Weather Vol.
58
On the formation of stratiform and
convective cloud
C. G. Collier
Telford Institute of Environmental Systems, University of Salford
Cloud is the most obvious manifestation of
atmospheric motions. Since the different types
of clouds were classified by Luke Howard in
his essay on the modification of clouds pub-
lished in 1804, meteorologists have strived to
measure the dimensions of cloud, its height
and life cycle, and the way in which it impacts
the weather. The development of observing
systems such as radar and satellites has
improved our understanding of cloud forma-
tion, and has made it possible to numerically
model them, although our knowledge remains
imperfect.
In this paper the range of mechanisms lead-
ing to the formation of cloud is outlined, draw-
ing heavily on a number of publications and
handbooks. Of particular practical use in
understanding clouds and the systems underly-
62
February 2003
ing their formation are books by Bader et al.
(1995), Scorer (1994), and Scorer and Verkaik
(1989).
The formation of cloud
Clouds occur when air is cooled below its
saturation temperature. However, the mechan-
isms by which air is caused to rise and hence
cool are often complex, being three-dimen-
sional and on a range of scales. Cloud particles
may grow by various processes to form precipi-
tation. Whilst the subject of this summary is
clouds, inevitably we touch upon precipitation,
although we will not discuss the microphysics
of how precipitation is formed.
The atmospheric motions which produce
the lifting necessary to trigger cloud, and sub-
Weather Vol. 58 February 2003

Table 1 Scales of cloud and precipitation systems (partly after Browning 1983)

Precipitation Description Horizontal Vertical

system scale velocity
(km) (cm s± 1 )

Localised Precipitation from single clouds in the lower atmosphere or ~100.5 ~102
convection from convective generating cells within larger-scale
systems. They may occupy a large depth of the troposphere,
in which case they are referred to as thunderstorms.
Mesoscale Cluster of convective cells ~101.5 ~10
convective
system

Mesoscale Convective cells occurring in lines, Width ~101.5 ~10

cloudband/ sometimes almost two-dimensional Length ~102
rainband

Synoptic- or Midlatitude depressions Width ~102 ~1

large-scale Length ~103
systems

Tropical Known as hurricanes in the southern part of the Radius ~101.5 ~102
storms North Atlantic, tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean and
south-west Pacific, and typhoons in the south-western
part of the North Pacific.

sequent precipitation, are organised on various Convective cloud

scales as shown in Table 1. Although mesoscale
convective systems and cloudbands/rainbands
are entered in this table as separate phenom-
ena, in fact they may occur within the larger
systems, and represent organisation on an
intermediate scale of localised convection.
Often the simple distinction is drawn between
convective and stratiform clouds (Fig. 1) where
convective cloud tends to be deeper, and gives
the appearance of a `boiling’ fluid, whereas
stratiform cloud is shallow, layered and more
quiescent. However, as implied by Table 1,
both types of cloud may occur in the same
atmospheric systems.
There is of course a very great range of var-
iations in cloud type (see, for example, Scorer
and Verkaik 1989) arising from variations,
sometimes only slight, in the ambient atmos-
pheric conditions in which air is forced to rise
and the nature of the air motions. In what fol-
lows the main dynamical processes involved in
the formation of cloud as noted in Table 1 are
outlined. In seeking to understand the dynami-
cal mechanisms producing cloud it is useful to
note that, as a rule, air does not cross sharp
cloud boundaries at the level of the cloud.
Ragged edges denote that air is flowing into or
out of cloud.
As the lower layers of the atmosphere are
warmed by the sun, or cold air passes over the
warm sea, the air becomes less dense and rises.
If the atmosphere is unstable, then vertical
motion will occur, giving rise to condensation
of water vapour around the top of the atmos-
pheric boundary layer (1± 2 km) and the for-
mation of convective cloud. Such cloud may
grow to a height of several kilometres in 20
minutes or so as shown in Fig. 2, and lead to
rain or hail if the cloud is very substantial. The
possibility that convection may develop from
mid-level instability if lifting occurs is some-
times marked by a form of altocumulus clouds
shaped like the turrets of a castle, known as
castellanus.
Figure 2 shows a depiction of the develop-
ment of a single-cell thunderstorm from small
cumulus humilis cloud, with heavy precipita-
tion as the storm reaches maturity. This life
cycle will occur only if the ambient air is very
unstable, and often the convective cloud
remains of small size. However, thunderstorms
may organise themselves leading to multicell
storms in which new cells are regenerated as
the outflow from the initial cell interacts with
the surrounding air. The impression is given
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Weather Vol. 58 February 2003

Fig. 1 Cloud associated with a midlatitude depression with large areas of stratiform cloud. Convective cloud (inset)
forms in the cold air behind the system (after Scorer and Verkaik 1989).

