ME Test 10

:2: ESE – Offline Test series - 2018
01(a). 01(b).
Sol: Sol: At ideal condition in wire drawing
1. Gray Cast Iron (GCI) : A 
d   n o 
Composition is C = 2.8 – 3.6%C  Af 
Si = 1 – 2.7%
At limiting condition, d = 
Mn = 0.4 – 1%
where, d = drawing stress,
P = 0.1 – 1%
 = yield strength
S = 0.06 – 12%
Given,  = k n
• Appears as dark porous structure ductile in
A 
nature  o n o   
• Iron carbide particles exist as flake structure  Af 

(randomly oriented, randomly shaped)
k d
n
• Grey irons are usually weldable with A 

 0
n o   
MMAW or MIG   Af 
• Used for production of pipes, Agriculture 
k d
n
implements, Cylinder blocks of IC engines, A 
 0
n o   k  n
break drums, machine tool beds.   Af 
A 
2. Nodular (Spherical) Cast Iron (NCI) :  n o   n  1
 Af 
Composition is C = 3 – 3.5%
o
Si = 2 – 2.5%  e n 1
Af
Mn = 0.15 – 0.6%
P = 0.025 – 0.4% The increment in maximum reduction in
S = 0.015 – .04% Area

 Ao  Af   Af 
Mg = 0.015 – 0.1    1  
  1  e n 1 
• Easily machinable and weldable than GCI  Ao   A o 
• Ductility is similar to malleable cast iron If n = 0.3,

• Corrosion resistance is similar to gray cast  Ao  Af 
iron
  
  1  e1.3  0.7274
 Ao 
• Its tensile strength is greater than gray cast If n = 0.5,
iron.
 Ao  Af 
• Used in hydraulic cylinders, valves,   
  1  e1.5   0.7768
 Ao 
cylinder heads for compressors and diesel
Percentage increase in reduction in area
engines, connecting rods and high pressure
0.7768  0.7274
pipes. =  100  6.8 %
0.7274
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:3: ME–Conventional Test– 10 (Solutions)
01(c). Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, we get x

Sol: During extension of piston rod, = 90 and F = 80,000.
forceload  Thus, variable cost per unit = Rs. 90 and
(a) pressure 
area A c  fixed cost = Rs. 80,000.
5000 Now,
  3.978 MPa

0.042 Break-even point (units)
4 Fixed cos t
=
(b) Velocity Contributi on m arg in
Q in 1.6  10 3 80000
=   1.273 m / sec  = 8000
 100  90
Ac
0.04 2
4 Total sales (profit = Rs. 50000)
(c) Power = forcevelocity Fixed cos t  Pr ofit
=
= 50001.273 = 6.366 kW Contributi on m arg in
(d) Length = velocitytime 80000  50000
  13,000
= 1.273m/sec0.1sec 10
= 0.1273 m = 127.3 mm Accordingly,
(i) Fixed cost = Rs. 80,000
01(d). (ii) Number of units to break-even = 8000
Sol: Here the output in year 1 and 2 is given to (iii) Number of units to earn a profit of Rs.
be 7000 and 9000 units respectively, while 50000 = 13,000
the unit price is Rs. 100. Now, let the
variable cost be Rs. x per unit and the total 01(e).
fixed cost be Rs. F. From the given Sol: Spectral leakage is a problem that arises in
information, we have the digital processing of signals. Leakage
causes the signal levels to be reduced and
Year 1 Year 2 redistributed over a broad frequency range,
Sales (Rs.) 7,00,000 9,00,000 which must be addressed in order to analyze
Variable cost 7,000 x 9,000 x digital signals properly. To reduce leakage, a
Contribution 700000 – 900000 – mathematical function called a window is
7000x 9000x applied to the data. Windows are designed to
Fixed cost F F reduce the sharp transient in the re-created
Total profit (10,000) 10,000 signal as much as possible.
(given) Windows are typically shaped as functions
that start at a value of zero, move to a value
From these, we have of one, and then return to a value of zero over
700000 – 7000 x – F = –10,000 -------- (1) one frame. The captured signal is multiplied
900000 – 9000 x – F = 10,000 --------- (2) by the window as shown in Figure below
02(a).
+
Sol:
Captured signal
0
(Not periodic) (i) Friction Welding: In friction welding
– (FRW), the heat required for welding is
Multiply
1 generated through (as the name implies)
Hanning friction at the interface of the two
Window
components being joined. In friction
0 welding, one of the work piece components
+ Equals remains stationary while the other is placed
Windowed signal 0 in a chuck or collet and rotated at a high
constant speed. The two members to be
–
joined are then brought into contact under
Shine wave: No leakage, Leakage, Windowed an axial force. After sufficient contact is
established, the rotating member is brought
– No Leakage
– Leakage to a quick stop while the axial force is
– Windowed
increased. Oxides and other contaminants at
the interface are removed by the radially
Amplitude
outward movement of the hot metal at the

