In a commercial electric

power plant, large

generators produce energy
that is transferred out of the
plant by electrical
transmission. These
generators use magnetic
induction to generate a
potential difference when
coils of wire in the
generator are rotated in a
magnetic field. The source
of energy to rotate the coils
might be falling water,
burning fossil fuels, or a
nuclear reaction. (Michael
Melford/Getty Images)
 FARADAY’S LAW
•Faraday’s law of induction
•Motional e.m.f
•Lenz’s law
•Induced e.m.f’s and electric fields
•Maxwell’s equations
Michael Faraday British
Physicist and Chemist
(1791–1867) Faraday is often
regarded as the greatest
experimental scientist of the
1800s. His many contributions
to the study of electricity
include the invention of the
electric motor, electric
generator, and transformer, as
well as the discovery of
electromagnetic induction and
the laws of electrolysis. Greatly
influenced by religion, he
refused to work on the
development of poison gas for
the British military. (By kind
permission of the President
and Council of the Royal
Society)

p.968
(a) When a magnet is moved
toward a loop of wire connected to
a sensitive ammeter, the ammeter
deflects as shown, indicating that a
current is induced in the loop. (b)
When the magnet is held
stationary, there is no induced
current in the loop, even when the
magnet is inside the loop. (c) When
the magnet is moved away from
the loop, the ammeter deflects in
the opposite direction, indicating
that the induced current is opposite
that shown in part (a). Changing
the direction of the magnet’s
motion changes the direction of the
current induced by that motion.
Faraday’s experiment. When the switch in the primary circuit
is closed, the ammeter in the secondary circuit deflects
momentarily. The emf induced in the secondary circuit is
caused by the changing magnetic field through the
secondary coil.
 1. Faraday’s Law of induction
• Relationship between current and changing magnetic field. An
electric current can be induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic
field.
• In faraday’s experiment an induced emf is produced in the
secondary circuit by the changing magnetic field.
• The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux thro’ the circuit – Faraday’s Law of
Induction
d
 
dt
Where 
  B.dA is the magnetic flux thro’ the circuit.

If coil consist of N loops all of the same area, ΦB is the same magnetic
flux thro’ one loop, an emf is induced in every loop. The loops are in
series, so their emfs add, thus total emf
d
  N
dt
Suppose that a loop enclosing an area A lies in a uniform
magnetic field B, the magnetic flux thro’ the loop = BA cos θ

   BA cos 
d
dt

From the above equation, an emf can be

induced in several ways:
The magnitude of B can change with
time
The area enclosed by the loop can
change with time
The angle θ between B and the normal to
the loop can change with time
Any combination of the above can occur
1.1 Some applications of Faraday’s
law
Essential
components of a
ground fault
interrupter (GFI) –
an interesting
safety device that
protects users of
electrical
appliances from
electric shock
(a) In an electric guitar, a vibrating magnetized string induces an
emf in a pickup coil.
(b) The pickups (the circles beneath the metallic strings) of this
electric guitar detect the vibrations of the strings and send this
information through an amplifier and into speakers. (A switch on the
guitar allows the musician to select which set of six pickups is
used.) Charles D. Winters
 1.2 Problems : Question 1
• A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of side 18
cm, and a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
plane of the coil is turned on. If the field changes linearly from 0 to
0.5 T in 0.8 s what is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil
while the field is changing?
• Area of one turn of the coil = (0.18 m)2 = 0.0324 m2.
• At t = 0, Φ = 0 because B = 0
• At t = 0.8 s, Φ = BA = (0.5o T)(0.0324 m2) = 0.0162 T.m2
• Therefore magnitude of induced emf:

 N

 200

0.0162 T.m2  0 
t 0.80 s
ε  4.1 T.m2 s 1  4.1 V
 2. Motional emf
• Previously emf induced in a stationary circuit, but
magnetic field changes with time
• Motional emf is where the emf is induced in a conductor
moving thro’ a constant magnetic field
A straight electrical conductor of length
moving with a velocity v through a
uniform magnetic field B directed
perpendicular to v. Due to the magnetic
force on electrons, the ends of the
conductor become oppositely charged.
This establishes an electric field in the
conductor. In steady state, the electric
and magnetic forces on an electron in
the wire are balanced.
When charges accumulate at
both ends, downward magnetic
force qvB is balanced by the
upward electric force qE, hence
qE = qvB or E =vB
But ∆V = El , therefore
∆V = El = Blv , a potential
difference is maintained
between the ends of the
conductor as long as the
conductor continues to move
thro’ the uniform magnetic field.
Consider a circuit consisting of a
conducting bar of length l sliding
along two fixed parallel
conducting rails ( hence forming a
closed circuit)
Assume bar has zero resistance,
and an applied force Fapp to pull
the bar with velocity v.
This sets up an induced current
because the charges are free to
move.
In this case the rate of change of
magnetic flux and the
corresponding induced motional
emf across the bar is proportional
to the change in area of the loop.
Area enclosed = lx
Hence, Φ = Blx

d
  Blx   Bl
d dx
 
dt dt dt
  Blv
εBl v
Hence, I 
R R
 As the bar moves thro’ the uniform B
it experiences a magnetic force FB of
magnitude IlB.
The direction of this force is opposite
to the motion of bar
Moving with constant velocity
implies applied force must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to
magnetic force

