Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of TRANSPORTATION
Preface
Purpose pavements in Ohio, and assure compliance with
Federal criteria. The recommendations given are
Many manuals, policies, guides, standards, etc., intended to improve pavement performance.
have been published regarding pavement design
and rehabilitation. Many of these have been Consideration must be given to design standards
written using wide ranges of design adopted by city, county, or other local governments
recommendations (minimums and maximums) when designing pavements under their jurisdiction.
since the contents were intended to apply
nationally. Furthermore, the Ohio Department of Distribution
Transportation’s pavement design and
rehabilitation procedures have been scattered This manual is intended primarily for ODOT
among many different publications, poorly personnel who have received training from the
documented or in some cases existed only in the Office of Materials Management. It is made
minds of a select few engineers. The purpose of available to cities, counties, consultants, etc., to
this manual is to bring all the information together use at their own risk.
in one document, reduce the selection of design
variables to those most appropriate for the State of Preparation
Ohio, to document Ohio’s interpretation of various
policies and to include design criteria which may be The Pavement Design and Rehabilitation Manual
unique to Ohio. has been developed by the Office of Materials
Management. Errors or omissions should be
Application reported to the Pavement Design Section of the
Office of Materials Management, Ohio Department
The pavement engineering concepts described of Transportation, 1600 West Broad Street, Room
herein are intended for use with all new or 2033, Columbus, Ohio 43223.
reconstruction projects, major and minor
rehabilitation projects, and all preventive Format and Revisions
maintenance projects, which are under the
jurisdiction of the Ohio Department of Updating the manual is intended to be a
Transportation (ODOT). The information continuous process and revisions will be issued
contained in this manual has been taken from and periodically.
based on the results of the AASHO Road Test, the
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Although pages are individually numbered within
Structures, Federal Highway Administration each section, new pages may be added and
(FHWA) guidelines and technical advisories, identified with letter suffixes after the page number.
various training course manuals, as well as from Figures do not have page numbers but are
the experience of the authors. In addition, the numbered to coincide with the section number in
application of other studies, experiences, and the text. Figures are located at the end of each
engineering judgments have been included to fit section and are printed on colored paper for easy
Ohio's conditions. reference.
The pavement design procedures relate the Each page has the latest revision date shown in
performance of a pavement to its structural design the lower left hand corner. Revisions will be issued
and the loading applied to the pavement. Failure as needed by the Office of Materials Management.
mechanisms derived from poor mix design, poor The looseleaf format of the manual makes
material quality, or poor construction practices are updating a quick and simple task. Users are
not addressed in this manual. encouraged to keep their manuals up to date.
This manual is neither a textbook nor a substitute Manuals may be ordered by contacting the Ohio
for engineering knowledge, experience or Department of Transportation, Office of Contracts,
judgement. It is intended to provide uniform P.O. Box 899, Columbus, Ohio 43216-0899, (614)
procedures for implementing design decisions, 466-3778, 466-3200.
assure quality and continuity in design of
January 1999 i
Pavement Design Approval and Responsibility
All pavement design buildups pertaining to roadways designated as Interstates, US Routes, National
Highway System (NHS) routes, and State Routes or otherwise under the jurisdiction of the Ohio
Department of Transportation must be approved by the Ohio Department of Transportation prior to
incorporation into a set of construction plans. Those Agencies, Municipalities, or Consultants seeking
pavement design buildup or approval from the Ohio Department of Transportation should make the
request through the appropriate ODOT District Office.
A formal request for pavement design buildup or approval should include the following:
• Plan and profile sheets indicating the existing and proposed profile.
• Typical section templates indicating the pavement and shoulder widths, lane lines and
pavement/shoulder cross slopes.
• All required soils information, including the soil profile and soils reports.
• Traffic data, certified by the Office of Technical Services, indicating the average daily traffic (ADT)
and percentage trucks in the 24-hour count for both the current year and design year.
January 1999 ii
Glossary of Terms
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - A value obtained Functional Characteristics - Qualities of a
by standardized soil testing procedures comparing pavement such as surface smoothness, skid
the load required to penetrate the soil to a standard resistance, and non-load related distresses such
unit load. as block cracking, and oxidation of asphalt
pavement surfaces.
Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (Kc) - A
value used in rigid pavement design determined by Functional Classification - The grouping of
dividing the load on a subgrade by the deflection, highways by the character of service they provide.
corrected for the effect of a base.
Group Index - A number derived from the
Concrete Elastic Modulus (Ec) - A measure of the gradation, liquid limit and plasticity index of a soil.
rigidity of a pavement slab and its ability to
distribute loads. Life-Cycle Cost Analysis - A process for evaluating
the economic worth of a pavement segment by
Contraction Joint - A joint at the ends of a rigid analyzing initial costs and discounted future costs
pavement slab to control the location of transverse over a defined period.
cracks.
Liquid Limit - The moisture content at which a soil
Design Serviceability Loss ()PSI) - The change in flows like a viscous liquid.
the serviceability index of a pavement from the
time it is constructed to the end of its design life. Load Transfer Coefficient (J) - A factor used in
rigid pavement design to account for the ability of
Design Structural Number (SN) - A regression a concrete pavement to distribute load across
coefficient derived from an analysis of traffic, soil joints and cracks.
conditions and environment and which may be
converted to thickness of flexible pavement layers Longitudinal Joint - A pavement joint, in the
using coefficients related to the type of material direction of traffic flow, used to control longitudinal
being used in each layer of the pavement structure. cracking on a rigid pavement or the joint formed
between adjacent passes of a paver on a flexible
Discount Rate - An economic factor to account for pavement.
the effects of interest and inflation.
Loss of Support (Ls) - A factor included in the
Drainage Coefficient - A factor used to modify design of rigid pavement to account for the
structural layer coefficients in flexible pavements, potential loss of support arising from base erosion
or stress in rigid pavements, as a function of how and/or differential vertical soil movements.
well the pavement structure can handle the effect
of water infiltration. Major Rehabilitation - Work performed on a
pavement intended to restore structural integrity
Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (K) - The and functional characteristics.
Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
modified by Loss of Support. Mean Concrete Modulus of Rupture (S’c) - The
flexural strength of concrete derived from a beam
Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) - Truck traffic test with third point loading.
loading expressed as the number of equivalent
18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle loads. Minor Rehabilitation - Work performed on a
pavement intended to restore functional
Expansion Joint - A transverse joint located to characteristics and protect the structural integrity.
provide for the expansion of a rigid slab in the
longitudinal direction without damage to itself or Multi-Lane Pavements - Pavements with four or
adjacent slabs. Generally placed near bridges. more lanes. Continuous two-way left turn lanes
are considered lanes in this definition.
Pressure Relief Joint - Similar to Expansion Joint Terminal Serviceability Index (Pt) - The
but placed exclusively near bridges to prevent serviceability index assumed at the end of the
damage to the bridge. pavement design life.
January 1999 iv
Reference Documents
Circular Number A-94 (Office of Management and
Budget - 1992), Appendix C (OMB - Current
Revision)
June 1999 v
Acknowledgments
Principle Writers:
The authors wish to thank the following people for their assistance in writing, reviewing, editing, printing,
and distributing this Manual. Without their efforts, this Manual would not have been possible.
June 1999 vi
Table of Contents
100.3 Present Serviceability Index With the aid of research contracts, ODOT has
developed models concerning pavement
Present Serviceability Index (PSI) is a measure of deterioration. The equations presented are a
pavement surface roughness or riding comfort. It function of pavement type and the last activity
is measured on a scale between 0 and 5, with 5 performed on the pavement. For more information
being a perfectly smooth ride. PSI data is collected on the activities described, refer to Sections 500
annually for all divided and undivided state and 600. These models should not be used
highways with exception of those located inside without intuitive reasoning, as they were developed
corporate limits of municipalities. More detail with data from the entire state network and may not
concerning the concept of Serviceability is be representative of every pavement section.
presented in Section 201. Figure 101-1 lists all available pavement
performance models.
101.3 Pavement Modeling PCR data, along with the appropriate pavement
deterioration model for the fractured slab
The ability to predict the condition of a pavement is technique. All of this information is then graphed
not a perfected technique at this time. However, versus the year the data points apply. This
using the equations in Figure 101-1 as well as example illustrates the use of this graphical
doing a regression analysis on the PCR data from representation as a tool which can be used to
the actual pavement and plotting this information predict the condition of the pavement in the future.
does provide the pavement designer with some It can be seen that the predicted PCR of the
insight into performance trends. Figure 101-2 is an fictitious pavement will likely be in the upper-50's in
example of such a plot. the year 2002 and may be a candidate for major
rehabilitation if something is not planned for the
Figure 101-2 displays a fictitious project which was year 2002 or earlier.
rubblized and rolled in 1990. Provided in this figure
is the actual PCR data, a regression of the actual
RIGID PAVEMENT
Minor Rehabilitation:
All Overlays with and without Repairs PCR = 96.0 - 3.7(AGE)
CPR PCR = 96.2 - 7.0 (AGE)
New Rigid Pavement & Unbonded Concrete Overlay PCR = 99.1 - 0.9 (AGE)
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Minor Rehabilitation
Non-Structural Overlay with Minimal Repairs PCR = 98.1 - 3.3 (AGE)
Non-Structural Overlay with Repairs PCR = 98.6 - 3.8 (AGE)
Structural Overlay with Minimal Repairs PCR = 98.3 - 3.3 (AGE)
Generic Minor Rehabilitation (all of the above) PCR = 98.0 - 3.3 (AGE)
Major Rehabilitation
Fractured Slab Technique PCR = 98.0 - 3.4 (AGE)
New Flexible Pavement PCR = 99.5 - 2.0 (AGE)
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Minor Rehabilitation
Non-Structural Overlay with Minimal Repairs PCR = 96.1 - 4.0 (AGE)
Non-Structural Overlay with Repairs PCR = 96.1 - 3.8 (AGE)
Structural Overlay with Minimal Repairs PCR = 96.1 - 4.3 (AGE)
Structural Overlay with Repairs PCR = 96.1 - 3.3 (AGE)
Generic Minor Rehabilitation (all of the above) PCR = 96.0 - 3.7 (AGE)
100
90
80
PCR
70
60
50
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Year
on gradation and Atterburg Limits. Figure 203-1 standard which has been developed for crushed
represents the classification system for Ohio soils. stone.
Where:
The subgrade resilient modulus is a measure of
the ability of a soil to resist permanent deformation
%P = The percentage passing the #200
under repeated loading. Many soils are stress
sieve.
dependent. As the stress level increases, these
L.L. = The Liquid Limit which is the
soils will behave in a nonlinear fashion. Fine-
water content at which a soil flows
grained soils tend to be stress-softening, whereas
like a viscous liquid.
granular soils tend to be stress-hardening. The
P.I. = The Plasticity Index which is the
laboratory test (LTPP P 46) is designed to
numerical difference of the liquid
determine the strain due to a repeated load
and plastic limits, and indicates
(deviator stress) which duplicates the effects of
the range of water content
loads passing over a section of pavement.
through which the soil flows.
Based on limited research and several current
The nomographs shown in Figure 203-2 solve
publications, ODOT has adopted a standard
Equation 203.3.
relationship between Modulus of Resilience and
the California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
In order to reduce the amount of laboratory testing
required to characterize the soil strength, ODOT
Equation 203.1: Mr = 1200 * CBR
developed a relationship between CBR and Group
Index. This relationship was developed in the early
203.2 California Bearing Ratio 1960's by testing thousands of soil samples.
Figure 203-3 provides a correlation chart to convert
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is most the Group Index to the CBR.
commonly obtained by doing a laboratory
penetration test of a soaked sample of soil. The
load required to produce a penetration at each 0.1
inch depth in the soaked sample is divided by a
The soil profile is one of the most useful tools for ODOT CMS Item 206 Lime Soil Stabilized
any geotechnical analysis. This manual only Subgrade is available for use on subgrade which
considers the usefulness of the soil profile as it has high clay content. Although it is commonly
applies to pavement design. Using the soil profile, assumed that the stabilization of the soil results in
the Atterberg Limits and GI can be obtained higher subgrade strength, ODOT’s current design
directly for most samples. Where complete soil methods do not provide for reduced pavement
classifications are not provided, refer to Figure section as a result of modified subgrade.
203-1 for estimates of GI. The most appropriate
GI to use for pavement design is determined by ODOT CMS 712.09 provides requirements for
using engineering judgment. Consideration should Type D Geotextile Fabric. This fabric can be used
be given only to the soil located within the top 3 at the bottom of undercuts as a separator between
feet (1m) of proposed subgrade. An average soil unsuitable clay or silt and the proposed granular
type is to be used for pavement design. ODOT’s embankment or aggregate base. The separator
Pavement Design Procedure uses a statistical keeps the migration of clay and silt from closing the
reliability factor (see Section 204) to account for voids in the layers above and causing settlement
the variability found in the subgrade strength. The and/or pumping.
most common error found when reviewing
pavement designs is the use of a CBR value which Geotextile fabrics are often recommended to be
is too conservative, in other words using the worst used as a construction aid to speed construction,
soil rather than the average. Determination of the but should not be used to thin the required
soil type and strength parameters for borrow used pavement thickness.
in fill situations should be considered. An
assumption must be made as to where the borrow Geotechnical recommendations regarding proper
will come from. Usually it is assumed that the embankment construction, including subgrade
borrow will come from somewhere nearby and will treatment, may be requested from the Office of
likely be the same soil type. Evaluation should also Materials Management, Geotechnical Design
include consideration of the cut material to be used Section.
for fill.
204 Reliability
203.4.1 Unsuitable Subgrade Soil
AASHTO defines Reliability as “the probability that
Frost susceptible silts are never to be used within the load applications a pavement can withstand in
one meter of proposed subgrade elevation. These reaching a specified minimum serviceability level is
soils are classified as A-4b and should be set up not exceeded by the number of load applications
for undercut and replacement with suitable that are actually applied to the pavement”.
subgrade materials. It is important to remember Technically, reliability is a statistical tool used in
that these soils will not be part of the subgrade and pavement design which assumes a standard
should not be included in the average soil strength normal distribution exists for all pavement design
value used for design. parameters and allows the designer to account for
deviation from the average, equally for all
Weak-wet soils with blow counts of only one or two parameters. Reliability parameters can be thought
are not suitable for subgrade under pavement, and of as safety factors. Figure 201-1 lists the
should be removed and replaced with suitable Reliability Factors to be used in pavement design
material, or stabilized with lime or cement. for various classifications of highways.
The overall standard deviation (variance) is a Prefabricated edge drains are located at the edge
measure of the spread of the probability distribution of existing concrete pavement on resurfacing
for ESAL’s vs. Serviceability, considering all the projects where the existing pavement and paved
parameters used to design a pavement. Figure shoulders are being retained. If existing paved
201-1 lists the Overall Standard Deviation to be shoulders are being replaced, a 4 inch (~100 mm)
used in pavement design. shallow pipe underdrain at the edge of pavement
should be used in lieu of the prefabricated edge
drain. On resurfacing projects, where edge drains
205 Subsurface Pavement already exist, existing outlets should be inspected
Drainage and replaced where they no longer function.