log
interface.
(ii) Brazing and Soldering: Brazing is defined

as joining the metals with non-ferrous filler
Zero Frequency
Bandwidth
Hz metal at temperature above 427C. And at
There are many different windows, each temperature below this, the melting
optimized for a particular situations. Some temperature of metals being joined that is
windows include: the liquidus temperature of the filler metal
 Hanning – Used for general data should be less than the solidus temperature
analysis, good tradeoff between of base metal.
frequency and amplitude accuracy Soldering is a process of joining of metals
 Flattop – Excellent accuracy for with non-ferrous filler metal at a temp
amplitude, often used in calibration below 427C and also below the M.P of
 Tukey – Used for transient events metals being joined. The bond between
 Exponential – Used in impact hammer soldering alloy and the base metal is by
modal testing, be careful of adding wetting and surface alloying. In both these
artifical damping to measurement cases, the filler metal flows in between the
 Uniform – Another way of saying “no mating surfaces by capillary action to form
window”. the joint.
(iii) Resistance Welding: In Resistance welding then hammered together using borax as
the heat required for melting and joining of flux. The hammering is started from centre
plates is obtained due to electrical resistance of the convex surface and it progresses to
circuit, so the name is given as resistance the ends. This results in the slag being
welding operation. squeezed out of the joint. Hammering is
In this welding, the amount of heat continued till a sound joint is produced.
generated in the work piece depends on the Several types of joints can be made viz.,
magnitude of the current, the resistance of butt joint, scarf joint or splice joint.
the current conducting part and the time for
which the current is made to flow. (vi) Ultrasonic welding: In ultrasonic welding
The heat is obtained by large electrical (USW), the faying surfaces of the two
current of the order of 3000 A to 100000 A components are subjected to a static normal
with voltages of 1 to 25 volts. force and oscillating shearing (tangential)
H.G = I2R stresses. The shearing stresses are applied
I = current passing through circuit by the tip of a transducer, which is similar
R= Electrical Resistance at the interface to that used for ultrasonic machining. The
 = time during which current is passing frequency of oscillation is generally in the
range from 10 to 75 kHz, although a lower
(iv) Arc welding: In arc welding, the heat or higher frequency can be employed.
required is obtained from electrical energy. Proper coupling between the transducer and
The process involves either a consumable or the tip (called-by analogy with electrode-a
a non-consumable electrode. An AC or a sonotrode, from the word sonic) is
DC power supply produces an arc between important for efficient operation.
the tip of the electrode and the workpiece to
be welded. The arc generates temperature of (vii) Gas welding: Oxy fuel-gas welding (OFW)
about 30,000°C, which is much higher than is a general term used to describe any
those developed in oxyfuel-gas welding. welding process that uses a fuel gas
combined with oxygen to produce a flame.
(v) Forge welding: Sometimes, it may become The flame is the source of the heat that is
necessary to join two pieces of metal. Forge used to melt the metals at the joint. The
welding of steel is quite common and most common gas welding process uses
consists of heating the two ends to be joined acetylene; the process is known as
to white heat (1050°C – 1150°C). Then the oxyacetylene-gas welding (OAW) and is
two ends of steel are brought together typically used for structural metal
having previously been given a slight fabrication and repair work.
convex shape to the surfaces under joining.
The surfaces are cleaned of scale. They are
(viii) Thermit welding: THERMIT WELDING
(TW) is a process that uses heat from 02(b).
exothermic reactions to produce Sol:
coalescence between metals. The process Iron-Iron carbide equilibrium diagram:
name is derived from "thermite," the From the figure shown below:
generic name given to reactions between  The iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram
metal oxides and reducing agents. Thermit concerns transformations that occur in alloys
mixtures consist of oxides with low heats of having compositions from pure iron to
formation and metallic reducing agents cementite (6.67 % of carbon). Besides it
which when oxidized have high heats of establishes a correlation between the micro
formation. The excess heats of formation of structure and properties of steel and cast irons
the reaction products provide the energy and provides a basis to understand the
source required to form the weld. principles of heat treatment.
 Carbon is added to iron, to improve the
(ix) Electroslag welding: In Electroslag strength of iron as interstitial inclusion. So that
Welding (ESW), an electrode such as a wire the strength of iron can be improved. The
is fed through an electrically conductive maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 6.67
bath of molten slag. The resistance of the %, called as critical concentration.
slag bath to the flow of current produces  If Carbon is added to iron, it forms iron
heat, the bulk of which is concentrated carbide (Fe3C) phase, also known as
primarily in the slag area immediately cementite, which is more hard and brittle
surrounding the electrode tip. phase.
 If % of carbon = 0 to 2.11 % → Steel
(x) Cold welding: A solid-state welding  If % of carbon = 2.11 to 6.67  cast iron
process in which pressure is used at room  Brittleness & Hardness of cast iron will be
temperature to produce coalescence of more compared to steel.
metals with substantial deformation at the
weld. In cold welding, plastic deformation
causes the generation of a new, clean
surface at the joint interface, which in turn
promotes solid-state welding. The process
has been used to join soft, ductile metals in
numerous applications including the
welding of aluminum wire stock.
A
1538
+L B
1495  +
1398 Liquid
Liquid + Austenite Liquid + Cementite
Austenite () C
1145 F
E
(Austenite+Fe3C)
G AC3
910 ACm
Cementite (primary) +
Labebusite
Austenite Ledeburite
+Ledeburite (Austenite+Fe3C)
(Austenite+Fe3C)
-iron
723 K
P(0.025) S
Labebusite(Pearite+Fe3C) Cementite (primary) +

Temperature
Ferrite + Cementite + Pearlite+Ledeburite

Pearlite (Pearlite+Fe3C) Ledeburite
Pearlite
(Pearlite+Fe3C)
Pearlite
0
0.008 0.8 2.11 4.3 6.67
Hypoeutectoid Hyper eutectoid Hypo eutectic Hyper eutectoid

% carbon
Steels Cast irons
Iron – Iron carbide equilibrium diagram
 In any phase, if carbon content is high  iron carbide (free iron volume is less)  it exhibits more
hardness.
 HFe < Hsteel < Hcast iron
Also (H)iron <(H)LCS<(H)MCS<(H)HCS<H)CI
About –Fe:   Fe is difficult to produce because addition of

 The max solubility of carbon in iron is 0.008% very small carbon content in iron lattice at
0
at 1495 C. high temperature with uniform distribution is
  Fe contains very small carbon content very difficult  most unstable phase and
 highly ductile phase. difficult to exist.
 Structure is B.C.C
About –Fe (Austenite): 
Cooling
 Austenite  Cementite
Liquid 
 Max solubility of carbon is 2.11% at 11450C. Heating Eutectic mixture Ledeburite
 The min temperature above which  iron can The eutectic point is at 4.3 percent carbon.
0
form 723 C at .77% carbon.
 By varying carbon content form 0 to 2.11%, (iii) The eutectoid (point S) reaction:
variety of steels can be produced in Austenite The eutectoid reaction occurs at a
phase either by heating or cooling process, the temperature of about 723C .
grain size of  Fe can be modified  strength Ferrite  Cementite

Austenite 
Cooling
can be changed. Solid  Heating Eutectoid mixture  pearlite 

 Structure is FCC
  Fe is non magnetic in nature. NOTE:
Iron – carbon phase diagram will explain the
phase transformations that are happening with
About –Fe (ferrite):
respect the carbon content in iron like
 The maximum solubility of carbon is 0.025%
formation of steel or cast iron, but do not
at 7230C.
explain about the production aspects of steel
 The min solubility of carbon is 0.0025 % at
and cast iron.
room Temperature.
 As it contains very less % of carbon, its
02(c).
properties are similar to pure iron.
Sol:
 Structure is B.C.C
(i) In screw transformation moving frame 2 is
 Magnetic in nature.
translated and rotated about same z axis of
 Easily producible.
frame 1. So pre-multiplication
The iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram has T = T(z,). T(0,0,5)

three invariant reactions as follows: c  s 0 0 1 0 0 0
s c 0 0 0 1 0 0
(i) The peritetic (point B) reaction:  
The peritectic reaction occurs at a temperature 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 5
   
of about 1492C and its equation may be 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
written as :  1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