Fig. 2 Schematic of a single-cell thunderstorm (after Burgess and Lemon 1990; Chisholm and Renick 1972)

that the thunderstorm is moving as a single anvils of thunderstorm cloud, cumulonimbus,

cell, whereas new cells are constantly being
generated at the leading edge of the system.
This cell propagation occurs to the left of the
main direction of movement of the storm. As
the cells dissipate, the convective cloud tends
to collapse into areas of stratiform cloud which
may merge into a single large area of stratiform
cloud, often producing precipitation. The
64
sometimes display pendulous breast-like cloud
known as mamma. Such cloud is not dynami-
cally significant, although its exact origin is not
well understood.
When sufficient vertical wind shear exists,
and strong convective instability is present, a
single very intense cell known as a supercell
may develop. In supercells vertical motions and
Weather Vol. 58
Fig. 3 Cross-section through a midlatitude depression and its fronts according to Bjerknes and Solberg (1922) (from
Ludlam 1963). Rain areas are shaded, and arrows show the air motion associated with the fronts.
rotation are very strong, and giant hail and tor-
nadoes may occur. Small arc clouds character-
ise the inflow region, and in severe
thunderstorms there may be several bands of
cloud marking this region, leading into enor-
mous towering cumulus cloud reaching to
heights sometimes in excess of 15 km. Such
systems are rare in the United Kingdom.
Whilst thunderstorms are the most specta-
cular manifestation of convective clouds, small
cumulus clouds may develop due to surface
heating. Also lines of shallow convective cloud
may form in the ascending branch of cells
aligned along the wind in the boundary layer.
The motion within the cells is helical, and sev-
eral cloud lines may occur parallel to each
other stretching for many kilometres. Similar
structures occur at the leading edge of land- or
sea-breezes.
Mesoscale convective systems
Several thunderstorms may be grouped
together within what Maddox (1980) referred
to as mesoscale convective complexes. Such
systems are thought to produce 50± 60% of the
summer rainfall in the Great Plains of the
USA, and cause severe flash floods. In the
United Kingdom these systems tend to be
smaller, although they may still lead to severe
weather. Browning and Hill (1984) designated
these systems mesoscale convective systems
(MCSs).
The MCS is characterised by convective
cloud in its early stages of development, but
later lifting on a large scale leads to extensive
stratiform cloud characterised on satellite
images by an extensive cirrus (ice) cloud shield
February 2003
(see Fig. 2 from Fox et al. 2001). Here cloud
droplets have frozen and, because the ice eva-
porates less readily than supercooled water at
the same temperature, the ice crystals will eva-
porate only if the air is warmed to above the
frost point (Scorer 1994).
Midlatitude depressions
During the early part of the twentieth century
the idea of fronts within low pressure systems
termed `depressions’ was developed (Bjerknes
and Solberg 1922). A wave was considered to
develop on a boundary between warm and cold
air, giving rise to a warm front and cold front
structure. The ascending motion associated
with these fronts produced well defined cloud
types, both convective and stratiform, as shown
in Fig. 3. However, some cloud may be formed
by ascent not directly from the surface, and
these types of cloud are referred to as altocu-
mulus or altostratus, or may relate to specific
processes, for example billow clouds arising
from shear instability.
Whilst this model of frontal cloud has
formed the basis of modern forecasting until
recently, the development of weather radar in
the 1940s and 1950s, followed by observations
from satellite-borne instrumentation in the
1960s, revealed much more complex cloud
structures. A new model was developed show-
ing the three-dimensional structure of the air-
flow in terms referred to as ascent within
`conveyor belts’. Figure 4 shows the model
within which the newly observed detail in the
clouds could be understood.
Although Fig. 4 does provide an under-
standing of the generation of cloudbands and
rainbands, it was recognised that the configura-
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Weather Vol. 58 February 2003

