Internist Internal medicine

Allergist Allergology
Cardiologist Cardiology
Podiatrist/chiropodist Podiatry
Chiropractor Chiropractice (neuro-musc skeletal disorders)
Dentist Dentistry
Stomatologist Stomatology(diseases of oral cavity, not teeth)
Skin doctor/dermatologist Dermatology
Endocrinologist Endocrinology
Emergency medicine physician Emergency medicine
Forensic specialist/legat medicine specialist Forensic medicine
Gastroenterologist Gastroenterology
Geriatrician Geriatrics
Hematologist Hematology
Microbiologist Microbiology
Nephrologist Nephrology
Neurologist Neurology
Nuclear medicine specialist Nuclear medicine
Oncologist Oncology
Orthodontist Orthodontics (study of malocclusions)
Occupational medicine specialist Occupational medicine
Osteopath Osteopathy(bones and muscles)
Pathologist Pathology
Pediatrician Pediatrics
Pharmacologist Pharmacology( studies of drug action)
Pharmacist/druggist/chemist Pharmacy(ensures the safe use )
Psychiastrist Psychiatry
Pulmonologist Pulmonology
Physiotherapist/ physical therapist Physical medicine/ physiotherapy
Radiologist Radiology
Rheumatologist Rheumatology
Toxicologist Toxicology
Urologist Urology
General/thoracic/plastic/neuro-/orthopedic surgeon General/thoracic/plastic/neuro-/orthopedic surgery