Cooling
  liquid   Austenite  
Heating
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 5
The peritectic point is at 0.18 percent carbon.    
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
 1 0 0 0
(ii) The eutectic (point C) reaction:  0 1 0 0
The eutectic reaction occurs at a temperature 
0 0 1 5
of about 1130C and its equation may be  
0 0 0 1
written as:
(ii) Order of transformation reversed so rotation w u

followed by translation. z
o
T = T (0,0,5). T(z,) v
5
1 0 0 0 c  s 0 0 o
0 1 0 0 s c 0 0
y
 
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 0 x
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
(v) Pxyz = [T] Puvw
1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
0  1 0 0  3   3
0  0 1 0
0
1 0 0  0 1
  0 0  4   4
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 0    
    0 0 1 5 5  10 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1      
0 0 0 1 1   1 
 1 0 0 0
 0 1 Pxyz = (–3, –4, 10)
0 0

0 0 1 5
  03(a).
0 0 0 1
Sol:
(i) Finer the sand grains higher the contact
(iii) Both (i) and (ii) homogenous transformation
area, so more is adhesive bonding between
matrices are same as they undergo screw
sand grains by the clay, hence higher the
transformations.
strength. But due to lesser void space lower
is the permeability.
(iv) Co-ordinate frames 1&2, initially co-
(ii) Jolting packs the sand in the bottom and
incident.
squeezing at the top. The sand is not
z
properly packed in the middle. So it poses
w the problem in deep castings.
(iii) Higher the modulus more the time for
o y solidification. As riser has to take more time
v
u for solidification time than casting, riser
x modulus should be more than casting
modulus.
 After screw transformation,
Frame 1 (x,y,z) and Frame 2 (u,v,z) are as
(iv) t V / A . So, t d . So larger
follows: sphere takes more time for solidification

than smaller sphere.
 z & w axes origin point O is translated
(v) Sphere takes longest time for solidification.
by 5 units
Next is cylinder. As sphere can not be easily
 v is 180 opposite to y.
moulded. The next best shape i,e cylinder is
 u is 180 opposite to x.
used for riser.
: 10 : ESE – Offline Test series - 2018
(vi) It is to avoid air aspiration in to the gating  By heating the component to 850C
system. temperature CO gas is circulated, in the
(vii) Trapezoidal section can carry more heating envelope.
discharge for a given Reynolds number than  At that temp carbon monoxide
a circular section. decomposes into carbon and oxygen where
(viii) Metal is more durable but metal patterns are carbon will penetrate into the component
costly. Hence recommended for small sized and oxygen goes out.
castings of larger lots  Due to continuous penetration of carbon
(ix) Sand has high refractoriness, ability to form atom, the outer envelope will be produced
porous mass, inter to all the metals, cheap with more iron carbide (Fe3C) phase &
and easily available turns as hard.
(x) During cooling from freezing temperature  The depth up to which form the surface of
the holes in the casting tends to reduce their the component being hardened is known as
size and core expands by taking the heat. case depth (CD).
Under this condition if core does not  Since the solubility of carbon is more in
collapse, cracks appear on the casting. austenitic state than in ferritic state, fully
austenitic state is required for carburizing.
03(b).  This can be achieved by heating the steel
Sol: above the critical temperature. And
(i) Carburising: diffusion of carbon is made by holding the
 Carburizing is a method of enriching the heated steel in contact with carbonaceous
surface layer of low carbon steel with material which may be a solid, a liquid or
carbon in order to produce a hard case. a gas.
 This can be carried out by incorporating C
atoms on to the envelope of the L.C.S Case 1:
component. It will be turned as hard by Two L.C.S Component with different % of
forming Fe3C phase and is known as C has been carburized, then CD1 > CD2
carburizing. because if the component contains low
O2 carbon content then penetration of external
carbon atoms will be easy  more case
Heating
C+O2 Fe3C coils depth can be achieved.
L.C.S
Heating C C
CD Jacket
0.1%C 0.2%C
CO gas
CD1 CD2
Case Depth = 0.5 mm/5 hour CD1 > CD2
: 11 : ME–Conventional Test– 10 (Solutions)
Note: In hardening process to achieve more

H2
Dh value, then carbon content should be
high but in case of case hardening process N2 + H2
Fe3N
to achieve to more case depth CD, the L.C.S
carbon content should be low.
CD
(ii) Nitriding:
NH3 gas
 Nitriding is the process of enriching the
surface of steel with nitrogen by holding Obtaining more case depth in Nitriding
for a prolonged period at temperature of process is difficult because:
ammonia (NH3). The size of the nitrogen atom is large and
 In this process the machined and heat inert in nature  more ammonia should be
treated (hardening by heating to 930C and consumed to obtain more case depth 
quenching in oil, then tempering at 650 to expensive.
obtain the required properties in core) As it is condition low carbon steel contain
components are heated to a temperature of low corrosion resistance but after Nitriding
500C for between 40 to 100 hours process they possess extreme corrosion
(depending on case depth) in a gas tight resistance due to inert nature of non nitride
chamber through which ammonia is phase on the surface.
allowed to circulate. Advantages :
 By incorporating Nitrogen atom on the  good surface finish

outer envelope of L.C.S component it will  less distortion and cracks
be termed as hard by forming iron Nitride  good wear resistance
phase  used for mass production
Case Depth = 0.5 mm /hrs.  better than carburizing
 Ammonia dissociates according to the Disadvantages :
following reaction.  long operational times 100 hours for
2 NH3  3H2 + 2N 0.038mm depth
 The atomic nitrogen thus formed diffuses  all alloys steels can not be used
 special equipment is needed
into iron, forms hard nitrides by combining
 More oxidation due to prolonged
with iron and certain alloying elements
heating
present in steel. The alloying elements
having more affinity for nitrogen are
(iii) Cyaniding :
aluminum, chromium and molybdenum.  During cyaniding the surface of steel is
enriched with carbon and nitrogen by
incorporating carbon & Nitrogen atoms
simultaneously on to the outer envelope of  Most suitable for parts subjected to high
the low carbon steels  it will be turned loads.
as hard by forming iron carbide & iron Disadvantages :
Nitride phases.  risk of splitting of poisonous salts
 In this process the components are  unhealthy fumes are formed
immersed in a liquid bath of 30% NaCN,
40% Na2CO3 and 30% NaCl, maintained (iv) Induction Hardening:
at a temperature of 800C to 850C. Water inlet
 Then a measured amount of air is passed Sprayer
through the molten bath.

