Petroleum

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Chemical Engineering
PETROLEUM
What is Petroleum?
The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed

crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil.
History of Petroleum
Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times,
and is now important to society, including in economy, politics and
technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the
combustible engine, the rise in commercial aviation and the importance of
petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of
plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.
More than 400 years ago, asphalt was used in the construction of the
walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Babylon, and a pitch
spring on Zacynthus. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled
wells in China.
In 1847, the process to distill kerosene from petroleum was invented

by James Young. The petroleum from which he distilled a light thin oil
suitable for use as a lamp oil, and a thicker oil suitable for lubricating
machinery. In 1848, Young set up a small business refining crude oil. Young
found that by slow distillation he could obtain multiple useful liquids from
petroleum, one which he named “paraffinne oil” because when congealed it
resembles paraffin wax.
In 1851, the first true commercial oil-works in the world was

established at Bathgate by E.W Binney & Co. which was a partnership
between Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney.
Edwin Drake’s 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsilvania, is popularly

considered the first modern well. Drake’s well was singled out because it was
drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a
company associating with it; and because it exploded.
Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts
of the twentieth century, including World War II, during which oil facilities
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were a major strategic asset and were extensively bombed. The German
invasion of the Soviet Union included the goal to capture the Baku oilfields,
as it would provide much needed oil-supplies for the German military which
was suffering from blockades. Oil exploration in North America during the
early 20th century later led to the US becoming the leading producer by mid-
century. As petroleum production in the US peaked during the 1960s,
however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet
Union.
Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil.

Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the
United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation.
Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast
majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it
one of the world's most important commodities. Viability of the oil
commodity is controlled by several key parameters, number of vehicles in the
world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market (Export
Land Model), Net Energy Gain (economically useful energy provided minus
energy consumed), political stability of oil exporting nations and ability to
defend oil supply lines.
The top three oil producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the
United States. About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are
located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5: Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil
exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in Canada and oil shale
in Venezuela.
What is Crude Oil?
Crude oil is unrefined liquid petroleum, which ranges in color from

yellow to black, and may have a paraffin, asphalt or mixed base. Crude oil is
composed of thousands of different chemical compounds called
hydrocarbons, all with different boiling points1.
1
For example, a typical crude oil may begin to boil at 104° F to produce petroleum gas used for heating and
making plastics, and finish boiling at greater than 1112° F to produce residuals such as petroleum coke, asphalt and
tar.
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Crude oil is generally described as sweet or sour according to its sulfur

content, and heavy or light according to its API Gravity. The API Gravity
index is a relative measure of weight-the lower the number, the heavier the
material; the higher the number, the lighter the material. While there are no
exacting definitions for these types of crudes, a general rule of thumb is:
- Heavy crude is less than 30°API, while light crude is greater than 30°API.
- If crude contains a sizable amount of sulfur or sulfur compounds, it is

called sour crude; if it has little to no sulfur, it is sweet crude. Sour
crude may contain 1%–5% sulfur content, while sweet crudes will have
less than 1% sulfur content.
Sources of Crude Oil
Crude oil is found in geologic formations beneath the earth’s surface. It is

formed when large quantities of dead organisms2 are buried underneath
sedimentary rock and subjected to intense heat and pressure.
Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. This comes after the
studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin
analysis, and reservoir characterization.3
Oil reserves are the amount of technically and economically

recoverable oil. Reserves may be for a well, for a reservoir, for a field, for a
nation, or for the world. Different classifications of reserves are related to their
degree of certainty.
The total estimated amount of oil in an oil reservoir, including both

producible and non-producible oil, is called oil in place. However, because
of reservoir characteristics and limitations in petroleum extraction
technologies, only a fraction of this oil can be brought to the surface, and it is
only this producible fraction that is considered to bereserves. The ratio of
reserves to the total amount of oil in a particular reservoir is called the recovery
factor. Determining a recovery factor for a given field depends on several
2
Usually zooplankton and algae
3
Mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability of geologic structures.
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features of the operation, including method of oil recovery used and

technological developments.
Based on data from OPEC4 at the beginning of 2013 the highest proved
oil reserves including non-conventional oil deposits are in Venezuela (20% of
global reserves), Saudi Arabia (18% of global reserves), Canada (13% of global
reserves), and Iran (9%). (OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin, 2013)
Figure 1: A map of world oil reserves, 2013
Oil Refineries in the Philippines
The Philippines' downstream oil industry is dominated by three

companies: Petron; Pilipinas Shell (Royal Dutch/Shell's Philippine subsidiary);
and Caltex (Philippines).
Petron
Petron is the Philippines' largest oil refining and marketing

company. Currently, the Philippine government and Saudi Aramco each
own 40% of the company, with the remaining 20% held by portfolio and
institutional investors, making it the only publicly listed firm amongst
4
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an international organization and economic cartel whose mission is to
coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries.
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the three oil majors. Petron's Limay, Bataan refinery has a crude
processing capacity of 180,000 bbl/d. Petron's market share as of mid-
2004 was around 40%.
Pilipinas Shell
Pilipinas Shell has a 153,000-bbl/d refinery, one of the largest

foreign investments in the Philippines, and operates some 1,000 Shell
gasoline stations.
Composition of Crude oil
There are four different types of hydrocarbon molecules that appear in

crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the
properties of each oil. The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes,
cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic
compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur, and trace amounts of
metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The exact molecular
composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportions of
chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits.
Composition by Weight
Hydrocarbon Range Average
Alkanes
15 – 60 % 30 %
(paraffins)
Naphthenes 30 – 60 % 49%
Aromatics 3 – 30 % 15 %
Asphaltics remainder 6%
Composition by Weight
Element Percent Range
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Carbon 83 - 85 %
Hydrogen 10 – 14 %
Nitrogen 0.1 – 2 %
Oxygen 0.05 – 1.5 %
Sulfur 0.05 – 6.0 %
Metals < 0.1 %
Process of Extracting Crude Oil
Locating the Oil Field
Geologists use seismic surveys to search for geological structures