There are two basic types of free draining bases closing the voids and clogging the drains. Item 408
for use under pavements: stabilized and non- Prime Coat is required on the surface of the
stabilized. Stabilized free draining base consists of aggregate base to prevent the fines contained in
a blend of #57 and #8 aggregate with a Portland the aggregate base from washing into the drainage
cement or asphalt cement binding agent. Cement system. The prime coat should be applied at 0.4
Treated Free Draining Base is Item 306 and gallons per square yard (~1.8 liters per square
Asphalt Treated Free Draining Base is Item855. meter) on top of the aggregate base, everywhere
The stabilized bases provide a very stable except above the underdrain trenches.
construction platform and allow the contractor to
use the base as a haul road for short periods of Two separate drainage systems are used with
time. The contractor must accept all risk for the pavements which have a free draining base. One
potential damage to the base. Non-stabilized free set of underdrains is provided exclusively for the
draining bases, Item 307, have three different free draining base, and a second set is provided
gradations, none of which are stable enough to be exclusively for the subgrade. Since the FDB layer
used for a haul road but which have ample stability collects and drains water between the load carrying
for paving. All but one of the free draining bases layers, sound and committed maintenance is
are 4 inches (~100 mm) thick, the exception being essential in order to provide the performance
the non-stabilized Type ‘CE’, which is 6 inches benefits of this base course. Free draining bases
(~150 mm) thick. should not be constructed if they are not going to
be maintained throughout the life of the pavement.
The choice of free draining base type is dependent Maintenance consists mainly of making sure the
upon pavement type, constructability and outlets are functioning properly and are not
preference. There are concerns regarding the use clogged with debris or blocked in some way.
of a stabilized free draining bases because of the Consideration should be given to marking outlets
relatively short time they have been used and the with sign and post for projects with free draining
lack of performance data which is available. In base. For examples of typical sections depicting
fact, there are not yet any available studies which FDB refer to Figures 1009-6 and 1009-7 of the
have been done nationwide which indicate the cost Location & Design Manual, Volume 2 - Drainage
effectiveness of using any FDB. Ohio has Design.
documented the non-stabilized free draining base-
Type ‘NJ’ may be inducing premature midpanel 205.2 AASHTO Drainage Coefficient
cracking under rigid pavements and its use under
rigid pavements is not recommended. There are The AASHTO pavement design equations attempt
separate concerns regarding the use of a stabilized to consider the effects of drainage on pavement
free draining base, due to the potential for long performance. The nomographs used in this
term erosion of the binding agent. manual are reprinted from AASHTO and allow for
the use of the drainage coefficient for rigid
All free draining base courses must include a 6 pavement design. The flexible design method in
inch (~150 mm) layer of Item 304 Aggregate Base this manual does not include the drainage factor.
placed below the free draining base. This layer For ODOT pavement design the Drainage
contributes to the structural capacity of the Coefficient shall always be 1.0 for design of both
pavement, provides a stable platform for paving rigid and flexible pavements.
and acts as a filter to prevent the migration of the
subgrade into the free draining base, potentially
SERVICEABILITY FACTORS
RIGID / COMPOSITE FLEXIBLE
Collectors 90 85
Local 80 80
Urban Interstate, Urban Freeway & Expressway, & Urban Principal Arterial 2:1
LANE FACTORS
Number of Lanes % Trucks in Design Lane Directional Distribution (%)
2 - Lane 100 50
4 - Lane 90 50
ODOT’s method for the design of rigid pavement 301.4 Composite Modulus of Subgrade
limits the designer to prescribed input parameters. Reaction
The input values prescribed are based on Ohio
materials, and ODOT Specifications. The Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
represents the combined effect of the subgrade
301.1 Modulus of Rupture strength or subgrade modulus of resilience, as
discussed in Section 203.1, and the strength, or
Modulus of Rupture, as determined under a elastic modulus, and thickness of the subbase
breaking load, measures the flexural strength or material. The pavement design process requires
extreme fiber stress, of the concrete slab. There the designer to choose the subbase prior to the
are many ways to determine the modulus of determination of the required slab thickness. The
rupture and each way will give slightly different values to be used for the elastic modulus of the
results; however, each method can be correlated subbase for ODOT materials is listed in Figure
to the measure defined for use in the 301-1. Figure 301-2 is a nomograph which
AASHTO/ODOT method. The modulus of rupture determines the Composite Modulus of Subgrade
as defined for ODOT’s pavement design method is Reaction.
the 28 day - third point loading test as defined by
ASTM C 78. All rigid pavement design should use For uncurbed pavements carrying more than 50
a Modulus of Rupture of 700 psi, as shown in ESAL’s per day and for curbed pavements carrying
Figure 301-1. Average values obtained through more than 100 ESAL’s per day, a 6 inch granular
beam breaks performed as part of ODOT base (Item 304) is recommended to prevent
Construction and Material Specification pumping for concrete pavements on fine grained
requirements should not be used directly for design soils.
purposes, as this test is defined by ASTM C 293 as
a center point loading, and are generally done as
early as 5 days.
301.5 Loss of Support years and then to the current standard of 21 feet
(~6.5 m). Current analysis indicates the plain
Loss of Support, (LS), is included in the design of concrete pavement has a lower initial cost than the
rigid pavements to account for the potential loss of reinforced concrete pavement. However,
support arising from subbase erosion and/or uncertainties exist regarding the development of
differential vertical soil movements. The potential midpanel cracking in plain concrete pavement.
of a material to pump is a good indicator of LS. It Current preference is to construct Item 452 Plain
is treated in the actual design procedure by Concrete Pavement above dense graded bases
diminishing the composite modulus of subgrade (Item 304) and Item 451 Reinforced Concrete
reaction. Figure 301-1 list the LS factors to be Pavement above Free Draining Bases (Items 306,
used for ODOT materials. 307 Type IA, and 855).
pavements being rehabilitated is discussed in beyond the outside edge of the paved shoulder,
Section 500. whichever is greater.
303.3 Longitudinal Joints Where curb and gutter or integral curb is used,
subbase shall extend 12 inches (~300 mm) beyond
Longitudinal joints are required whenever the the back of the curb or to the outside of the porous
pavement width exceeds 18 feet (~5.4 m). Ideally, backfill over the pipe underdrain, whichever is
the joints should be located at lane lines, and out of greater. Refer to Hydraulics Manual and Sample
the wheel paths. Unless advised otherwise, best Plan Sheets.
practice dictates to tie all lanes together using a
Standard Longitudinal Joint as detailed in the 303.6 Intersection Jointing Details
Standard Construction Drawings. At intersections,
where two independent pavements meet, a Intersections require careful consideration of the
longitudinal joint without tie bars is required to joint layout and dowel and tie bar placement. In
separate the two pavements and allow for order to ensure load transfer and that cracking is
independent movement. controlled properly and both intersecting
pavements do not hinder the movement of one
303.4 Shoulder Considerations another, jointing diagrams should be provided as
part of the plans. Joint diagrams should be
Shoulders are used to provide an area for the designed with consideration to maintenance of
accommodation of disabled vehicles, for the lateral traffic needs as well as ease of construction. The
support of the base and surface courses, to number of longitudinal joints should be kept to a
improve the safety of a highway, and for future minimum, and all lanes should be the same width.
maintenance of traffic operations during Examples of jointing diagrams are included in the
maintenance and rehabilitation work. “Location & Design Plan Preparation Sample Plan
Sheets-Volume Three”. Also, there are various
Shoulders for concrete pavements shall be publications provided by the American Concrete
constructed of the same material and thickness as Pavement Association (ACPA) which provides
the mainline pavement for all Interstate, freeways, guidance for intersection jointing layout.
expressways, and other multi-lane divided facilities.
This provides a stable temporary pavement for 304 Smoothness Specifications
maintenance of traffic lane shifts, and reduces the
complexity of construction. Tying concrete Incentive/disincentive for smoothness is specified
shoulders onto the mainline provides lateral using Proposal Note 450 - 451, 452 and 453
support and spreads the load over a greater area. Surface Smoothness Requirements. The Note is
Using other types of shoulders, such as flexible, to be used on all projects which have in excess of
bituminous surface treated, stabilized aggregate, or 1 center-line mile (~1.6 center-line km) of concrete
turf shoulders should be in accordance with pavement. However, ODOT CMS smoothness
Geometric Standards, discussed in the Location & requirements are more appropriate for urbanized
Design Manual, Volume One - Roadway Design. routes with speed limits posted under 50 miles per
Regardless of shoulder type, shoulder base and hour, regardless of size of project.
subgrade considerations should include keeping
drainage away from the pavement, rather than
towards it. Examples of typical sections depicting 305 Composite Pavement
rigid pavement with different types of shoulders are
shown in Figure 303-1. Composite pavement herein refers to a rigid base
with an asphalt surface. Generally the design of a
composite pavement is discouraged due to the
303.5 Edge Course Design relative performance and associated costs. Where
local preference is strong and there has been good
The Aggregate Base for a rigid pavement shall performance of composite pavements,
extend 18 inches (~450 mm) beyond the pavement consideration may be given to the design and
edge, or to the outside edge of the porous backfill specification of a composite pavement.
over the pipe underdrain, or to 6 inches (~150 mm)
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Modulus of Rupture (S’C) 700 psi
SUBBASE FACTORS
Recommended Loss of Support
Elastic Modulus (PSI)
ODOT Specification Thickness (in.)
(ESB)
(DSB) (LS)
* Edge support includes tied concrete shoulders, integral curb, widened lane, etc. Widened lane
refers to concrete slabs built 14 feet (~4.2 m) wide or wider, but striped for a standard 12-foot (~3.6 m)
lane, leaving 2 feet (~0.6 m) outside the traveled lane to provide edge support.
** The use of a free draining base always includes a 6-inch (~150 mm) layer of Item 304 Aggregate
Base to be used as a filter layer and is used to keep the subgrade from infiltrating and plugging the
free draining base. The values to be used in the table represent the combined effect of the strength of
the 6-inch (~150 mm) aggregate base filter layer, as well as the free draining base layer.
Givens:
• Number of Lanes: 4
• 24 hour truck % 10
Solution:
Step 1 - Determine the Group Index Number (G.I.) Using Figure 203-2.
In chart A, solve for the Partial Group Index using the 70 % Passing No. 200 Sieve and the Liquid
Limit (L.L.) Of 45. G.I. from Chart A = 7.9. In Chart B, solve for the Partial Group Index using the 70
% (55 or more) Passing No. 200 Sieve and the Plasticity Index of 12. G.I. from Chart B = 0.8. The
total G.I. is 7.9 plus 0.8 or 8.7 (Rounded to 9).
Step 2 - Determine the Subgrade Resilient Modulus (MR) using Figure 203-3.
Using a G.I. of 9 from Figure 203-2 (Step 1), the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is 6 (Rounded). The
CBR is used in the following formula to determine the Resilient Modulus.
Since the project is expected to begin carrying traffic in the year 2000, the traffic period would be 2000
to 2020, with a mid-year of 2010 and an interpolated ADT of 19,936.
Design Period ESAL's = 1,876.8 X 365.25 days/yr. X 20 year = 13,709,842 say 13.7x106 ESAL’s
Step 4 - Determine the Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (Kc) using Figure 301-2.
Starting with the given subbase thickness (DSB) of 6", a line is projected up to the Subbase Elastic
Modulus (ESB) curve of 30,000 psi (Item 304 Aggregate Base from Figure 301-1). From this point on
the 30,000 psi curve, a line is projected to the right for future intersection. Similarly, from the 6"
subbase thickness (DSB), a line is projected down to the Subgrade Resilient Modulus (MR) curve of
1200 psi ( Figure 203-3, Step 2). From this point on the 1200 psi curve, a line is projected to the right
to the turning line and then projected up to intersect with previously projected line. This intersection
results in a Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (KC) of 400 pci.
Step 5 - Determine the Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (K) using Figure 301-3.
The Composite Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (Kc) is 400 pci from Figure 301-2, Step 4. The Loss of
Support (LS) for Item 304 Aggregate Base is 1.0 from Figure 301-1. This results in a K of 130 pci.
302-1
June 1999
Rigid Pavement Design Example
Page 3 Reference Section
302
Step 6 - Determine the thickness of the concrete slab using Figures 302-2 and 302-3.
Figure 302-2 is used to solve for the Match Line Number using the following information:
Effective Modulus of Subgrade (K) = 130 pci (Figure 301-3, Step 5).
The resulting Match Line Number of 62 is then used on Figure 302-3, along with the following
information, to solve for the Design Slab Thickness (D).
Any base course shall extend beyond the edge of Reference is made to Appendix B - Pavement
the overlying intermediate course a distance equal Guidelines for Treatment of High Stress Locations.
to the thickness of the surface course plus the
404.1 All Item 446 & 448 Type 1 and Type A and B requirements are found in SS 858.
They control gradation bands and aggregate
Type 2 Courses
angularity. Type A has higher crush requirements
that may mean the importation of aggregate in
The only difference between 446 and 448 is the
some areas of the state. This will raise product
way ODOT accepts the material during
cost where districts have had good performance
construction. These materials are identical as they
from locally available aggregates. Type B has
come out of the plant. Because Item 446 carries a
more restrictive gradation bands but lower crush
density requirement for acceptance criteria, it is
requirements. Gradation requirements of Type B
important to understand that Item 446 must only be
mix will closely resemble Type 1H mix under 441.
specified where a uniform thickness is used. The
District testing and construction personnel
following guidelines are to be used for the
knowledgeable in materials should be consulted
determination of asphalt concrete material
prior to selection of Type A or B.
specification:
Pay descriptions for Superpave items contain a
• Specify 446 for all projects which require a
reference to the maximum aggregate size used in
quantity of greater than 500 cubic yards
the mix. Accordingly, the 9.5 mm, 12.5 mm, and
(~500 cubic meters) of Type 1H surface
19.0 mm aggregate sizes are used for Superpave
course.
mix types. This reference to the maximum
aggregate size replaces the reference to Type 1,
• Specify 446 for all multi-lane resurfacing
Type 1H, and Type 2, respectively, used in non-
and rehabilitation projects.
superpave specifications, and has nothing to do
with any other measurement.
• Specify 446 for all projects where included
quantities (Type 1 and Type 2) exceed
2000 cubic yards (~1500 cubic meters). 404.3 Item 446 & 448 Asphalt Concrete
Surface Course, Type 1, PG64-22
• Specify 448 for all projects where 446 is
not required. This item is intended to be used as a surface
course for Medium or Light traffic (see PN 417 and
• Superpave shall be implemented in 418). Lift thickness can vary between 1.25 inches
accordance with direction provided by the (~32 mm) and 1.5 inches (~38 mm). Lift thickness
Division of Engineering Policy. can be reduced to 1 inch (~25 mm), but must be a
uniform thickness if 446 is specified.
For projects which require 446, and only use
variable thickness at bridges and ramps in order to Where Item 446 is specified for the surface course,
taper down to the required elevation, it is all Type 1 material specified should be Item 446
considered good practice to specify only the 446 material, except where a uniform lift thickness is
Item. ODOT construction and testing staff will only not possible. Item 446 is to be specified only in
test the areas which are constructed as uniform uniform thickness.
thickness, and skip the testing of the variable
thickness courses. This will eliminate a pay item 404.4 Items 446 and 448 Asphalt
and other complications.
Concrete Surface Course, Type 1H
Where Item 446 is specified for the surface course,
All projects which require a quantity greater than
all Type 1 and Type 2 material specified should be
500 cubic yards of Type 1H surface course shall
446, except where a uniform lift thickness is not
specify Item 446 for the surface course. Item 446
possible.
is to be specified only in uniform thickness.
