All-India Muslim League (Muslim League)

Founded in 1906 in Dacca (Dhaka), in what then was the province of Eastern
Bengal and Assam, by Muslim representatives from throughout India and Burma
as a counterpoise to the Indian National Congress (q.v.).

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Founded in 1967 for the purpose of promoting regional stability, economic
development, and cultural exchange. ASEAN's membership includes Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. India is
a "dialogue partner" along with Austria, Canada, China, Japan, New Zealand, the
Republic of Korea (South Korea), Russia, and the United States.

Backward Classes
Citizens of India otherwise defined as members of Scheduled Castes (q.v.),
Scheduled Tribes (q.v.), and other low-ranking and disadvantaged groups
(sometimes referred to as Other Backward Classes). Discrimination against the
Backward Classes is prohibited by Article 15 of the Indian constitution. The
Backward Classes reportedly constitute an estimated 52 percent of India's
population. The Mandal Commission (q.v.) identified 3,743 Backward Classes.

Brahman(s)
From the Sanskrit brahmana, one of four major caste groups (varna) or social
classes. Brahmans are the highest caste group, traditionally made up of priests,
philosophers, scholars, and religious leaders. Not to be confused with brahman
(q.v., the Absolute Reality).

brahman
The Absolute Reality, the eternal, supreme, or ultimate principle. A state of pure
transcendence. In some Vedantic schools of Hindu thought, a Supreme Being
who is the cause of the universe, with theistic attributes. Not to be confused with
Brahman (q.v., the priestly caste group).

British Raj (1858-1947)

The period of direct rule of India by the British government. The period began
with the demise of the Mughal Empire and of East India Company rule and
ended with the achievement of independence by India and Pakistan. During this
time, the British crown was represented in India by a viceroy.

Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social Development in Asia

and the Pacific (Colombo Plan)
Founded in 1950 to coordinate and aid development among newly independent
countries. Members include nations throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Donor
countries include Australia, Britain, Canada, India, Japan, New Zealand, and the
United States. The headquarters are in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Congress
See Indian National Congress.

crore
A unit of measure equal to 10 million (or 100 lakh, q.v.).

Dalit(s)
Sanskrit word meaning burst, split, broken, crushed, or destroyed but, since the
nineteenth century, often taken to mean downtrodden; used in reference to
Untouchables (Harijans, q.v.), outcastes, Scheduled Castes (q.v.), and others
living in a reduced social state.

Devanagari
Literally, "the script of the city of the gods." Script used in the written forms of
Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Tibetan, Sanskrit, and in some forms of Konkani. In use in
North India throughout the second millennium A.D.

dharma
A divinely ordained code of proper conduct.

fiscal year (FY)

April 1 to March 31. The fiscal year from April 1, 1995 through March 31, 1996,
for example, is designated FY 1995.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

A United Nations specialized agency established in 1945 to raise living standards
and increase the availability of agricultural products.

gross domestic product (GDP)

A value measure of the flow of domestic goods and services produced by an
economy over a period of time, such as a year. Only output values of goods for
final consumption and intermediate production are assumed to be included in the
final prices. GDP is sometimes aggregated and shown at market prices, meaning
that indirect taxes and subsidies are included; when these indirect taxes and
subsidies have been eliminated, the result is GDP at factor cost. The word gross
indicates that deductions for depreciation of physical assets have not been
made. See also gross national product.

gross national product (GNP)

Gross domestic product (q.v.) plus net income or loss stemming from
transactions with foreign countries, including income received from abroad by
residents and subtracting payments remitted abroad to nonresidents. GNP is the
broadest measurement of the output of goods and services by an economy. It
can be calculated at market prices, which include indirect taxes and subsidies.
Because indirect taxes and subsidies are only transfer payments, GNP is often
calculated at factor cost by removing indirect taxes and subsidies.