that may form oil reservoirs. The "classic" method includes making an
underground explosion nearby and observing the seismic response that
provides information about the geological structures under the ground.
Drilling
The oil well is created by drilling a long hole into the earth with
an oil rig. A steel pipe (casing) is placed in the hole, to provide structural
integrity to the newly drilled well bore. Holes are then made in the base
of the well to enable oil to pass into the bore.Finally a collection of valves
called a "Christmas Tree" is fitted to the top, the valves regulate
pressures and control flow.
Oil Recovery and Extraction (Alboudwarej, 2006)
Primary recovery
During the primary recovery stage, reservoir drive comes

from a number of natural mechanisms. These include: natural
water displacing oil downward into the well, expansion of the
natural gas at the top of the reservoir, expansion of gas initially
dissolved in the crude oil, and gravity drainage resulting from the
movement of oil within the reservoir from the upper to the lower
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parts where the wells are located. Recovery factor during the
primary recovery stage is typically 5-15%.
While the underground pressure in the oil reservoir is

sufficient to force the oil to the surface; all that is necessary is to
place a complex arrangement of valves (the Christmas tree) on
the well head to connect the well to a pipeline network for storage
and processing. Sometimes pumps, such as beam
pumps and electrical submersible pumps (ESPs), are used to bring
the oil to the surface; these are known as artificial lift mechanisms.
Secondary recovery
Over the lifetime of the well the pressure will fall, and at
some point there will be insufficient underground pressure to force
the oil to the surface. After natural reservoir drive
diminishes, secondary recovery methods are applied. They rely on
the supply of external energy into the reservoir in the form of
injecting fluids to increase reservoir pressure, hence replacing or
increasing the natural reservoir drive with an artificial drive.
Secondary recovery techniques increase the reservoir's pressure
by water injection, natural gas reinjection and gas lift, which
injects air, carbon dioxide or some other gas into the bottom of an
active well, reducing the overall density of fluid in the wellbore.
Typical recovery factor from water-flood operations is about 30%,
depending on the properties of oil and the characteristics of the
reservoir rock. On average, the recovery factor after primary and
secondary oil recovery operations is between 35 and 45%.
Enhanced recovery
Enhanced, or Tertiary oil recovery methods increase the

mobility of the oil in order to increase extraction.
Thermally enhanced oil recovery methods (TEOR) are tertiary
recovery techniques that heat the oil, thus reducing its viscosity
and making it easier to extract. Steam injection is the most
common form of TEOR, and is often done with
a cogeneration plant. In this type of cogeneration plant, a gas
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turbine is used to generate electricity and the waste heat is used to

produce steam, which is then injected into the reservoir. This form
of recovery is used extensively to increase oil extraction in the San
Joaquin Valley, which has very heavy oil, yet accounts for 10% of
the United States' oil extraction. Fire flooding (In-situ burning) is
another form of TEOR, but instead of steam, some of the oil is
burned to heat the surrounding oil.
Occasionally, surfactants (detergents) are injected to alter
the surface tension between the water and oil in the reservoir,
mobilizing oil which would otherwise remain in the reservoir as
residual oil.
Another method to reduce viscosity is carbon dioxide flooding.
Tertiary recovery allows another 5% to 15% of the reservoir's
oil to be recovered. In some California heavy oil fields, steam
injection has doubled or even tripled the oil reserves and ultimate
oil recovery. For example, see Midway-Sunset Oil Field, California's
largest oilfield.
Tertiary recovery begins when secondary oil recovery isn't
enough to continue adequate extraction, but only when the oil can
still be extracted profitably. This depends on the cost of the
extraction method and the current price of crude oil. When prices
are high, previously unprofitable wells are brought back into use
and when they are low, extraction is curtailed.
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Figure 2: Steam Injection
Process of Refining Crude Oil
The oil refining process starts with a fractional distillation column.
The problem with crude oil is that it contains hundreds of different types
of hydrocarbons all mixed together. You have to separate the different types of
hydrocarbons to have anything useful. Fortunately there is an easy way to
separate things, and this is what oil refining is all about.
Different hydrocarbon chain lengths all have progressively higher boiling

points, so they can all be separated by distillation. This is what happens in an
oil refinery - in one part of the process, crude oil is heated and the different
chains are pulled out by their vaporization temperatures. Each different chain
length has a different property that makes it useful in a different way.
In a refinery, crude is converted into finished products using rigorous

processes involving three types of operations (separation, conversion,
upgrading):
Separation processes
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The first stage involves separating the molecules through atmospheric

distillation (i.e. normal atmospheric pressure), according to their molecular
weight. This process, also known as topping, consists of heating the oil to
350/400°C, causing it to evaporate at the base of a 60-meter-high distillation
tower.
The crude vapors rise inside the tower while the heaviest molecules, or
heavy residue, remain at the bottom without evaporating. As the vapors rise
the temperature progressively drops causing the molecules to condense into
liquids, the heaviest first followed by gases that alone reach the top of the
tower, where the temperature is now only 150°C. There are outlets located at
different levels to collect these liquids, which become increasingly light up
along the tower. Each outlet corresponds to a fractional distillation, also known
as a petroleum cut, beginning with bitumen (highly viscous hydrocarbons) all
the way to gases.
The heavy residue from this distillation still contains many mid-density
products. This residue is placed in another tower and distilled again to
recover mid-range products (heavy fuel and diesel).
Conversion processes
After separation, the proportion of heavy hydrocarbons is still too high. To

meet demand for lighter products, these heavy molecules are broken up into
two or more lighter molecules. This conversion process, carried out at 500°C, is
also known as catalytic cracking because it uses a catalyst (a substance that
accelerates and facilitates chemical reactions). 75% of heavy products
subjected to conversion are converted into gas, gasoline and diesel this way.
The result can be improved by adding hydrogen (hydrocracking) or using

carbon extraction methods to recover more light molecules (deep conversion).
So, all heavy hydrocarbons can be converted into light hydrocarbons but the
more complex the operation the more it costs and the more energy it uses. The
ongoing aim of refiners is to find a balance between the degree and the cost of
the conversion!
Upgrading processes
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These involve significantly reducing or eliminating corrosive or environmentally

