbate) is dissolved by or permeates a liquid or
solid (the absorbent), respectively.[2] Adsorption is a surface-
based process, while absorption involves the whole volume of
the material. The term sorption encompasses both processes,
while desorption is the reverse of it. Adsorption is a surface
phenomenon.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
Thermodynamic process is a passage of a thermodynamic
system from an initial to a final state of thermodynamic
equilibrium. The initial and final states are the defining elements
of the process. The actual course of the process is not the
primary concern, and thus often is ignored. This is the
customary default meaning of the term 'thermodynamic
process'. In general, during the actual course of a
thermodynamic process, the system passes through physical
states which are not describable as thermodynamic states,
because they are far from internal thermodynamic equilibrium.
Such processes are useful for thermodynamic theory.Defined
by change in a system, a thermodynamic process is a passage
of a thermodynamic system from an initial to a
final state of thermodynamic equilibrium. The initial and final
states are the defining elements of the process. The actual
course of the process is not the primary concern, and often is
ignored. A state of thermodynamic equilibrium endures
unchangingly unless it is interrupted by a thermodynamic
operation that initiates a thermodynamic process. The
equilibrium states are each respectively fully specified by a
suitable set of thermodynamic state variables, that depend only
on the current state of the system, not the path taken by the
processes that produce that state. In general, during the actual
course of a thermodynamic process, the system passes
through physical states which are not describable as
thermodynamic states, because they are far from internal
thermodynamic equilibrium.
 LIQUIFICATION PROCESS
Liquefaction of gases is physical conversion of a gas into
a liquid state (condensation).
The processes are used for scientific, industrial and commercial
purposes. Many gases can be put into a liquid state at
normal atmospheric pressure by simple cooling; a few, such
as carbon dioxide, require pressurization as
well. Liquefaction is used for analyzing the fundamental
properties of gas molecules (intermolecular forces), for storage
of gases, for example: LPG, and in refrigeration and air
conditioning. There the gas is liquefied in the condenser, where
the heat of vaporization is released, and evaporated in
the evaporator, where the heat of vaporization is
absorbed. Ammonia was the first such refrigerant, and is still in
widespread use in industrial refrigeration, but it has largely
been replaced by compounds derived.
liquefaction is a process that generates a liquid from a solid or
a gas or that generates a non-liquid phase which behaves in
accordance with fluid dynamics. It occurs
both naturally and artificially. As an example of the latter, a
"major commercial application of liquefaction is the liquefaction
of air to allow separation of the constituents, such as oxygen,
nitrogen, and the noble gases." Another is the conversion of
solid coal into a liquid form usable as a substitute for liquid
fuels.
 REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration is a process of removing heat from a low-

temperature reservoir and transferring it to a high-temperature
reservoir. The work of heat transfer is traditionally driven
by mechanical means, but can also be driven by
heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means.
Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited
to: household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics,
and air conditioning.

NON CYCLIC REFRIGERATION

This refrigeration method cools a contained area by melting ice,
or by sublimating dry ice. Perhaps the simplest example of this
is a portable cooler, where items are put in it, then ice is poured
over the top. Regular ice can maintain temperatures near, but
not below the freezing point, unless salt is used to cool the ice
down further (as in a traditional ice-cream maker). Dry ice can
reliably bring the temperature well below freezing.

CYCLIC REFRIGERATION
This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed
from a low-temperature space or source and rejected to a high-
temperature sink with the help of external work, and its inverse,
the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is
supplied from a high-temperature source to the engine, part of
the heat being used to produce work and the rest being
rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second
law of thermodynamics.

VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household
refrigerators as well as in many large commercial and industrial
refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of
the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration
system..

VAPOUR ABSORPTION CYCLE

The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except
for the method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor.
In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an
absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a
liquid pump which raises the pressure and a generator which,
on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the high-
pressure liquid.
 MECHANICAL PROCESSES
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical
handling equipment that moves materials from one location to
another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications
involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials.
Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a
wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in
the material handling and packaging industries. They also have
popular consumer applications, as they are often found in
supermarkets and airports, constituting the final leg of item/ bag
delivery to customers. Many kinds of conveying systems are
available and are used according to the various needs of
different industries. There are chain conveyors (floor and
overhead) as well. Chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks,
I-Beam, towline, power & free, and hand pushed trolleys.

CRUSHING AND PULVERIZATION

A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into
smaller rocks, gravel, or rock dust.Crushers may be used to
reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they
can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the
size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that
pieces of different composition can be differentiated. Crushing
is the process of transferring a force amplified by mechanical
advantage through a material made of molecules that bond
together more strongly, and resist deformation more, than
those in the material being crushed do.
A pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding
of many different types of materials. For example, a
pulverizermill is used to pulverize coal for combustion in the
steam-generating furnaces of fossil fuel power plants.

SCREENING
A pulverizer or grinder is a mechanical device for the grinding
of many different types of materials. For example, a pulverizer
mill is used to pulverize coal for combustion in the steam-
generating furnaces of fossil fuel power plants.This practice
occurs in a variety of industries such as mining and mineral
processing, agriculture, pharmaceutical, food, plastics, and
recycling.
A screening machine consist of a drive that induces vibration, a
screen media that causes particle separation, and a deck which
holds the screen media and the drive and is the mode of
transport for the vibration.
 CONCLUSION
In one or another concrete economic situation very successful
use can be made of the positive side of small-scale industry —
the greater gross and net output per unit of capital investment
as compared with the factory industry. At the same time it
should be remembered that large-scale factory production, first
of all the production of the means of production, must remain
the basis for the industrial development of the countries
investigated. Only the development of modern forms of industry
can guarantee these countries the most rapid and steady
movement along the road of progress. In our view, the present
role of small-scale industry is that it makes it possible not to
hurry with the development of certain branches and
enterprises, i.e., small-scale industry can supply the basic
branches with auxiliary output during the entire period of
transition to a developed economy. In addition to the fact that
such "auxiliary" use of forms with a low level of mechanization
will ensure the production of a number of deficit products, it will
also considerably increase general employment, and,
accordingly, the size of national income. In these forms of
production there will be a continuous growth of technical cadres
familiar with the principles of a given production unit, able to
use at least the most elementary work tools, and possessing
certain work skills.