404.2 Superpave Specifications This item is intended to be used as a surface
course for a Heavy mix design (ADTT>1500, see
Superpave mixes are similar to 446 and 448 mixes PN 416). Type 1H mix is designed for maximum
except the mix design procedures as required in rut resistance at 1.5 inches (~38 mm) thick. Type
ODOT CMS 441 are modified by Supplemental 1H is generally the most expensive mix and an
Specification 858.
increased thickness may not be economical. In special circumstances it is possible to allow this lift
special situations where an intermediate course is to be as thin as 1.5 inches (~38 mm), but this is
not possible, Type 1H may be specified up to a discouraged. Item 446 is to be specified only in
maximum of 2.5 inches (~65 mm). A 1H course uniform thickness.
cannot be placed properly at a thickness less than
1.5 inches (~38 mm). Durability and Caution is advised when determining the use of
constructability problems will result. Best practice and the thickness of this Item. ODOT CMS
is to use 1.5 inches (~38 mm). specifies a maximum compaction lift of 3 inches
(~75 mm). For a required layer of say 3.5 inches
A Type 1H will not have a performance grade (PG) (~90 mm), the contractor will automatically place
asphalt cement specification. All 1H mixes are the material in two lifts of 1.75 inches (~45 mm). It
designed using an SBS or SBR polymer modified is best to avoid specifying layers between 3 inches
asphalt cement. For more detailed information see (~75 mm) and 3.5 inches (~90 mm) due to the 1.75
PN 101-96 and SS 1055. inch (~45 mm) minimum lift thickness requirement.
For most situations, the total thickness should not
404.4.1 Item 858 Asphalt Concrete Surface exceed 4.5 inches (~115 mm), as it would be better
Course, 12.5 mm A & B (446 & 448) to introduce the additional thickness into the 301 or
302 or even the 304 base(s).
This Item is the Superpave version of Type 1H.
The requirements of Section 404.4 apply. Specify PG64-28 for projects which have a Type
1H surface mix, otherwise specify PG64-22.
404.5 Item 446 Asphalt Concrete
404.6.1 Item 858 Asphalt Concrete Intermediate
Intermediate Course, Type 1, PG64-22
Course, 19 mm A & B (446)
This item is to be used as an intermediate course
This Item is the Superpave version of Item 446
in pavement overlay situations where the total
Asphalt Concrete Intermediate Course, Type 2,
overlay thickness is less than 3 inches (~75 mm).
PG64-28. The requirements of Section 404.6
A Type 1 Intermediate Course is required because
apply.
of the thin intermediate layer. Lift thickness for this
item can be as thin as 1 inch (~25 mm) and as
thick as 1.5 inches (~38 mm). Item 446 is to be 404.7 Item 448 Asphalt Concrete
specified only in uniform thickness. Because the Intermediate Course, Type 1, PG64-28
grading of Type 1 mixes typically exhibit less & PG64-22
stability than that of a Type 1H or a Type 2 mixture,
caution is advised when determining the use and The intent of this item is for a scratch course.
thickness of this item, such that deformation is Uniform lift thickness for this item can be as thin as
avoided. Best practice is to include some planing 1 inch (~25 mm) and as thick as 1.5 inches (~38
of the existing surface to allow a Type 2 material to mm). This item can be used as a variable
be used for the intermediate course. thickness course. For some rare occasions, when
this lift is used as a leveling or wedge course, it
This item is not to be used in combination with a may be practical to stretch the lift thickness past
Type 1H surface course. the 1.5 inch (~38 mm) limit. For situations where
the variability of the course thickness is excessive,
Where Item 446 is specified for the surface course, say 0 inches to 2 inches (0 mm to ~50 mm),
all Type 1 material specified should be Item 446 consideration should be given to pavement planing
material, except where a uniform lift thickness is to allow for the use of a Type 2 mix which provides
not possible. more stability than a Type 1mix. This item can be
tapered to 0 inches (0 mm).
404.6 Item 446 Asphalt Concrete
Intermediate Course, Type 2, PG64-28 For projects which require 446 specifications, but
need this type of a leveling or wedge, there is
& PG64-22
nothing wrong with placing a 448 Intermediate,
Type 1 under a 446 Surface. However, this item is
This item is intended to be used as an intermediate
not to be used as uniform thickness layer
course. The gradation of this mix requires the lift
underneath a Type 1H layer. Where Item 446 is
to be at least 1.75 inches (~45 mm) thick. In
specified for the surface course, all Type 1 material
specified should be Item 446 material, except 404.9 Item 301 Bituminous Aggregate
where a uniform lift thickness is not possible.
Base, PG64-22
Specify PG64-28 for projects which have a Type
This item is to be used in conjunction with both a
1H surface mix, otherwise specify PG64-22.
surface and intermediate course. The gradation of
this mix requires the lift to be at least 3 inches (~75
404.7.1 Item 858 Asphalt Concrete Intermediate
mm) thick. For most situations, this material
Course, 9.5 mm A & B (448) should have 304 underneath, and a minimum of 3
inches (~75 mm) of surface and intermediate
This Item is the Superpave version of Item 448 course above. In special circumstances it is
Asphalt Concrete Intermediate Course, Type 1, possible to allow this lift to be as thin as 2.5 inches
PG64-28. The requirements of Section 404.7 (~65 mm), but this is discouraged. This item may
apply. be placed in variable thicknesses. ODOT CMS
specifies a maximum compaction lift of 6 inches
404.8 Item 448 Asphalt Concrete (~150 mm). For a required layer of say 7 inches
Intermediate Course, Type 2, PG64-28 (~180 mm) the contractor will automatically place
& PG64-22 the material in two lifts of 3.5 inches (~90 mm).
For most situations, the total thickness should not
The intent of this item is the same as for Item 446 exceed 10 inches (~250 mm), as it would be better
Asphalt Concrete Intermediate Course, Type 2 to introduce the additional thickness into a 302
(Section 404.6). However, there is a difference. and/or a 304 base(s). This material can handle
This item can also be used as a variable thickness traffic during construction due to phasing but care
course. For some rare occasions, when this lift is should be taken to minimize high traffic volume
used as a leveling or wedge course, it may be contact. In high traffic volume situations, an
practical to stretch the maximum recommended intermediate course is preferred for maintenance
thickness past the 4.5 inch (~115 mm) limit. As for of traffic, particularly over the winter.
the minimum lift thickness, this item can be
specified to 0 inches (0 mm). 404.10 Item 302 Bituminous Aggregate
Base, PG64-22
For projects which require 446 specifications, but
need this type of a leveling or wedge, it is This item is to be used in conjunction with both a
acceptable to place a 448 Intermediate, Type 2 surface and intermediate course. This mix was
under a 446 Surface Type 1. However, for high developed for use with thick flexible pavements
traffic volumes, this practice should be avoided, if where high volume truck traffic exists. When lift
possible, to minimize pavement densification under thicknesses and maintenance of traffic operations
traffic. allow, Item 302 is preferred over Item 301. The
gradation of this mix requires the lift to be at least
Specify PG64-28 for projects which have a Type 4 inches (~100 mm) thick. ODOT CMS specifies
1H surface mix, otherwise specify PG64-22. a maximum compaction lift of “less than 8 inches
(200 mm).” For a required layer of exactly 8 inches
404.8.1 Item 848 Asphalt Concrete Intermediate (~200 mm) the contractor will automatically place
Course, 19 mm A & B (448) the material in two lifts of 4 inches (~100 mm).
This item may be placed in variable thicknesses.
This Item is the Superpave version of Item 448 For most situations, this material should have 304
Asphalt Concrete Intermediate Course, Type 2, underneath, and a minimum of 3 inches (~75 mm)
PG64-28. The requirements of Section 404.8 of surface and intermediate course above. It is not
apply. necessary to put a 301 course above a 302 course.
Placement of 301 below 302 is illogical. Item 302
should not be used for maintenance of traffic for
more than approximately 60 days and never over
the winter. If it is necessary to maintain traffic for
more than 60 days or over winter, the top 3 inches
(75 mm) of the 302 could be changed to 301, or
more preferable, the project should be scheduled
to allow the intermediate course to be placed for
maintenance of traffic.
404.11 Item 407 Tack Coat 301 or 302) is less than or equal to the thickness of
the 304. For thicker pavements a prime coat may
A tack coat is used to glue an asphalt layer to the not be necessary but is still optional.
layer below. Tack coats are required anytime a
surface course is placed on an intermediate course Application rate for prime coat is always 0.4 gallons
(CMS 407.052). Tack coat is recommended per square yard (1.8 L/m2).
anytime new asphalt is being placed on an existing
surface with two exceptions. Tack coat should not 405 Smoothness Specifications
be used under a bondbreaker layer for an
unbonded concrete overlay. Tack coat also should Incentive/disincentive for smoothness is specified
not be used on rubblized concrete. using Proposal Note 414 - 446 Surface
Smoothness Requirements. The Note is to be
Actual application rates of tack coat are set in the used on projects which have a 446-type surface
field. The most common application rate used for mix, either conventional or Superpave. The traffic
estimating quantities is 0.75 gallons per square volume should be either heavy or medium (see PN
yard (0.34 L/m2). Estimated application rate of tack 416 and 417). The project should be greater than
for surface courses placed on intermediate one center-line mile (~1.6 center-line km) of
courses is 0.04 gallons per square yard (.018 divided highway with two or more lanes per
L/m2). direction. On resurfacing projects, the total
thickness of new asphalt must be at least 4 inches
404.12 Item 408 Prime Coat (~100 mm) if the existing surface is not planed, or
3 inches (~75 mm) if the existing surface is planed.
Prime coats are applied to Item 304 Aggregate When placing an overlay directly on concrete which
Base to prevent binder from the asphalt from being has either never been overlayed or has had the
absorbed into the 304 or under a free draining existing overlay removed, the total thickness of
base to prevent erosion of the 304. Prime coats asphalt must be at least 4 inches (~100 mm). The
are required under all free draining bases, see exception to this is projects which involve building
Section 205.1.4. In the absence of a free draining a new composite pavement do not require the 4-
base, a prime coat is recommended anytime the inch (~100 mm) minimum.
thickness of the Bituminous Aggregate Base (Item
Item Special - Rubblize & Roll Existing Concrete Pavement 0.14 0.0055
Items 306, 307, 855 - Free Draining Base Layers 0.14 0.0055
Givens:
• Number of Lanes: 4
• 24 hour truck % 10
Solution:
Step 1 - Determine the Group Index Number (G.I.) Using Figure 203-2.
In chart A, solve for the Partial Group Index using the 70 % Passing No. 200 Sieve and the Liquid
Limit (L.L.) Of 45. G.I. from Chart A = 7.9. In Chart B, solve for the Partial Group Index using the 70
% (55 or more) Passing No. 200 Sieve and the Plasticity Index of 12. G.I. from Chart B = 0.8. The
total G.I. is 7.9 plus 0.8 or 8.7 (Rounded to 9).
Step 2 - Determine the Subgrade Resilient Modulus (MR) using Figure 203-3.
Using a G.I. of 9 from Figure 203-2 (Step 1), the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is 6 (Rounded). The
CBR is used in the following formula to determine the Resilient Modulus.
Since the project is expected to begin carrying traffic in the year 2000, the traffic period would be 2000
to 2020, with a mid-year of 2010 and an interpolated ADT of 19,936.
Design Period ESAL’s = 1,202.1 X 365.25 days/yr. X 20 year = 8,781,639 say 8.8 x 106 ESAL
Step 4
Determine the Design Structural Number (SN) using Figures 402-2 and 402-3. In Figure 402-2, solve
for the Match Line Number using the following information:
The resulting Match Line Number of 39 is then used in Figure 402-3, along with the Design
Serviceability Loss of 2.0 (Figure 201-1), to solve for the Design Structural Number (SN).
Step 5
Design the typical section using the layer coefficients found in Figure 401-1. The total SN for the
pavement buildup shall equal or exceed the SN (SN = 4.5) determined from Figure 402-3.
402-1
January 1999
Flexible Pavement Design Example
Page 3 Reference Section
402
By checking the current year Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT, see PN 416), determine the type of
surface mix required.
The following buildup is not the only solution, but will satisfy the required SN:
448 Asphalt Concrete Surface Course, Type 1, PG64-22 1.25" 0.35 0.44
448 Asphalt Concrete Intermediate Course, Type 2, PG64-22 1.75" 0.35 0.61
301 Bituminous Aggregate Base 7.5" 0.35 2.62
304 Aggregate Base 6" 0.14 0.84
16.5" 4.51
Note: 1,480 trucks per day (ADTT) is so close to 1,500 that it may be appropriate to specify
a heavy mix design. Also see PN 416, and Appendix B
402-2
Flexible Pavement Design Chart January 1999
502.2.4 Joint Support Ratio Temperature and moisture are the two climatic
factors that affect pavement deflections. For
The Joint Support Ratio is another measure of the asphalt pavements, higher temperatures cause the
joint’s effectiveness. Joint Support Ratio is the w1 asphalt binder to soften and increase deflections.
sensor from the joint leave reading divided by the For concrete pavements, temperature in the form
w1 sensor from the joint approach reading. Joint of overall change or thermal gradient has a
significant influence on deflections near joints and must be completed (Section 202). Finally, the
cracks. The slab expands in warmer temperatures history of the pavement must be known.
causing tighter joints and cracks and resulting in
greater efficiency of load transfer and smaller The history is required to determine the actual
deflections. The curling of the slab due to buildup of the pavement at the time the Dynaflect
temperature gradients can cause a large variation measurements were taken. There are many
in measured deflections. Measurements taken at sources for this information such as historical
night or early morning, when the top of the slab is plans, the pavement management system
colder than the bottom, will result in higher corner database, the joint repair database, etc. On past
and edge deflections than those taken in the overlay projects where existing asphalt was milled,
afternoon, when the top of the slab is much it is necessary to determine the depth of milling or
warmer than the bottom. at least a reasonable estimate. The UTOVER
program requires the total thickness of asphalt
The season of the year has a great effect on and/or concrete at the time the Dynaflect readings
deflection measurements. In cold regions, four were taken. If the thickness changes within the
distinct periods can be distinguished. The period project, the user must split the data and run
of deep frost occurs during the winter season when UTOVER separately for each of the different
the pavement is the strongest. The period of thicknesses.
spring thaw starts when the frost begins to
disappear from the pavement system and the Once all the required information is collected, the
deflection increases rapidly. The period of rapid first step is to run the UTPLOT.BAT program.
strength recovery takes place in early summer UTPLOT converts the raw Dynaflect file to a format
when the excess free water from the melting frost which can be read by UTOVER. Next is to run the
leaves the pavement system and the deflection UTOVER.EXE program. The input files for
decreases rapidly. The period of slow strength UTOVER are the output files created by UTPLOT
recovery extends from late summer to fall when the and not the raw Dynaflect file.
deflection levels off slowly as the water content
slowly decreases. For pavements that do not Most of the user inputs for UTOVER are self-
experience freeze-thaw, the deflection generally explanatory and many provide default values.
follows a sine curve with the peak deflection Some inputs are common to all pavement types:
occurring in the wet season when the moisture the title is the users choice, the design traffic input
contents are high. comes from the ESAL99 program (Section 202.3),
reliability factors are given in Figure 201-1, the
502.3.3 Pavement Conditions traffic standard deviation is always the default
value of 0.10, the file name containing the
Pavement conditions have significant effects on Dynaflect data is one of the files created by
measured deflections. For asphalt pavements, UTPLOT, and the output file name is the users
deflections obtained in areas with cracking and choice. Inputs specific to each pavement type are
rutting are normally higher than those free of discussed in the following sections. The
distress. For concrete pavements, voids beneath information given here is not intended to fully
the concrete slabs will cause increased deflections, explain the UTOVER procedure or Dynaflect
and the absence or deterioration of load transfer analysis. A training course is available which goes
devices will affect the deflections measured on over the procedures in detail.
both sides of the joint.