harmful molecules –particularly sulfur. EU sulfur emission standards are
strict: since January 1, 2009, gasoline and diesel containing more than 10 ppm
(10 mg/kg) of sulfur may not be used in Europe. The purpose of these
measures is to improve the ambient air quality by optimizing the effectiveness
of catalytic exhaust gas treatment technologies. Diesel is desulfurized at 370°C,
at a pressure of 60 bars and in the presence of hydrogen: under these
conditions, the sulfur atoms break off from the hydrocarbon molecules and
combine with hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This is then
processed to extract sulfur, a substance used in industry.
Uses of refined petroleum products
Each refined petroleum product made from crude oil is used for a
specific purpose:
- Petroleum gas - used for heating, cooking, making plastics

o small alkanes (1 to 4 carbon atoms)
o commonly known by the names methane, ethane, propane, butane
o boiling range = less than 104 degrees Fahrenheit / 40 degrees
Celsius
o often liquified under pressure to create LPG (liquified petroleum
gas)
- Naphtha or Ligroin - intermediate that will be further processed to make

gasoline
o mix of 5 to 9 carbon atom alkanes
o boiling range = 140 to 212 degrees Fahrenheit / 60 to 100 degrees
Celsius
- Gasoline - motor fuel

o liquid
o mix of alkanes and cycloalkanes (5 to 12 carbon atoms)
o boiling range = 104 to 401 degrees Fahrenheit / 40 to 205 degrees
Celsius
- Kerosene - fuel for jet engines and tractors; starting material for making
other products
o liquid
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o mix of alkanes (10 to 18 carbons) and aromatics

o boiling range = 350 to 617 degrees Fahrenheit / 175 to 325
degrees Celsius
- Gas oil or Diesel distillate - used for diesel fuel and heating oil; starting
material for making other products
o liquid
o alkanes containing 12 or more carbon atoms
degrees Celsius
- Lubricating oil - used for motor oil, grease, other lubricants

o liquid
o long chain (20 to 50 carbon atoms) alkanes, cycloalkanes,
aromatics
degrees Celsius
- Heavy gas or Fuel oil - used for industrial fuel; starting material for
making other products
o liquid
o long chain (20 to 70 carbon atoms) alkanes, cycloalkanes,
aromatics
degrees Celsius
- Residuals - coke, asphalt, tar, waxes; starting material for making other
products
o solid
o multiple-ringed compounds with 70 or more carbon atoms
o boiling range = greater than 1112 degrees Fahrenheit / 600
degrees Celsius
Apart from these features and basic uses, each refinery markets its own
finished products, obtained by mixing various products and additives. Oil
companies offer a range of different fuels that are more environmentally-
friendly and that ensures engines work better and have a longer life.
(Petroleum)
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Figure 3: Oil Distillation
Processing units used in refineries
Crude Oil Distillation unit: Distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions
for further processing in other units.
Vacuum distillation unit: Further distills the residue oil from the bottom of the
crude oil distillation unit. The vacuum distillation is performed at a pressure
well below atmospheric pressure.
Naphtha hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize the naphtha fraction

from the crude oil distillation or other units within the refinery.
Catalytic reforming unit: Converts the desulfurized naphtha molecules into

higher-octane molecules to produce reformate, which is a component of the
end-product gasoline or petrol.
Alkylation unit: Converts isobutane and butylenes into alkylate, which is a very
high-octane component of the end-product gasoline or petrol.
Isomerisation unit: Converts linear molecules such as normal pentane into

higher-octane branched molecules for blending into the end-product gasoline.
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Also used to convert linear normal butane into isobutane for use in the
alkylation unit.
Distillate hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize some of the other

distilled fractions from the crude oil distillation unit (such as diesel oil).
Merox (mercaptan oxidizer) or similar units: Desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet

fuel by oxidizing undesired mercaptans to organic disulfides.
Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment for converting hydrogen
sulfide gas from the hydrotreaters into end-product elemental sulfur. The large
majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005
was byproduct sulfur from petroleum refining and natural gas
processing plants.
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit: Upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling

fractions from the crude oil distillation by converting them into lighter and
lower boiling, more valuable products.
Hydrocracker unit: Uses hydrogen to upgrade heavier fractions from the crude
oil distillation and the vacuum distillation units into lighter, more valuable
products.
Visbreaker unit upgrades heavy residual oils from the vacuum distillation unit
by thermally cracking them into lighter, more valuable reduced viscosity
products.
Delayed coking and fluid coker units: Convert very heavy residual oils into end-
product petroleum coke as well as naphtha and diesel oil by-products.
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Figure 4: Refining Process of Petroleum
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LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

Introduction
Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG is a by-product from crude oil

refining and usually comprises of C3 and C4 hydrocarbons – propane,
propylene, n-butane, isobutane, butylene etc. LPG is a mixture of
hydrocarbons occurring between lighter components occurring in the utility
fuel gas (C1 and C2) and heavier liquids occurring in naphtha and gasoline (c5
and onwards). These hydrocarbons burn readily, producing a large amount of
heat. This makes petroleum gas a very good fuel. The distillation range for LPG
hydrocarbons at atmospheric pressure occurs between -490F to 340F.
It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first
commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of the
energy consumed, and burns cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur
emissions, posing no ground or water pollution hazards. LPG has a typical
specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel-oil
and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline). However, its energy
density per volume unit of 26 MJ/l is lower than either that of petrol or fuel-oil.
Some properties of commercial quality propane and butane (not pure

propane and butane but mixtures of c3/c4 components) are presented in the
following table and a combination of these may be approximately used as
properties of LPG.
Properties Propane Butane

Specific gravity of liquid at 600F/600F 0.509 0.582
Initial Boiling point at atmospheric pressure -510F 150F
Initial dew point at atmospheric pressure -460F 0.5820F
Ignition temperature in air 9200F- 9000F-