P  Fapp v  IlBv 
Blv  lBv 
R 
B 2l 2 v 2  2

R R R

The change in energy in the system during some time interval must be equal
to the transfer of energy into the system by work, or power input is equal to
the rate at which energy is delivered to the resistor.
• Consider again the moving bar (as in the
previous example) on two frictionless parallel
rails in the presence of magnetic field. The bar
has mass m and its length l
• Using Newton’s law, find the velocity of the
bar as a function of time, given that the bar is
given an initial velocity of vi to the right and is
released at t = 0.
• The magnetic force if FB = -IlB, where the negative
sign indicates that the retarding force is to the left.
dv
FB  ma  m  IlB
dt
dv B 2l 2
m  v
dt R
dv  B 2l 2 
  dt
v  mR 
 
v 2 2 t
dv  B l
 v

mR  dt
v1 0

 v   B 2l 2  t mR
 
ln      t where τ
 v1    τ B 2l 2
 mR 
  v   B 2l 2  t mR
ln     t where τ
 1
v  mR  τ B 2l 2
 

• The velocity can be expressed in the exponential

form:

t
v  v te 
 3. Lenz’s Law
The induced current in a loop is in the
direction that creates a magnetic field
that opposes the change in magnetic flux
thro’ the area enclosed by the loop.
(a) As the conducting bar slides on the two fixed
conducting rails, the magnetic flux due to the
external magnetic field into the page through the
area enclosed by the loop increases in time. By
Lenz’s law, the induced current must be
counterclockwise so as to produce a
counteracting magnetic field directed out of the
page.
(b) When the bar moves to the left, the induced
current must be clockwise. Why?
(b)When the bar moves to the left, the
induced current must be clockwise.
Why?
When bar is moving to the left, the
external magnetic flux thro’ the area
enclosed by the loop decreases with
time.
Because the field is directed into page,
the direction of the induced current must
be clockwise if it is to produce a field
that is also directed into the page.
(a) When the magnet is moved
toward the stationary
conducting loop, a current is
induced in the direction shown.
(b) This induced current
produces its own magnetic field
directed to the left that
counteracts the increasing
external flux. (c) When the
magnet is moved away from the
stationary conducting loop, a
current is induced in the
direction shown. (d) This
induced current produces a
magnetic field directed to the
right and so counteracts the
decreasing external flux.
Fig 31-15, p.979
 4. Induced emf and electric fields
• When a current is induced in a conducting loop,
an electric field is created as a result of the
changing magnetic flux.

Consider a conducting loop of

radius r in a uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of the
loop. If B changes in time, an
electric field is induced in a
direction tangent to the
circumference of the loop.
 If magnetic field changes with time, then
according to Faraday’s law, an emf Є = - dΦ/dt
is induced in the loop.
The induction of a current implies the presence
of induced electric field E, which must be
tangent to the loop because this is the direction
in which the charges in the wire move in
response to the electric force.
The work done in moving in moving a test
charge once around the loop is qЄ

The force to move the charge is qE, the work done once around the loop is
qE(2πr), hence qЄ = qE(2πr)


E
2r
but Φ  BA  r 2B
1 d r dB
Hence, E  
2r dt 2 dt
 r dB
E 
2 dt
If the time variation of the magnetic field is specified, we can easily calculate
the induced electric field from the above equation
The emf for any closed path can be expressed as the line integral of E.ds over
   E .ds
path:

In more general case, E may not be constant and the path may not be a
circle. Hence Faraday’s law of induction, Є=-dΦ/dt can be written in the
general form
d
 E .ds   dt
The induced electric field E in the above equation is a non-
conservative field that is generated by a changing magnetic field.
 4.1 Electric field induced by a changing
magnetic field in a solenoid
• A long solenoid of radius R has n turns of wire per unit length
and carries a time varying current that varies sinusoidally as
I = Imaxcos ωt, where Imax is the maximum current and ω is the
angular frequency of the alternating current
• Determine the magnitude of the induced electric field outside
the solenoid at a distance r > R from its central axis.
Let the line of integral to be a circle of radius r.
By symmetry the magnitude of E is constant
on this path and that E is tangent to it. The
magnetic flux thro’ the area enclosed by this
path is BA = BπR2


