Chapter 4

Laboratory Review
Test Your Knowledge
1-29

1. What are the functions of the four major tissue types? Epithelia, (layers of cells that
form barriers); connective tissue, (fill internal spaces, provide support and a framework
for communication within the body, and store energy); muscle tissue, (ability to contract
and produce movement); and, neural tissue, (analyzes and conducts information from one
part of the body to another, via electrical impulses[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ].
2. What features do all connective tissues have in common? Epithelia are commonly
classified based on the shape of the cells on the free surface, as well as the number of cell
layers. Sample types include. A simple epithelium has a single layer of cells. A stratified
epithelium has multiple layers of cells. Likewise, the shape of the cells on the free surface
can be:
3. Explain why you would have expected skeletal muscle to be voluntary, but smooth
muscle and cardiac muscle to be voluntary.
Smooth muscle is found in virtually all organ systems to some extent. It's present in large amounts in
some organs of the reproductive tract, [ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ]especially in the uterus, the walls of
the uterine tubes, the wall of the epididymis, and in the ejaculatory apparatus. It forms the bulk of the
wall in the gut, and is present to some degree in all blood vessels larger than capillaries. Individual
smooth muscle cells are "fusiform. Spindle-shaped" it's tapered at both ends.[ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033
] The term comes from the shape of thread-holding "spindles" used on weaving and sewing
machines, and from the earlier practice of spinning wool on a spinning wheel. As the yarn was
spun it was wound onto a spindle like this one.[ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ] A "spindle" can be
almost anything that revolves and/or has something rotating on it. Industrial textile machines use
spindles that rotate at high speed, and have the same shape at both ends so that orientation on the
machine isn't a concern. It happens that this double tapered shape occurs quite commonly in
biological structures, as it's admirably adapted to many other applications.[ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033
]

Heart Muscle Cell

Smooth muscle does have neural input, but it lacks the elaborate
neuromuscular junction of skeletal fibers.[ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ]
Neurotransmitters released from the ends of nerve fibers that lie adjacent to the cells (and
omitted from this drawing) can be taken into the cells by pinocytosis. Pinocytotic vesicles are a
common feature of smooth muscle cells. Skeletal muscle is only one of the two forms
[ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ]of striated muscle, and "skeletal" and "striated" are
not synonymous terms. Cardiac muscle, which is restricted to the heart, is also a striated
form[ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ].
4. What are the two types of cells found in nervous tissue? Briefly describe each type.
Nervous tissue consists of two groups of cell types:
http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

 Nerve cells (Neurons)

Neurons are post-mitotic structures that shortly after birth lose the ability to divide.
Further changes involve only reduced number of neurons (neuronal death), or changes
in volume or in neuronal connections
http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html .

Neurons have two special properties

http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html :

o Irritability (the ability to respond to a stimulus)

o Propagation of impulses (the ability to conduct impulses).

The neuron is the morphofunctional unit of the nervous system. Similar to the Cell
Theory, which stipulates the cell as the basic building block of the body, the Neuron
Theory describes the neuron as the basic building block of the nervous system, and
that the nervous system functions through transmission of information through
networks of neurons http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html .

Most neurons have three main parts:

http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

 Dendrites
 Perikarya (cell bodies)
 Axon

 The dendrites are receptive to stimuli and bring stimuli from the environment
(sensory epithelial cells or other neurons) to the cell body. There are usually
several dendrites per neuron.

NEUROGLIA http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

Gila or Neuroglia get their name from the Greek word for "glue". There is very little
connective tissue in the CNS, and the structural support for neurons comes from
neuroglia and their processes. http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html
It is estimated that for every neuron there are at least 10 Neuroglia, however, as the
Neuroglia are much smaller than the neurons they only occupy about 50% of the total
volume of nerve tissue. Neurons cannot exist or develop without Neuroglia.
http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

There are 4 basic types of Neuroglia, based on morphological and functional

features. http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

o Astrocytes (Astroglia)
o Oligodendrocytes (Oligodendroglia)
o Microglia
o Ependymal cells

The astrocytes and oligodendroglia are large cells and are collectively known as
Macroglia. http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

Neuroglia differs from neurons: http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect7.html

 Neuroglia have no action potentials and cannot transmit nerve impulses

 Neuroglia are able to divide (and are the source of tumors of the nervous
system)
 Neuroglia do not form synapses
 Neuroglia form the myelin sheathes of axons.

