Vertebrates

Animals can be classified as either vertebrates or

invertebrates.
Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone inside their body.
The major groups include fish, amphibians0, reptiles, birds and
mammals.
Invertebrates don't have a backbone. They either have a soft
body, like worms and jellyfish, or a hard outer casing covering
their body, like spiders and crabs.

Invertebrates
Animals can be classified as either vertebrates or
invertebrates.
Invertebrates are animals that don't have a backbone. Some have
soft bodies, like worms, slugs and jellyfish. Other invertebrates,
like insects, spiders and crustaceans, have a hard outer casing
called an exoskeleton. This protects their body a bit like a suit of
armour.
Vertebrates have a backbone inside their body. They include
mammals, birds, fish, amphibians and reptiles.

Variation
Introduction
When they wanted to look at similarities and differences,
scientists divided plants and animals into groups.
There are two types of plants: flowering and non-
flowering. And, two types of animals, those with
backbones and those without.
This section includes:

Grouping living things

Keys

Grouping living things

Plants and animals can be divided into groups by looking at the
similarities and differences between them.

Plants
Plants are divided into two groups, flowering plants and non-
flowering plants.

Animals
Animals are divided into two main groups. Animals that have a
backbone are called vertebrates. Animals that don't have a
backbone are called invertebrates.

Vertebrates and invertebrates are divided into smaller groups.

Vertebrates, for example, are divided into fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals.

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Keys
A key is a set of questions about the characteristics of living
things.
You can use a key to identify a living thing or decide which
group it belongs to by answering the questions.

Example
Here is an example of a key. You can use the key to identify
each of these animals.

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Food chains - Read
Print
Introduction
All living things need food for survival.
A food chain shows how plants, animals and humans rely
on each other for food.
This section includes:
Animals and plants are linked by food chains
Producers and consumers
Prey and predators

Animals and plants are linked by food chains

Print
Animals get energy and nutrients by eating other animals or
plants.
For example
caterpillars eat leaves
mice eat caterpillars
owls eat mice

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These links between animals and plants are called food chains.
The arrow means 'is eaten by'.
Nearly all food chains start with a green plant.
Most animals and plants are part of more than one food chain.
Changes to food chains
If one part of a food chain alters, the whole food chain is
affected. For example, if a disease suddenly wiped out
caterpillars, it would affect mice, owls and many other animals.

Producers and consumers

Print
Producers
Plants are called producers because they make their own food.
They are at the start of a food chain.
Plants get their energy from the Sun.

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Consumers
Animals are called consumers because they eat other plants
and animals.
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Prey and predators

Print
A predator is an animal that eats other animals.
The animals that predators eat are called prey.
Predators are found at the end of a food chain.
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The fox will eat the rabbit. The fox is the predator and the
rabbit is the prey.

Plant and animal habitats

Introduction

Every plant or animal lives in a habitat. A habitat is

another name for their local environment. Plants and
animals often have to adapt, or change in order to
survive.

This section includes:

Habitats
How plants and animals adapt
Animals suiting their habitat

Habitats
A habitat is a place where a collection of plants and animals live
and which provides them with food and shelter.
Seashores, gardens and ponds are all examples of habitats.
Habitats can be big (a jungle, for example) or small (a leaf, for
example).

Woodland habitat
The animals and plants living in a woodland habitat might
include owls, thrushes, caterpillars and oak trees.

How plants and animals adapt

Animals and plants are adapted to their habitats. This means
that they have special features that help them to survive.
An African elephant, for example, lives in a hot habitat and has
very large ears that it flaps to keep cool. A polar bear, on the
other hand, lives in a cold habitat and has thick fur to keep
warm.
Pond habitat
Here are some plants and animals that have adapted to living in
a pond habitat.

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a. Frog - The frog has webbed feet to help it swim quickly.
b. Water spider - Hair-like bristles cover the abdomen,
which allows the spider to breathe underwater.
c. Lily pad - The lily pad has a jelly-like substance on the
bottom of its leaves to make it hard for insects to grab on
to it.