 Inductor
Sodium cyanide reacts with oxygen of the
air and is oxidized. The basic reactions in
the bath are:
2 NaCN + O2  2 NaCNO
Work piece
2 NaCNO + O2  Na2 Co3 + CO+ 2 N
Magnetic
2 CO  CO2 + C Field
Nothing
(Fe3N+Fe3C)
The disadvantage of flame hardening i.e.,
over-heating may be avoided by inducing
L.C.S heat electrically in the surface of steel.
CD  In Induction hardening the heating time
is only a few seconds.
 Heat generated in the work piece by
 Carbon and nitrogen thus formed in atomic induction is mostly confined to outer
form diffuse into steel surface. surface which is to be hardened.
Case Depth = 0.5 mm/10 hrs  The depth to which heat penetrates is
 This process usually requires 30 to 90 inversely proportional to the square root
minutes for completion. of frequency of the current. Hence, the

hardened depth decreases with increase
 After cyaniding, the components are taken
in frequency of the current.
out and quenched in water or oil followed
by low temperature tempering.  Similar to flame hardening, the
Advantages : induction hardened work piece is also
subjected to low temperature tempering
 can be applied to Low carbon and medium
to relieve stresses.
carbon steels
 bright finish in parts can be obtained
 cracks and distortions are minimized
03(c). Simplex Table 1: Non-optimal solution
Sol: Basis y1 y2 y3 S1 S2 bi b/aij
(a) Let x1 and x2 be the number of units of foods S1 0 14 10 4 1 0 3 3
()
F1 and F2 respectively, purchased by the 14
housewife. The LPP is : S2 0 4 8 16 0 1 2 1
Minimize Z = 3x1 + 2x2 2
Subject to Cj 60 40 32 0 0
14x1 + 4x2  60 ……. Vitamin A Sol 0 0 0 3 2
10x1 + 8x2  40 ……. Vitamin B j 60 () 40 32 0 0
4x1 + 16x2  32 ……. Vitamin C
x1 , x2  0 Simplex Table 2 : Non-optimal solution
Basis y1 y2 y3 S1 S2 bi b/aij
y1 60 1 5/7 2/7 1/14 0 3/14 3/14
(b) Let y1, y2 and y3 be the dual variables. The
()
dual is
S2 0 0 36/7 104/7 -2/7 1 8/7 1/13
Maximize, G = 60 y1 + 40 y2 + 32 y3 Cj 60 40 32 0 0
Subject to Sol 3/14 0 0 0 8/7 G=
14 y1 + 10y2 + 4y3  3 90/7
j 0 -20/7 104/7 -30/7 0
4 y1 + 8 y2 + 16 y3  2
()
y1, y2 , y3  0
The optimal values of the dual variables y1 ,
Simplex Table 3 : Optimal solution
y2 and y3 would indicate the imputed values
Basis y1 y2 y3 S1 S2 bi
of one unit of each of vitamins A, B and C y1 60 1 8/13 0 1/13 -1/52 5/26
respectively. Obviously, the total value y2 32 0 9/26 1 -1/52 7/104 1/13
imputed to 14 units of A, 10 units of B, and 4 Cj 60 40 32 0 0
units of C should not exceed Rs. 3 because Sol 5/26 0 1/13 0 0 G = 14
j 0 -8 0 -4 -1
each unit of food F1 contains as much
quantity of three vitamins and costs Rs. 3,
similarly, a unit of food F2 contains, Thus, optimal solution to this problem is :
respectively. 4, 8 and 16 units of vitamins A, y1 = 5/26, y2 = 0 and y3 = 1/13
B and C and costs Rs. 2. Thus, the combined The optimal values of the variables of the
imputed value of these quantities of vitamins primal problem are obtained from the j row
should not exceed Rs. 2. The total value as follows :
would equal 60y1 + 40y2 + 32y3 , the x1 = 4 and x2 = 1
maximum. and Z = 34 + 21 = 14
The objective function values for the primal
(c) The solution to the dual is given here. and the dual are both seen to be equal, at 14.
04(a)(I). Given: Value of m = 20 kg,

dT1 B = 40 N.s/m
Sol: Q1  Q 2 
dt k = 1N/mm = 1000 N/m are substituted then,
dT1 1000
 Q1  Q 2  C. Ys  50
dt  20  2
C is room capacitance (storage factor). Xs  s 2  40 s  1000 s  2s  50
20 20
T  T2 (IV).
So, Q 2  1
R Sol: When all are simultaneously double (or)
R is resistance (opposition) triple values, then there will be no change in
 Q1
T  T2   C. dT
 1 transfer function. Thus in this case also :
Ys 
R dt
50

 R Q1  T1  T2  RC.
dT
........(I) is the Xs  s 2  25  50
dt
differential equation. 04(b).
Sol:
(II). (i) Fatigue Wear: Fatigue is attributed to
Sol: Free body diagram of mass ‘m’ : multiple reversals (apply and release) of the
B y
m
contact stress, occurring due to cyclic loading
k(y–x)
m y such as in rolling bearings, gears, friction
Algebraic sum of the forces is equal to zero drives, cam and follower. Abrasive and
my  By  ky  x   0