10200F 10000F
Maximum flame temperature 32950F 36150F
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Max / Min limits of flammability (wt% of gas in 2.4 / 9.6 1.9 / 8.6
air)
wt% of gas in air for maximum flame 4.4 3.3
temperature
The C3/C4 hydrocarbons in crude oil are separated at the atmospheric
distillation column. They are further sent to merox unit for removal of hydrogen
sulfide gas.
LPG is primarily used as a domestic cooking fuel. Because of the low

boiling point (-44 to 0°C) and high vapor pressure of these gases, their handling
as liquids in pressure cylinders is necessary. Thus, they can be easily liquefied
under pressure. The petroleum gas, which has been liquefied under pressure is
called Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Manufacturing Process
Desalting
Crude oil introduced to

refinery processing contains
many undesirable impurities,
such as sand, inorganic salts,
drilling mud, polymer,
corrosion by-product, etc. The
salt content in the crude oil
varies depending on source of
the crude oil. When a mixture
from many crude oil sources is
processed in refinery, the salt
content can vary greatly.
The purpose of desalting

is to remove these undesirable impurities, especially salts and water, from the
crude oil prior to distillation.
The desalting process is completed in following steps:
 Dilution water injection and dispersion

 Emulsification of diluted water in oil
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 Distribution of the emulsion in the electrostatic field

 Electrostatic coalescence
 Water droplet settling
Crude oil passes through the cold preheat train and is then pumped to the
desalters by crude charge pumps. The recycled water from the desalters is
injected in the crude oil containing sediments and produced salty water. This
fluid enters in the static mixer which is a crude/water disperser, maximizing
the interfacial surface area for optimal contact between both liquids.
The wash water shall be injected as near as possible emulsifying device to

avoid a first separation with crude oil. Wash water can come from various
sources including relatively high salt sea water, stripping water, etc. The static
mixers are installed upstream the emulsifying devices to improve the contact
between the salt in the crude oil and the wash water injected in the line.The
oil/water mixture is homogenously emulsified in the emulsifying device. The
emulsifying device (as a valve) is used to emulsify the dilution water injected
upstream in the oil. The emulsification is important for contact between the
salty production water contained in the oil and the wash water. Then the
emulsion enters the Desalters where it separates into two phases by
electrostatic coalescence.
The electrostatic coalescence is

induced by the polarization effect
resulting from an external electric
source. Polarization of water
droplets pulls them out from oil-
water emulsion phase. Salt being
dissolved in these water droplets, is
also separated along the way. The
produced water is discharged to the
water treatment system (effluent
water). It can also be used as wash
water for mud washing process during operation.
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Gas Separation
Crude oil is sent to the atmospheric distillation

unit after desalting and heating. The purpose of
atmospheric distillation is primary separation of
various ‘cuts’ of hydrocarbons namely, fuel gases, LPG,
naptha, kerosene, diesel and fuel oil. The light ends
hydrocarbons at the top of the column undergo Gas
Separation. The heavy hydrocarbon residue left at the
bottom of the atmospheric distillation column is sent to
vacuum distillation column for further separation of
hydrocarbons under reduced pressure.
As the name suggests, the pressure profile in

atmospheric distillation unit is close to the atmospheric
pressure with highest pressure at the bottom stage
which gradually drops down till the top stage of the column.
The temperature is
highest at the bottom of the
column which is constantly fed
with heat from bottoms reboiler.
The reboiler vaporizes part of
the bottom outlet from the
column and this vapor is
recycled back to the distillation
column and travels to the top
stage absorbing lighter
hydrocarbons from the counter
current crude oil flow. The
temperature at the top of the
column is the lowest as the heat
at this stage of the column is absorbed by a condenser which condenses a
fraction of the vapors from column overhead. The condensed hydrocarbon
liquid is recycled back to the column. This condensed liquid flows down
through the series of column trays, flowing counter current to the hot vapors
coming from bottom and condensing some of those vapors along the way. Thus
a reboiler at the bottom and a condenser at the top along with a number of
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trays in between help to create temperature and pressure gradients along the
stages of the column. The gradual variation of temperature and pressure from
one stage to another and considerable residence time for vapors and liquid at a
tray help to create near equilibrium conditions at each tray. So ideally we can
have a number of different vapor-liquid equilibria at different stages of this
column with varying temperature and pressure conditions. This means that the
hydrocarbon composition also varies for different trays with the variation in
temperature and pressure.
The heaviest hydrocarbons are taken out as liquid flow from the partial
reboiler at bottom and the lightest hydrocarbons are taken out from the partial
condenser at the column overhead. For the in between trays or stages, the
hydrocarbons become lighter as one moves up along the height of the column.
Various other cuts of hydrocarbons are taken out as sidedraws from different
stages of the column. Starting from LPG at the top stages, naptha, kerosene,
diesel and gas oil cuts are taken out as we move down the stages of
atmospheric column.
The heaviest hydrocarbon residue taken out from partial reboiler is sent
to the vacuum distillation column for further separation under reduced
pressure. The different cuts of hydrocarbons taken out at this stage are the
result of primary separation and undergo further processing before being
transformed to end products.
Saturate (sat) Gas Plants
Saturate (sat) gas plants separate refinery gas components including

butanes for alkylation, pentanes for gasoline blending, LPG's for fuel, and
ethane for petrochemicals. Because sat gas processes depend on the feedstock
and product demand, each refinery uses different systems, usually absorption-
fractionation or straight fractionation. In Absorption-fractionation, gases and
liquids from various refinery units are fed to an absorber-deethanizer where C2
and lighter fractions are separated from heavier fractions by lean oil absorption
and removed for use as fuel gas or petrochemical feed. The heavier fractions
are stripped and sent to a debutanizer, and the lean oil is recycled back to the
absorber-deethanizer. C3/C4 is separated from pentanes in the debutanizer,
scrubbed to remove hydrogen sulfide, and fed to a splitter where propane and
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butane are separated. In fractionation sat gas plants, the absorption stage is
eliminated.
Polymerization
Polymerization in the petroleum industry is the process of converting

light olefin gases including ethylene, propylene, and butylene into
hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight and higher octane number.
Polymerization combines two or more identical olefin molecules to form a single
molecule with the same elements in the same proportions as the original
molecules. Polymerization may be accomplished thermally or in the presence of
a catalyst at lower temperatures.
The olefin feedstock is pretreated to remove sulfur and other undesirable