Animals suiting their habitat

The animals and plants in one habitat are suited to live there
and may not be able to survive in other habitats.
A woodland owl, for example, would not survive in a desert
habitat because:
 There is little water available in the desert.
The temperatures would be much warmer than a woodland
owl would be used to.
When a habitat changes, the animals and plants that live there
are affected. For example, when pond weed is removed from a
pond, the fish and snails that rely on the weed for food may
find it hard to survive.

Plants
Introduction

Plants need air, light, warmth, water and nutrients to be

healthy. If they are healthy, they can continue making
their own food through photosynthesis. The roots, leaves
and the stem of a plant have different functions that help
to keep it healthy.

This section includes:

What a plant needs to grow
What different parts of plants do

What a plant needs to grow

A plant needs these things to grow well:

air
light
warmth
water
nutrients
A healthy plant is upright with green leaves.
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A seed will not produce a plant at all if it is kept too cold. The
seed needs warmth to germinate (develop from a seed into a
plant) and start to grow into a healthy plant.

A plant that is kept in a dark place will grow tall and spindly in
search of light and then become weak and die.
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A plant that is not watered will have a weak stem and dried up
leaves and will eventually die.

What different parts of plants do

The roots of a plant take up water and nutrients from the soil.
The roots also keep the plant steady and upright in the
soil; they "anchor" the plant.
The stem carries water and nutrients to different parts of the
plant.
The leaves use light from the sun, along with carbon
dioxide from the air and water to make food for the plant.
This process is called photosynthesis.

Plant life cycles

Introduction

The life of a flowering plant has a cycle like pattern.

Flowers come from seeds, and they create seeds too.
Each different part of a plant has a unique purpose.

This section includes:

Non flowering plants
Life cycle of a flowering plant
Petals
Sepals
Nectaries
Carpels
Stamens
 Receptacle

Non flowering plants

Not all plants produce flowers. These are called non-
flowering plants. Ferns and mosses are examples of
plants which do not produce flowers. They grow from
spores instead of seeds. Non-flowering plants as well as
flowering plants make their own food through
photosynthesis.

Life cycle of a flowering plant

These are the main parts of a flower.

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Flowering plants go through the following life cycle.

Roots begin to form under the soil.

The stem, leaves and flower bud emerge above the soil.
 The plant grows tall, more leaves grow and the bud opens
to show the flower.

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How seeds are made

Pollen is carried by insects or blown by the wind from one

flower to another. This process is called pollination.


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 Pollen reaches the carpel of the new flower. Pollen then
travels to the ovary where it fertilises egg cells (ovules) to
make seeds. This process is called fertilisation.


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The seeds are scattered by animals or the wind. This
process is called dispersal. Some of the seeds will grow
into new plants.


Petals
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Petals are often very brightly coloured. This is because their
main job is to attract insects, such as bees or butterflies, into
the flower. The insects pick up pollen from the flower, and
carry it to the next flower they visit. This is how most flowers
are pollinated.
Not all flowers have brightly coloured petals. Some grasses, for
example, have small, dull, off-white flowers. This is because
they are not pollinated by insects or other animals, but use the
wind to blow their pollen grains to other plants.

Sepals
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Sepals are special types of leaves that form a ring around the
petals. Their job is to protect the flower while it is still a bud.
After the flower has opened, the sepals can still be seen behind
the petals.
Sepals are usually green or brown, although in some plants
they are the same colour as the petals.

Nectaries

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The nectaries are the parts of a flower that make nectar.
Nectar is a sweet substance, which insects drink to give them
energy. Bees also use nectar to make honey.
The nectaries are usually right in the centre of the flower. This
means the insects have to reach deep into the flower to find the
nectar. As they do so, their bodies pick up pollen from the
anthers, and they carry it to the next flower they visit.

Carpels
The carpel is the female part of the flower, where the seeds are
made. The carpel has three parts: the stigma, the style, and
the ovary.