Adhesive wear involve a large contribution
from fatigue.
 my  By  ky  kx
Very highly deformed ]
t
2 materials
d y dy
 m B  ky  kx Moderately deformed
2 dt
dt material
(III). Bulk material :

undeformed
Sol: Differential equation of the above system is :
Surface cracks!!
d2y dy
m  B  ky  kx
2 dt Fig.: Fatigue wears during sliding.
dt
After Laplace transformation The strain induced by sliding eventually
ms 2 Ys   B SYs   kYs   k Xs 

breaks down the original grain structure at the
 
surface to form dislocation cells. Materials
Ys  m s 2  Bs  k  kXs 
vary greatly in their tendency to form
Ys  k
or  dislocation cells. Figure shows mechanism of
Xs  ms  BS  k
2
fatigue wear with an example of aluminium,
k/m
 copper and iron which have a high tendency to
B
s2  s  k / m form dislocation cells.
m
Crack initiation
temperature and a reciprocating movements
as short as 0.1 micron in amplitude can
cause failure of the component when the
(a) (b) sliding is maintained for one million cycles
Release of Crack propagation
wear particle or more.
(d) Stick
(c) 10_14 Mixed stick
Reciprocating
Wear (m3Nm-1)
Gross slip
Fig.: Mechanism of fatigue wear. and slip
sliding
10_15
(ii) Fretting Wear:
Fretting Wear coined in 1927 by Tomlinson.
10_16
It refers to small amplitude (1 to 300 μm), 1 t1 3 10 30 100 300t2 1000
with high frequency oscillatory movement Displacement,  (m)
mainly originated by vibration. This type

wear failure occurs in mechanical assemblies (iii) Seizure: Seizure means “to bind” or “fasten
(press fit parts, rivet / bolt joints, strands of together”. It is a result of mutual plastic
wire ropes, rolling element bearings) in deformation of materials and it is an extreme
which relative sliding on micron level is form of adhesive wear.
allowed. Fretting wear and fretting fatigue
are present in almost all machinery. Figure Causes for seizure are:
explains Fretting occurs wherever short  Poor heat dissipation
amplitude reciprocating sliding between  Poor lubrication system or improper
contacting surfaces. lubricant
 Smaller clearances
 Installation errors
Surf1
W
Oscillatory
motion  The ability of the metals to seize or to
join in solid state.
Surf2
 Excessive loading & heating
3 amplitude in microns
(iv) Laws of Wear Mechanism:
Fig.: Fretting wear.  Wear Volume proportional to sliding
distance of travel (L)
The accumulating wear debris gradually  Wear Volume proportional to the
separates both surfaces (Fig.) and, in some load(W)
cases, may contribute to the acceleration of  Wear volume inversely proportional to
the wear process by abrasion. The process of hardness (H) of softer material
fretting wear can be further accelerated by
(v) Corrosive Wear: Total cost = 312+51+49+215+57+81

The fundamental cause of Corrosive wear is = Rs.150
a chemical reaction between the material and
a corroding medium which can be a chemical Improved Solution: Optimal
reagent, reactive lubricant or even air. Market
Ware supply ui
Corrosive wear house P Q R S
= Chemical reaction + Mechanical action 12 2 8
A 6 3 5 4 22 0
Stages of corrosive wear: –3
15
 Sliding surfaces chemically interact with B 5 9 2 7 15 –3
–5 –9 –6
environment (humid/industrial
7 1
vapor/acid) C 5 7 8 6 8 2
–2 –1
 A reaction product (like oxide, chlorides, Req. 7 12 17 9 45
copper sulphide) vj 3 3 5 4
 Wearing away of reaction product film.
Total cost
= 312 + 52 + 48 + 215 + 57 + 61
04(c).
= Rs. 149
Sol: (i) and (ii) The proposed solution is tested
for optimality in table. It is found to be non-
05(a)(i).
optional. To improve this solution, a closed
Sol: Applying lever rule between 0.00 and 0.08
path is drawn beginning with the cell CS.
% carbon with fulcrum at 0.5 % carbon.
The revised solution is given in second
fpro,  =
0.8  0.5  0.375
table. It is found to be optimal. The
0.8  0.0
minimum transportation cost involved is Rs.
fpearlite = 1.0 – 0.375 = 0.625
149. the optimal schedule is : A to Q: 12; A
The fraction of ferrite in a eutectoid steel =
to R: 2; A to S: 8; B to R: 15; C to P: 7; and
0.88
C to S: 1.
feut  steel = 0.625  0.88 = 0.55
Proposed Solution: Non-optimal

05(a)(ii).
Ware Market
supply ui Sol: From Brag's law, n = 2d sin 
house P Q R S Given data,
12 1 9
A 6 22 0 
3 +5 4 –
–4 Plane (110) ,  = 20.2 , a = 3.15 A
15 The material is a BCC structure material,
B 5 9 2 7 15 –3
–6 –9 –6
a
7 1 d
C 5 7 8 6 8 3 h 2  k 2  2
–1 1
– + 3.15 3.15 
Req. 7 12 17 9 45   A
vj 2 3 5 4 12  12  0 2 2
Assume first order of reflection (n = 1) Minimum clearances
= Lower limit of hole – Upper limit of
1   2   3.15   sin 20.2o
 2  shaft
= 30.00 – 29.979
  2  3.15  sin 20.2

= 0.021 mm
 = 1.538 A
05(c).
05(b). Sol: Roll (z-axis), pitch (y-axis), yaw (x-axis),
Sol: Given that rotations with fixed axes reference. so pre
0.08
Shaft = 30  0.021 mm  multiplication from given sequence
Hole = 30 00..023
000 mm 
 R(z, ), R(Y, –/2), R(x, –/2)
     
 c  s 0   c  0 s   
  2   2 
 s c 0  0 1 0  



 0 0 1  s         
Hole  0 c 
Shaft   2   2 

 1 0 0 0 0  1 1 0 0
  0  1 0 0 1 0  0 0 1
Now,
 0 0 1 1 0 0  0  1 0
(i) Basic size of assembly = 30 mm (Lower limit
of hole) 0 0 1 1 0 0
 0  1 0 0 0 1
(ii) Shaft design:
1 0 0 0  1 0
Upper limit of shaft = 30 – 0.021
= 29.979 mm 0  1 0 
Lower limit of shaft = 30 – 0.08 = 29.920 mm  0 0  1 is resultant rotation matrix.
Shaft tolerance = U.L of shaft – L.L of shaft 1 0 0 
= 29.979 – 29.920
= 0.059 mm 05(d).
(iii) Hole design: Sol: With  = 3 customers/hour
Upper limit of hole = 30 + 0.023 = 30.023 mm and  = 4 customers/hour,
Lower limit of hole = 30 + 0.0 = 30.00 mm  3
We have     0.75
Hole tolerances = U.L of hole – L.L of hole  4
= 30.023 – 30 = 0.023 mm (i)  = 0.75 , thus he shall be busy 75 % of time.
(iv) Maximum clearances of assembly (ii) P(n < 3) = P(0) + P(1) + P(2)
= U.L of hole – L.L of shaft = (1 - ) + (1 - ) + 2(1 - )
= 30.023 – 29.920 = (1 – 0.75) + 0.75 (1 – 0.75) + 0.752
= 0.110 mm (1 – 0.75)
= 0.578125
2 0.75 2 Application of open loop system:

(iii) L q   = 2.25 customers
1   1  0.75  Where there is less quality problem it can
 0.75 be used.
(iv) Wq   = 0.75 hour or 45 minutes
 43  Used where low accuracy is required.
1 1  Used stepper motor.
(v) Ws   = 1 hour or 60 minutes
 43
1 1 2. Closed Loop: The closed loop system has a
(vi) Ws   = 1 hour or 60 minutes
 43 feed back subsystem to monitor the actual
output and correct any discrepancy from the
05(e). programmed input. The feedback system
Sol: CNC systems require motor device to control could be either analog or digital. The analog
the position and the velocity of the machine systems measure the variation of physical
axes. Each axis must be driven separately variable such as position and velocity interms
and follow the command signal generated by of voltage levels. Digital systems monitor
the NC control. There are two ways to output variations by means of electrical
activate the servo motor/drives the open loop pulses.
system and the closed-loop system
1. Open Loop System:
Programmed instructions are fed into the
controller through an input device. These
instructions are then converted to electrical
Fig. Closed loop system
pulses by the controller and sent to the servo
amplifier to energize the servo motors. The Application of closed loop system:
cumulative number of electrical pulses  Highly accuracy requirement product use
determines the distance each servo drive will the closed loop control system.
move, and the pulse frequency determines  Where there is require more quality use
the velocity. In the open-loop system there is the closed control system.
no feed back system to check whether the
program position and velocity has been
actieved. The open loop system is generally 06(a).
used in point control system. Sol: Chip thickness ratio (r) = 0.5
Rake angle () = 5o
Main cutting force (Fc) = 1600 N
Thrust force (Ft) = 1300 N
For orthogonal cutting operation
 r cos  
Fig. Open loop system Shear angle () = tan 1  
 1  r sin  
 0.5  cos5o  EOQ 

2DA b  h
= tan 1  
o 
(i)
 1  0.5 sin 5 
h b
2  5000  250 10  30
 = 27.5 = = 577.35 units
30 10
(ii) Maximum shortage level,
From the merchant circle:
2DAh
S
Chip hb  b 2
t2
2  5000  250  30
AC = = 433.01 units
30  10  10  10
 TOOL
A0 Total variable cost
t1 FS 
= 2DAh
FC b 
(-) 
bh
FT FSN 
 10 
= 2  5000  250  30   
 10  30 
R
F
= Rs. 4330.13

N
When back-ordering is not permitted:
Work piece
Total variable cost = 2DAh
= 2  5000  250  30
Friction force (F) = FCsin + FTcos
= Rs. 8660.25
= 1600 sin5o + 1300cos5o
(iii) Additional cost when back-ordering is not
= 1434.5 N
permitted.
Normal force (N) = FCcos – FTsin
= Rs. 8660.25 – Rs. 4330.13
= 1600cos5o – 1300sin5o
= Rs. 4330.12
= 1480.6 N
F
Coefficient of friction () = 06(c).
N
Sol:
1434.5
= = 0.969 1. Chromium
1480.6
  = 0.97  Increases Corrosion resistance
 Increases Wear resistance
06(b).  Increases tensile strength

Sol: Given:  Increases resistance to heat
D = 5,000 units, A = Rs. 250/order,  Reduces machinability
h = 30% of Rs. 100 = Rs. 30/unit/year
and b = Rs. 10/unit/year. 2. Copper
We have  Increases toughness
When back-ordering is permitted:  Increases resistance to corrosion
3. Magnesium 07(a)(i).
 Increases machinability Sol:
 Produces graphite in spheriodal form A
R-h/2
 Increases ductility B 
C
D
20 mm 16 mm
4. Manganese
 Stabilizes austenite
 Acts as deoxidizer
 Refines the graphite and pearlite
 Refines the grains. Given that :
 Increases the basic mechanical properties Width (b) = 300 m
when added in low percentage. Initial thickness (t 1) = 20 mm
Final thickness (t2) = 16 mm
5. Molybdenum/ Cobalt Roller radius (R) = 400 mm
 Improves tensile strength, fatigue Speed = 80 rpm
strength and hardness flow = 400 MPa
 Refines the graphite and pearlite Now reduction in thickness (h) = t 1 – t2
 Improves heat resistance = 20 – 16 = 4 mm
 Acts as austenitizer From triangle ABC of figure.
 Increases hardness and promotes uniform R h/2
Bite angle () = cos1  
microstructure  R 
 400  2 
6. Nickel = cos1  
 400 
 Austenitizer (Stabilize austenite)
 = 5.73o
 Refines pearlite and graphite
Length of contact (L) = Radius  
 Improves the toughness of castings
400  5.73  
 Refines the grains = = 39.99 mm
180
 Resistance to corrosion
Area of contact = b  L = 300  39.99
= 11998.92 mm2
7. Vanadium/ Tungsten
Total rolling force = avg  Area
 Promotes heat resistance
= 400  11998.92
 Carbide stabilizer
= 4.8 MN
 Increases strength and hardness
  Initial thickness 
Improves wear resistance True strain = n 
 Reduces graphitization  Final thickness 
 Increases the basic mechanical properties  20 
 n   0.223
when added in small percentage  16 
07(a)(ii).  What-If Analysis

