LITERACY CASE STUDY

Ashley Rowan
2015

Introduction

Learning to read is a complex process requiring the concurrent development of

knowledge, skills and awareness, in addition to strategies for deciphering and comprehending
texts (Davis 2011, p. 3). This report analyses and reflects on a series of Running Records
conducted for the purpose of determining a child’s progress in learning to read. The Running
Records were completed over three sessions with a 7 year old year 2 student, *Penny (*actual
name withheld for privacy), during literacy sessions at the primary school she attends. The
reading strategies applied by Penny during the Running Records are discussed with reference
to theories of literacy learning, specifically from the social constructivist perspectives of
Vygotsky and Goodman’s psycholinguistic view; Schema Theory; and with reference to
Luke and Freebody’s critical literacy Four Resource Model. Penny’s use of active
comprehension and metacognitive strategies are also discussed, as well as the results of
learning experiences designed to further Penny’s literacy development.

Knowledge of theories of reading and literacy learning allows for the analysis of
strategies as they are applied during a child’s reading, as well as for the identification and
formulation of learning experiences which may extend a child’s literacy development. Within
the social constructivist tradition, emphasis is placed on the actively acquired and socially
constructed establishment of meaning, maintaining the employment of an individual’s unique
background knowledge as central to this composition (Davis Lenski & Nierstheimer, 2010,
p.14). Vygotsky’s perspective highlights the significance of social relations and interactions
for this creation of meaning, proposing that children’s cognitive understandings are facilitated
by ‘scaffolding’ their learning by more knowledgeable adults, allowing them to achieve
beyond their zone of actual development to attain knowledge and understanding within their

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zone of proximal development (New South Wales Department of Education and Training,
2006, p. 5; Khalid, 2015, p. 319).

The emphasis on the background knowledge a reader brings to their understanding of

a text is similarly evident in Goodman’s psycholinguistic perspective (Hood, Solomon &
Burns, 1996, p. 10), for which reading constitutes an active process of engagement with texts
for constructing meaning. In this view, inference and guesswork are key operations for
readers as they work to interpret semantic, syntactic and graphophonic cues (Davis Lenski &
Nierstheimer, 2010, p. 10; Dombey, 2004, pp. 2-3, 7), the sets of cues inherent in the
structure and patterns of language (Seely Flint, Kitson, Lowe & Shaw, 2014, p. 53).

These views of reading are echoed in Hill (2012), suggesting that reading entails the
construction of meaning from print and symbols, and involves practices of sampling,
predicting, confirming and self-correcting from various information sources. Reader’s past
experiences and knowledge of the world are similarly important elements in the problem-
solving activity that is reading (pp. 161-2, 166). These theories provide a basis for the
analysis of Penny’s progress in learning to read, from which cues used by Penny may be
examined to determine the reading strategies being utilised. Following from this, appropriate
learning experiences are able to be devised in order to ‘scaffold’ Penny’s learning and
understanding.

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 Running Record Sessions: Analysis and Discussion

The first running record was conducted using a PM Benchmark Level 14 text, The
Waterslide. Levelled texts such as this provide a tool for both assessment of the reading
strategies applied by children, and for scaffolding of reading development (Hill, 2012, pp.
183, 195), in line with Vygotsky’s notion of children’s zone of proximal development. In this
tradition, collaboration and guidance by adults and capable peers scaffold children’s
progressively developing learning, from their independent capabilities to their potential
capacities (Davis, 2013, p.58; Davis Lenski & Nierstheimer, 2010, p. 14; Khalid, 2015, p.
318). These carefully controlled texts are characterised by an increasing gradient of
complexity, with regulated introduction of new and increasingly complicated textual concepts
and content, including syntax, vocabulary, and illustration support (Hill 2012, p. 195;
Schwartz 2005, p. 439). Utilising levelled texts for the purpose of conducting running records
conforms to Vygotsky’s educational approach of task structuring, in providing and modifying
tasks to parallel their skills and potential in their zone of proximal development (Khalid, 2015,
p.319). Through the identification of children’s literacy competencies, conducting running
records using levelled texts enables teachers to determine which texts provide the learner
with a suitable level of challenge (Clay, 2002, p. 51; Wild, McArthur & Self, 2006, p. 61), in
order to facilitate the extension of the child’s potential learning (Davis, 2013, p.58).