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The stigma is covered in a sticky substance. Its job is to
"catch" the grains of pollen (which usually come from
another flower).
The style is the stalk that holds up the stigma.
The ovary contains the ovules (or "eggs").
When the flower is pollinated, the pollen sticks to the stigma. It
then travels down the style to the ovary. In the ovary, the
pollen joins with the ovules, and the ovules become seeds. This
is called fertilisation. After fertilisation, the ovary turns into
the fruit.
Stamens

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The stamens are the male parts of the flower. Their job is to
make pollen. Pollen is a fine yellow powder that is needed to
make a new plant.
Each stamen has two parts: an anther and a filament. The
anther contains the pollen and the filament holds up the
anther.
The pollen is carried to the stigma of another flower and
fertilises it, and new seeds are made. Sometimes pollen from a
flower gets onto the stigma in the same flower, and it fertilizes
itself.

Receptacle
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The receptacle is the top part of the flower stalk, where the
parts of the flower are attached. It is often rounded in shape.
All the parts of the flower are attached to the receptacle.
Human life cycles
There are 6 stages in the human life cycle:
Foetus
At this time, a baby is growing inside it's mum's womb.

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Baby
A baby is born after spending 9 months inside the womb.

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Childhood
At this stage, you learn to walk and talk.

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Adolescence
Children become teenagers.

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Adulthood
Your body is fully developed.

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Old age / elderly
The last stage in the life cycle of a human.

Circulation - Read
Print
Introduction
Your heart plays and important part in being healthy. It
keeps all the blood in your circulatory system flowing.
Blood helps oxygen get around your body. When you
exercise you can feel your pulse, it tells you how fast
your heart is pumping.
Avoiding cigarettes and alcohol, eating right and
exercising help your health and fitness.
This section includes:
Your heart
Your pulse

Your heart
Print
Your heart is a very strong muscle that pumps blood around
your body.
It is made of four chambers, two upper chambers and two
lower chambers. Blood enters the upper chambers. These
squeeze and push the blood into the lower chambers, which
then squeeze and push the blood out of your heart.

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Your heart first pumps blood to your lungs. Here, the blood
picks up oxygen from the air that you have breathed in.
The blood (carrying oxygen) then travels back to your
heart.
The heart gives the blood a second push. This time, it's
sent to all the other parts of your body, including the brain,
all the other organs and all the muscles. The blood delivers
oxygen to them all.
The blood travels back to the heart, and it all begins again.

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The tubes that carry blood away from your heart are called
arteries. The tubes that carry blood back to your heart are
called veins.

Your pulse
Print
Your pulse is a measure of how fast your heart is beating. It is
the number of beats your heart makes in one minute. Your
heart beats faster or slower depending on what you are doing.
You can feel your pulse at certain points on your body. The
easiest place to feel it is in your wrist, using the first two
fingers of your other hand.

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When you sit, the average heart beats about 80 times per
minute. However, everybody is different, so your pulse could
be higher or lower than this.
When you exercise, your heart beats more quickly. This is
because your muscles are working harder and need more
oxygen to keep going. Your lungs also work harder, making you
breathe more quickly to get more oxygen.
When you sleep, your muscles need less oxygen, so your heart
slows down.
Teeth and eating
Introduction

Humans and animals have many different types of teeth.

Our teeth will change with age. So, the teeth you have
when you are a baby aren't the same as the one's you
will have as an adult. Bacteria can ruin teeth and stop
them from doing their job.

This section includes:

Types of teeth
How our teeth develop
Looking after teeth
Teeth in other animals
Keeping healthy

Types of teeth

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Humans have three main types of teeth:
a. Canines - used for tearing and ripping food.
b. Incisors - help you bite off and chew pieces of food.
c. Molars - help you crush and grind food.
How our teeth develop
Humans have two sets of teeth in their life:
Milk (baby) teeth

These are the first set of teeth to grow. They start growing
between six and ten months of age. A child will have
around 20 baby teeth by the time he or she is three years
old.
Permanent (adult) teeth

Baby teeth should begin to fall out by the age of six,
leaving space for adult teeth to grow. An adult can grow up
to 32 permanent teeth.

