INFORMATION AND THE LAWS OF NATURE

Werner Gitt, In the Beginning was Information, Master Books, 2005.

Scientific Terminology
Speculation: when a statement is based purely on discussion, fantasy, imagination, or contemplation, and does
not correspond to reality. Because no actual experimentation is involved, it is easy to make undiscoverable mistakes.
In thought experiments difficulties can easily be evaded, undesirable aspects can be suppressed, and contradictions
can be deftly concealed. Mere speculation without experimentation and observation is not science, neither is pure
deduction from arbitrary presuppositions, nor is a biased selection of observations. Even the most abstract theory
should not lose contact with reality and experimentation.
Model: a deliberate but simplified representation of reality and it describes observed structures in a readily
understandable way.
Hypothesis: an unverified scientific conjecture which contains speculations, and which amplifies an incomplete
empirical result, or provisionally explains some fact. Any new hypothesis must be based on facts, and it may not
contradict the known laws of nature. If a hypothesis serves as a methodological guide when a new research project is
undertaken, it is known as a working hypothesis. When observational facts support a hypothesis, the probability of
its being true is increased, but if one contradicting fact is uncovered, the hypothesis must be rejected.
Theories: endeavour to explain facts in a unified representation of models and hypotheses. To put it briefly, a
theory is a scientific statement based on empirical findings. Since empirical results are seldom final, theories are of a
provisional nature, and the inherent hypothetical element inevitably causes uncertainty – in the best case a statement
can be made in terms of specific probabilities. Theories are therefore a means of tying observed facts together, and
the best theories are those which attain this objective with the least number of inconsistencies.
Verification means that a statement is tested experimentally. The result of such verification is not generally
valid, however. It holds strictly only for cases which have actually been confirmed, because the possibility that
hitherto unknown counter examples may exist cannot be excluded. If one contradictory case is found, then the
statement is rejected (falsified). This can also be expressed as follows: It is not possible to verify a theory; a theory
can only be falsified. A theory is good if it could be falsified very easily, and when it survives all open criticisms
and tests, it can be accepted.
The German mathematician, David Hilbert (1862 – 1943), held the optimistic view that every mathematical
problem could be resolved in the sense that a solution could be found, or that it could be proved that a solution was
impossible, Kurt Gödel (1906 – 1978), the well-known Austrian mathematician, rejected this view. He showed that,
even in a formal system, not all true theorems could be proved. This statement, called the first incompleteness
theorem of Gödel, was quite a revolutionary result.
Law of nature: if the truth of a statement is verified repeatedly in a reproducible way so that it is regarded as
generally valid, then we have a natural law. An established natural law loses its universal validity when one single
counter example is found. However, it is often only necessary to change the formulation to describe the actual law
more precisely. We should therefore distinguish between the actual law as it operates in nature, and its formulation
in human terms. More precise formulations do not invalidate an “approximately formulated law”, but do provide a
better description of reality.
Paradigm: When a certain theory (or a system of hypotheses, or a world-view) pervades entire fields of research
or an entire scientific era, it is known as a paradigm. Such a view then dictates the scope for specific researches and
delineates the presuppositions used for explaining individual phenomena.

The Nature of Physical Laws

0. Every event must have a cause and under the same circumstances the same causes will have the same
effects.
1. The laws of nature are based on experience.
2. The laws of nature are universally valid.
3. The laws of nature are equally valid for living beings and for inanimate matter.
4. The laws of nature are not restricted to any one field of study.
5. The laws of nature are immutable (unchangeable overtime).
6. The laws of nature can be simply formulated.
7. The laws of nature are (in principle) falsifiable.
8. The laws of nature can be expressed in various ways (depending on preferred mode of application).
9. The laws of nature describe reproducible results.
 10. A. Natural events can be explained without God.
B. The present laws of nature became operational when creation was completed.

The Relevance of the Laws of Nature

1. The laws of nature provide us with a better understanding of natural phenomena and events.
2. The laws of nature enable us to make predictions.
3. The laws of nature make technological development possible.
4. By the means of the laws of nature, it is possible to determine beforehand whether an envisaged process
would be realizable or not.
5. The laws of nature are applicable to cases formerly unknown.
6. One can employ a known natural law to discover another one.

The Classification of the Laws of Nature

1. Conservation theorems: a certain number, given in a suitable unit of measurement, can be computed at a
specific moment. If this number is recomputed later after many changes have occurred, its value is
unchanged (i.e., conversation of energy).
2. Equivalence theorems: express a relationship between two variables (i.e., E=mc2).
3. Directional theorems: for some laws of nature the direction does not play a role (i.e., energy) but for others
process unidirectionaly. In the latter case, the past and future of the event are clearly distinguishable. In all
cases where friction is involved, the processes are irreversible (i.e., law of entropy, chemical principle of Le
Chatelier, law of mass action).
4. Impossibility theorems: most laws can be expressed in the form “it is impossible that…” (i.e., energy, 2 nd
law of thermodynamics).
5. Descriptive theorems: if the future (prognosis) or the past (retrognosis) states of a system can be described
when the values of the relevant variables are known for at least one moment in time, such a formulation is
known as a process (i.e., radioactive decay).
6. Limit theorems: describe boundaries that cannot
be overstepped (i.e., the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle). The affirmation of the laws of nature
are so powerful that viewpoints held up to the
time of the law’s formation may be rapidly
discarded (i.e., the 19th century deterministic
philosophy, Hilbert’s program).
7. Information theorems: not of a physical or
chemical nature.