compounds. In the catalytic process the feedstock is either passed over a solid
phosphoric acid catalyst or comes in contact with liquid phosphoric acid,
where an exothermic polymeric reaction occurs. This reaction requires cooling
water and the injection of cold feedstock into the reactor to control
temperatures between 300° and 450° F at pressures from 200 psi to 1,200 psi.
Light olefins hydrocarbon are combined with isobutane and fed to the HF
Reactor where polymerization occurs. Acid settler separates the free HF from
the hydrocarbons and recycles the acid back to the reactor. A portion of the HF
is regenerated to remove acid oils formed by feed contaminants or hydrocarbon
polymerization. Hydrocarbons from settler go to the De-isobutanizer for
fractionating the propane and isobutane from the n-butane and alkylate.
Propane is then fractionated from the isobutane; propane as a product and the
isobutane to be recycled to the reactor. N-Butane and alkylate are
deflourinated in a bed of solid adsorbent and fractionated as separate
products.
Blending and Treating
The Merox process is for extraction and removal of mercaptans from

liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), such as propane, butanes and mixtures of
propane and butanes. It is a two-step process. In the first step, the feedstock
LPG is contacted in the trayed extractor vessel with an aqueous caustic
solution containing proprietary liquid catalyst. The caustic solution reacts with
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mercaptans and extracts them. The reaction that takes place in the extractor
is:
2RSH + 2 NaOH → 2NaSR + 2 H2O
In the above reaction, RSH is a mercaptan and R signifies an organic

group such as a methyl, ethyl, propyl or other group. For example, the ethyl
mercaptan (ethanethiol) has the formula C2H5SH.
The second step is referred to as regeneration and it involves heating and

oxidizing of the caustic solution leaving the extractor. The oxidations results in
converting the extracted mercaptans to organic disulfides (RSSR) which are
liquids that are water-insoluble and are then separated and decanted from the
aqueous caustic solution. The reaction that takes place in the regeneration
step is:
4NaSR + O2 + 2H2O → 2RSSR + 4NaOH
After decantation of the disulfides, the regenerated "lean" caustic solution is

recirculated back to the top of the extractor to continue extracting mercaptans.
The net overall Merox reaction covering the extraction and the regeneration
step may be expressed as:
4 RSH + O2 → 2RSSR + 2H2O
The feedstock entering the extractor must be free of any H2S. Otherwise, any
H2S entering the extractor would react with the circulating caustic solution and
interfere with the Merox reactions. Therefore, the feedstock is first "prewashed"
by flowing through a batch of aqueous caustic to remove any H2S. The reaction
that takes place in the prewash vessel is:
H2S + NaOH → NaSH + H2O
Petroleum 488
The batch of caustic solution in the prewash vessel is periodically discarded as

"spent caustic" and replaced by fresh caustic as needed.
The flow diagram above depicts the equipment and the flow paths
involved in the process. The LPG (or light naphtha) feedstock enters the
prewash vessel and flows upward through a batch of caustic which removes
any H2S that may be present in the feedstock. The coalescer at the top of the
prewash vessel prevents caustic from being entrained and carried out of the
vessel.
The feedstock then enters the mercaptan extractor and flows upward
through the contact trays where the LPG intimately contacts the downflowing
Merox caustic that extracts the mercaptans from the LPG. The sweetened LPG
exits the tower and flows through: a caustic settler vessel to remove any
Petroleum 489
entrained caustic, a water wash vessel to further remove any residual

entrained caustic and a vessel containing a bed of rock salt to remove any
entrained water. The dry sweetened LPG exits the Merox unit.
The caustic solution leaving the bottom of the mercaptan extractor ("rich"
Merox caustic) flows through a control valve which maintains the extractor
pressure needed to keep the LPG liquified. It is then injected with proprietary
liquid catalyst (on an as needed basis), flows through a steam-heated heat
exchanger and is injected with compressed air before entering the oxidizer
vessel where the extracted mercaptans are converted to disulfides. The oxidizer
vessel has a packed bed to keep the aqueous caustic and the water-insoluble
disulfide well contacted and well mixed.
The caustic-disulfide mixture then flows into the separator vessel where
it is allowed to form a lower layer of "lean" Merox caustic and an upper layer of
disulfides. The vertical section of the separator is for the disengagement and
venting of excess air and includes a Raschig ring section to prevent
entrainment of any disulfides in the vented air. The disulfides are withdrawn
from the separator and routed to fuel storage or to a hydrotreater unit. The
regenerated lean Merox caustic is then pumped back to the top of the extractor
for reuse.
Storing and packaging
As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG

will evaporate quickly at normal temperatures and
pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel
vessels. They are typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity
to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The
ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the
liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure,
and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The
pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour
pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and
temperature; for example, it is approximately 220
kilopascals (32 psi) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and
approximately 2,200 kilopascals (320 psi) for pure propane at 55 °C (131 °F).
Petroleum 490
GASOLINE
Gasoline is refined from crude oil. It is a refined product of petroleum

consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons, additives and blending agents. Its
composition varies widely, depending on the crude oil used, the refinery
processes available, the overall balance of product demand, and the product
specifications.
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1989,

the typical composition of gasoline hydrocarbons is as follows: 4-8 % by volume
alkanes, 2-5% alkenes, 25-40% isoalkanes, 3-7% cycloalkanes, 1-4%
cycloalkenes, and 20-50% total aromatics (0.5-2.5% benzene). Additives and
blending agents are added to the hydrocarbon mixture to improve the
performance and stability of gasoline. At the end of the production process,
finished gasoline typically contains more than 150 separate compounds.
Gasoline is mainly used as a fuel for internal-combustion engines. It is

sometimes used as a solvent for oils and fats. Gasoline became the preferred
automobile fuel because of its high energy of combustion and its capacity to
mix readily with air in a carburetor.
Gasoline should:
 Enable good engine performance - this is achieved by controlling octane

number and volatility.
 Allow engines to start and run well in cold or hot weather - this is
achieved by controlling volatility.
 Let engines run reliably and efficiently for a long time - this is achieved
by controlling stability and corrosiveness, and the tendency of the
gasoline to form residues and deposits in engines and fuel systems.
 Limit evaporative and exhaust emissions for environmental and health
reasons - this is achieved by controlling volatility, total aromatics and
olefins, and by efficient fuel vehicle technology.
 Be removed of unnecessary health risks - this is achieved by limiting
benzene content, blending components like MTBE, and additives like
lead or manganese.
 Able to benefit from new engine and emissions control technologies - this
is achieved by limiting sulfur content and controlling octane number and
volatility.
Petroleum 491
What is Octane Rating?
The octane rating of gasoline refers to its resistance to pre-ignition