Group of Fifteen (G-15)

Group of Third World countries that participated in the Conference on
International Economic Cooperation held in several sessions between December
1975 and June 1977. At the Ninth Nonaligned Movement Summit in Belgrade in
May 1989, the G-15 was designated a "Summit Level Group of South-South
Consultation and Cooperation" and charged with opening a dialogue with the
industrialized nations, specifically the members of the Group of Seven (Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Britain, and the United States). G-15 summits
were held in Kuala Lumpur (June 1990), Caracas (November 1991), Dakar
(November 1992), and New Delhi (March 1994). The group includes Algeria,
Argentina, Brazil, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria,
Peru, Senegal, Venezuela, Yugoslavia, and Zimbabwe.

guru
In the Sikh faith, one of ten spiritual leaders and teachers, the first of whom was
Nanak Dev, the last being Gobind Singh. In Hinduism, a religious teacher or
guide.

Harijans
Term introduced by Mahatma Gandhi for Untouchables. Literal meaning is
children of God. Militant members of this group prefer to be called Dalit (q.v.) in
self-recognition of their historical oppression.

imam(s)
In general use and lower-cased, imam means the leader of congregational
prayers; as such it implies no ordination or special spiritual powers beyond
sufficient education to carry out this function. Imam is also used figuratively by
many Sunni (q.v.) Muslims to mean the leader of the Islamic community. Among
Shia (q.v.) Muslims, the word is usually upper-cased and takes on many complex
and controversial meanings; in general, however, it indicates that particular
descendant of the House of Ali who is believed to have been God's designated
repository of the spiritual authority inherent in that line. The identity of this
individual and the means of ascertaining his identity have been the major issues
causing divisions among Shias.

Indian National Congress

Founded in 1885; before and after 1947, popularly called Congress or the
Congress. A major force in the independence movement, the Congress has been
dominant in Parliament and formed governments from 1947 to 1977, 1980 to
1985, and 1991 to 1996. In 1969 the Congress split, and the ruling party under
Indira Gandhi became known as Congress (R)--R for Requisition--while the
faction opposed to her was called Congress (O)--O for Organisation. In 1978 she
renamed her party Congress (I)--I for Indira. There also have been Congress
(S)--S for Socialist or Secular--and Congress (U)--for Urs, named after its
founder Devanaj Urs--splinter groups.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Established along with the World Bank (q.v.) in 1945, the IMF is a specialized
agency affiliated with the United Nations and is responsible for stabilizing
international exchange rates and payments. The main business of the IMF is the
provision of loans to its members (including industrialized and developing
countries) when they experience balance of payments difficulties. These loans
frequently carry conditions that require substantial internal economic adjustments
by the recipients, most of which are developing countries.

jati
Literally, birth group. Basic endogamous unit of the caste system. There are
approximately 3,000 jatis in contemporary society. The word jati is also
sometimes used for ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups.

karma
Literally, action. Spiritual merit or demerit that a being acquired in a previous
incarnation and is acquiring in present existence.

lakh
A unit of measure equal to 100,000. Also see crore (q.v.).

Mandal Commission
A government-appointed commission, officially the Second Backwards Classes
Commission, chaired by former member of Parliament Bindhyeshwari Prasad
Mandal from December 1978 to December 1980. Of the five members, four were
from Backward Classes (q.v.) and one was from a Scheduled Caste (q.v.). The
commission's controversial December 1980 report (the Mandal Commission
Report of the Backward Classes Commission) called for reserving 27 percent of
all services and public-sector undertakings under the central government and 27
percent of all admissions to institutions of higher education (except in states that
have reserved higher percentages) for Backward Class members and Dalits
(q.v.). In August 1990, Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh announced his
support for the radical affirmative-action 1980 proposals. The First Backward
Classes Commission existed from January 1950 to March 1955.

Muslim League
See All-India Muslim League.

Nonaligned Movement
Established in September 1961 with the aim of promoting the concept of political
and military nonalignment (q.v.) apart from the traditional East and West blocs.
India was among the original members. The Nonaligned Movement in 1995
included 107 members plus the Palestine Liberation Organization, twenty-one
observer nations and organizations, and twenty-one "guest" nations.

nonalignment
The ideological basis of Indian foreign policy, first articulated by Jawaharlal
Nehru: refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, peaceful settlement of
international disputes, the Panch Shila (q.v.), anticolonialism, antiracism, and
international cooperation to promote economic development.