d

E.ds   BR  R
dt
2

2 dB
dt

E.ds  E2r   R 2

dB
 dt
butB  o

d
E2r   R onImax cost 
2
dt
onImax R 2
E sin t
2r
 5. Generators and motors

(a) Schematic diagram of an AC generator. An emf is induced in a loop that

rotates in a magnetic field. (b) The alternating emf induced in the loop plotted as
a function of time.
(a) Schematic diagram of an AC generator. An emf is induced in a loop
that rotates in a magnetic field.
(b) The alternating emf induced in the loop plotted as a function of time.
  BA cos  BA cost
d
 NAB cost   NAB sin t
d
  N
dt dt
 max  NAB
(a) Schematic diagram of a DC generator. (b) The magnitude of the emf
varies in time but the polarity never changes.
A hybrid drive systems is where a gasoline and an electric motor are
combined to increase the fuel economy and reduce emissions. In this type
of car, power to the wheels can come from either the gasoline engine or the
electric motor. In normal driving, the electric motor accelerates the vehicle
from rest until it is moving at a speed of about 24 kmh-1. During this
acceleration, the engine is not running, so that gasoline is not used, hence
no emission. When a hybrid vehicle brake, the motor acts as a generator
and returns some of the kinetic energy of the vehicle back to the battery as
stored energy.
6. Eddy currents

Formation of eddy currents in a

conducting plate moving through
a magnetic field. As the plate
enters or leaves the field, the
changing magnetic flux induces
an emf, which causes eddy
currents in the plate.

Fig 31-25, p.986

(a) As the conducting plate enters the field (position 1), the eddy currents are
counterclockwise. As the plate leaves the field (position 2), the currents are
clockwise. In either case, the force on the plate is opposite the velocity, and
eventually the plate comes to rest. (b) When slots are cut in the conducting
plate, the eddy currents are reduced and the plate swings more freely through
the magnetic field.
• The braking systems on many subway and rapid-transit cars
make use of electromagnetic induction and eddy currents. An
electromagnet attached to the train is positioned near the steel
rails. The braking action occurs when a large current is passed
thro’ the electromagnet. The relative motion of the magnet and
rails induces eddy currents in the rails, and the direction of
these currents produces a drag force on the moving
train.Because the eddy current decrease steadily in magnitude
as the train slows down, the braking effect is quite smooth.
• However eddy currents are often undesirable because they
represent a transformation of mechanical energy to internal
energy. To reduce this energy loss, conducting parts are often
laminated- that is they are built up in thin layers separated by a
nonconducting material such as lacquer or metal oxide. This
layered structure inscreases the resistance of eddy currents to
individual layers. Such a laminated structure is used in
transformer cores.
 7. Maxwell’s Equations
• Equations regarded as basis of all
electrical and magnetic phenomena
• Equations tend to be in agreement with
special theory of relativity
• The following equations are in free space,
that is in the absence of any dielectric or
magnetic material
 Maxwell’s Equations
q
 E.dA   o ……(1) Gauss’s law
s

 B.dA  0 …..(2) Gauss’s law in magnetism

s

d B
 E.ds  
dt
…..(3) Faraday’s law

d E
 B.ds  oI   o o
dt
(4) Ampere-Maxwell law
 Maxwell’s Equations

q
 E.dA   o ……(1) Gauss’s law
s

The total electric flux thro’ any closed surface equals

the net charge inside that surface divided by Єo.
This law relates an electric field to the charge
distribution that creates it
 Maxwell’s Equations

 B.dA  0 …..(2) Gauss’s law in magnetism

s

The net magnetic flux thro’ a closed surface is zero.

That is the number of magnetic field lines that enter a closed
volume must equal the number that leave that volume. This
implies that magnetic field lines cannot begin or end at any
point.
 Maxwell’s Equations

dB
 E.ds  
dt
…..(3) Faraday’s law

The emf, which is the integral of the electric field

around any closed path, equals the rate of change of
magnetic flux thro’ any surface area bounded by that
path.
One consequence od Faraday’s law is the current induced
in a conducting loop placed in a time-varying magnetic
field.
 Maxwell’s Equations

dE
 B.ds  oI   o o
dt
(4) Ampere-Maxwell law

Generalized form of Ampere’s law, and describes the

creation of a magnetic field by an electric field and
electric currents: the line integral of the magnetic field
around any closed path is the sum of μo times the net
current thro’ that path and Єoμo times the rate of
change of electric flux thro’ any surface bounded by
that path
• Once the electric and magnetic fields are
known at some point in space, the force
acting on a particle of charge q can be
calculated from the expression
• F = qE + qv x B
• This relationship is called the Lorentz
force law. Maxwell’s equation together
with this law, completely describe all
classical electromagnetic interactions.