Possible and Impossible Events

Possible events occur under the “supervision” of the
laws of nature, but it is in general not possible to describe
all of them completely. On the other hand, impossible
events could be identified by means of the impossibility
theorems. Impossible events can be subdivided into those
that are “fundamentally impossible” and those that are
“statistically impossible.” Events which contradict, for
example, the energy law are impossible in principle
because this theorem holds for individual atoms. On the
other hand, radioactive decay is a statistical law subject to
probability theorems, and cannot be applied to individual
atoms, but in all practical cases the number of atoms is so
immense that an exact formulation can be used. Impossible
events are neither observable nor recognizable nor
measurable. Possible events either have been observed,
cannot yet be observed (i.e. processes occurring in the
sun’s interior), or are in principle observable but have
never been observed.
Norbert Wiener (1894 –
1964): “Information is
information, neither matter
nor energy. Any materialism
which disregards this, will
not survive one day.”1

The Information Theorems

Fundamental
There are arbitrary structures without a code (such as stars and snowflakes), coded systems without
semantics (such as random numbers and characters), and coded systems with semantics (such as books,
computer programs, DNA, hieroglyphics). The definition domain of information includes only systems which
encode and represent an abstract description of some object or idea (i.e. have a semantic element). The
information theorems apply as valid natural laws within the definition domain.

1. The fundamental quantity of information is a non-material (mental/intellectual/spiritual) entity.

2. Information always plays a substitutionary role. Information is not the thing itself, neither is it a condition,
but it is an abstract representation of material realities or conceptual relationships, like problem
formulations, ideas, programs, or algorithms. The reality being represented is usually not present at the time
and place of the transfer of information; neither can it be observed or measured at that moment. When a
reality is observed directly, this substitutionary and abstract function is absent.
3. Information is not a property of matter. Purely material processes are fundamentally precluded as sources
of information. Furthermore, there is no known natural law, sequence of events, physical process, or
material phenomenon through which matter can give rise to information.
4. Information only arises through an intentional, volitional act. The will itself is not constant but can be
influenced by the information received from another sender.
5. A sender and a recipient are always involved whenever and wherever information is concerned. When its
progress along the chain of transmission events is traced backwards, every piece of information leads to a
mental source, the mind of the sender, the personal idea-giver.
6. Information comprises the non-material foundation for all technological systems and for all works of art.
There must be first of all the intention to, for example, solve a problem, followed by a conceptual construct
for which the information may be encoded in the form of a problem (i.e. blueprint).
7. Information is not conserved because created information is always a new thing and created information
can be destroyed.
8. The separate aspects of information are interlinked in such a way that every lower level is a necessary
prerequisite for the realization of the next one above it.

1st level: Statistics

1
Norbert Weiner, Cybernetics: Control Systems in Man and Machine, 1968, p.252.
 Claude E. Shannon was the first researcher who tried to define information mathematically. The theory
based on his findings had the advantages that different methods of communication could be compared and that
their performance could be evaluated. In addition, the introduction of the bit as unit of information made it
possible to describe the transmission and storage requirements of information quantitatively.
Before a discrete source of symbols delivers one symbol, there is a certain doubt as to which one symbol of
the available set of symbols it will be. After it has been delivered, the previous uncertainty is resolved.
Shannon’s method can thus be formulated as the degree of uncertainty which will be resolved when the next
symbol arrives. Shannon regards a message as information only if it cannot be completely ascertained
beforehand, so that information is a measure of the unlikeliness of an event. Gregory Chaitin demonstrated that
there is no algorithm for determining whether a sequence of symbols is random or not. One must be informed of
the fact if a random process has been involved.

9. Information requires a material medium for storage.

10. Shannon’s definition of information exclusively concerns the statistical properties of sequences of symbols;
the origin, meaning, and intended purpose of the message is completely ignored.
11. An extremely unlikely message (i.e. a random one or one subject to interference or “noise”) is accorded a
high information measure, more so than an error free message.

2nd level: Syntax

Syntax is the structural properties of the process of creating information including the sets of symbols
(codes) and the rules governing their assembly (grammar and vocabulary). The actual syntax describes the
construction of sentences and phrases, as well as the structural media required for their formation. The set of
possible sentences of a language is defined by means of a formalized assemblage of rules. This comprises the
morphology, lexicon, notation, phonetics, stylistics, grammar, and the vocabulary of the language.