5. How are epithelial tissues classified? Describe each major type, and give at least one
location for each type. Epithelia are described according to the number of
layers they possess and the appearance of the cells at the border adjacent
to the external environment.

FEATURES OF EPITHELIUM

Epithelium lines the surfaces of the body and is mainly located on the borders
between the external and internal environments. [ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ] Epithelium also
lines all the internal body spaces that have a connection with the external environment
at some stage. [ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ]

Epithelium plays an important role in homeostasis of the body and in maintaining the
physiological parameters of the internal environment different from those outside the
body. [ CITATION DrT09 \l 1033 ]

Epithelium is a tissue composed of cells, tightly-bound to each other, with no

intercellular connective tissue. [ CITATION UK07 \l 1033 ]There are specializations of the
cell membranes that play roles in maintaining the integrity of the tissue. [ CITATION UK07
\l 1033 ]

Epithelium is an a vascular tissue and has no integral blood supply.

Epithelium develops in the embryo from all the three germ layers (Ectoderm,
Mesoderm, and Endoderm).

    Simple epithelia are composed of a single layer of epithelial cells. [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

    Stratified epithelia are composed of more than one layer of epithelial cells.

SIMPLE EPITHELIA [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Simple epithelia consist of a single layer of cells.

When seen in vertical sections the epithelial cells are described as :

 squamous (flattened)
 cuboidal (more square or cube-like)
 columnar (tall and thin)

 Epithelial cells that have large numbers of microvilli on the apical or luminal surface
(such as the columnar absorptive cells of the small intestine) are described as possessing
a brush border. [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]
 If histological sections of the simple epithelium are cut tangentially, they may give a false
impression of being composed of more than one layer (stratified)[ CITATION Mar101 \l
1033 ]

6. Which of three types of cell junctions permits communication between cells?

Explain. Cell junctions are the specialized connections between the plasma membranes
of adjoining cells. The three general types of cell junctions are tight junctions, anchoring
junctions, and communicating junctions. Tight junctions bind cells together, forming a
barrier that is leak-proof. For example, tight junctions form the lining of the digestive
tract, preventing the contents of the intestine from entering the body. Anchoring (or
adhering) junctions link cells together, enabling them to function as a unit and forming
tissue, such as heart muscle or the epithelium that comprises skin. Communicating (or
gap) junctions allow rapid chemical and electrical communication between cells. They
consist of channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.
7. Explain why the skin is sometimes referred to as the integumentary system. The
skin or cutis covers the entire outer surface of the body. Structurally, the skin consists of
two layers which differ in function, histological appearance and their embryological
origin. The outer layer or epidermis is formed by an epithelium and is of ectodermal
origin. The underlying thicker layer, the dermis, consists of connective tissue and
develops from the mesoderm. Beneath the two layers we find a subcutaneous layer of
loose connective tissue, the hypodermis or subcutis, which binds the skin to underlying
structures. Hair, nails and sweat and sebaceous glands are of epithelial origin and
collectively called the appendages of the skin.

8. Referring to Figure 4.12 lists each organ system, the major functions of each.

 BLADDER -A hollow muscular organ that stores urine before expelling it from the
body.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 BONES - The bones provide 5 functions. They protect other vital organs, i.e. ribs protect
the lungs. Support the body in an upright position. They are attached to muscles to help
provide movement of the body. Bone marrow produces blood. Store salts inside provides
a mineral reservoir for the body.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 BRAIN -The brain is the master control center of the body. It receives information
through the senses from inside and outside of the body. It analyzes this information then [
CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]past experiences, is the source of thought, moods, and
emotions.

 EARS - The ear converts sound which enters the ear canal, from mechanical vibrations
into electrical signals that the brain interprets. The [ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]ear also
contains a fluid that is vital for balance.