All of the inputs and outputs for UTOVER are
503 Overlay Design Procedure exclusively in English units.
Most of the rigid pavement inputs to UTOVER use 503.4 Composite Pavements
the default values. The thickness of the existing
pavement is obtained from the history. Use the Composite pavements are concrete overlaid with
default value for Poisson’s Ratio of the existing asphalt. Most old break & seat and crack & seat
concrete. Use the default values for elastic projects should be analyzed as composite
modulus, initial PSI, terminal PSI, modulus of pavements. Any asphalt-surfaced road with some
rupture, and the drainage coefficient. The load sort of concrete underneath, that is acting like a
transfer coefficient (J) is dependent on the rigid pavement according to the Edwards Ratio,
specifics of the existing pavement. A list of J- should be analyzed as a composite pavement.
factors for existing pavements is given in Figure
503-1. A rigid pavement with the majority of the The inputs for composite pavement are nearly
joints replaced with flexible repairs, should use a J- identical to rigid pavement with the addition of
factor for a pavement with no load transfer at the asphalt on top (Section 503.2). Thickness of
joints. existing AC layer is the thickness of all the asphalt
on top of the concrete. The default values should
503.3 Flexible Pavements be used for Poisson’s Ratio and the resilient
modulus of the asphalt. The thickness of existing
Flexible pavements are made up entirely of asphalt PCC slab is obtained from the history or coring.
with or without an aggregate or macadam base. Use default values for Poisson’s Ratio, new
Previously rubblized pavements are considered concrete elastic modulus, initial PSI, terminal PSI,
flexible pavement. Previous break & seat and new concrete modulus of rupture, and drainage
crack & seat projects may be flexible pavement but coefficient. The load transfer coefficient (J) is
are more likely acting as composite pavement. dependent on the specifics of the existing
The Edwards Ratio can help in determining pavement. A list of J-factors for existing
pavement type in questionable cases. pavements is given in Figure 503-1. A composite
pavement with the majority of the joints replaced
Most of the inputs for flexible pavement require the with flexible repairs, should use a J-factor for a
user to enter values. The whole thickness of pavement with no load transfer at the joints.
flexible pavement above subgrade is exactly what
the name implies: the thickness of the aggregate 503.4.1 Brick Pavements
base, macadam base, or rubblized concrete plus
the entire thickness of asphalt on top. The Most brick pavements in Ohio were built on a
thickness of the surface AC layer is required for concrete base and have since been overlayed with
temperature adjustment. It is not a sensitive input. asphalt and thus are a special kind of composite
Best practice is to use the thickness of the existing pavement. The UTOVER program was not
surface and intermediate courses combined. designed for use on brick pavements. The
Pavement surface temperature is recorded on the Edwards Ratio can help the user decide which type
Dynaflect printout. Where additional temperatures of pavement to use to analyze the brick. When
were recorded for the same data, a weighted inputting the thicknesses, it is up to the user to
average should be used. The 5-day mean air decide if the bricks count as concrete or as
temperature should be obtained from asphalt.
meteorological records, if available. In the
absence of actual temperature data, the morning Since brick pavements occur mostly in urban
pavement surface temperature should be used as areas, there are likely to be geometric problems
the basis for the 5-day mean temperature. Some such as curb reveal, driveways, etc. A possible
adjustment is allowed if the user is aware of solution is to design a crack and seat overlay (see
specific temperature conditions in the days just Section 600) with removal of both the asphalt and
prior to the Dynaflect readings. Initial and terminal the bricks. This should only be done if the section
PSI are always 4.5 and 2.5, respectively. has been cored to determine the condition and
thickness of the existing concrete. The actual
cracking and seating operation should not be
performed as the concrete is likely already well When old asphalt is removed, it is necessary to
cracked. This method merely eliminates the need replace the structure removed with an equivalent
to run UTOVER on a brick pavement which it was structure of new asphalt. The structural ratio of
not intended for and can sometimes result in new asphalt to old asphalt used in Ohio is 2:3. For
excessive overlay thicknesses. example, if 3" (~75 mm) of asphalt are removed, 2"
(~50 mm) of asphalt are required to replace the
5 04 M inor Rehabi l i t a t i on lost structure. Any required structural overlay is
then placed in addition to the 2 inches (~50 mm).
Strategies This ratio should not be used to make major
reductions in the pavement thickness. In virtually
As stated before, minor rehabilitations generally all cases, the pavement thickness after
consist of some combination of milling, repair, and rehabilitation should be equal to or greater than the
overlay. The structural overlay thickness needed thickness prior to rehabilitation.
is determined from the Dynaflect and the UTOVER
program. Even if UTOVER says that no additional On composite pavements, including brick, if all the
structure is needed, an overlay may still be asphalt is removed down to the concrete, or bricks,
required to correct functional deficiencies. The the minimum overlay thickness for rigid pavements
thickness of a functional overlay is selected based of 3 inches (~75 mm) applies.
on factors such as milling depth, lift thickness
requirements, vertical clearance, curb reveal, etc. When milling down to a concrete surface,
A functional overlay with milling should never result consideration should be given to lightly scarifying
in thinner pavement than existed beforehand. The the top of the concrete if the total overlay is less
other minor rehabilitation actions are at the than 5 inches (~125 mm) thick. The scarification
designer’s discretion based on the condition of the should be specified by plan note. The roughened
pavement. The actions selected should be those surface increases the bond between the asphalt
required to reach the full design period for minor and the concrete, therefore reducing the chances
rehabilitation projects. of rutting and debonding.
All asphalt items used in minor rehabilitation When milling asphalt over an existing brick base,
overlays should conform to the guidelines given in it is recommended to leave about two inches (~50
Section 404. Prior to completion of the plans, all mm) of asphalt on the bricks. Milling any closer
asphalt items specified should be discussed with can easily dislodge the bricks and pull them up with
the District Engineer of Tests or his designee. This the asphalt. Dislodged bricks should be quickly
is important to ensure proper binder grades and repaired, preferably using Asphalt Concrete (Items
mix specifications are specified. 301 or 448 Type 2), to prevent adjacent bricks from
moving. Repairs should be made prior to running
A minimum of 3 inches (~75 mm) of asphalt is any traffic over the area, including construction
required over any concrete or brick surface. traffic.
Milling is always recommended. A milled surface 504.3.1 Rigid and Composite Pavements
allows for mechanical interlock between the
existing pavement and the overlay which helps Pavement repairs in rigid and composite
prevent rutting and debonding. Milling removes the pavements most often occur at transverse joints
old, raveled, oxidized asphalt which, if left in place, and cracks and are generically referred to as joint
would be a weak layer in the pavement structure repairs. Joint repairs can be made using either
and would tend to hold water due to the lower concrete or asphalt. The repairs can be at existing
binder content. Milling reduces the overall transverse joints or transverse cracks or any other
elevation increase and thus helps reduce place which requires full-depth repair. Rigid
geometric problems. Milling removes ruts and repairs per BP-2.5, using Item 255 Full Depth
other irregularities and provides a level surface for Pavement Removal and Rigid Replacement are
the contractor to achieve proper density for 446 recommended in almost every case. Prior to
mixes. repair, coring is recommended to determine if solid
concrete exists near the joints to dowel into. concrete. However, if there are only a few flexible
Where solid concrete does not exist, flexible repairs or if the concrete is in excellent condition
repairs are an option but more likely the pavement except for the flexible repairs, it may be practical to
requires major rehabilitation. Only coring can replace all the flexible repairs with rigid repairs.
reveal if the concrete near the joints is solid,
Dynaflect analysis and visual inspection of the 504.3.2 Flexible Pavements
surface cannot reveal this.
Flexible pavements may require full-depth repair
Joint repair is considered economical for repair due to potholes, severe alligator cracking,
quantities up to ten percent of the pavement transverse thermal cracks, etc. Repairs in flexible
surface area. When more than ten percent repair pavements are done using Item 253 Pavement
is needed, a more thorough investigation is Repair. As with rigid and composite pavements,
warranted. If not already done, the pavement when repair quantities exceed about ten percent,
should be cored to better determine exact repair further investigation is warranted and major
needs. The required overlay thickness needs to be rehabilitation should be considered. For
examined and the possibility of major rehabilitation construction purposes, the minimum practical
should be considered. It should be remembered repair size is 2 feet by 2 feet (~0.6 m x 0.6 m).
that minor rehabilitations are intended to last
twelve years, not twenty. It may not be necessary Transverse thermal cracks are similar to
to repair every joint, especially if the pavement is to transverse joints in concrete pavement. As flexible
receive a thick overlay. pavements expand and contract with temperature,
if the binder is too stiff the pavement will crack.
When estimating repair quantities, it is important to These cracks can be random or can be regularly
correctly calculate the pavement sawing quantities. spaced just like joints in concrete. Thermal cracks
Transverse saw cuts are required across the are full-depth cracks through the entire thickness
pavement at the limits of the repair. A saw cut is of the pavement and must be repaired full depth to
also required along any tied longitudinal joint. For correct them and prevent them from reflecting
a typical six foot repair in one twelve foot wide lane through the surface.
on a four-lane divided highway with asphalt
shoulders, the total sawing quantity would be 12' 504.3.3 Brick Pavements
+12' +6' = 30' (3.6 m +3.6 m +1.8 m = 9 m).
Brick pavements built on a concrete base typically
In the past, due to concerns over pressure in do not have joints but often require full-depth
concrete pavements, Type D pressure relief joints repair. Full-depth repairs should be made using
(per BP-2.4) were sawed at approximately 1000- Item 305 Concrete Base, As Per Plan. A plan note
foot (~300 m) intervals in many concrete needs to be written to handle all project specific
pavements around the state. This not only relieved concerns. In general, the note should eliminate the
the pressure in the pavements but allowed the need for dowels, tie bars, joint forming, joint
midpanel cracks to open up and thus lose sealing, and texturing requirements. This assumes
aggregate interlock required for load transfer. the brick has an asphalt overlay or is going to
These Type D joints should be repaired full depth receive one.
with rigid joint repairs whenever they are
encountered. To guard against pressure damage Full-depth repair of brick pavements built on a
to the bridges, a Pressure Relief Joint, Type A per flexible base should be made with materials similar
BP-2.3, may be installed at the approach slabs. to existing. Generally this means Item 304
Aggregate Base and/or Item 301 Bituminous
Some concrete pavements have had joints Aggregate Base.
repaired with full depth flexible repairs. These
asphalt repairs tend to hump up as the concrete As many brick pavements occur inside
expands, forming mini speed bumps which can be municipalities, the agency responsible for
very detrimental to the ride and can be a maintenance should be contacted regarding their
maintenance headache. When a majority of the repair standards. This is particularly true for
joints have been repaired with asphalt, it is exposed brick pavements that will remain exposed.
generally impractical to re-repair them with
under this definition. Rebuilt or widened shoulders the existing asphalt. This not only removes the
should generally use asphalt. Widening projects in uncompacted asphalt at the edges, but ensures
excess of four lane-miles must follow the there will not be a longitudinal construction joint in
Pavement Design and Selection Process. the wheel path. When matching thickness with the
existing, the exact buildup and lift thicknesses
504.7.1 Rigid Pavement should follow the guidelines given in Section 404.
When widening existing rigid pavement with When widening a flexible pavement with another
concrete, the new pavement should be the same pavement type, the widening should be designed
type as the old (plain or reinforced) and should be for the conditions at hand. If necessary, the base
tied to the existing concrete using a Type D under the widening should be thickened so that the
Longitudinal Joint per BP-2.1. Prior to specifying a subgrade elevations will match. If the widening is
Type D joint, the existing concrete should be cored thicker than the existing the subgrade should be
to determine soundness. Where coring discloses sloped away from the existing and drainage
unsound pavement; pavement repair, pavement provided.
replacement, or the elimination of the Type D joint
should be considered. Widening of concrete 504.7.3 Composite Pavement
pavement without tying longitudinally may create
separation and/or faulting depending on traffic. When widening existing composite pavement with
composite pavement, not only should the subgrade
The most important consideration when widening elevations match but the surface of the concrete
and tying rigid pavement is that transverse joints in must match as well. Because it will be overlayed
the widening must be of the same type, placed at immediately, use Item 305 Concrete Base for the
the same location, and in the same alignment as concrete regardless what type the existing
the existing. Mismatched transverse joints will concrete is. However, if the existing concrete is
induce cracking. Longitudinal joints are best reinforced, add a note requiring the 305 also be
located at lane lines. The worst location for a reinforced. Transverse joints should be the same
longitudinal joint is in the wheel path. If necessary, location, alignment and type as the existing.
remove part of the existing pavement to prevent Mismatched transverse joints will induce cracking.
locating a longitudinal joint in the wheel path. Tie the 305 to the existing concrete using a Type D
Longitudinal Joint per BP-2.5. Prior to specifying a
Rigid pavements which are to be overlayed as part Type D joint, the existing concrete should be cored
of the widening project should be considered to determine soundness. If the existing concrete is
composite pavements and follow the widening too deteriorated at the edge, the widening should
guidelines given in Section 504.7.3. not be tied but simply butted up against. The
longitudinal joint between the old and new concrete
When widening a rigid pavement with another is best located at a lane line. It is recommended
pavement type, the widening should be designed that some of the existing pavement be removed
for the conditions at hand. If necessary, the base rather than placing the longitudinal joint in a wheel
under the widening should be thickened so that the path.
subgrade elevations will match. If the widening is
thicker than the existing, the subgrade should be When widening a composite pavement with
sloped away from the existing and drainage another pavement type, the widening should be
provided. designed for the conditions at hand. If necessary,
the base under the widening should be thickened
504.7.2 Flexible Pavement so that the subgrade elevations will match. If the
widening is thicker than the existing the subgrade
When widening existing flexible pavement with should be sloped away from the existing and
asphalt, the best practice is to make a saw cut at drainage provided.
the edge of a lane and remove the outside edge of
* Early versions of UTOVER list 4.2 as the default Initial PSI when analyzing Flexible pavements.
** Edge support includes tied concrete shoulders, integral curb, widened lane, etc. Widened lane
refers to concrete slabs built 14 feet (~4.2 m) wide or wider, but striped for a standard 12-foot (~3.6 m)
lane, leaving 2 feet (~0.6 m) outside the traveled lane to provide edge support.
Table of Contents
To minimize the elevation increase of an unbonded require undercutting and replacement. Prior to
concrete overlay, removal of any existing asphalt constructing a fractured slab technique, soil
overlay is recommended. Deteriorated joints and borings should be taken and specific replacement
cracks do not need to be repaired prior to the and undercut quantities should be set up in the
overlay. Where existing pavement must be plans.
removed to meet the elevation of at-grade bridges
or as a means of providing clearance at overhead A third fractured slab technique, break and seat,
bridges, it should be replaced with new concrete was used extensively in Ohio in the past. While
pavement. The thickness required is that which some sections had good performance, others
was calculated for new pavement when designing performed very poorly. Break and seat is not to be
the unbonded concrete overlay, TN. A base of at used as a major rehabilitation strategy per the
least 6 inches (~150 mm) of Item 304 should be Pavement Design and Selection Process,
placed under the concrete. Appendix A.