“knocking” and “pinging”. Knocking and pinging are caused by abnormal
combustion of the fuel in the cylinder causing an extreme rise in cylinder
pressure. This abnormal chamber event produces an undesirable and
destructive phenomenon also known as detonation or pre-ignition.
Gasoline is classified by its octane rating. The higher the octane rating
number, the greater resistance to auto-ignition or knock the fuel has. Fuels
with an antiknock index of 87 are regular grade gasoline; 89 are midgrade; and
91 or higher are high octane gasoline.
History of Gasoline Refinery
In the 19th century, fuels for the automobile were coal tar distillates and
the lighter fractions from the distillation of crude oil. On September 5, 1885,
the first gasoline pump was manufactured by Sylvanus Bowser of Fort Wayne,
Indiana and delivered to Jake Gumper, also of Fort Wayne. The gasoline pump
tank had marble valves and wooden plungers and had a capacity of one barrel.
On September 6, 1892, the first gasoline-powered tractor, manufactured by
John Froelich of Iowa, was shipped to Langford, South Dakota, where it was
employed in threshing for approximately 2 months. It had a vertical single-
cylinder gasoline engine mounted on wooden beams and drove a J. I. Case
threshing machine. Froelich formed the Waterloo Gasoline Tractor Engine
Company, which was later acquired by the John Deere Plow Company.
By the early 20th century, the oil companies were producing gasoline as
a simple distillate from petroleum. During the 1910s, laws prohibited the
storage of gasoline on residential properties. On January 7, 1913, William
Meriam Burton received a patent for his cracking process to convert oil to
gasoline. On January 1, 1918, the first U.S. gasoline pipeline began
Petroleum 492
transporting gasoline through a three inch pipe over 40 miles from Salt Creek
to Casper, Wyoming. Charles Kettering modified an internal combustion engine
to run on kerosene. However, kerosene fueled engine knocked and would crack
the cylinder head and pistons. Thomas Midgley Jr. discovered that the cause of
the knocking was from the kerosene droplets vaporizing on combustion. Anti-
knock agents were researched by Midgley, culminating in tetra ethyl lead being
added to fuel. On February 2, 1923, for the first time in U.S. history ethyl
gasoline was marketed. This took place in Dayton, Ohio. In 1923, Almer
McDuffie McAfee developed the petroleum industry's first commercially viable
catalytic cracking process, a method that could double or even triple the
gasoline yielded from crude oil by then-standard distillation methods. By the
mid-1920s, gasolines were 40 - 60 Octanes. By the 1930s, the petroleum
industry stopped using kerosene. Eugene Houdry invented the catalytic
cracking of low-grade fuel into high test gasoline in 1937. During the 1950s,
the increase of the compression ratio and higher octane fuels occurred. Lead
levels increased and new refining processes (hydrocracking) began. In 1960,
Charles Plank and Edward Rosinski patented (U.S. #3,140,249) the first zeolite
catalyst commercially useful in the petroleum industry for catalytic cracking of
petroleum into lighter products such as gasoline. In the 1970s, unleaded fuels
were introduced. From 1970 until 1990 lead was phased out. In 1990, the
Clean Air Act created major changes on gasoline, rightfully intended to
eliminate pollution.
Raw Materials
Crude Oil
Additives
Additive Function Example

Anti-knocking agents Improve octane ratings Tetraethyllead,
and reduce engine Methylcyclopentadienyl
knocking manganese tricarbonyl
(MMT), Ferrocene,
Toluene, Isooctane
Petroleum 493
Anti-oxidants Inhibit gum formation Butylated

and improve stability hydroxytoluene,
Ethylene diamine, p-
Phenylenediamine, 2,6-
Di-tert-butylphenol
Metal deactivators Inhibit gum formation N,N-Disalicylidiene-1,2-
and improve stability propanediamine,
Benzotriazole
Deposit modifiers Reduce deposits, spark- Ethylene dichloride,
plug fouling and pre-
ignition
Surfactants Prevent icing, improve Long chain of
vaporization, inhibit alkyldiamines,
deposits, reduce nitrate Alkylsuccinimides of
emissions diethylenetriamine
Freezing point Prevent icing T-Butanol
depressants
Corrosion inhibitors Prevent gasoline DCI-4A, DCI-6A
corroding storage tanks
Dyes Product color for safety, Solvent Red 24, Solvent
or regulatory purposes Red 26, Solvent Yellow
124, Solvent Blue 35
Manufacturing Process of Gasoline
1. Distillation
Modern distillation involves pumping oil through pipes in hot furnaces

and separating light hydrocarbon molecules from heavy ones in downstream
distillation towers – the tall, narrow columns that give refineries their
distinctive skylines.
During this process, the lightest materials, like propane and butane,
vaporize and rise to the top of the first atmospheric column. Medium weight
materials, including gasoline, jet and diesel fuels, condense in the middle.
Heavy materials, called gas oils, condense in the lower portion of the
atmospheric column. The heaviest tar-like material, called residuum, is
referred to as the "bottom of the barrel" because it never really rises.
This distillation process is repeated in many other plants as the oil is

further refined to make various products.
Petroleum 494
In some cases, distillation columns are operated at less than

atmospheric pressure (vacuum) to lower the temperature at which a
hydrocarbon mixture boils. This "vacuum distillation" (VDU) reduces the
chance of thermal decomposition (cracking) due to overheating the mixture.
2. Cracking
Since the marketplace

establishes product value,
our competitive edge depends
on how efficiently we can
convert middle distillate, gas
oil and residuum into the
highest value products.
Heat and catalysts are