 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM -The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete

chemical messages called hormones. The hormones pass through the blood to the target
organ resulting in a chemical change in the body.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 EPITHELAIL TISSUE -Membranous tissue composed of one or more layers of cells

forming the covering of most internal and external surfaces of the body and its organs.

 EYES -The eyes collect light and then sends a message to the brain for integration.

 GALL BLADDER -A small, pear-shaped muscular sac, located under the right lobe of
the liver, in which bile secreted by the liver is stored until needed by the body for
digestion.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 HEART -The chambered muscular organ that pumps blood received from the veins into
the arteries, thereby maintaining the flow of blood through the entire circulatory system
to supply oxygen to the body.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]
 KIDNEYS -A pair of organs functioning to maintain proper water and electrolyte
balance, regulate acid-base concentration, and filter the blood of metabolic wastes, which
are then excreted as urine.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 LARGE INTESTINES -Beginning with the cecum and ending with the rectum; includes
the cecum and the colon and the rectum; extracts moisture from food residues which are
later excreted as feces[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 LIVER -A large, reddish-brown, organ located in the upper right portion of the
abdominal cavity that secretes bile and is active in the formation of certain blood proteins
and in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. [ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 LUNGS -Either of two spongy, saclike respiratory organs in most vertebrates, occupying
the chest cavity together with the heart and functioning to remove carbon dioxide from
the blood and provide it with oxygen.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 MOUTH -The body opening through which an animal takes in food.

 MUSCLES - A tissue composed of fibers capable of contracting to effect bodily

movement.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 NERVOUS SYSTEM -The system of cells, tissues, and organs that regulates the body's
responses to internal and external stimuli. In vertebrates it consists of the brain, spinal
cord, nerves, ganglia, and parts of the receptor and effector organs.[ CITATION
Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 NOSE -The part of the human face or the forward part of the head of other vertebrates
that contains the nostrils and organs of smell and forms the beginning of the respiratory
tract. [ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 PANCREAS -A long, irregularly shaped gland in vertebrates, lying behind the stomach,
that secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum and insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
into the bloodstream.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 SKIN -The membranous tissue forming the external covering or integument of an

animal and consisting of the epidermis and dermis.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 SMALL INTERTINES -The upper portion of the bowel, in which the process of
digestion is practically completed. It is narrow and contorted, and consists of three parts,
the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. [ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 SPINAL CORD -The thick, whitish cord of nerve tissue that extends from the medulla
oblongata down through the spinal column and from which the spinal nerves branch off
to various parts of the body.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]
 STOMACH -The enlarged, saclike canal, one of the principal organs of digestion,
located between the esophagus and the small intestine.[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ]

 TONGUE -The fleshy, movable, muscular organ, attached in most vertebrates to the
floor of the mouth, that is the principal organ of taste, an aid in chewing and swallowing,
and, in humans, an important organ of speech[ CITATION Uni103 \l 1033 ].

9. What organs of the body are found in the thoracic cavity?

The Cavity of the Thorax.—The capacity of the cavity

of the thorax does not correspond with its apparent size
externally, because[ CITATION The07 \l 1033 ] (1) the
space enclosed by the lower ribs is occupied by some of
the abdominal viscera; and (2) the cavity extends above
the anterior parts of the first ribs into the neck. The size
of the thoracic cavity is constantly varying during life
with the movements of the ribs and diaphragm, and with
the degree of distention of the abdominal viscera.
[ CITATION The07 \l 1033 ] From the collapsed state of the
lungs as seen when the thorax is opened in the dead
body, it would appear as if the viscera only partly filled
the cavity, but during life there is no vacant space, that
which is seen after death being filled up by the
expanded lungs[ CITATION The07 \l 1033 ].
 