Given:
Problem:
Solution:
TUCO = 9216
. − 75.69
TUCO = 16.47
TUCO = 4.06"
Items of work:
Given:
Problem:
Solution:
Determine the required buildup using the structural coefficients given in Figure 401-1
Given:
Problem:
Solution:
Determine the required buildup using the structural coefficients given in Figure 401-1.
be included in the analysis. On new locations, Routine maintenance performed by ODOT forces
earthwork items including subgrade compaction has traditionally been ignored due to lack of
are common to all pavement alternatives and are dependable data. Only contract maintenance is
essentially equal and therefore do not need to be considered.
included.
ODOT does not use salvage value. This means
For rehabilitations that raise the elevation of the when choosing the maintenance strategies and
existing pavement, a cost needs to be included for timing, the designer must try to balance them such
maintaining clearance under overhead structures that all alternatives are in approximately the same
and for meeting elevations of at-grade bridges. condition in year 35. Generally the goal is to have
For convenience, this is known as the “cost of each alternative require additional maintenance
maintaining clearance”. This cost can be just after the end of the analysis period. In other
calculated in various ways. One way is to calculate words, do not place a thick overlay on one
the cost to remove the existing pavement, alternative in year 32 while doing nothing since
excavate down, and build back up with new year 25 on the other alternatives.
pavement. Another way is to calculate the cost of
jacking the bridges, including any approach work 702.2 Maintenance Schedules
necessary on overheads. A third option could be
a combination of the two. The maintenance strategies and schedules given
below are for informational purposes only. This
It is not important which method is selected for information is intended to give designers some
computing cost of maintaining clearance. What is reasonable guidance when deciding the
important is that a dollar amount is included in the maintenance actions for an LCCA. Wide latitude
analysis to account for the cost of maintaining is given on both the timing and the work predicted.
clearance. For convenience, it is recommended to The designer is not restricted to these schedules;
use the same method for all alternatives, i.e. do not but, because of the wide latitude given, anything
remove pavement and excavate for the rubblize outside the schedules may be questioned. All
alternative and then jack bridges for the unbonded thicknesses given are approximate but overlays
concrete overlay alternative. The method used in much thicker or much thinner than those listed are
the LCCA for computing cost of maintaining not expected.
clearance does not have to be the actual method
used in the plans and in construction. The schedules list only major items of work. The
designer may need to include additional items. For
702 Future Maintenance instance, tack coats are not listed but are required
with all overlays. It is not intended that every item
702.1 Introduction listed be used in a given year. For example,
concrete pavement shows both an asphalt overlay
and diamond grinding as options but never would
The future maintenance required to keep the
the two of them be done at the same time. It is
pavement in serviceable condition for the next 35
further not intended that actions must take place in
years must be predicted. The number one factor
every one of the years listed. Depending on the
when determining required maintenance is
expected performance and the actions predicted
engineering judgement. The performance
for the early years, the later rehabilitation(s) may
equations given in Figure 101-2 are useful
not be necessary.
guidance. It is important to note the performance
being predicted is for pavements built to current
specifications, not 1960's specifications. Many 702.2.1 Flexible Pavement
changes and improvements have been made to
both asphalt and concrete including such things as Flexible pavement includes new pavement on a
PG binders, polymers, gradation changes, free new alignment and complete replacement of
draining bases, epoxy coated steel, non d-cracking existing pavement.
aggregates, etc. These changes are expected to
result in improved performance and this improved Year 10 - 15: Thin overlay, 1.25" -
performance should be reflected in the LCCA. 3" (~32 - 75 mm), with or without
milling.
Year 18 - 25: 2% - 10% full-depth Fractured slab techniques include crack & seat,
rigid repairs, 1% - 5% partial- and rubblize & roll.
depth bonded repairs, diamond
grinding, 3" - 6" (~75 - 150 mm) Year 8 - 12: Thin overlay, 1.25" -
overlay, sawing and sealing. 4" (~32 - 100 mm) with or without
milling.
Year 28 - 32: 1% - 3% full- and/or
partial-depth repairs, 1.25" - 2" Year 16 - 22: Thick overlay, 4" - 8"
(~32 - 50 mm) second overlay (~100 - 200 mm) with milling,
with or without milling, 3" - 4" (~75 pavement repair.
- 100 mm) first overlay, sawing
and sealing, micro-surfacing, Year 24 - 32: Thin overlay, 1.25" -
crack sealing, diamond grinding. 4" (~32 - 100 mm) with or without
milling, micro-surfacing, crack
Best practice dictates the use of diamond grinding sealing.
for the first treatment. Placing an asphalt overlay
on a concrete pavement brings on a new set of Fractured slab techniques are more likely to
problems and is discouraged as the first predicted require the third maintenance action than is flexible
maintenance action. Remember, this is the pavement.
predicted performance of pavements built to
current specifications, not 1960's specifications. 702.2.6 Whitetopping
Again, in many cases the second treatment may Whitetopping is in essence a new concrete
not be necessary at all. pavement built over an existing flexible pavement.
It is expected to perform similar to a rigid pavement
or an unbonded concrete overlay.
Lane closure days is a measure of the impact of Once all the information is assembled, the District
each alternative on the traveling public. It is not a Deputy Director should sign off on one alternative.
measure of the time needed to construct each The package is then sent to the Pavement Design
alternative. It is merely a comparison tool given a Section of the Office of Materials Management who
standard work crew, a ten-hour day, a single-lane will review the LCCA package for concurrence and
closure, etc., of how many days it would take to then forward the report to the Pavement Selection
complete each alternative. One lane closure day Committee for approval. The Committee will return
equals twenty-four hours that a lane is not available the signed copy to the Pavement Design Section
to traffic even though work is only being performed who will inform the District of the decision and
for ten hours. The production rates for certain notify FHWA, if necessary.
Given:
Problem:
Solve for the net present value using discount rates of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6%.
Solution:
Calculate the discount factor for each year and discount rate using the equation given in Section
703.1.
Multiply costs by discount factors and sum to find Net Present Value (NPV) at each discount rate.
NPV0% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(1)+(1600000)*(1)+(200000)*(1)
= $9,100,000
NPV1% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(0.8874)+(1600000)*(0.8195)+(200000)*(0.7419)
= $8,669,500
NPV2% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(0.7885)+(1600000)*(0.6730)+(200000)*(0.5521)
= $8,318,020
NPV3% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(0.7014)+(1600000)*(0.5537)+(200000)*(0.4120)
= $8,029,440
NPV4% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(0.6246)+(1600000)*(0.4564)+(200000)*(0.3083)
= $7,791,580
NPV5% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(0.5568)+(1600000)*(0.3769)+(200000)*(0.2314)
= $7,594,760
NPV6% = (6500000)*(1)+(800000)*(0.4970)+(1600000)*(0.3118)+(200000)*(0.1741)
= $7,431,300
704-1
January 1999
Lane Closure Days
Reference Section
704
1. For situations where shoulders are being removed for replacement, pavement removal and
wearing course removal can be done simultaneously. Only use the greater of the two
quantities depending on the project
2. On future maintenance only, where planing and a one-course overlay are being performed as
one continuous operation, such as thin mill and fill jobs often done as night work, the
production rate for this item should be doubled and the time for the overlay neglected.
3. On future maintenance only, where conditions allow the pavement to be opened to traffic at
the end of each ten hour work day, the production rate for this item should be doubled. When
the dropoff between lanes is too large and the pavement cannot be opened to traffic until the
item is completed or other work is being performed which prevents the pavement from being
opened, the given production rate should be used with no doubling.
4. Production rates for these items have been adjusted to reflect the fact that the pavement is
opened to traffic during the part of the day when work is not being performed.
5. All concrete pavement items do not include the curing time. The curing time should be added
to the summary where applicable in the final analysis.
Class C - 10 Days/Project
Class MS - 2 Days/Project
Class FS - 1 Day/Project
7. Where Sawing and Sealing is specified, use only 1 Day/Lane for 446-1 or 448-1.
705-1
January 1999
Rehabilitation Example
Page 1 Reference Section
705
• Alternative 1: Rubblize and Roll - Remove the existing asphalt overlay, rubblize the existing
concrete and overlay with 13.5" of asphalt. Twenty-nine percent removal, undercut and replacement is
required to meet at-grade bridges and provide clearance at overhead bridges, assuming bridges are not
jacked.
• Alternative 2: Unbonded Concrete Overlay - Remove the existing asphalt overlay, place a 1"
asphalt bondbreaker layer and overlay with 8" of plain concrete. Twenty-two percent removal,
undercut and replacement is required to meet at-grade bridges and provide clearance at overhead
bridges, assuming bridges are not jacked.
• Alternative 3: Flexible Replacement - Remove the existing pavement and replace with 12.75" of
asphalt on 12" of 304.
• Alternative 4: Rigid Replacement - Remove the existing pavement and replace with 12" of
reinforced concrete on a Free Draining Base on 6" of 304.
PLEASE INDICATE BELOW YOUR APPROVAL OF ONE OF THE ALTERNATIVES THEN RETURN
TO MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Principal Factors
LCCA: The Unbonded Concrete Overlay has the lowest life-cycle cost for discount rates between zero and
three percent. Above approximately 3.5%, Alternative 3, Flexible Replacement, has the lowest life-
cycle cost, however, even at a 6% discount rate, the Unbonded Concrete Overlay is less than 5%
more than the Flexible replacement. Differences of five to ten percent between alternatives are
considered insignificant for most life-cycle cost analyses.
Initial Cost: The Flexible Replacement has the lowest initial cost and none of the other alternatives are within
five percent. The Unbonded Concrete Overlay is more than ten percent greater than the Flexible,
however, given its other advantages, District felt the additional initial cost was justified.
User Delay: The Unbonded Concrete Overlay has the fewest days of lane closure.
Municipal Preference: This project is rural and is not located within any municipality.
Secondary Factors
Geometrics: This project, classified as hilly terrain, includes three locations where grade is in excess of 3%.
The District has had problems in the past with rutting where 1% to 2% grades are present for bridge
embankments. Based on our desire to reduce maintenance required on the pavement, the Unbonded
Concrete Overlay is preferred. The life-cycle cost analysis did not account for any additional costs
which might be associated with the use of special rut-resistant asphalt mixes.
Constructability: Due to the widening, all of the alternatives could be constructed without crossing traffic over,
however, part-width construction is not recommended with free draining bases. Since there are no
interchanges on this project, traffic could easily be crossed over to allow the contractor full access to
one side. We see no major advantages or disadvantages regarding constructability/maintenance of
traffic for any of the alternatives.
Availability of Local Materials: Our District finds it difficult to find quality aggregates for both asphalt and
concrete. We see no real advantage for any alternative.
Other Issues: Our District has had very good performance with unbonded concrete overlays in the past.
705-1
January 1999
Rehabilitation Example
Page 2 Reference Section
705
Widening Buildups
@ 25 years Repair 5% of the pavement, grind for smoothness and reseal joints
@ 25 years: Repair 5% of the pavement, grind for smoothness and reseal joints
705-1
January 1999
Rehabilitation Example
Page 5 Reference Section
705
Project Summary
• Historical Data
• Physical Attributes
• Project Evaluation
@ 12 Years
254 Pavement Planing SY 545,733
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 3% 16,372
407 Tack Coat Gal 40,930
446 AC Surface, Type 1 CY 1.5 22,739
@ 15 Years
254 Pavement Planing SY 545,733
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 3% 16,372
407 Tack Coat Gal 40,930
446 AC Surface, Type 1 CY 2 30,319
@ 20 Years
254 Pavement Planing SY 545,733
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 3% 16,372
407 Tack Coat Gal 81,860
446 AC Surface, Type 1 CY 1.5 22,739
446 AC Intermediate, Type 2 CY 2.5 37,898
@ 25 Years
254 Pavement Planing SY 545,733
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 3% 16,372
255 Rigid Repairs SY 5% 16,372 16,327
255 Pavement Sawing LF 5% 73,674 73,674
407 Tack Coat Gal 81,860
446 AC Surface, Type 1 CY 1.5 22,739
446 AC Intermediate, Type 2 CY 2.5 37,898
801 Longit. Joint Sealing LF 327,440 327,440
801 Trans. Joint Sealing LF 313,476 313,476
Special Diamond Grinding SY 327,440 327,440
@ 30 Years
254 Pavement Planing SY 545,733
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 3% 16,372
407 Tack Coat Gal 40,930
446 AC Surface, Type 1 CY 1.5 22,739
705-1
January 1999
Rehabilitation Example
Page 8 Reference Section
705
@ 15 Years
254 Pavement Planing $0.55 $300,153
254 Patching Planed Surface $0.40 $6,549
407 Tack Coat $0.77 $31,516
446 AC Surface, Type 1 $60.00 $1,819,111
@ 20 Years
254 Pavement Planing $0.55 $300,153
254 Patching Planed Surface $0.40 $6,549
407 Tack Coat $0.77 $35,200
446 AC Surface, Type 1 $60.00 $1,364,333
446 AC Intermediate, Type 2 $39.67 $1,503,420
@ 25 Years
254 Pavement Planing $0.55 $300,153
254 Patching Planed Surface $0.40 $6,549
255 Rigid Repairs $45.00 $736,740 $736,740
255 Pavement Sawing $1.42 $104,617 $104,617
407 Tack Coat $0.43 $35,200
446 AC Surface, Type 1 $60.00 $1,364,333
446 AC Intermediate, Type 2 $39.67 $1,503,420
801 Longit. Joint Sealing $1.00 $327,440 $327,440
801 Trans. Joint Sealing $1.25 $391,845 $391,845
Special Diamond Grinding $2.00 $654,880 $654,880
@ 30 Years
254 Pavement Planing $0.55 $300,153
254 Patching Planed Surface $0.40 $6,549
407 Tack Coat $0.77 $31,516
446 AC Surface, Type 1 $60.00 $1,364,333
20
19
18
Total Cost
Millions
17
16
15
14
13
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
Discount Rate
! Flexible Alternative:
! Rigid Alternative:
PLEASE INDICATE BELOW YOUR APPROVAL OF ONE OF THE ALTERNATIVES THEN RETURN
TO MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Principal Factors
LCCA: The Flexible Alternative has the lowest life-cycle cost at all discount rates although the Rigid Alternative
is within 5% of it at zero percent discount rate.
Initial Cost: The Flexible Alternative has the lowest initial cost and the Rigid Alternative is more than 10%
greater.
User Delay: The Flexible Alternative has almost twice as many days of lane closure as the Rigid Alternative. This
project is located in a rural area with low ADT however, and we don’t feel the lane closures will cause
any backups or significant disruption to the traveling public and the other factors in favor of the Flexible
Alternative outweigh this drawback.
Municipal Preference: This project is rural and not located within any municipality.
Secondary Factors
Geometrics: This project is located on flat terrain with very little grade. There are no geometric constraints which
would favor either alternative.
Constructability: This project is new pavement on new alignment and any pavement can be constructed easily.
Availability of Local Materials: There are currently no available aggregate sources nearby for coarse aggregates
which have passed the D-cracking test required for concrete.
Other Issues: Our District has had very good performance with flexible pavement the past.
705-2
June 1999
New Pavement Example
Page 3 Reference Section
705
Project Summary
Future Maintenance
@ 12 Years 7
@ 22 Years 53 34
* Lane Closure summary is for comparison purposes only and is not an estimate of the actual time
for construction as many factors exist which were not considered.