12. A code is an essential requirement for establishing and storing information. Devising a code and the
allocation of meanings to the set of available symbols is a creative mental process depending on
convention.
13. If the information is to be understood, the particular code must be known to both the sender & receiver. If a
code has been defined by deliberate convention it must be strictly adhered to afterwards.
14. Any given piece of information can be represented by any selected code. However, perfect translations are
not always possible (i.e. of metaphors, twists of logic, ambiguities, & figurative styles).
15. The criteria for selecting a code must comply with physical-chemical laws and be co-agreed by the sender
& recipient as well as depending on two factors:
A. Optimized for application:
Pictorial appeal (e. g. hieroglyphics and pictograms)
Small number of symbols (e. g. Braille, cuneiform script, binary code, and genetic code)
Speed of writing (e. g. shorthand)
Ease of writing (e. g. cuneiform)
Ease of sensing (e. g. Braille)
Ease of transmission (e. g. Morse code)
Technological legibility (e. g. universal product codes and postal bar codes)
Ease of detecting errors (e. g. special error detecting codes)
Ease of correcting errors (e. g. Hamming code and genetic code)
Ease of visualising tones (musical notes)
Representation of the sounds of natural languages (alphabets)
Redundancy for counteracting interference errors (various computer codes and natural languages)
Maximisation of storage density (genetic code)

B. Mode of communication:
Acoustic (natural language; mating and warning calls of animals; mechanical transducers e. g.
loudspeakers, sirens, and fog horns; musical instruments).
Optical (written languages; technical drawings; technical and biological flashing signals e.g.
lighthouses, fireflies; flag signals; punched cards & mark sensing; universal product code & postal bar
codes; hand movements & sign language; body language e. g. mating dances and aggressive stances of
 animals; facial expressions and body movements e. g. mime, gesticulation; dancing motions e.g. bee
gyrations.
Magnetic (magnetic tape, disk, card)
Electrical (telephone, radio, t.v.)
Chemical (genetic code, hormonal system)
Electro-chemical (nervous system)
Tactile (braille writing, musical rolls)
Olfactory (scents emitted by animals and insects)

16. The following are the necessary conditions for a code:

1. A uniquely defined set of symbols.
2. The sequence of the individual symbols must be irregular (i.e. aperiodic).
3. The symbols appear in clearly distinguishable structures (i.e. rows, columns, blocks, spirals).
4. At least some symbols repeat.
17. The one sufficient condition for a code is that it can be decoded successfully and meaningfully. There are
two sufficient conditions that a sequence is not a code:
1. It can be explained fully on the level of physics and chemistry (i.e. its origin is of a mental nature).
2. Is an entirely random sequence or randomly contains symbols from another code.

3rd level: Semantics

18. Any entity, to be accepted as information, must entail semantics; it must be meaningful. If a chain of
symbols comprises only a statistical sequence of characters, it does not represent information.
19. When information is translated the statistical and syntactical properties change but meaning remains
unaltered.

4th level: Pragmatics

20. Information always entails a pragmatic aspect, which could be nonnegotiable and unambiguous, or allow a
limited to considerable amount of freedom of choice.
21. Information is able to cause the recipient to take some action (stimulate, initialize, or implement). This
reactive functioning of information is valid for both inanimate systems as well as living organisms.

5th level: Apobetics

22. Every piece of information is intentional (the teleological aspect). For every result on the side of the
recipient there is a corresponding conceptual purpose, plan, or representation in the mind of the
sender.
23. The teleological aspect of information is
the most important since it comprises the
premeditated purpose and intentions of the
sender. The sum total of the four lower
levels is that they are only a means for
attaining the purpose.

Information and Biological Systems

24. Since the information present in living
beings must have had a mental source, any
model for the origin of life (and of
information) based solely on physical
and/or chemical processes are inherently
false.
25. Biological information is not an
exceptional kind of information, but it
differs from other systems in that it has a
very high storage density and that it
obviously employs extremely ingenious
concepts.
Three Kinds of Information
1. Constructive/creative: all information used for the purpose of production.
2. Operational: all concepts having the purpose of maintaining some “industry.”
3. Communication: transmission of a message.

Three Kinds of Transmitted Information

1. Copied: a mechanical process propagating an identical copy of existing information.
2. Reproduced: a semantic entity which is elaborated and adapted by the actual sender without modifying in
any real sense the originally created information.
3. Creative: entails a non-material cognitive process generating something new.

The Quality and Usefulness of Information

Useful means that the information is available and accessible and can in principle be implemented. Usefulness
is an objective property, but the concept of value concerns a person, event, plan, or purpose and is always subjective.
The semantic value is a quantitative evaluation of the quality of information from the point of view of the recipient
and his subjective appraisal.
1. Semantic quantity, q: measure of the importance of the meaning.
2. Relevance, r: reflects individual interests and relevance to some purpose.
3. Timelessness, t: relevant information is usually time-dependent.
4. Accessibility, a: the recipient has full access to the information sent in an understandable language.
5. Existence, e: depends on the sender, refers whether the information exist at all. Difficult to estimate since
the totality of relevant information is large and not always known.
6. Comprehensibility, c: both sides may be at fault if the recipient does not understand the message.