Looking after teeth

Sugar left in the mouth is eaten by bacteria. The bacteria
make acid that rots teeth and cause tooth decay.
Taking care of our teeth prevents tooth decay. You can take
care of your teeth by:
brushing twice a day
eating the right foods (not too many sugary ones)
visiting the dentist regularly

Teeth in other animals

Animals that eat only meat are called carnivores. Animals that
eat only plants are called herbivores. Carnivores and
herbivores have different types of teeth, to suit the type of food
they eat.
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Keeping healthy
It is important to exercise every day to keep your heart, lungs
and muscles strong and healthy.
It is also important to eat a varied and balanced diet to stay
healthy, including at least five portions of fruit and vegetables
every day.
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Smoking
Smoking is very bad for your health. The tar in cigarettes
damages your lungs and can cause lung cancer. Breathing in
other people's smoke can also damage your lungs.
It is a drug called nicotine in cigarettes that is addictive and
makes it hard to stop smoking once you've started.
Alcohol
Drinking too much alcohol will slow down your brain, damage
your liver and make it harder for your body to fight off diseases.
If someone drinks a lot of alcohol in a very short time, they can
die of alcohol poisoning.
Skeletons and muscles - Read
Introduction

Our skeleton is made from bones. Joints and muscles

help us move. As we grow, our bones grow too.

This section includes:

Skeletons
The human skeleton
How skeletons move

Skeletons
Many animals have skeletons to support and protect their body
and to help it move.
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Some animals, such as insects, crabs and lobsters, have a
skeleton outside their body. Such skeletons are called
exoskeletons.
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The human skeleton
The human skeleton is made of bone and grows as we grow.
Our skull protects our brain and our ribs protect our heart and
lungs.
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The skeleton bends at joints such as knees and ankles. Joints
are where two or more bones join together.
How skeletons move
Muscles are attached to bones.
When a muscle contracts (bunches up), it gets shorter
and so pulls up the bone it is attached to.
When a muscle relaxes, it goes back to its normal size.

Microorganisms - Read
Introduction

If you can only see a living thing with a microscope, that

means it is a microorganism. These are found
everywhere.
Some of them, like yeast are helpful. And some of them
are harmful and disease causing, like bacteria. It is
important to know how to avoid spreading the bad ones!

This section includes:

What are microorganisms?
Harmful microorganisms
 How to avoid spreading harmful microorganisms
Helpful microorganisms

What are microorganisms?

Microorganisms are very tiny living things. They are so small
that you need a microscope to see them.

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Microorganisms are all around us, in the air, in our bodies and
in water. Some microorganisms are harmful to us, but others
are helpful to us.
There are three types of microorganism:
viruses
bacteria
fungus
Harmful microorganisms

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Microorganisms that cause diseases are often called germs.
Some diseases, like chickenpox, are caused by viruses.
Diseases caused by viruses usually spread easily from one
person to another.
Uncooked foods (especially meat) can contain bacteria. The
bacteria are killed when the food is cooked properly. But if you
eat food that has not been cooked properly, the bacteria may
survive and make you feel very ill.
Bacteria left in your mouth by not brushing your teeth properly
can cause a tooth infection. Bacteria left in your mouth could
also cause an infection in your ear.
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Mould is a type of microorganism that grows on decaying food.

It can make you ill if you eat it.

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How to avoid spreading harmful
microorganisms
You can avoid spreading harmful microorganisms by:
Washing your hands before eating, after preparing food
and after using the toilet. Washing your hands with hot
water and soap will kill any bacteria on them.
Covering your mouth when you cough or sneeze. By
covering your mouth, you will stop harmful
microorganisms from spreading through the air to other
people.
Keeping away from other people if you have an illness that
is easily spread. By keeping away from other people, you
will stop the spread of the harmful organisms.
Avoiding food that is not fresh or has not been cooked
properly. Food that is not fresh or has not been cooked
properly may contain harmful microorganisms.
Keeping uncooked meat separate from other food in the
fridge. Uncooked meat may contain harmful bacteria that
could transfer to other food.

Helpful microorganisms
Here are some examples of useful microorganisms.
When bread is made, a microorganisms called yeast is
added to the dough to make the bread rise.




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Yoghurt is made by boiling milk and adding special
bacteria to it. The bacteria turn the sugar in the milk into
acid. The acid makes the milk go thick and stops any
harmful bacteria growing.


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Inside a pile of dead leaves are millions of tiny bacteria.
These bacteria feed on the leaves and break them down
into nutrients. The nutrients go back into the soil where
they can be used by plants.