The running words total for The Waterslide was 124, however, only the first 100
words were used within the analysis. Penny’s reading of this text demonstrated a 98%
accuracy and 97% self-correction rate. These results indicate that the text falls within an easy,
rather than instructional, reading level for Penny. As such, the text did not provide the
optimal space for both competency and challenge (Daly, 2006, p. 88; Wild, McArthur & Self,
2006 p. 61).

Two miscues were observed within the reading, the first being the substitution of
‘Mitchell’ for ‘Michael’. While considered a miscue, this instance of word replacement may
be indicative of the reading strategies employed by Penny, demonstrating her application of
semantic, syntactic and graphophonic knowledge in reading the text. At the semantic level,
this substitution does make sense. Meaning is not lost or altered at the word level, as
‘Mitchell’, like ‘Michael’, is a common male name; nor is meaning affected at the sentence
or overall text level. As semantic cues relate to the reader’s experience and knowledge of the
world (Hill 2012, p. 163), Penny may have drawn from her personal experience in replacing

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this word. The substitution is also syntactically appropriate, fitting grammatically into the
structure of the sentence. Visually, both ‘Michael’ and ‘Mitchell’ are graphically and
phonically similar. Therefore, at a graphophonic level, Penny has correctly identified both the
initial and end graphemes and sounds present in the word ‘Michael’. While technically
inaccurate, this kind of miscue is indicative of good reading practices, demonstrating Penny’s
application of graphophonic cues and understanding of meaning within context (Hood,
Solomon & Burns, 1996, p. 110).

The second miscue present in the reading related to the word ‘phone’, which was told
to Penny. After a significant pause, Penny seemed uncomfortable at suggested prompts for
strategic attempts at the word, so the word was told to encourage continuation of the reading,
and to ensure that Penny did not become caught up and confused, or lose sight of meaning in
the text. As such, it is difficult to ascertain which strategies Penny used in mentally
deciphering the word. In retrospect, this miscue could have been discussed and examined
further with Penny during the reading session.

Penny additionally employed the strategy of backing up to re-read in order to self-

correct three potential miscues. From initial attempts at words the cueing strategies employed
by children in monitoring their reading may be inferred (Schwartz 2005, p. 442). After
substituting ‘swimmers’, for ‘swimming things’, Penny re-read and corrected the phrase.
Analysis of this self-correction suggests that she employed all three cueing systems. At a
meaning level, the terms are synonymous, with ‘swimmers’ more aligned with common
Australian vernacular related to these items. Penny may have unconsciously noticed that
syntactically, ‘swimmers things’ did not sound right. Lastly, she correctly visually identified
the initial and middle sounds of ‘swimming’ in her original attempt, noticing and articulating
the ‘ing’ as she re-read.

The second self-correction was the original substitution of “we are going” for “where
are we going”. As she finished the sentence, Penny may have realised that it did not make
sense after noticing the question mark, and recognised that her original attempt did not
conform to the grammatical structure of a question. Finally, having read “talking” for
“taking”, Penny may have realised that the word did not make sense or was grammatically
correct in the sentence. Her first attempt accurately identified both the initial and end sounds,
and upon backing up to re-read may have observed the ‘l’ in the word. While not the actual
word present in the text, this self-correction indicates her familiarity with the word ‘talk’;

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however it is not known whether this is in the capacity of a sight word, or through awareness
of the rules of pronouncing the ‘lk’ sound within words.