used to convert the heavier
oils to lighter products using three "cracking" methods: fluid catalytic cracking
(FCC), hydrocracking (Isomax), and coking (or thermal-cracking).
The Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC) uses high temperature and catalyst to
crack 86,000 barrels (3.6 million gallons) each day of heavy gas oil mostly into
gasoline. Hydrocracking uses catalysts to react gas oil and hydrogen under
high pressure and high temperature to make both jet fuel and gasoline. Also,
about 58,000 barrels (2.4 million gallons) of lighter gas oil is converted daily in
two Isomax Units, using this hydrocracking process.
Petroleum 495
3. Alkylation
While the cracking

processes break most of the
gas oil into gasoline and jet
fuel, they also break off some
pieces that are lighter than
gasoline. This process takes
the small molecules and
recombines them in the
presence of sulfuric acid
catalyst to convert them into
high octane gasoline.
4. Treating (Removing Impurities)
The products from the Crude Units and the feeds to other units contain
some natural impurities, such as sulfur and nitrogen. Using a process called
Petroleum 496
hydrotreating (a milder version of hydrocracking). these impurities are removed

to reduce air pollution when our fuels are used.
In the RDS Unit's six 1,000-ton reactors, sulfur and nitrogen are
removed from FCC feed stream. The sulfur is converted to hydrogen sulfide and
sent to the Sulfur Unit where it is converted into elemental sulfur. Nitrogen is
transformed into ammonia which is removed from the process by water-
washing. Later, the water is treated to recover the ammonia as a pure product
for use in the production of fertilizer.
The RDS's Unit main product, low sulfur vacuum gas oil, is fed to the
FCC (fluid catalytic cracker) Unit which then cracks it into high value products
such as gasoline and diesel.
5. Reforming
Octane rating is a key measurement of how well a gasoline performs in

an automobile engine. Much of the gasoline that comes from the Crude Units
or from the Cracking Units does not have enough octane to burn well in cars.
The gasoline process streams in the refinery that have a fairly low octane
rating are sent to a Reforming Unit where their octane levels are boosted. These
reforming units employ precious-metal catalysts - platinum and rhenium – and
thereby get the name "rheniformers." In the reforming process, hydrocarbon
molecules are "reformed" into high octane gasoline components. For example,
methyl cyclohexane is reformed into toluene.
The reforming process actually removes hydrogen from low-octane

gasoline. The hydrogen is used throughout the refinery in various cracking
(hydrocracking) and treating (hydrotreating) units.
6. Blending
Petroleum 497
A final and critical step is the blending of our products. Gasoline, for
example, is blended from treated components made in several processing units.
Blending and Shipping Area operators precisely combine these to ensure that
the blend has the right octane level, vapor pressure rating and other important
specifications. All products are blended in a similar fashion. Among the
variables that determine the blend are octane level, vapor pressure ratings, and
other special considerations, such as whether the gasoline will be used at high
altitudes. Technicians also add patented performance additives, and dyes to
distinguish the various grades of fuel.
KEROSENE
Kerosene, also spelled kerosine, also called paraffin
oil or coal oil is a flammable yellow to colorless oily liquid
with a not-unpleasant smell. While can be extracted from
coal or shale, kerosene is primarily derived from
petroleum. It is a distillate of petroleum with boiling
points ranging from 150 to 300OC (300 to 575OF), and
therefore classified as so-called middle distillates along
with diesel oil. It primarily consists of mixtures of
hydrocarbons with 12-15 carbon atoms. Kerosene is used as fuel for lamps,
furnaces, cooking stoves and jet engines, as a solvent for greases and also as
an insecticide.
History
 1846 – A Canadian geologist and doctor named Abraham Gesner first

discovered a liquid that gives a beautiful flame by extraction from shale
oil that he named kerosene, contraction of the Greek word keroselaion
meaning wax oil.
 1848 – James Young, a Scottish chemist who experimented and
discovered dry distillation of boghead oil that produces various products
including the one he called the paraffin oil.
 1850 – Young patented his process and build a his own commercial oil-
works in Bathgate in 1851.
 1851 – Samuel Martin Kier began selling kerosene to local miners, under
the name of “Carbon Oil”.
Petroleum 498
 Mid 1850’s – Kerosene was used as a fuel for lamps but kerosene was
then a very expensive commodity was only used in many public venues
and homes of wealthy.
 1860 – Oil wells were discovered in Northwestern Pennsylvania and
Southwestern Ontario and that began the mass production of kerosene
that makes it inexpensive and available for many people.
 Mid-19th Century – Kerosene was used in almost every establishment
including hospitals, stores, homes, offices, factories, etc. as a fuel for
lamps and furnaces.
 Late 1890’s and early 1900’s – Kerosene became the most important
refinery product.
 1920 – Kerosene surpassed gasoline as a fuel for internal combustion
engine.
Raw Materials
Petroleum/ Crude Oil
Kerosene is extracted from petroleum chemicals found deep within the

earth. This mixture of petroleum chemicals is consists of oil, rocks, water and
other subterranean contaminants in the reservoir of sandstone and carbonate
rocks. The oil itself (crude oil) is come from decayed organisms of buried along
with the sediments of prehistoric eras. Over ten millions of years, organic
residues came from these organisms were converted into petroleum by means
of chemical processes called diagenesis and catagenesis. Diagenesis occurs on
temperature below 122OF (50OC) that involves both microbial activity and
chemical reactions such as dehydration, condensation, cyclization and
polymerization. Catagenesis occurs with temperature between 122OF and
393OF (50OC and 200OC) that involves thermocatalyctic cracking,
decarboxylation and hydrogen disproportion.
Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide)
Sodium hydroxide is a white, deliquescent, brittle strong solid alkali used

in many industrial productions including soap and paper manufacturing. In
kerosene production, it is used as a sweetening or detoxification agent of the
said petroleum product.
Petroleum 499
Manufacturing Process
Preparation of Raw Materials
 Crude Oil Recovery