705-2
June 1999
New Pavement Example
Page 4 Reference Section
705
@ 12 Years
254 Pavement Planing SY 126,157 $0.59 $74,433
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 1,262 $2.95 $3,722
407 Tack Coat Gal 9,462 $0.71 $6,718
446 AC Surface, Type 1H CY 1.5 5,257 $68.15 $358,233
@ 22 Years
253 Pavement Repair SY 0.5% 631 $85.97 $54,229
254 Pavement Planing SY 199,748 $0.59 $117,851
254 Patching Planed Surface SY 1,997 $2.95 $5,893
407 Tack Coat Gal 14,981 $0.65 $9,738
407 Tack Coat for Intermediate Gal 14,981 $0.65 $9,738
446 AC Surface, Type 1H CY 1.5 8,323 $68.15 $567,202
446 AC Intermediate, Type 2 CY 2.5 13,871 $43.47 $602,990
@ 22 Years
255 Rigid Repairs SY 2% 2,523 $56.28 $142,002
255 Pavement Sawing LF 11,354 $2.17 $24,638
256 Bonded Patching SF 1% 11,354 $30.00 $340,623
Spec. Diamond Grinding SY 126,157 $2.44 $307,823
The Discount Rate is a tool used in evaluating the time value of money. It is broadly defined
as the difference between market interest rates and inflation. Because costs are incurred at
different points in time over the life of a pavement, the discount rate is used to compare these
costs in terms of constant dollars. In this case, 1998 dollars have been used as constant
dollars. A survey of states done in the mid 1990's indicated the range of discount rates used
throughout the country varies from 0% to 7%. The most common rate used was 4%. Rather
than using just one discount rate, a range of rates has been used to show how different rates
affect the apparent least cost alternative.
$6,600
$6,400
$6,200
Thousands
Total Cost
$6,000
$5,800
$5,600
$5,400
$5,200
$5,000
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
Discount Rate
Flexible Rigid
Appendix A
POLICY STATEMENT:
The Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) must select projects and design new
pavements and rehabilitations of existing pavements such that they: are structurally adequate
to serve the anticipated loadings, employ cost-effective materials, require a minimum amount
of maintenance, and result in long-term customer satisfaction. This goal is brought about by
assuring a consistent, statewide strategy exists for identifying how resources will be utilized,
that proper pavement treatments are applied at the proper time, cost-effective materials are
used and best practice construction methodologies are pursued.
This Policy will establish uniform procedures to assure that the above objectives are achieved
and the experience, collective knowledge, and technical expertise of all involved in the
pavement design and selection process are considered.
AUTHORITY:
REFERENCES:
SCOPE:
This policy applies to all multi-lane and all National Highway System (NHS) pavements
under the jurisdiction of the Ohio Department of Transportation. Routes other than multi-
lane and NHS are to be managed and designed consistent with fiscal responsibility and sound
pavement management practices.
Each District Deputy Director will administer this policy, with the approval of the Pavement
Selection Committee (PSC) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) when
required. The Pavements Section of the Office of Materials Management (Pavements
Section) will provide technical assistance, advice, training, and support.
DEFINITIONS:
Analysis Period - The number of years for which a Life-Cycle Cost Analysis is made.
Design Period - The number of years, over which a pavement structure is expected to
deteriorate from its initial condition (new or rehabilitated) to its terminal serviceability. The
length of this period is directly related to the loading the pavement is expected to carry.
Multi-Lane Pavements - Pavements with four or more lanes. Continuous two-way left turn
lanes are considered lanes in this definition.
Policy No. 515-002 (P)
Page 3 of 11
New Pavements - Include those: (1) at a location where no pavement exists beforehand, (2)
in the place of an existing pavement removed to a level at or below the top of the subgrade,
or (3) being placed next to an existing pavement (widening) for additional highway capacity.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis - A process for evaluating the economic worth of a pavement
segment by analyzing initial costs and discounted future costs over a defined period.
POLICY:
2. The Assistant Director for Transportation Policy will chair the PSC.
3. The PSC:
C. District Offices
c. County Manager
II. GENERAL
B. Life-cycle cost analyses will use an Analysis Period of 35 years, and will be
performed in accordance with the Pavement Design and Rehabilitation
Manual. All construction costs anticipated to accrue during the period will be
considered in the analyses.
1. Procedures to follow for pavement selection vary with the length of the
pavement to be constructed. For projects with more than four lane-
miles (six-lane kilometers) of mainline pavement, approval of
pavement type selection must be obtained from the PSC. Projects that
contain less than four lane-miles (six-lane kilometers) need only
consensus from the District Pavement Review Team and approval of
the District Deputy Director.
2. The project-level analysis should always begin with a PCR history plot
coupled with all available design, construction, and maintenance
information regarding the project. A field review to consider all the
necessary information for the project-level analysis should be
performed by the District Pavement Review Team. The Central Office
Pavement Section is available to provide assistance on a case by case
basis.
F. Project Development
Dynaflect data. Dynaflect data should not be obtained more than four
years prior to construction.
H. Training:
c. Pavement Rehabilitation
I. Fiscal Analysis:
BACKGROUND:
These guidelines are intended to be used to reduce or eliminate rutting and or shoving problems
associated with the use of asphalt concrete pavement surfaces.
These guidelines are intended to be used by District office staff in making best practice decisions
regarding pavement resurfacing and design considerations.
As there are no previous documents regarding the treatment of rutting and or shoving, it is
anticipated there will be numerous questions dealing with special circumstance issues. Technical
assistance with these guidelines is available by contacting any of the following individuals:
DEFINITIONS:
Rutting: Rutting is visually identified by vertical depressions in the pavement surface along the
wheel tracks. Rutting is measured transversely across the depression using a string line or other
appropriate straight edge. Rutting is generally considered significant when it approaches 0.4
inches (~10 mm) in depth. The presence of significant rutting may or may not indicate a high
stress location. Circumstances resulting in faulty mix design, production or placement could
contribute to rutting.
Medium Traffic: Medium traffic is 50 to 1499 trucks per day using the current year designation.
High Traffic: High traffic is 1500 or more trucks per day using the current year designation.
High Stress Location: High stress locations are found at areas of high acceleration and braking,
at intersections, sharp curves, ramps, and where heavy vehicles frequent at slow speeds. High
stress locations occur at intersections with forced stop control and one or more of the following
criteria:
Appendix B: High Stress Guidelines
Page 2 of 3
January 1999
! The approach grade to the stop control is greater than or equal to 3.5 percent.
! Current Design Designation of 500 trucks per day or greater in the design lane.
! Current Design Designation of 250 trucks per day or greater in a turn lane.
High stress locations occur on ramps or sharp curves with or without forced stop control which
have greater than 250 trucks per day, or have exhibited significant repeated rutting problems in
the past. As truck counts on ramps are often unknown, and the definition of a sharp curve
depends upon the speed of the curve some judgment is required on new locations.
High stress locations occur on stretches of roadway which continue to exhibit significant rutting
after several trials of standard mixes. These stretches of roadway generally exhibit rutting due
to some combination of long and/or steep grades, trucking/traffic patterns, counts and weights.
High stress locations occur at standard bus stops on bus routes or at park and ride lots.
High stress locations occur at all truck and bus lots located in the Department’s Rest Areas.
I. RIGID PAVEMENT:
No consideration is made for high stress locations where rigid pavement exists or is proposed.
When replacing a composite or flexible pavement with a rigid pavement at a high stress location,
the following needs to be considered:
A. When new pavement is being constructed, the designer should try to match
subgrade elevation at the high stress termini. For most situations, the rigid
pavement should be placed on a minimum of 6 inches (~150 mm) of Item 304
Aggregate Base; however, if the surrounding flexible or composite pavement is
constructed on subgrade, it would be acceptable to do the same with the rigid
pavement. The thickness of the rigid pavement should be a minimum of 8 inches
(~200 mm) and a maximum of 15 inches (~375 mm). The exact thickness should
be determined by design calculations in accordance with the procedures specified
in Section 300 of the Pavement Design & Rehabilitation Manual.
A. There are several options available for the use of Flexible Pavement in high stress
locations. For cost consideration, the ‘Next Step’ approach should be used.
Next Step approaches are as follows:
Appendix B: High Stress Guidelines
Page 3 of 3
January 1999
B. For all high stress locations where rutting is evident, pavement planing should be
specified to remove all deformed material.
A. A minimum of 250 feet (~75 m) back from the location of stop termini or traffic
signal.
In urban areas where several intersections exist within close proximity to each other and meet
high stress criteria, best practice is to specify the required high stress mix the length of the
section bounded at the outermost limits of the high stress locations.
Appendix C
Many projects exist such as bridge replacement projects which include a short stretch of new pavement
or pavement replacement. For projects in which the total length of new pavement or pavement
replacement is less than 300 feet (~100 m), the chart on the following page may be used in lieu of a
complete pavement design per Sections 200, 300 and 400 of this Manual. The buildups given on the
chart are conservative and are based on the amount of truck traffic expected for the opening day. The
following procedures and precautions should be recognized:
2. The designer should first evaluate the buildup of the existing pavement. If the strength of the
existing pavement exceeds the chart value, then the existing design should be perpetuated.
3. Where opening day truck traffic exceeds 800, this chart is not to be used and the procedures
described in Sections 200, 300 and 400 of this Manual are to be followed.
4. If it is known in advance that poor soils may be encountered at subgrade level or if the designer
is unsure of proper subgrade or slope treatments, review by the Geotechnical Design Section of
the Office of Materials Management is recommended.
5. The designer is always welcome to do a complete design per Sections 200, 300 and 400 rather
than using the chart.
Simplified Pavement Designs for Short* Projects
Pavement Course Thicknesses
Number of Trucks in Opening Day ADT
Pavement Composition (ADT x T24)
<=10 11-25 26-50 51-100 101-200 201-400 401-800 >800
in. ~mm in. ~mm in. ~mm in. ~mm in. ~mm in. ~mm in. ~mm
Flexible Design
448 AC Surface, Type 1, PG 64-22 1.25 32 1.25 32 1.25 32 1.25 32 1.25 32 1.25 32 1.25 32 n/a
448 AC Intermediate, Type 2, PG 64-22 1.75 45 1.75 45 1.75 45 1.75 45 1.75 45 1.75 45 n/a
301 Bituminous Aggregate Base 4 100 4 100 5 125 6 150 7 180 8 200 9 230 n/a
408 Bituminous Prime Coat r r r r r r p p p p p p p p n/a
304 Aggregate Base 6 150 6 150 6 150 6 150 6 150 6 150 6 150 n/a
Rigid Design
* Less than 300 linear feet (~100 meters) of total pavement replacement
r - required
p - optional
Appendix D
Prepared by
FHW A/OH-99/004
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Repo rt Date
Chhote L. Saraf
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 1 0 . W o rk U n i t N o . (T R A I S )
Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
16. Abstract
This repo rt des cribe s the Pave me nt Co nditio n Ra ting m etho d wh ich w as de velop ed fo r the S tate o f Oh io
High way N etwo rk. T he m etho d is ba sed upon visua l inspe ction of pa vem ent d istres ses . Altho ugh the re lation ship
between pavement distresses and performance is not well defined, there is general agreement that the ability of
a pavement to sustain traffic loads in a safe and smooth manner is adversely affected by the occurrence of
observable distress. The rating method described in this report provides a procedure for uniformly identifying and
describing, in terms of severity and extent, pavement distress. The mathematical expression for pavement
condition rating (PC R) prov ides an ind ex reflec ting the co mpo site effec ts of variou s distress types, their se verity
and ex tent upon the overa ll condition of th e pavem ent.
Distr ess es of four (4) typ es of Pave me nts (F lexible , Com pos ite, Jo inted Con crete and C ontin uou sly
Reinforced or CRC) are described in this report and each distress is illustrated with the help of photographs.
Pavement Condition Rating, Flexible Pavements, No Restrictions. This document is available to the
Composite Pavements, Jointed Concrete Pavements, public through the National Technical Information
Continu ously Rein forced Conc rete Pav eme nts Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
19. Security Class (This Report) 20. Security Class (This Page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
DISCLAIMER
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts
and accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views
or policies of the Ohio Department of Transportation or the Federal Highway Administration. This
report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This is Volume II of the final draft report of research project 3628, entitled “Implementation
and Revision of Developed Concepts for ODOT Pavement Management Program,” which was
conducted by Resource International, Inc. The financial support for this project was provided by the
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, and the Ohio Department of
Transportation.
This study was carried out in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Transportation. The
authors with to express their sincere appreciation to Messrs. Leon O. Talbert, Engineer of Research
and Development; Ken Miller, Engineer of Pavement and Soils; Anthony Manch, Engineer of
Pavement Management; Jim McQuirt, Planning Research Engineer; Roger Green, Design Engineer,
and the many other members of the Ohio Department of Transportation for their invaluable
assistance in conducting this study.
The authors also wish to extend appreciation to E. Rouch of the Federal Highway
Administration for his valuable suggestions during the review of this report. Special
acknowledgments are due to Jack Holbrook for editing and production of this manuscript and to
Donna Roberts and Margaret Larcomb for preparing and typing it.
The revision of this manual was performed under the project “A Review of PCR
Methodology for the Ohio DOT,” State Job Number 14638(0). This report is made possible through
the help and support received from the Ohio Department of Transportation staff, Messrs. Roger
Green, Kenneth Corns, Andrew Williams, Aric Morse, Dave Miller, and Murphy Hsu. Most of the
photographs have been revised and the original photographs are in color now. The sources of these
photographs are listed in Appendix E.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DISCLAIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Raveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-4
Patching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-6
Potholes/Debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-8
Crack Sealing Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-10
Rutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-12
Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-14
Corrugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-16
Wheel Track Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-18
Block and Transverse Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-20
Longitudinal Joint Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-22
Edge Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-24
Random Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-26
iii
Page
Raveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
Patching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
Surface Disintegration or Debonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8
Rutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-10
Corrugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-12
Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14
Shattered Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-16
Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-18
Transverse Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-20
Severity Level: Unjointed Base or Jointed Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-20
Extent Level: Jointed Base - Intermediate Transverse Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . B-22
Extent Level: Unjointed Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-22
Extent Level: Jointed Base-Joint Reflection Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-22
Longitudinal Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-24
Pressure Damage/Upheaval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-26
Crack Sealing Deficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-28
iv
Page
Patching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-6
Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8
Settlements and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-10
Transverse Crack Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-12
Longitudinal Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-14
Punchouts or Edge Breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-16
Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-18
Pressure Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
v
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Page
APPENDIX A. Description of Distresses in Flexible Pavements
Photo A-9. Crack Sealing Deficiency in Flexible Pavement, Unsealed Cracks . . . . . . . . A-11
Photo A-10. Crack Sealing Deficiency in Flexible Pavement, Cracks not sealed properly A-11
Photo A-16. Wheel Track Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Med. Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . A-19
Photo A-17. Wheel Track Cracking in Flexible Pavement, High Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . A-19
Photo A-18. Block and Transverse Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity . . A-19
Photo A-19. Block and Transverse Cracking in Flexible Pavement, High Severity . . . . . A-19
Photo A-20. Longitudinal Joint Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity . . . . . A-23
Photo A-21. Longitudinal Joint Cracking in Flexible Pavement, High Severity . . . . . . . . A-23
vi
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Page
APPENDIX B. Description of Distresses in Composite Pavements
vii
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Page
APPENDIX C. Description of Distresses in Jointed Reinforced Concrete or Jointed
Plain Concrete Pavements (JRC/JPC Pavements)
Photo C-1. Surface Deterioration in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity . . . . . C-3
Photo C-2. Surface Deterioration in Jointed Concrete Pavement, High Severity . . . . . . . . C-3
Photo C-3. Popout in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Plan and Cross-sectional Views . . . . . . C-5
Photo C-4. Popouts in a Jointed Concrete Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-5
Photo C-12. Transverse Joint Spalling in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Low Severity . . . . C-15
Photo C-13. Transverse Joint Spalling in Jointed Concrete Pavement, High Severity . . . . C-15
Photo C-18. Transverse Cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Low Severity . . . . . . . . C-21
Photo C-19. Transverse Cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavement, High Severity . . . . . . . . C-21
Photo C-20. Longitudinal Cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity . . . . C-23
Photo C-21. Longitudinal Cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity . . . . C-23
Photo C-22. Corner Break in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity . . . . . . . . . . . C-25
Photo C-23. Corner Break in Jointed Concrete Pavement, High Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-25
viii
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Page
APPENDIX D. Description of Distresses in Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavements (CRCP)
Photo D-3. Popout in CRC Pavement, Plan and Cross-sectional Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5
Photo D-4. Popouts in CRC Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5
ix
PAVEMENT CONDITION RATING PROCEDURES
INTRODUCTION
The rating method is based upon visual inspection of pavement distress. Although the
relationship between pavement distress and performance is not well defined, there is general
agreement that the ability of a pavement to sustain traffic loads in a safe and smooth manner is
adversely affected by the occurrence of observable distress. The rating method provides a procedure
for uniformly identifying and describing, in terms of severity and extent, pavement distress. The
mathematical expression for pavement condition rating (PCR) provides an index reflecting the
composite effects of varying distress types, severity, and extent upon the overall condition of the
pavement.