During the second session, Penny read PM Benchmark level 15 Little Steg, a story
featuring dinosaurs, a subject which she expressed an interest in when presented with the
book. Penny’s reading appeared rushed, and as a result some words were initially omitted or
switched in order. Penny scored a 97% accuracy rate, and a self-correction ratio of 1:2.5,
indicating that this text was also at an easy level. During the reading Penny appeared to be
drawing primarily on her syntactic and semantic knowledge of language, evident in both the
observed error miscues and self-corrections.

The three errors recorded during the session, the substitution of “at” for “by”;
“dinosaur” instead of the plural “dinosaurs”; and switching the order of “were all”; indicate
that Penny is capable of reading for meaning and recognising accurate syntactic structures of
sentences. The first two miscues involved the substitution of words synonymous with the
actual text, and that were syntactically appropriate. At a graphophonic level, while Penny
correctly identified the singular “dinosaur” and “were all”, she appears to have overlooked
some visual cues in the text, possibly as a result of rushing through the story.

The self-corrections made throughout the reading suggest that Penny was adeptly
picking up on syntactic and semantic cues, and actively monitoring her reading of the text.
After initially reading “they heard the dinosaurs started to”, Penny appears to have recognised
that the sentence did not make meaningful or syntactic sense. Upon backing up and re-
reading, she correctly visually identified the actual phrase “the herd”, and appeared to
understand that this refers to the collection of dinosaurs. The results of this Runnning Record
indicate that Penny would benefit from further instruction in the use of graphophonic cues
within texts, in addition to advice in regards to slowing down her reading in order to prevent
miscues occurring as a result of rushed reading.

Penny displayed sound comprehension of the story, recalling events and providing
insightful answers to inferential questions, such as:

o Why do you think the dinosaurs were safe in the forest?

- “Because there’s no meat in the forest. It’s all plants.”

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 Evidence of Penny’s connection to prior knowledge for her comprehension of the text
demonstrates the way in which her knowledge is organised within mental schema. Building
on Vygotsky’s notion of cognitive structuring (Khalid, 2015, p.319), the development of
Schema Theory by cognitive theorists such as Rumelhart and Anderson considers knowledge
as assembled within meaningfully-organised mental schemata (Davis, 2013, p. 20). As prior
knowledge is an influential factor in the understanding of new information (p. 22), Schema
Theory relates to the comprehension of new information through connections and
correlations with existing knowledge (Davis Lenski & Nierstheimer, 2010, p. 14). When
asked where the dinosaurs lived, Penny responded with “jungle”, as opposed to the “forest”
in the story. This may be indicative of Penny’s schemata relating to physical areas such as
these.

During the third Running Records session Penny scored an increased accuracy rate of
98%, and a self-correction ratio of 1:1.5, having read Great Lion and Tiny Mouse, a PM
Benchmark level 16 text. It is evident in retrospect that the gradual increases in book levels
over the course of the reading sessions were not sufficient in providing Penny with material
at her instructional reading level. Despite this, some insight into the cueing systems and
strategies utilised by Penny during reading are still able to be identified and analysed.

The first error observed in the reading appears to correspond with miscues apparent in
the second session, in which Penny was able to competently note semantic and syntactic
elements – in inserting “to sleep” for “sleeping” – however, she appears to have overlooked
graphophonic components in this alteration. The second miscue, the omission of “his” in “he
lifted his paw”, appeared to have occurred as a result of rushing through the text. As this
miscue was not picked up on by Penny, it seems that in this instance she did not employ
knowledge of cueing systems to the sentence. However, this miscue appears not to have
detrimentally affected Penny’s comprehension of the text.

Four self-corrections were executed by Penny in this text. After immediately

verbalising “some” in “something”; “didn’t” instead of “did not”; and “woke up and”; Penny
may have realised that visually the words did not appear correct, and has self-corrected. She
may also have recognised in looking ahead that the substituted words confused the meaning
of the sentences, and were not syntactically correct in the sentences.