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Established on September 14, 1960, with the aim of coordinating the members'
petroleum policies and prices. Members include Algeria, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and
Venezuela.

Panch Shila
Literally, five principles of foreign policy: mutual respect for territorial integrity and
sovereignty, mutual nonaggression, mutual noninterference in internal affairs,
equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. The Panch Shila were
enunciated by Jawaharlal Nehru in April 1954 in a trade agreement with China
and adopted as a keystone of relations among nations at the Asian-African
Conference (the Bandung Conference) held in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955.

panchayat
A council of five or more. Found both in villages and in jatis (q.v.). Also refers to
an administrative grouping of villages under constitutionally mandated elected
councils.

pandit(s)
Honorific for erudite individual, sometimes taken as personal or family name.
Various Brahmans (q.v.) (such as the family of Jawaharlal Nehru) were known as
pandits. Sometimes transliterated as pundit.

Punjab
State in India (and a province in adjacent Pakistan). Term the Punjab usually
refers to either the pre-1947 state of British India or the geographic region
centered on the five major rivers, whence its name, panch ab, meaning five
waters, or rivers.

rupee (Rp; Rs--plural)

Basic unit of currency consisting of 100 paise. From September 1949 to June
1966, the official value of the rupee was Rs4.76 per US$1. From June 1966
through mid-December 1971, the official value was Rs7.50 per US$1, and from
mid-December 1971 to late June 1972, the value was Rs7.28 per US$1.
Thereafter, the official value of the rupee as compared with the United States
dollar began to fall, from Rs7.44 in 1971-72 to Rs 8.08 in 1979-80 to Rs12.24 in
1985-86 to Rs14.48 in 1988-89, Rs16.66 in 1989-90, Rs17.95 in 1990-91,
Rs24.52 in 1991-92, and Rs26.41 in 1992-93. A dual exchange-rate system was
established in March 1992, and, starting in March 1993, the exchange rate was
reunified at the free-market rate. As of July 1996, US$1 was worth Rs35.67.
Aluminum-magnesium, stainless steel, and cupro-nickel coins are minted at the
Calcutta and Bombay mints for circulation in five, ten, twenty, twenty-five, and
fifty paise and Rs1 and Rs2 denominations. Bank notes issued by the Reserve
Bank of India are issued in denominations of Rs1, Rs2, Rs5, Rs10, Rs20, Rs50,
Rs100, and Rs500.

satyagraha
Method employed by Mahatma Gandhi and his followers to secure sociopolitical
reform by nonviolent, passive resistance and noncooperation; the individual
following the method is called a satyagrahi.

Scheduled Areas
Article 244 of the Indian constitution allows the government to compile a
schedule (list) of areas of the country occupied by Scheduled Tribes (q.v.). The
Sixth and Ninth Schedules of the constitution list the Scheduled Areas.

Scheduled Castes
Article 341 of the Indian constitution allows thegovernment to compile a schedule
(list) of castes, races, or tribes or parts of groups within castes, races, or tribes
that are economically and socially disadvantaged and are therefore entitled to
protection and specified benefits under the constitution. Untouchables, also
known as Harijans (q.v.) or Dalits (q.v.), constitute the bulk of Scheduled Castes.
See also Scheduled Tribes (q.v.). The 1991 census tabulated 138 million
Scheduled Caste members throughout India, representing about 16 percent of
the total population. The largest numbers were in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. The schedule in the constitution does
not list the Scheduled Castes by name.

Scheduled Languages
Article 351 of the Indian constitution allows the government to compile a
schedule (list) of languages recognized by the government for use in state
legislatures. The Eighth Schedule, written in 1950, lists Assamese, Bengali,
Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit,
Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. Sindhi was added to the schedule in 1967, and
Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were added in 1992. Article 343 of the constitution
designates Hindi written in Devanagari (q.v.) as the official language of India.
Even though it was supposed to be phased out by 1965, English continues as
India's other official language for use in Parliament, the Supreme Court, and the
high courts unless otherwise authorized by the president.