The Upper Opening of the Thorax.—The parts which
pass through the upper opening of the thorax are, from
before backward, in or near the middle line, the
Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus muscles,
[ CITATION The07 \l 1033 ]the remains of the thymus, the
inferior thyroid veins, the trachea, esophagus, thoracic
duct, and the Longus colli muscles; at the sides, the in
nominate artery, the left common carotid, left subclavian
and internal mammary arteries and the costocervical
trunks,[ CITATION The07 \l 1033 ] the in nominate veins,
the vagus, cardiac, phrenic, and sympathetic nerves, the
greater parts of the anterior divisions of the first thoracic
nerves, and the recurrent nerve of the left side. The apex
of each lung, covered by the pleura, also projects
through this aperture, a little above the level of the
sterna end of the first rib.

The abdominal cavity? The abdominal cavity is hardly an empty space. It contains a
number of crucial organs including the lower part of the esophagus, the stomach, small
intestine, colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and bladder.
 10. List the types of membranes found in the body, their functions and their locations?
Membranes

Membranes are thin layers of tissue that provide a surface lining or protective surface to organs
or body structures. There are four types of membranes.[ CITATION Rob09 \l 1033 ] They are:

1. Cutaneous: pertaining to the skin

2. Mucous: the lubricating membrane lining an internal surface or organ. An example of mucous
membrane would be the gums.
3. Serous: thin membranes that line cavities that secrete serous fluid. An example would be the
peritoneum.
4. Synovial: dense connective tissue membrane that secretes synovial fluid. [ CITATION Rob09 \l
1033 ]

11. Why is homeostasis defined as the “relative constancy of the internal environment?”
Control systems may be open or closed loop. A camp fire is open loop. You place wood
on it and it burns. Your furnace is typically closed loop. Your use your "thermostat" to
regulate the temperature in your house. This common technique utilizes negative
feedback. For this non-biological example, consider the thermostat for temperature
controller shown in the diagram.[ CITATION mma00 \l 1033 ] If the room becomes too
cold, the thermostat detects the temperature and the heater is turned on, which in turn,
warms the room. When the room is warm, the thermostat no longer detects that the room
is cold, and the heater turns off (and the air-conditioner may be turned on). The
temperature may, therefore, be "set" within certain limits. You program "set points" in to
the controller, when the heat comes on and off and when the air-conditioning comes on
and off. This maintains your "environment" within a certain temperature range,
homeostasis.

Does negative feedback or positive feedback tend to promote homeostasis?

Negative feedback reflects the body's desire to return to a normal state, signaling that a
problem is occurring and regulating the resulting processes to ensure that the body
reaches homeostasis rather than going too far in the wrong direction. In positive
feedback, the body encourages the rapid increase of an activity to deal with an emerging
situation, as for example when white blood cells production increases to cope with an
infection.

12. Which of the following is not a type of fibrous connective tissue? A. hyaline cartilage

13. What type of cartilage is found in the rib cage and walls of the respiratory passages?
D. hyaline cartilage

14. Blood is a D. connective tissue because it has a D. ground substance

15. Skeleton muscle is D. All of these (striated, under voluntary and multinucleated)
 16. Which is true of both cardiac and smooth muscle? C. involuntary control

17. Which of the following forms the myelin sheath around nerve fibers outside the
brain and spinal cord. Schwann cells

18. Which of these is not a epithelial tissue? B. bone and cartilage

19. What type of epithelial tissue is found in the walls of the urinary bladed to provide it
with the ability to distend? B. transition epithelial

20. Tight junctions are associated with D. epithelial tissue

21. Without melanocytes, skin would C. not tan

22. Which of the following is a function of skin? D. all of the above(temperature

regulation, manufacture of vitamin ,protection from invading pathogens}

23. Fluid balance is a primary goal of which system? B. lymphatic

24. The skeletal system functions in D. all of the above(blood cell production , movement,
mineral storage)

25. Which system helps control pH balance? D. urinary, respiratory

26. Which type of membrane is found lining systems open to the outside environment,
such as the respiratory system? B. mucous

27. The correct order for homeostatic processing is A. sensory detention, control center ,
effect brings about change in body

28. Which allows rapid change in one direction and does not achieve stability? Positive
feedback

29. Which of the following contractions increase as labor progresses. B. Insulin decreases
blood sugar levels after eating a meal