Sol: Given that:  Cause-Consequence Analysis
nA = 0.25, nB = 0.30  Checklist
VA = 150 m/min, if TA = 1 min
VB = 180 m/min, if TB = 1 min 07(b)(ii).
n
From tool life equation VT = C, Sol: Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
Elements of Fault Tree Analysis
For tool A:
 FTA is a deductive analysis approach for
150  10.25 = VA  2000.25
resolving an undesired event into its
where, VA = cutting speed for 200 minutes
causes
of tool life
 FTA is a backward looking analysis,
VA = 39.88 m/min
looking backward at the causes of a given
For tool B: event
180  10.30 = VB  2000.30  Specific stepwise logic is used in the

process
where, VB = cutting speed for 200 minutes
of tool life  Specific logic symbols are used to
VB = 36.73 m/min illustrate the event relationships
The tool A has greater cutting speed for the  A logic diagram is constructed showing
200 minutes of tool life, so we prefer the the event relationships
tool A.
Why FTA is required?
07(b)(i).  To exhaustively identify the causes of a
Sol: Common Failure Analysis Techniques
failure
 Event Tree Analysis (ETA)
 To identify weaknesses in a system
 Failure Modes & Effects Analysis
 To assess a proposed design for its
(FMEA)
 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality reliability or safety
Analysis (FMECA)  To identify effects of human errors

 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)  To prioritize contributors to failure
 Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)  To identify effective upgrades to a system
 Hazard & Operability Analysis (HAZOP)  To quantify the failure probability and
 Human Reliability contributors
 Relative Ranking
 To optimize tests and maintenances
 Safety Review
 What-If / Checklist Analysis
Basic logical symbols used in FTA  Construct the event tree
OR gate-the above output event occurs if  Describe the potential resulting accident
OR
either of the input lower level events occur
sequences
AND
AND gate-the above output event occurs if all  Determine the frequency of the accidental
of the input lower level events occur
event and the (conditional) probabilities of
TRANSFER gate transfer to /from another part
of the fault tree the branches in the event tree
 Calculate the probabilities/frequencies for
Top Event or Intermediate Event
the identified consequences (outcomes)
Undeveloped Event  Compile and present the results from the
analysis
Basic Event
07(c)(i).
Sol:
The components of a microcontroller include the
A B A B CPU, RAM, ROM, digital I/O ports, a serial
‘AND’ Gate AB ‘OR’ Gate AB communication interface, timers, A/D converters,
and D/A converters.
Event Tree Analysis (ETA):
 The RAM is used to store settings and values
 An event tree analysis (ETA) is an
used by an executing program.
inductive procedure that shows all possible
 The ROM is used to store the program and any
outcomes resulting from an initiating
permanent data. A designer can have a
event, taking into account whether
program and data permanently stored in ROM
installed safety barriers are functioning or
by the chip manufacturer, or the ROM can be
not, and additional events and factors.
in the form of EPROM or EEPROM, which
 The ETA can be used to identify all
can be reprogrammed by the user.
potential accident scenarios and sequences
 Software permanently stored in ROM is
in a complex system. Design and
referred to as firmware.
procedural weaknesses can be identified,
 Microcontroller manufacturers offer
and probabilities of the various outcomes
programming devices that can download a
from an accidental event can be
compiled machine code the file from a PC
determined.
directly to the EPROM of the microcontroller,
usually via the PC serial port and special-
Steps in ETA
purpose pins on the microcontroller. These
 Identify (and define) a relevant initial
pins can usually be used for other purposes
event that may give rise to unwanted
once the device is programmed. Additional
consequences
EEPROM may also be available and used by
 Identify the barriers that are designed to
the program to store settings and parameters
deal with the accidental event
generated or modified during execution. The  The microcontroller can also use a serial port
data in EEPROM is nonvolatile, which means to transmit to and from external devices,
the program can access the data when the provided these devices support the same serial
microcontroller power is turned off and back communication protocol. There are various
on again. standards or protocols for serial
 The digital I/O ports allow binary data to be communication including SPI (Serial
transferred to and from the microcontroller Peripheral Interface), IC (Integrated Circuit),
using external pins on the IC. These pins can UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-
be used to read the state of switches and on-off Transmitter).
sensors, to interface to external analog-to-  The A/D converter allows the microcontroller
digital and digital-to-analog converters, to to convert an external analog voltage (e.g.,
control digital displays, and to control on-off from a sensor) to a digital value that can be
actuators. processed or stored by the CPU. The D/A
The I/O ports can be used to transmit signals converter allows the microcontroller to output
to and from other microcontrollers to an analog voltage to a non digital device e.g.,
coordinate various functions. a motor amplifier.
Figure shows a block diagram for a typical fully-featured microcontroller, indicating also the lists of
typical external devices that might interface to the microcontroller.
MICROCONTROLLER
CPU RAM ROM, EPROM or EEPROM

(Volatile data) (Nonvolatile software and data)
Timers
Digital Serial communication
I/O ports (SPI, IC, UART, USART)
A/D D/A
 Analog actuators
 Switches
 External EPROM  Analog sensors  Amplifiers
 On-of sensors
 Other microcontrollers  Potentiometers  Analog displays
 External A/D or D/A
 Host computer  Monitored voltage
 On-off actuators
 Digital displays
Fig: Block diagram for typical full- CPU RAM ROM

featured microcontroller
Serial
I/O Timer COM
Port
(b) Microcontroller
07(c)(ii).  Each storage location within a memory