Penny displayed evidence of active comprehension and metacognitive strategy in

backing up to re-read to ensure comprehension, as she was able to competently and

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accurately recall and infer information about the story during post-reading questioning,
recalling both the main idea and smaller elements of the story, in addition to displaying
inferred comprehension responses, such as:

o What lesson did the lion learn?

- “A tiny mouse can still help.”
o Why do you think the men were waiting to catch the lion?
- “To be famous.”

Penny’s reading was fluent throughout the Running Records. When considered from a
theory of automaticity and information processing, in which cognitive tasks are performed
without conscious thought, this indicates an ability to not only recognise words, but to
simultaneously comprehend (Van Kraayenoord & Elkins, 2012, p. 265). Comprehension
entails an active process of extraction and assigning of meaning in interactions with text (p.
266), and for good readers involves connecting the text with past experiences, and the ability
to interpret, evaluate, synthesise, and consider alternative interpretations (Klingner 2006, p.
59).

Cognitive reading comprehension strategies are essentially text-based, and relate to

the awareness and concepts which are incorporated into learner’s body of knowledge through
experience (Davis, 2013, p. 1). These strategies may be taught explicitly before, during and
after reading, through approaches such as activating background knowledge, integrating new
vocabulary into existing schema, and making inferences (Centre 2005, pp. 122-3).

In contrast, metacognitive reading strategies are characterised by the reader’s

knowledge of themselves as learners (Van Kraayenoord & Elkins, 2012, p. 269), and their
awareness and monitoring of their own knowledge and comprehension processes (Klingner,
2006, p. 59). Metacognitive strategies are primarily reader-based (Centre, 2005, p. 122), and
involve the way in which readers plan, monitor, revise and self-correct, and evaluate
information in order to comprehend a text (Klingner 2006, p. 59; Van Kraayenoord & Elkins,
2012, p. 269).

Penny’s application of both active comprehension and metacognitive strategies were

evident in the self-corrections during the reading sessions, demonstrating not only her
cognitive abilities in reading the text, but her metacognitive processes in attempting to
decipher unknown or miscued words.

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 Learning Experiences: Application and Reflection

Teaching for independence entails analysing patterns and errors in children’s

responses during running records, in order to ascertain which strategic processes to foster and
the level of support to provide (Schwartz, 2005, pp. 441-2). The analysis of the miscues and
self-corrections in Penny’s reading of The Waterslide reveal that she was competent in
correctly identifying and articulating most words in the text, and was engaged in active
comprehension and metacognitive strategies in order to interpret unfamiliar words.

Both miscues observed in the reading appeared to relate to graphophonic cues, or the
sound-symbol relationships presented in texts (Hill 2012, p. 163). As such, the first learning
experience focused on broadening the necessary skills for competent application of this
cueing system. The learning experience was devised to confirm and extend the phonemic
awareness element of Penny’s literacy development through an activity which illustrated how
the /f/ sound is expressed though the digraph ‘ph’. During the reading session, the second
miscue identified involved the word “phone”. It is difficult to accurately ascertain the exact
cause for this miscue, as no verbal attempts were made on the word, or letters or sounds.
However, one possibility for this may be unfamiliarity with the ‘ph’ digraph phoneme. As
such, the Ph Digraph Activity has been designed to ensure and develop Penny’s
understanding of this digraph and its associated phonemic component.

The learning experience has been designed in line with the Curriculum: English Year
2 Language strand, pertaining specifically to the Sound and letter knowledge sub-strand
[ACELA1474]. By the end of Year 2, it is important that children have an adequate
knowledge of language-as-system concepts associated with phonemic awareness, and
particularly knowledge of different digraphs, as this is the final year in which focus on the
Sound and letter knowledge sub-strand is undertaken as part of the Australian Curriculum:
English (Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority, 2015).