The model for computing PCR is based upon the summation of deduct points for each type
of observable distress. Deduct values are a function of distress type, severity, and extent. Deduction
for each distress type is calculated by multiplying distress weight times the weights for severity and
extent of the distress. Distress weight is the maximum number of deductible points for each
different distress type. The mathematical expression for PCR is as follows:
n
PCR = 100 - E Deducti (1)
I=1
Where:
n = number of observable distresses, and
Deduct = (Weight for distress) (Wt. for severity) (Wt. for Extent)
The Appendices A-D that follow describe various distresses for rigid, flexible, and composite
pavements and current guidelines for establishing their severity and extent. Three levels of severity
(Low, Medium and High) and three levels of extent (Occasional, Frequent, and Extensive) are
defined. The definition for distress type, severity, and extent must be followed closely and be clearly
understood by field personnel if the rating method is to provide meaningful data. To illustrate the
method for calculating PCR, consider the distress “Faulting” in a hypothetical jointed concrete
pavement. If the severity of this distress in the pavement is “Medium” and extent is “Frequent”, then,
the deduct points for “Faulting” in the pavement would be equal to [(10) (0.7) (0.8)] or 5.6 (see
Table on page 11 for the weights of this distress). If an extensive amount of medium severity
“Surface Deterioration” is also observed the deduct points for this distress would be equal to [(10)
(0.7) (1)] or 7.0. The PCR for the pavement based upon these 2 distresses would equal to:
1
The deduct weights for each pavement type have been developed on the basis of the review
of the rating methods developed in the United States, Europe, and Canada and the experience gained
from the rating methods developed by the Resource staff as a result of studies conducted in this
connection. Two premises were considered when assigning the weights:
The first premise is useful in establishing a target value for the proper PCR of pavements that
are in a certain state or condition. Roadways scheduled for rehabilitation and resurfacing have to
be rated by the PCR procedure.
A Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) Scale was developed to describe the pavement
condition using the PCR numbers calculated from Equation (1). This scale has a range from 0 to 100;
a PCR of 100 represents a perfect pavement with no observable distress and a PCR of 0 represents
a pavement with all distress present at their “High” levels of severity and “Extensive” levels of
extent. Figure 1 illustrates the PCR Scale and the descriptive condition of a pavement associated
with the various ranges of the PCR values.
2
PCR Condition
100
Very Good
90
Good
75
Fair
65
Fair to Poor
55
Poor
40
Very Poor
3
FIELD MONITORING PROCEDURE
The pavement condition rating is intended to apply to the entire pavement section being
monitored. Section lengths are established by the monitoring procedure, with the average length
being from 3 to 5 km (2 to 3 miles). Directional lanes of multilane roadways are considered separate
roadways by the monitoring procedure. On multilane roadways the heaviest traveled lane (usually
the outside lane) should be rated. For two lane roadways, rating one direction is sufficient unless
a significant difference in condition is observed between the two lanes. The monitoring procedure
checks the variance of the Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI) within a section to limit section
length. This limitation should produce sections that have a fairly constant visual condition. If a
definite variation in condition is observed within a section, the section should then be subdivided
for condition rating. Recording of visible distress for the PCR calculations involves three steps:
Step 1. The rating team (the rating team should consist of a Driver and a Rater)
should ride the predetermined roadway section at a speed of about 60 km (40
MPH). During this step, readily visible distresses such as potholes, bleeding,
settlement, faulting, spalling, and surface deterioration should be rated. Also
the need for subdividing the section should be evaluated in step 1.
Step 2. A second pass along the roadway section should be made with stops at
approximately 1.5 km (1 mile) intervals. For example, a 3 km (2-mile
section) would require 2 stops to be made. At each stop the raters should
evaluate the roadway by viewing 30 m (100') of the pavement. Close
inspection of pavement cracking, crack sealing, rutting, raveling, joint
spalling, D-cracking, and other visible distress should be made by viewing
the pavement from the roadway shoulder.
Step 3. Complete the PCR form. The final rating form for the roadway section should
represent the observed average of visible distress for the entire section.
Separate rating forms based upon the step 1 observations and the individual
stops made during step 2 are not required. However, raters may wish to use
additional rating forms for each stop, simply for note keeping purposes.
4
PAVEMENT CONDITION RATING FORMS AND KEY FORMS
Note: The Key forms summarize data presented in Appendices A through D. These key forms
will aid field personnel in establishing distress severity and extent while performing the PCR
surveys.
5
Section:__________________ KEY Date: ____________________
Log Mile: _______ to _______ FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT CONDITION Rated by: ________________
PATCHING 5 <1 ft 2. <1 yd 2 >1 yd 2 <10/ mile 10-2 0/m ile >20/ mile
depth <1" <1", > 1 yd 2 >1" and
POTHOLES/DEBONDING 10
area <1 yd 2 >1",< 1 yd 2 >1 yd 2
<5/m ile 5-10 /mile >10/ mile U
CRACK SEALING DEFIC. 5 Not considered <20% 20-50% >50%
RUTTING 10 <1/4" 1/4-1" >1" <20% 20-50% >50% U
Notic eab le S om e
SETTLEMENTS 10
effect on ride Discomfo rt
Poor Ride <2/m i 2-4/m i >4/m i
Notic eab le S om e
CORRUGATIONS 5
effect on ride Discomfo rt
Poor Ride <10% 10-30% >30%
>1/4",
>1/4", some
EDGE CRACKING 5 Tight, <1/4"
Spalling
mod erate <20% 20-50% >50%
Spalling
RANDOM CRACKING 5 <1/4" 1/4-1" >1" <20% 20-50% >50% U
*L = LOW **O = OCCASIONAL ***STR = DISTRESS INCLUDED IN STRUCTURAL DEDU CT CALCULATIONS.
M = MEDIUM F = FREQUENT
H = HIGH E = EXTENSIVE
6
Section: __________________ Date: ____________________
Log mile: ______ to_________
FLEXIBLE Rated by: ________________
Sta: __________ to_________ _________________________
7
Section:__________________ KEY Date: ____________________
Log Mile: _______ to _______ COMPOSITE PAVEMENT CONDITION Rated by: ________________
8
Section: __________________ Date: ____________________
Log mile: ______ to_________ COMPOSITE Rated by: ________________
Sta: __________ to_________ _________________________
9
Section:__________________ KEY Date: ____________________
Log Mile: _______ to _______ JOINTED CONCRETE PAVEMENT Rated by: ________________
<1 ft 2, no <1 ft 2,
PATCHING 5 >1 ft 2 < 10 /m i 10-20/m i > 20 /m i U
deterioration. deterioration.
FAULTING (Joints & Cracks) 10 <1/4" 1/4-1/2" >½" <20% 20-50% >50%
Notic eab le S om e
SETTLEMENTS 5 Poor Ride 2/m i. 2-4/m i. >4/m i.
effect on Ride discomfort
TRANSVERSE JOINT
15 <4" wide 4-9" wide >9" wide <25% 25-75% 75%
SPALLING
10
Section: __________________ Date: ____________________
Log mile: ______ to_________
JOINTED CONCRETE Rated by: ________________
Sta: __________ to_________ _________________________
11
Section:__________________ KEY Date: ____________________
Log Mile: _______ to _______ CRC PAVEMENT CONDITION Rated by: ________________
12
Section: __________________ Date: ____________________
Log mile: ______ to_________
CRC Rated by: ________________
Sta: __________ to_________ _________________________
13
APPENDIX A
A-1
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Disintegration of the pavement from the surface downward due to the loss of
aggregate particles. Raveling may occur as a result of asphalt binder aging,
poor mixture quality, segregation, or insufficient compaction.
Severity Level: Low-- Very little coarse aggregate has worn away. Loss of fine
aggregate. Coarse aggregate exposed.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 20 percent of the surface area is raveling.
A-2
Photo A-1. Raveling in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-3
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Bleeding or flushing is the presence of free asphalt binder on the pavement
surface. Bleeding is caused by an excess amount of bituminous binder in the
mixture and/or low air void content.
Medium-- both coarse aggregate and free bitumen are noticeable at the
pavement surface.
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 10 percent of the length exhibits bleeding.
A-4
Photo A-3. Bleeding in Flexible Pavement, High Severity
A-5
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Patching is either the placing of asphalt concrete on the surface of the existing
pavement or the replacement of the existing pavement in small isolated areas.
Deductions shall be made for all patches present in the pavement which are
the result of deterioration and/or maintenance since the last construction
project.
Large patched areas [greater than 12.5 m2 (15 sq. yd.)], such as spot overlays
or wedge courses, shall be rated for condition as a part of the existing
pavement rather than as patches.
A-6
Photo A-5. Patching in Flexible Pavement, High Severity
A-7
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Use the following table to determine the severity levels:
A-8
Photo A-7. Pothole in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-9
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 20 percent of the cracks along the pavement section
are not effectively sealed.
Extensive-- more than 50 percent of the cracks along the pavement section
are not effectively sealed.
A-10
Photo A-9. Crack Sealing Deficiency in Flexible Pavement,
Unsealed Cracks
A-11
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Ruts are vertical deformations in the pavement surface along the wheel
tracks. In severe cases pavement uplift may occur along the sides of the rut,
but in most instances only a depression is noticeable. Rutting is caused by
consolidation or lateral movement of any or all pavement layers, including
subgrade, under traffic.
Severity Level: Rutting severity is based upon rut depth, as approximated visually.
Medium-- readily noticeable, depth more than 6 mm (1/4 inch), less than
25 mm (1 inch).
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 20 percent of the section length is rutted.
A-12
Photo A-11. Rutting in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-13
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the effect of the settlement on vehicle control when
traveling along the roadway at 60 km/hour (40 MPH), as discussed in step 1
of the monitoring procedure.
A-14
Photo A-13. Settlement, Low Severity
A-15
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Corrugations are a series of transverse ridges and valleys (or ripples)
occurring at regular intervals along the pavement. Unstable bituminous
mixture or poor base quality are associated with this distress.
Severity Level: Low-- noticeable effect upon ride, but no significant reduction in
comfort.
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 10 percent of the section length is affected by this
distress.
A-16
Photo A-15. Corrugations in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-17
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Cracks located within or near the wheel tracks. For evaluation purposes each
wheel track shall be considered 1 m (3 feet) in width. Wheel track cracking
usually starts as intermittent, single longitudinal cracks progressing to
multiple longitudinal cracking, and eventually interconnected or alligator
cracking. Wheel track cracking usually results from fatigue failure of the
asphaltic layer.
Severity Level: Severity is based upon both crack width and multiplicity of the cracking.
Both criteria must be satisfied when assigning severity level.
Extent Level: Extent is based upon percentage of the wheel track length within the section
which exhibits cracking.
A-18
Photo A-16. Wheel Track Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Med. Severity
A-19
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Block cracks are interconnected cracks which divide the pavement into large
rectangular pieces or blocks. Block size may range from 1 m by 1 m (3 ft. by
3 ft.) upwards to 3 m by 3 m (10 ft. by 10 ft.). Transverse cracking is cracks
at approximately right angles to the pavement centerline. The occurrence of
both block and/or transverse cracking is usually related to thermal shrinkage
of the asphalt binder. Binder age hardening is also related to formation of
these crack types.
Severity Level: Low-- average crack width less than 6 mm (1/4 inch) with no
spalling or distortion along crack edges.
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 20 percent of the section length is affected by this
distress.
A-20
Photo A-18. Block and Transverse Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-21
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Low-- single longitudinal crack with width less than 6 mm (1/4")
and no spalling.
A-22
Photo A-20. Longitudinal Joint Cracking in Flexible Pavement,
Medium Severity
A-23
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Edge cracks are longitudinal or crescent shaped cracks usually within 0.3 m
(1 foot) of the pavement edge line.
Severity Level: Low-- tight cracks, width less than 6 mm (1/4 inch) with no break up
or spalling.
Medium-- crack width greater than 6 mm (1/4 inch) with some spalling.
Extent Level: Occasional-- cracking occurs along less than 20 percent of the pavement
edge within the section.
A-24
Photo A-22. Edge Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-25
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Description: Random cracks are those cracks which are not categorized as one of the 4
previous types of cracks. For example, cracks which meander across or along
the pavement would be classified as random cracks.
Severity Level: Low-- average crack width less than 6 mm (1/4 inch), no spalling.
Extent Level: Occasional-- random cracks occur along less than 20 percent of the section.
A-26
Photo A-24. Random Cracking in Flexible Pavement, Medium Severity
A-27
APPENDIX B
B-1
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Disintegration of the pavement from the surface downward due to the loss of
aggregate particles. Raveling may occur as a result of asphalt binder aging,
poor mixture quality segregation, or insufficient compaction.
Severity Level: Low-- very little coarse aggregate has worn away. Loss of fine
aggregate. Coarse aggregate exposed.
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 20 percent of the surface area is raveling.
B-2
Photo B-1. Raveling in Composite Pavement, Medium Severity
B-3
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Bleeding or flushing is the presence of free asphalt binder on the pavement
surface. Bleeding is caused by an excess amount of bituminous binder in the
mixture and/or low air void content.
Medium-- both coarse aggregate and free bitumen are noticeable at the
pavement surface.
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 10 percent of the length exhibits bleeding.
B-4
Photo B-3. Bleeding, High Severity
B-5
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Patching is either the placing of asphalt concrete on the surface of the existing
pavement or the replacement of the existing pavement in small isolated areas.
Deductions shall be made for all patches present in the pavement which are
the result of deterioration and/or maintenance since the last construction
project.
Large patched areas [greater than 12.5 m2 (15 S.Y.)], such as spot overlays
or wedge courses, shall be rated for condition as a part of the existing
pavement rather than as patches.
B-6
Photo B-5. Patching in Composite Pavement, Medium Severity
B-7
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Loss of surface by debonding is the removal of the asphaltic surface layer
from the underlying layer. The problem is most common with thin asphalt
surface layers [less than 50 mm (2 inches)] and is caused by freeze-thaw
action or poor bonding of the two layers during construction.
Extent Level: Occasional-- <5 debonded areas per 1.6 km (per mile).