Sol: Buses : device has a unique identification, termed
 Buses are the paths along which digital its address, so that system is able to select
signals move from one section to another. a particular instruction or data item in the
 A bus is just a number of conductors along memory.
which electrical signals can be carried. It  Each input/output interface also has an
might be tracks on a printed circuit boards address.
or wires in a ribbon cable.  When a particular address is selected by its
In a microprocessor system there are the address being placed on the address bus,
following three forms of bus: only that location is open to the
1. Data bus; communications from the CPU. The CPU
2. Address bus; is thus able to communicate with just one
3. Control bus. location, at a time.
 A computer with an 8-bit data has
1. Data bus :
typically a 16-bit wide address bus, i.e 16
 The data bus carries the data associated wires. This size of address enables 216
with the processing function of the CPU. locations to be addressed. 216 is 65536
 Word lengths used may be 4,8,16,32 or 64 locations and is usually written as 64K,
 Each wire in the bus carries a binary where K is equal to 1024.
signal, i.e a0 or a1.
 The more the wires the data bus has the 3. Control bus :
longer the word length that can be used.  This bus carries the signals relating to
 The earliest microprocessors were 4-bit control actions.
4
(word length: 2 = 16) devices and such 4-  It is also used to carry the system clock
bit microprocessors are still used in such signals; these are to synchronise all the
devices as toys, washing machines etc. actions of the microprocessor system.
They were followed by 8-bit
microprocessors (e.g Motorola 6800, the 08(a)(i).
Intel 8085A and the Zilog Z80). Now 16- Sol: Euler angle rotations means with respect to
bit , 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors are movable [current] frame, so post
available. multiplication
 Z Y.X. Euler Angle rotations.
2. Address bus :
 R(Z, 3). R(Y, 2), R(X, 1)
 It carries signals which indicate where data
 Rotation matrix of 33
is to be found and so the selection of
certain memory locations or input or
output ports.
c 3  s3 0  c 2 0 s 2  1 0 0  r21 s 3
  tan  3 , so
 s 3 c3 0  0 1 0  0 c1  s1  r11 c 3
 0 0 1  s 2 0 c 2  0 s1 c1  r 
 3  tan 1  21 .........(II)
c 2 c 3 s 1s 2 c 3  c 1 s 3 s 1 s 3  c 1s 2 c 3   r11 
  c 2 s 3 s 1s 2 s 3  c 1 c 3  s1c 3  c1s 2 s 3   s1c2 = r32 & c1c2 = r33
  s 2 s1c 2 c1 c 2  r32
 tan 1
Is equivalent rotation matrix for a set of r33
ZYX, Euler angle rotation. r 
So, 1  tan 1  32  ……….(III)
 r33 
08(a)(ii).
So, I, II, III give 2, 3, 1 angles.
Sol: Final orientation of frame (2), with respect
to frame (1)  1R2 is
08(b)(i).
 r11 r12 r13`  Sol: Radioactive method is generally used for
R 2  r21 r22 r23 
detection of faults inside the object.
r31 r32 r33 
However, it requires both surfaces to be
c 2 c 3 s 1s 2 c 3  c1s 3 s 1s 3  c 1s 2 c 3  available i.e., one side radioactive waves
  c 2 s 3 s 1s 2 s 3  c 1 c 3  s 1 c 3  c1s 2 s 3  will be passing through object & film will
  s 2 s1c 2 c1c 2 
be placed to capture the image.
Equating the corresponding elements in Condition monitoring technique is a
above matrices to get joint angles 1, 2, continuous online monitoring of the system
3… condition by measuring critical parameters.
So, r11 = c2c3, r21 = c2s3 But it is not possible always to keep
After squaring and adding gives, available of both sides to detect the faults
c 2  cos  2   r112  r212 .............(1) by radioactive method. Hence, it is not used
as a condition monitoring technique.
r31 = –s2 = –sin2 ……….(2)
sin  2
Next tan2 = so, 08(b)(ii).
cos  2
Sol: Two-body Abrasion: This wear mechanism
r31
 happens between two interacting asperities
 r r 2
11
2
21 in physical contact, and one of it is harder
 r  than other. Normal load causes penetration
  2  tan  131
 …………….(I) of harder asperities into softer surface thus
  r112  r212 
producing plastic deformation.
Solution for 1 and 3 depends on 2. When The material is displaced /removed from the
2  90, as given in problem, softer surface by combined action of micro
 c2c3 = r11 & c2s3 = r21 ploughing and micro cutting.
Wear volume by single asperity v  A.L
W
………….. (1)
a 1 a2
A  bh  L
2 tan 
α
x
Load acting as single asperity

 2
Wi  a .H s
A 2
L
Wi  2
a2 
Hs
1
A  bh
2
b 1 a a2
= 2a  
2 tan  tan 
h From equation (1) v  A.L

a2
v  .L
b=2a tan 
a 2Wi
hx  .L
tan  tan . H s
Fig: The two-body abrasion mechanism Wi .L
v 
between softer and hard materials 0.5 tan . H s 
Total wear volume by all asperities
Assuming conical asperities indenting soft Wi L
V = v 
surface during traverse motion and all 0.5 tan .Hs 
material displaced by the cone is lost as
WL
wear debris. Rabinowiz’s Quantitative law V
0.5 tan .Hs 
for 2-Body abusive wear is used.
KWL
 All asperities can be represented by V
0.5Hs tan 
equal dimensions cones
 All the material displaced by conical
asperity in a single pass in removed as
wear particular
08(c).
Sol: Calculation of expected times and variances :
Activity Optimistic Most likely Pessimistic Expected Variance ()

time (o) time (m) time (p) time
A 3 6 15 7 4
B 2 5 14 6 4
C 6 12 30 14 16
D 2 5 8 5 1
E 5 11 17 11 4
F 3 6 15 7 4
G 3 9 27 11 16
H 1 4 7 4 1
I 4 19 28 18 16
J 1 2 9 3 16
9
K 2 4 12 5 25
9
The critical path is obtained as 1 – 3 – 5 – 6 – 7, To calculate the probability that the project will be
comprising activities C, E, H, J. Also given are the competed within two days later than expected, we
earliest and the latest event times, E and L, in the find area under normal curve to the left of X = 34.
diagram. They are all calculated using expected Thus,
times. 34  32
Z  0.42
The project has an expected completion time of 32 4.77
days and variance For Z = 0.42, the area is given as 0.1628.
16 Thus, the total area to left of
= 16 + 4 + 1 + = 22.778
9 X = 34 is 0.5 + 0.1628 = 0.6628,
The standard deviation = 22.778 = 4.77 days Which is the desired probability.
E=7
L = 13 I(18)
2
A(7) D(5) E = 29
L = 29
E=0 B(6) G(11) J(3)
1 4 6 7
L=0
E = 12 E = 32
L = 18 F(7) L = 32
C(14) H(4)
E(11) K(2)
3 5
E = 14 E = 25
L = 14 L = 25

ME Test 10

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:2: ESE – Offline Test series - 2018

• Grey irons are usually weldable with A 

S = 0.015 – .04% Area

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Labebusite(Pearite+Fe3C) Cementite (primary) +

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About –Fe:   Fe is difficult to produce because addition of

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minutes for completion. of frequency of the current. Hence, the

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04(a)(I). Given: Value of m = 20 kg,

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mainly originated by vibration. This type

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Proposed Solution: Non-optimal

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For tool B: event

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VB = 36.73 m/min illustrate the event relationships

Analysis (FMECA)  To identify effects of human errors

CPU RAM ROM, EPROM or EEPROM

Fig: Block diagram for typical full- CPU RAM ROM

07(c)(ii).  Each storage location within a memory

Load acting as single asperity

Activity Optimistic Most likely Pessimistic Expected Variance ()

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