The first step in kerosene production
is to collect the crude oil. Since crude
oil found beneath the earth surface,
there are three ways of drilling
operations that bring the oil to the
surface. One method is the cable-
tooled drilling that uses jackhammer
chisel that dislodge the rocks and dirt to create tunnel to the oil well.
Second process, rotary drilling that digs deeper to the oil reservoir by
sinking a drill pipe with rotating steel bits to pulverize rocks. The third is
the off-shore drilling that uses large ocean-borne platform that lowers the
shaft to the ocean floor.
 Flushing
Once the drilling process breaks the reservoir, crude oil erupts from the
ground by the force of hydrocarbon gas. Flushing is done to have more to
have more oil recovery from beneath by pumping water into the well to
push the oil out. Addition of surfactant to the water will create higher
recovery of oil. Water is separated from oil after washing.
The oil obtained are now stored in tanks then delivered to refinery.
Separation
 Distillation
Distillation is a process of separation of components of
crude oil by means of the difference of boiling points
among the components. The stream of crude oil is
sent to the bottom of the distillation column where it
is heated to vapor. Lighter hydrocarbons rise to the
top of the column and most of the high-boiling point
fractions are left at the bottom. The fraction
condensed and collected having the boiling points
302OF to 482OF (150OC to 200OC) is the kerosene. To
achieve higher purity, refluxing or recycling of
Petroleum 500
kerosene multiple times is done.
Purification
 Merox (Mercaptan Oxidation)

Merox, the contraction of mercaptan
oxidation, or in less technical term, the
sweetening is a catalytic chemical process to
purify kerosene by removal of sulfurous
contaminants including H2S and mercaptan
(thiol) by reaction of kerosene in an alkaline
environment, containing caustic soda
(NaOH). This process was invented and
developed by UOP (Universal Oil Products), a
multi-national company developing oil refining and gas processing and
petroleum production.
Petroleum 501
1. Prewashing
The process operation starts with the water coalescence or the
formation of drain water layer from the aggregation of natural water
droplets from kerosene. Kerosene will then undergo caustic prewashing
or the addition of NaOH to disintegrate hydrogen sulfide.
2. Oxidation
The washed kerosene is now fed to the Merox reactor together with
compressed air. This is where the mercaptan oxidation occurs as the
mercaptan percolates over the catalyst bed consists of carbon granules
impregnated with UOP proprietary catalyst. The resulting product of the
reaction will now flow to the caustic settler where it forms the bottom
layer of caustic solution and the top layer of sweetened oil. Caustic
solution remains at the bottom and then returned back to the reactor to
maintain alkaline environment.
3. Post-Treatment
The water-insoluble product will now go to the water wash tank to
remove remaining caustic traces and other water-soluble contaminants,
next is the flowing of oil to the salt bed to eliminate entrained water and
finally through a clay bed to remove oil-soluble impurities,
organometallic compounds and particulates.
Final Processing
 Packaging
Once the kerosene is fully refined, they are now placed in metal drums,
tanks or opaque plastic container and are now ready for shipment.
Careful handling is very necessary since the kerosene is highly
flammable.
Quality Control
Testing the amount of unwanted components or hydrocarbons is

conducted. The result of the analysis of kerosene tells the efficiency of
extraction and distillation. Refluxing or repeated recycle of kerosene fraction
helps to maximize the yield of kerosene from distillation. Recycling of
petroleum waste in the reaction in distillation can optimize production.
Petroleum 502

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Petroleum

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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

College of Engineering and Technology

The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed

In 1847, the process to distill kerosene from petroleum was invented

In 1851, the first true commercial oil-works in the world was

Edwin Drake’s 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsilvania, is popularly

Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil.

What is Crude Oil?

Crude oil is unrefined liquid petroleum, which ranges in color from

Crude oil is generally described as sweet or sour according to its sulfur

- If crude contains a sizable amount of sulfur or sulfur compounds, it is

Sources of Crude Oil

Crude oil is found in geologic formations beneath the earth’s surface. It is

Oil reserves are the amount of technically and economically

The total estimated amount of oil in an oil reservoir, including both

features of the operation, including method of oil recovery used and

Figure 1: A map of world oil reserves, 2013

Oil Refineries in the Philippines

The Philippines' downstream oil industry is dominated by three

Petron is the Philippines' largest oil refining and marketing

Pilipinas Shell has a 153,000-bbl/d refinery, one of the largest

Composition of Crude oil

There are four different types of hydrocarbon molecules that appear in

Hydrocarbon Range Average

Element Percent Range

Oxygen 0.05 – 1.5 %

Sulfur 0.05 – 6.0 %

Metals < 0.1 %

Process of Extracting Crude Oil

Locating the Oil Field

Geologists use seismic surveys to search for geological structures

Oil Recovery and Extraction (Alboudwarej, 2006)

During the primary recovery stage, reservoir drive comes

While the underground pressure in the oil reservoir is

Enhanced, or Tertiary oil recovery methods increase the

turbine is used to generate electricity and the waste heat is used to

Figure 2: Steam Injection

Process of Refining Crude Oil

The oil refining process starts with a fractional distillation column.

Different hydrocarbon chain lengths all have progressively higher boiling

In a refinery, crude is converted into finished products using rigorous

The first stage involves separating the molecules through atmospheric

After separation, the proportion of heavy hydrocarbons is still too high. To

The result can be improved by adding hydrogen (hydrocracking) or using

These involve significantly reducing or eliminating corrosive or environmentally

Uses of refined petroleum products

- Petroleum gas - used for heating, cooking, making plastics

- Naphtha or Ligroin - intermediate that will be further processed to make

- Gasoline - motor fuel

o mix of alkanes (10 to 18 carbons) and aromatics

- Lubricating oil - used for motor oil, grease, other lubricants

Figure 3: Oil Distillation

Processing units used in refineries

Naphtha hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize the naphtha fraction

Catalytic reforming unit: Converts the desulfurized naphtha molecules into

Isomerisation unit: Converts linear molecules such as normal pentane into

Distillate hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize some of the other

Merox (mercaptan oxidizer) or similar units: Desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet

Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit: Upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling

Figure 4: Refining Process of Petroleum

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG is a by-product from crude oil

Some properties of commercial quality propane and butane (not pure