Scheduled Tribes
Article 342 of the Indian constitution includes a schedule (list) of tribes or tribal
communities that are economically and socially disadvantaged and are entitled to
specified benefits. The tribes are listed in the Fifth Schedule. The 1991 census
tabulated 67.8 million members of Scheduled Tribes throughout India,
representing about 8 percent of the total population. The largest numbers are in
Maharashtra, Orissa, and West Bengal. See also Scheduled Castes (q.v.).

Shia (from Shiat Ali, the Party of Ali)

A member of the smaller of the two great divisions of Islam. The Shia supported
the claims of Ali and his line to presumptive right to the caliphate and leadership
of the Muslim community, and on this issue they divided from the Sunnis (q.v.) in
the major schism of Islam. Later schisms have produced further divisions among
the Shia over the identity and number of imams (q.v.). Most Shia revere twelve
Imams, the last of whom is believed to be hidden from view.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Comprises the seven nations of South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka; founded as the South Asia Regional
Cooperation (SARC) organization at a meeting of foreign ministers in New Delhi
on August 1-2, 1983. A second organizational meeting of foreign ministers was
held in Thimphu in May 1985, followed by the inaugural meeting of heads of state
and government in Dhaka on December 7-8, 1985. SAARC's goal is to effect
economic, technical, and cultural cooperation and to provide a forum for
discussions of South Asian political problems.

Sufi(s)
Comes from suf, the Arabic word for "wool." The term derives from the practice of
wearing a woolen robe, a sign of dedicating oneself to the mystical life, known in
Islam as becoming a Sufi. Sufis seek mystical union with God and have been
condemned by some Sunni (q.v.) legal schools.

Sunni
Comes from sunna, meaning "custom," with connotations of orthodoxy. One of
the two great divisions of Islam, the Sunnis supported the traditional method of
election to the caliphate and accepted the Umayyad line. On this issue, they
divided from the Shia (q.v.) belief in the first great schism within Islam.

swadeshi
Literally, of one's own country. A preindependence movement to further the use
of Indian-made items, particularly cottage-industry products, such as hand-
loomed cloth, and to oppose British-made goods.

tribal
In addition to its use as an adjective--tribal land or tribal customs--the word is
also used as a noun to describe a tribesperson, tribesman, or tribeswoman.

twice-born
Referring to jatis (q.v.) claiming membership in one of the three upper varnas
(q.v.), that is, Brahman (q.v.), Kshatriya, and Vaishya. Male member's natural
birth is followed by a sprititual rebirth in a rite involving investiture with a sacred
thread.

varna
Literally, color. One of the four large caste groups (Brahman (q.v.) Kshatriya,
Vaishya, and Sudra) from which most jatis (q.v.) are believed to derive.
World Bank
Informal name used to designate a group of four affiliated international
institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),
the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance
Corporation (IFC), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA).
The IBRD, established in 1945, has the primary purpose of providing loans at
market-related rates of interest to developing countries at more advanced stages
of development. The IDA, a legally separate loan fund but administered by the
staff of the IBRD, was set up in 1960 to furnish credits to the poorest developing
countries on much easier terms than those of conventional IBRD loans. The IFC,
founded in 1956, supplements the activities of the IBRD through loans and
assistance designed specifically to encourage the growth of productive private
enterprises in the less-developed countries. The MIGA, founded in 1988, insures
private foreign investment in developing countries against various
noncommercial risks. The president and certain officers of the IBRD hold the
same positions in the IFC. The four institutions are owned by the governments of
the countries that subscribe their capital. To participate in the World Bank group,
member states must first belong to the International Monetary Fund (q.v.).

zamindar(s)
Landlord, but particularly the group of landlords and the zamindar system that
emerged after the British Permanent Settlement (Landlease) Act of 1793. In
essence, the former revenue collectors of the Mughal period (1526-1858)
became landlords under the British.

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