Fig. 4 Model depicting the main features of the large-scale flow that determines the distribution of cloud and precipita-
tion in a midlatitude depression. The arrows represent flow, the height of which is labelled in millibars. The scalloped line
represents the outline of the cloud pattern (after Carlson 1980).

tion of the warm conveyor belt (WCB) strongly
influenced the observed cloud pattern. In an
active cold front the WCB lies parallel to and
astride the front. Deep convective cloud, which
may be organised into a narrow line of convec-
tive activity with stratiform cloud flowing away
from the surface front at `mid-levels’, lies along
the surface front. However, for an active warm
front stratiform cloud may be extensive along
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the surface warm front and, as the system
occludes, a cirrus cloud head may form as
shown in Fig. 5. The exact configuration
depends upon how the conveyor belts are
arranged as shown in the figure. In Fig. 5(b)
the resultant cloud head arising from the inter-
actions of two systems is related to a phenom-
enon known as an instant occlusion (Anderson
et al. 1969).
Weather Vol. 58
Fig. 5 Models showing airflows W1 and W2 (with heights in millibars) and extent of cloud area C in two configurations
of an occluding midlatitude depression (after McGinnigle et al. 1988)
Generally rainfall totals from midlatitude
depressions are not large. However, when sys-
tems become slow-moving or stationary, storm
totals of over 100 mm in 24 hours may occur.
Often such rainfall is enhanced by forced
ascent over orography.
Orographic clouds
When an airstream containing a stable moist
layer moves over mountains, and the wind
increases with height, lee waves may occur
downwind of the mountains. Cloud forms if
the ascent in the waves is sufficient for the
water vapour to condense. Figure 6 shows a
typical pattern of lee wave cloud. Sometimes
standing wave clouds, consisting mainly of
spherical droplets, have iridescent colouring
depending upon the angle of the sun. The flow
over and around individual mountains may
also be indicated by specific types of cloud, e.g.
cap, banner and lenticular clouds. Cloud may
form in the lee of a mountain associated with a
turbulent eddy (rotor). These clouds have a
long cylinder form with horizontal axis parallel
to the mountain ridge. An example in the UK
is the helm bar formed above Crossfell,
Cumbria.
However, in addition to lee wave cloud,
high-level cirrus cloud may indicate whether
turbulence is present near mountains. Thin
cirrus may be observed upwind of mountains
with a clear area over them and, if turbulence is
present, the clear area may extend into the lee
of the mountains, beyond which thick, very
cold cirrus is observed.
February 2003
Tropical storms
Convective clouds are seen to cluster in the tro-
pics, particularly over the sea in the area of the
intertropical convergence zone near the equa-
tor. In a small fraction of these clusters the cir-
culations of individual cells interact, drawing
heat and moisture from the sea and leading
them to develop into hurricanes or tropical
cyclones. These systems are characterised by
circular bands of clouds, very heavy precipita-
tion and strong winds.
Concluding remarks
The representation of clouds remains one of
the major uncertainties in current numerical
weather and climate models. Clouds increase
the scattering of incoming solar radiation to
space, and also absorb the terrestrial radiation
emitted from the earth’ s surface whilst emitting
less than the surface because they are cooler.
Much has been learnt about clouds since Luke
Howard’s day, but the complexities of the
dynamical mechanisms leading to cloud forma-
tion continue to exercise both researchers and
operational weather forecasters.
Clouds indicate the dynamical mechanisms
governing airflow in the atmosphere. However,
as pointed out by Scorer and Verkaik (1989),
all clouds are unique. Moisture affects instabil-
ity; this in turn affects cloud height which
comes under different shearing forces at all
levels. Even small changes in these conditions
will result in clouds having different forms.
Observation of clouds reminds us all of how
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Weather Vol. 58 February 2003

Fig. 6 Pattern of wave clouds observed from a polar-orbiting satellite over the British Isles on 13 May 2000. Note in
particular the wave clouds over Scotland. (Courtesy of NERC Dundee Satellite Receiving Station.)

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Weather Vol. 58
difficult it is to numerically model the real
atmosphere.
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Correspondence to: Prof. C. G. Collier, Telford
Institute of Environmental Systems, Peel Building,
University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester
M5 4WT. e-mail: c.g.collier@salford.ac.uk
# Royal Meteorological Society, 2003.
doi:10.1256/wea.239.02
69