For this learning activity, I composed a short story which included a number of words
containing the ‘ph’ digraph, both as the initial sound and within the word. The printed story,
Stephanie at the Beach (Appendix B), was presented with removable paper covers – sticky-
notes – placed over words containing /f/ sounds in both ‘f’ (fish) and ‘ph’ (elephant, dolphin,
phone) graphemic form, and over pictures corresponding to the unseen words.

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 In line with the four stages of Piaget’s maturation approach, Penny has entered the
concrete operational stage, in which children’s increasingly logical thinking is aided by
stimulating environments and the inclusion of concrete materials for strengthening mental
connections, such as visual aids and role play (Davis, 2013, p. 21; New South Wales
Department of Education and Training, 2006, pp. 4-5). In line with this thinking, the first
learning experience was created incorporating visual elements.

The activity was introduced by explaining to Penny that I wanted to read a short story
to her, but that some of the words were missing from my story sheet and I was going to need
her help to figure out the story. After her positive response to this activity suggestion, I began
to read the story, pausing at the first concealed word and revealing the corresponding picture.
The picture referred to a fish, which was presented contextually in the text’s story. I asked
Penny what the word might be, and upon her identification of “fish”, removed the paper
cover and repeated the word, explicitly drawing attention to the relationship between ‘f’ and
the /f/ sound. I continued to read the story, pausing again at the next missing word, dolphin,
revealing the picture and asking Penny if she knew what the picture might be. After she
correctly identified “dolphin”, I remarked that this word also contained an /f/ sound, and
revealed the word to her, explicitly highlighting that the digraph ‘ph’ also makes an /f/ sound.
After completing the reading in the same pattern, I re-read the story to Penny, pointing to the
words read in the text to ensure and reinforce her visual experience of ‘f’ and ‘ph’ in context.

Through the activity, Penny had the opportunity to apply and develop her application
of the elements of the 3-cueing system. At the meaning level, Penny was provided the
opportunity to apply prior knowledge to consider semantic cues present in the text, in order to
work out which word would make sense in specific contexts. She was also able to analyse the
syntactic elements of the text, in order to determine whether the word fish would be
structurally correct in the sentence. Finally, the activity provided the occasion to introduce
and/or reinforce Penny’s recognition of graphophonic cues, presenting and making explicit
the visual and associated sound components of words.

The Digraph Activity was also designed to give Penny with the opportunity to
enhance her skills in the code breaker role of a reader, outlined in Luke & Freebody’s Four
Resource Model. Through the recognition and understanding of conventions and features of
and within texts, readers are equipped with the required knowledge base and fluency to
develop strategies for text comprehension (Bull & Anstey, 2003, p. 56; McInulty, 2013, p.

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19; Van Kraayenoord & Elkins, 2012, p. 266). Dombey (2004) outlines the necessity of
children’s mastery of sound-symbol relations, advocating the provision of such instruction
within contextualised texts which hold an interest for readers (pp. 10-11). In line with this
thinking, the learning experience was designed to explicitly teach the letter-sound
relationship of the ‘ph’ digraph within a meaningful and engaging context.

In reflection, while Penny expressed that she enjoyed the exercise, the activity may
have been too easy for her abilities. As the miscue related to this learning experience
concerned a non-attempt at a word, it may have been more beneficial to obtain further
information regarding Penny’s knowledge of the ‘ph’ diagraph during the first reading
session, in order to ascertain whether the miscue occurred due to unfamiliarity with this
digraph particularly, or on another basis. The use of pictures throughout the reading provided
effortless access to the desired answers, without providing a great level of challenge. In
hindsight, the exercise may have been improved by revealing the words before the pictures,
allowing Penny the opportunity to apply strategies to decipher the cues within the text prior
to revealing the picture.