The Tissue Level of Organization

Histology Atlas [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]
 [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Simple squamous and simple cuboidal epithelium - renal medulla, 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Stratified squamous epithelium (esophagus, nonkeratinized) with underlying connective tissue (200x)

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Stratified squamous epithelium (thin skin, keratinized) with underlying connective tissue

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Stratified cuboidal epithelium (sweat gland duct), 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Simple columnar epithelium - duodenum - intestinal villi, 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (trachea), 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Stratified columnar epithelium (cavernous urethra), 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Transitional epithelium (urinary bladder), 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Exocrine gland - serous glands of the parotid salivary gland, 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Endocrine gland - Islet of Langerhans, 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Areolar connective tissue (mesentery spread), 1000x, demonstrating collagen, reticular and elastic fibers,
as well as fibrocytes and mast cells
 [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Areolar connective tissue (lamina propria of duodenum), 100x, demonstrating fibrocytes and plasma cells

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ] Reticular connective tissue (lymph node), 200x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Dense, regularly arranged connective tissue (tendon), 200x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Dense, regularly arranged connective tissue (ligament), 200x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Dense, irregularly arranged connective tissue (dermis of skin), 200x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

 Hyaline cartilage (trachea), demonstrating perichondrium (including fibrous and cellular layers), 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Elastic cartilage (auricle of ear), 400x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Fibrocartilage (pubic symphysis), 200x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Intramembranous bone development (fetal pig), demonstrating bone spicules, 40x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Intramembranous bone development (fetal pig), demonstrating osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoblasts

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Endochondral bone development (fetal metatarsal, l.s.), demonstrating primary ossification center within
diaphysis of developing bone and hyaline cartilage of epiphysis of developing bone, 40x
 [ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Endochondral bone development (fetal metatarsal, l.s.) demonstrating primary ossification center and
hyaline cartilage of epiphysis of developing bone demonstrating zone of resting cartilage, zone of
proliferation, zone of maturation (hypertrophy), zone of calcification, 100x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Mature bone, cross section, demonstrating a Haversian system, Haversian canal, lacunae, and
Volkman‚s canal, 100x

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Skeletal muscle (l.s.), 400x, demonstrating peripheral nuclei and banding pattern of skeletal muscle

[ CITATION Mar101 \l 1033 ]

Skeletal muscle (x.s.), 400x, demonstrating peripheral nuclei, perimysium and endomysium

Cardiac muscle (l.s.), 400x, demonstrating smaller size of cardiac cells, central, single nucleus, and
intercalated discs
 Smooth muscle (x.s. and l.s. - small intestine) 400x, demonstrating size variation and cell shape.

Nervous tissue (Purkinje cell of cerebellum), 1000x

White adipose tissue (200x)

Brown adipose tissue (200x)

References:

101, R. G. (2009). Various Tissues Of The Human Body/The Various Tissues Of The Human Body. Suite
101.

3B, L. G. (2010, 08 26). CHAPTER 3 - CARBOHYDRATES. Retrieved 09 17, 2010, from csbsju.edu:
http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch331/cho/glycoproteinshtm.htm

(1995-2010). The Tissue Level of Organization . In M. a. Bartholomew, 3rd Edition Anademy and
Physiology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings .

Caceci, D. T. (2009). Smooth and Skeletal Muscle Lab 10 Exercise. In VT Medicine.

Department, E. C. (2003). www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/184ph.html. Retrieved September 4,
2010, from http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/184ph.html

Michegan, U. o. (2010). What are the human organs and their function. Organs and Functions .

The Thoracic Cavity. (1995-2007). Retrieved September 21, 2010, from

theodora.com/anatomy/the_thoracic_cavity.html :
http://www.theodora.com/anatomy/the_thoracic_cavity.html

UK. (2007). Prokaryotic Cell Structure. In Biology Chapter 4. Mc Graw.

Wagner, C. S. (1983). Endocytosis and exocytosis of transferrin by isolated capillary endothelium. School
of Life and Health Sciences , 25 (13 September 1982. ), Pages 387-396 .