B-8
Photo B-7. Surface Disintegration in Composite Pavement
B-9
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Ruts are vertical deformations in the pavement surface along the wheel
tracks. In severe cases pavement uplift may occur along the sides of the rut,
but in most instances only a depression is noticeable. Rutting is caused by
consolidation or lateral movement of any or all pavement layers, including
subgrade, under traffic.
Severity Level: Rutting severity is based upon rut depth, as approximated visually.
Medium-- readily noticeable, depth more than 6 mm (1/4 inch), less than
25 mm (1 inch).
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 20 percent of the section length is rutted.
B-10
Photo B-9. Rutting, Medium Severity
B-11
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Corrugations are a series of transverse ridges and valleys (or ripples)
occurring at regular intervals along the pavement. Unstable bituminous
mixture is associated with this distress.
Severity Level: Low-- noticeable effect upon ride, but no significant reduction in
comfort.
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 10 percent of the section length is affected by this
distress.
B-12
Photo not available
B-13
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Pumping is the ejection of fine soil particles through pavement cracks, joints,
or along pavement edges. Pumping can be identified by the presence of
surface staining and base or subgrade material near joints or cracks. Shoulder
disintegration at the pavement edge is often an indicator of pumping beneath
the slab.
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the rater's degree of certainty that pumping is
occurring as indicated by visual evidence.
L & M-- Some staining of the surface around cracks or joints is noted.
Rater is quite certain that pumping exists.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 10 of the joints and cracks exhibit pumping.
B-14
Photo B-11. Pumping in Composite Pavement, Medium Severity
B-15
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Description: Shattered slab is the breakup of the underlying rigid base made evident by
surface reflection cracking and/or distortion. Reflection cracks in the
asphaltic layer forming rectangular areas less than 1.5 m by 1.5 m (5 ft. by 5
ft.) may indicate that the underlying slab is broken up. Diagonal reflection
cracks at transverse joints are indicative of corner breaks in the rigid base.
Progressive deterioration will include distortion and faulting of the shattered
area. This distress is caused by poor base support or fatigue of the concrete
layer.
Severity Level: Low-- cracks defining the shattered area are tight [less than 3mm
(1/8 inch in width)] with little or no spalling. There is no
faulting of the shattered area.
Medium-- crack width greater than 3 mm (1/8 inch) with some spalling.
Moderate distortion which does effect ride quality somewhat.
High-- severe distortion and poor ride quality over the shattered area.
Crack pattern indicates break up of the slab into small pieces
[less than 0.8 m2 (1 yd 2)].
Extent Level: Occasional-- less than 2 shattered slab areas/1.6 km (per mile) of section
length.
B-16
Photo B-13. Shattered Slab of Composite Pavement, High Severity
B-17
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the effect of the settlement on vehicle control when
traveling along the roadway at 60 km/hour (40 MPH), as discussed in step 1
of the monitoring procedure.
B-18
Photo B-14. Settlement in Composite Pavement, Medium Severity
B-19
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Note 2: Crack width is defined as the sum of all cracks if more than one is
present at the location of measurement (measured as a continuous length
from the beginning of the first crack to the end of the last crack).
B-20
Photo B-15. Unjointed Base, Transverse Photo B-16. Unjointed Base, Transverse
Cracking in Composite Pavement, Low Cracking in Composite Pavement, High
Severity Severity
B-21
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Extent level is based upon average crack spacing (CS) as given by the
following formula:
CS = L/ (Z + 1)
Where:
CS = average crack spacing in m (ft.),
Z = average number of transverse cracks per panel, and
L = transverse joint spacing in m (ft.).
Occasional-- average transverse crack spacing greater than 4.5 m (15 feet).
B-22
Photo B- 17. Jointed Base, Reflection Cracking in Composite
Pavement, Medium Severity
B-23
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Note: Crack width is defined as the sum of all cracks if more than one is
present at the location of measurement.
Extent Level: Based upon the average linear feet of longitudinal cracking per 30 m (per
station of 100 feet length).
Frequent-- between 15 and 45 m/30 m (50 and 150 feet per station).
B-24
Photo B- 19. Longitudinal Cracking in Composite Pavement,
High Severity
B-25
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Low-- bump height less than 13 mm (½ inch), barely noticeable
effect upon ride.
Extent Level: Occasional-- upheaval is present along less than 20 percent of the joints.
B-26
Photo B- 20. Pressure Damage/Upheaval in Composite Pavement,
Medium Severity
B-27
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
Extent Level: Extent is based upon the percentage of crack length in the pavement surface
which is not effectively sealed.
Occasional-- less than 20 percent of the cracks along the pavement section
are not effectively sealed.
Extensive-- more than 50 percent of the cracks along the pavement section
are not effectively sealed.
B-28
Photo B-21. Crack Sealing Deficiency, Unsealed Cracks
B-29
APPENDIX C
Description of Distresses in
Jointed Reinforced Concrete or
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JRC/JPC Pavements)
C-1
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Description: Disintegration or loss of concrete from the surface of the pavement. Includes
scaling and abrasion. Scaling is the flaking away of the concrete surface.
Abrasion is similar to scaling in that a loss of fine, surface aggregate occurs.
Abrasion is usually a result of weathering and traffic wear and is normally
confined to the wheel track area.
C-2
Photo C-1. Surface Deterioration in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity
C-3
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Description: Cone shaped holes in the pavement surface with aggregates at the bottom and
unrelated to joint or crack spalling. Aggregate quality is related to this type
of distress. Popouts usually range from 25 to 100 mm (1 to 4 inches) in
diameter and from 13 to 50 mm (½ to 2 inches) in depth.
C-4
Photo C-3. Popout in a Concrete Pavement, Plan and Cross-sectional Views
C-5
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Description: Patching is either the placing of additional material on the surface of the
existing pavement or the replacement of existing pavement in isolated areas.
Deductions shall be made for all patches present in the pavement which are
made with asphalt concrete material and are the result of deterioration and/or
maintenance since the last construction project.
Severity Level: Low-- Patch size <0.1 m2 (1 sq. ft.), and patches are not deteriorated.
Medium-- Patch size < 0.1 m2 (1 sq. ft.), with deterioration present.
C-6
Photo C-5. Patching in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Low Severity
C-7
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Description: Pumping is the ejection of fine soil particles through pavement cracks, joints,
or along pavement edges. Pumping can be identified by the presence of
surface staining and base or subgrade material near joints or cracks. Shoulder
disintegration at the pavement edge is often an indicator of pumping beneath
the slab.
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the rater's degree of certainty that pumping is
occurring as indicated by visual evidence.
L & M-- Some staining of the surface around cracks or joints is noted.
Rater is quite certain that pumping exists.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 10 of the joints and cracks exhibit pumping.
C-8
Photo C-7. Pumping in Jointed Concrete Pavement, High Severity
C-9
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Note: If transverse cracks are faulted, write the letter "C" on the rating
form. If both cracks and joints are faulted, write the letter "B".
Otherwise, faulting indicates only joints.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Faulting occurs along less than 20 percent of the joints and
cracks.
Extensive-- More than 50 percent of the joints and cracks are faulted.
C-10
Photo C-9. Sketch showing Faulting in Jointed Concrete Pavement
C-11
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the effect of the settlement or waves upon ride quality
and vehicle control when traveling along the roadway at 60 km/hour (40
MPH, step 1 of the monitoring procedure).
C-12
Photo C-11. Settlements in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity
C-13
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Low-- Spalls less than 100 mm (4 inches) wide, measured to the
center of the joint, with loss of material, or spalls with no loss
of material and no patching.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 25 percent of the transverse joints are spalled.
C-14
Photo C-12. Transverse Joint Spalling in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Low Severity
Photo C-13. Transverse Joint Spalling in Jointed Concrete Pavement, High Severity
C-15
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Description: Joint sealant damage is any deterioration of the sealant which permits water
or incompressibles to enter the joint. Damage includes disintegration,
removal, pull out, hardening or debonding of the joint material from the
adjoining slab edge.
Severity Level: Severity levels are not considered for this distress.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 20 percent of the joints are not effectively sealed.
Extensive-- Greater than 50 percent of the joints are not effectively sealed.
C-16
Photo C-14. Joint Sealant Damage in Jointed Concrete Pavement
C-17
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Separate severity levels for pressure damage spalling are not defined. All
pressure damage spalling is considered severe since this distress may be a
predictor or more serious pressure distress (blow ups).
Extent Level: Extent is based upon the number of transverse joints which exhibit pressure
damage spalling.
C-18
Photo C-16. Pressure Damage in Jointed Concrete Pavement
C-19
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Extent Level: Extent level is based upon average crack spacing (CS) between intermediate
transverse cracks as given by the following expression:
CS = L/(Z+1)
where:
CS = average crack spacing, m (ft),
Z = average number of transverse cracks per panel, and
L = transverse joint spacing, m (ft).
C-20
Photo C-18. Transverse Cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavement,
Low Severity
C-21
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Low-- Hairline or tight cracks with little crack spalling.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 5 percent of the slabs have longitudinal cracking.
C-22
Photo C-20. Longitudinal Cracking in Jointed Concrete Pavement, Medium Severity
C-23
JRC/JPC PAVEMENT
Description: A corner break is a crack that intersects transverse joints or cracks and a
longitudinal edge diagonally. The leg size of the triangular break is usually
greater than 300 mm (12 inches). Corner breaks can be differentiated from
spalling by: (1) corner breaks extend vertically through the entire slab
whereas spalls are only partial depth cracks, and (2) the triangle formed by
a corner break is usually much larger than that of a spall.
Severity Level: Low-- Crack width less than 6 mm (1/4 inch) with no spalling or
settlement of the broken area.
C-25
Photo C-22. Corner Break in Jointed Concrete Pavement,
Medium Severity
C-26
APPENDIX D
Description of Distresses in
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP)
D-1
CRC PAVEMENT
Description: Disintegration or loss of concrete from the surface of the pavement. Includes
scaling and abrasion. Scaling is the flaking away of the concrete surface.
Abrasion is similar to scaling in that a loss of fine, surface aggregate occurs.
Abrasion is usually a result of weathering and traffic wear and is normally
confined to the wheel track area.
D-2
Photo D-1. Surface Deterioration in CRC Pavement, Medium Severity
D-3
CRC PAVEMENT
Description: Cone shaped holes in the pavement surface with aggregates at the bottom and
unrelated to joint or crack spalling. Aggregate quality is related to this type
of distress. Popouts usually range from 25 to 100 mm (1 to 4 inches) in
diameter and from 13 to 50 mm (½ to 2 inches) in depth.
D-4
Photo D-3. Popout in CRC Pavement, Plan and Cross-section Views
D-5
CRC PAVEMENT
Description: Patching is either the placing of additional material on the surface of the
existing pavement or the replacement of existing pavement in isolated areas.
Deductions shall be made for all patches present in the pavement which are
made with asphalt concrete material and are the result of deterioration and/or
maintenance since the last construction project.
Severity Level: Low-- Patch size <0.1 m2 (1 sq. ft.), and patches are not deteriorated.
D-6
Photo D-5. Patching in CRC Pavement, Low Severity
D-7
CRC PAVEMENT
Description: Pumping is the ejection of fine soil particles through pavement cracks, joints,
or along pavement edges. Pumping can be identified by the presence of
surface staining and base or subgrade material near joints or cracks. Shoulder
disintegration at the pavement edge is often an indicator of pumping beneath
the slab.
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the rater's degree of certainty that pumping is
occurring as indicated by visual evidence.
L & M-- Some staining of the surface around cracks or joints is noted.
Rater is quite certain that pumping exists.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 10% of the joints and cracks exhibit pumping.
Extensive-- More than 25% of the joints and cracks exhibit pumping.
D-8
Photo D-7. Pumping in CRC Pavement, Medium Severity
D-9
CRC PAVEMENT
Description: Because CRC pavements have short transverse crack spacing, these
pavements can develop short waves or undulation as a result of poor support
conditions, frost heave, or permanent deformation of the subgrade.
Settlement is a dip or depression in the longitudinal profile of the pavement
surface.
Severity Level: Severity is based upon the effect of the settlement or waves upon ride quality
and vehicle control when traveling along the roadway at 60 km/hour (40
MPH, (step 1 of the monitoring procedure).
Extent Level: Occasional-- Less than 2 settlements/1.6 km (per mile) of roadway and/or
wave along less than 20 percent of the section length.
D-10
Photo D-9. Settlement in CRC Pavement
D-11
CRC PAVEMENT
Extent Level: Extent is based upon the percentage of the section length having an
undesirable transverse crack pattern.
Frequent-- 20 to 50 percent.
D-12
Photo D-10. Transverse Cracks in CRC Pavement, Low Severity
D-13
CRC PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Low-- Hairline or tight cracks with little crack spalling.
Extent Level: Occasional-- Longitudinal cracking occurs along less than 5 percent of the
section length.
D-14
Photo D-12. Longitudinal Cracking in CRC Pavement, Medium Severity
D-15
CRC PAVEMENT
Description: A punchout or edge break is a cracked rectangular area usually along the
outside pavement edge. A punchout requires formation of longitudinal crack
(usually within the outer wheel track) which connects transverse cracks of the
CRC pavement. The rectangular punchout area thus is defined by 2
transverse cracks, the longitudinal crack and the outside pavement edge. A
punchout results from concrete that is over stressed because of short
transverse crack spacing or poor support of the CRC pavement. Punchout
areas which have been repaired should be evaluated for patching distress.
Severity Level: This distress is rated only for Medium and High levels.
Medium-- Crack width greater than 6 mm (1/4 inch) with some spalling.
Punchout area may be depressed up to 13 mm (½ inch).
Extent Level: Occasional-- Fewer than 2 punchouts/1.6 m (per mile) of section length.
D-16
Photo D-14. Punchouts in CRC Pavement, Medium Severity
D-17
CRC PAVEMENT
High-- Distressed areas more than 100 mm (4 inch) wide with some
or most of the pieces missing.
Extent Level: Extent of this distress is based upon the percentage of transverse cracks
which have spalled.
D-18
Photo D-16. Spalling in CRC Pavement, Medium Severity
D-19
CRC PAVEMENT
Severity Level: Separate severity levels for pressure damage spalling are not defined. All
pressure damage spalling is considered severe since this distress may be a
predictor of more serious pressure distress (blow ups).
Extent Level: Extent is based upon the number of transverse joints which exhibit pressure
damage spalling.
D-20
Photo D-18. An Example of Pressure Damage in Jointed Concrete Pavement. Pressure
Damage in CRCP
is similar to as shown above.
D-21
APPENDIX E
E-1
Abbreviations Used in the Tables:
E-2
Table E-1. List of Sources of Photographs of Appendix A and B
E-3
Photo # Source Photo # Source
C-1 RII D-1 RII
C-2 RII D-2 SHRP
C-3 RII D-3 RII
C-4 RII D-4 RII
C-5 ODOT D-5 ODOT
C-6 ODOT D-6 ODOT
C-7 ODOT D-7 ODOT
C-8 ODOT D-8 ODOT
C-9 RII D-9 Old Manual
C-10 ODOT D-10 RII
C-11 RII D-11 RII
C-12 RII D-12 RII
C-13 RII D-13 RII
C-14 RII D-14 Old Manual
C-15 RII D-15 Old Manual
C-16 ODOT D-16 RII
C-17 ODOT D-17 ODOT
C-18 RII D-18 ODOT
C-19 ODOT
C-20 RII
C-21 RII
C-22 Old Manual
C-23 ODOT
E-4