The second learning experience included informative text about horses, a subject
which Penny expressed an interest in during discussions in the reading sessions. After reading
the text – with assistance for words beyond her current ability – Penny was required to match
three matching cards (of the four provided) to answer horse-related questions. Following this
activity, four additional questions were posed to Penny, in which Penny was required to recall
literal information, interpret, and infer answers, in line with Hill’s (2012) levelled questioning
(p. 189) and Bloom’s higher order thinking. Penny was able to competently answer all
questions, providing responses both from the text and her own knowledge and experience:

o Why can’t newborn foals eat grass?

- “Because their legs are too long.”
o What other animals are mammals?
- “Dogs, cats.”
o What other animals live with humans? (are domesticated)
- “Dogs, pet snakes, pet rats.”
o Why do you think horses make good pets?
- “They are fun. Entertaining. For riding”

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 Penny expressed that she enjoyed the activity, and was happy to engage in further
discussion of this topic. This learning experience conforms with the Australian Curriculum:
English (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2015) Literacy:
Interpreting, analysing, evaluating substrand (ACELY1670), in using comprehension
strategies to build literal and inferred meaning.

As graphophonic cues were identified as the least utilised by Penny, the third learning
experienced was designed to extend her literacy learning in this area. This activity, while not
implemented, required Penny to build word lists from provided onsets. Once a number of
words had been identified and written vertically in the word list, I would ask Penny which
words could be changed by adding extra letters to their beginning or end (prefixes and
suffixes such as ‘re’, ‘ing’), in order to broaden the list. The completed word chart would
provide a starting point for discussion of the composition of words, and how they may be
visually altered in order to change the meaning of the word. This learning experience relates
to the Language strand of the Australian Curriculum: English, specifically within the
expressing and developing ideas substrand (ACELA1472) (ACARA, 2015).

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APPENDIX A: Running Record 1

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APPENDIX B: Phonemic Awareness: ‘Ph’ Digraph: Stephanie at the Beach

Once there was a little girl named Stephanie.

Stephanie loved going to the beach.

She liked to play on the beach, making sandcastles and writing her name in the sand.

Sometimes she would write all of the letters in the alphabet .

She liked to watch the fish swimming in the water, and to look out as far as she
could across the ocean.

Sometimes she could even see dolphins splashing in

the waves!

One day when Stephanie looked out as far as she could across
the ocean, she saw a large, dark shape far away in the water.

She didn’t know what it was, but it was very, very big.

“What could it be?” Stephanie asked her mother.

“It’s as big as an elephant !”

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[APPENDIX B: CONT.]

She felt a little frightened.

“I don’t know,” her mother replied. “We’ll take a picture of it. I

will take a photograph on my phone .”

Suddenly, a great spout of water shot up from the mysterious dark shape.

The shape moved and flipped in the water. Stephanie saw a fin! And a tail!

“It’s a whale!” said Stephanie’s mother, holding her phone.

“A whale!” cried Stephanie, as she watched the whale flip and splash in the water.

She wasn’t frightened anymore.

“I hope we took some good photos,” Stephanie said, smiling. It had been an exciting day at
the beach.

The end.

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APPENDIX C: Running Record 2

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APPENDIX C: Horses Comprehension Cards

Horses

Horses are mammals. This means that they feed their

young with milk.

A male horse is called a stallion. A female horse is

called a mare. A newborn horse is called a foal. A
group of horses is called a herd.

Newborn foals can stand within an hour of birth. They

can’t eat grass at first, though, because their legs are too long!

Horses are domesticated, which means that they are tamed by humans and live with humans.

In the past, horses were used for transport. Now, many people ride horses for fun. Most
horses are kept as pets, for companionship and for riding.

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 [APPENDIX C: CONT.]

What have people used horses for?

1.
2.
3.

Newborn foals can…

1.
2.
3.

The names for different types of horses are…

1.
2.
3.

mare cub have long legs surfing

can stand in 1 riding

stallion drink milk
hour

can eat grass transport

foal pets

Why can’t newborn foals eat grass?

What other animals live with humans? (i.e. are domesticated)

What other animals are mammals?

Why do you think horses might make good pets?

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APPENDIX D: Running Record 3

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