Obstetrician and gynecologist Obstetrics and gynecology

Ophtalmologist/eye doctor Ophtalmology
Ent specialist Ent
Anesthesiologist Anesthesiology
Perinatologist Perinatology/ maternal-fetal medicine
Neonatologist Neonatology
Disorders of bones and joints
They involve surrounding tissues-ligaments, tendons and muscles. The medical specialty = orthopedics, but
physical therapist and occupational therapists understand these systems.
 Infection : osteomyelitis : inflammation of bone caused by pus forming bacteria, the epiphyses are
often invaded. Tuberculosis may spread to bone. Tuberculosis of the spine is Pott’s disease.
 Fractures = break in bone. Reduction of the fracture means realignment of the broken bone (closed if
no surgery is needed, open if it requires surgery)
o Closed/simple : the skin is not broken
o Open/compound : the skin is affected
 Metabolic diseases
o Osteoporosis : weakening with loss of bone mass. It may be caused by nutritional deficiencies,
excess steroids.
o Osteomalacia : softening of the bone tissue due to lack of calcium. In children it’s called
rickets(rahitism)
o Paget’s disease: larger but weaker with age.
 Neoplasm : Osteo/chondrosarcoma
 Arthritis = inflammation of the joint. Osteoarthiritis= degenerative joint diseas (DJD) = caused by wear
and tear. The bone thickens and the joint cavity narrows
 Rheumatoid arthritis = systemic inflammation that appears in young adult women.
 Fusion of bones = ankylosis
 Gout (guta) = increased level of uric acid in the blood, salts deposited in the joints. Pain at the base of
the great toe
 Herniated/slipped disk: the central mass of the disk between 2 vertebrae ruptures into the spinal canal.
It may require diskectomy(removal)
Disorders of the muscular system = myopathy
Studied with electromyography (electrical study) or serum assay of enzymes such as creatine
phosphokinase)
 Muscular dystrophy = the muscle is weak and gradually replaced by connective and fat tissue.
 Polymyositis = inflammation of skeletal musclea leading to weakness, may lead to dysphagia.
 Dermatomyositis = the skin is involved.
 Myastenia gravis =autoimmune disease in which antibodies interfere with muscle stimulation, leading
to loss of muscle power, especially in the face region.
Disorders of the endocrine system
Pituitary:
 Excess of growth hormone (caused by a pituitary tumor) causes giantism in children and acromegaly in
adults ( enlargement of hands, feet, jaw)
 Axcess ACTH overstimulates the adrenal cortex leading to Cushing’s disease
 Hypofunction may lead to dwarfism
 Lack of ADH results in diabetes insipidus, leading to polyuria and polydipsia)
Thyroid
 Lack : cretinism(mental and physical retardation).
 Hypothyroidism : Graves’ disease=diffuse toxic goiter= autoimmune diseorder, a distinctive sign is
bulging of the eyeballs = exophtalmos.
 Enlargement = goiter may be caused by a deficiency of iodine in the diet.
Parathyroids
 Overactivity leads to high calcium levels in the blood with bone pain and degeneration of the skeleton
 Lack of calcium leads to numbness, tingling, tetany(muscle spasms)
Adrenals
 Hypofunction = Addison’s disease with water loss, low blood pressure, electrolyte imbalance, brown
pigmentation
 Hyperfunction : Cushing’s syndrome : obesity in the torso, excess hair growth (hirsutism)
Pancreas
 Diabetes mellitus : cells fail to use glucose, so it accumulates in the blood=hyperglycemia. This leads to
glycosuria(effort to eliminate the sugar), causing polydipsia. There is also polyphagia.
o Type I is insulin dependent/juvenile , lack of insulin in the body: the patient needs injections
o Type II is non-insuline-dependent/adult where the level of insulin is normal, but the cells do not
respond.
 Hypoglycemia may lead to insulin shock .
Disorders of the nervous system
Cerebrovascular accident/CVA/stroke = any occurrence that deprives brain tissue of oxygen
 blockage(thrombosis= blood clot in a vessel , embolism= obstruction traveling from another part of the
body)
 ruptured aneurysm (localized dilation of a vessel that may rupture and cause hemorrhage that may
lead to massive loss of function or mild impairment of sensory or motor activity
o aphasia =loss/impairment of speech
o hemiplegia = paralysis of one side, opposite the damage
Trauma:
 blow to the head may cause bleeding into or around the meninges, forming a hematoma. Blood
accumulates, putting pressure on the vessels, leading to headache, loss of consciousness,
hemiparesis(partial paralysis)
 cerebral concussion results from a blow to the head or fall and if damage occurs on the site opposite to
the blow (the brain is thrown agains the skull ) = contrecoup injury
Infection
 meningitis : inflammation caused by bacteria (meningococcus) . symptom : stiff neck(rigid). There may
be pus in the spinal fluid, withdrawn for diagnosis by a lumbar/spinal tap/puncture.
 Encephalitis : inflammation of the brain
Neoplasm = tumors that originate in the nervous system= gliomas(of the neuroglia) : astrocytoma,
oligodendroglioma, schwannoma. Meningioma is a tumar of the meninges, does not spread, may be
removed.
Parkinson’s disease= degenerative disease in which neurons in midbrain=mesencephalon fail to
secrete dopamine. Tremors, muscle rigidity. Treated to injections of L-dopa.
Alzheimers’s disease= degenerative disease of neurons and atrophy of the cerebral cortex causing
loss of recent memory, confusion, mood changes. Deposits of amyloid in the tissues have been found.
Epilepsy = seizures caused by abnormal electrical activity of the brain, that may vary from mild(petit
mal) to major(grand mal) episodes, leading to convulsion(involuntary muscle contractions).
Disorders of the respiratory tract
Infections :
 Influenza= viral disease. The flu
 Pneumonia = caused by microorganisms= inflammation of the lungs = pneumonitis.
 Tuberculosis(TB)= the name comes from the small lesions/tubercles, that appear. It is caused by
mycobacterium tuberculosis/acid fast bacillus. Fever, weight loss, cough, hemoptysis(coughing up
sputum with blood). Diagnosis: tuberculin test
 Asthma = results from narrowing of the bronchial tubes. + edema and accumulation of mucus leads to
dyspnea=air hunger=shortness of breath and cyanosis. We use bronchodilators
 Emphysema= overexpansion and destruction of the alveoli (cigarette smoke, pollution).
 Pneumoconiosis = chronic irritation and inflammation caused by dust particles. It is mainly an
occupational hazard (it may be silicosis, anthracosis-coal dust, asbestosis)
 Pneumothorax = substances accumulated in between the layers of the pleura, mainly air/gas. It can be
hemothorax, hydrothorax, pyothorax. Compression may lead to collapse of the lungs= atelectasis.
Disorders of the blood
Anemia =decrease in the amount of hemoglobin in the blood, that may result from fewer red blood
cells, too small, too little Hb. Cells may be normocytic, micro/macrocytic, normo/hypochromic.
 Aplastic anemia = destruction of bone marrow that affects all blood cells= pancytopenia.
 Pernicious anemia= nutritional anemia may result from lack of vitamin b12, folic acid, iron.
Thalassemia =affects the production of Hb. It is alfa or beta. Severe beta is = Cooley’s anemia.
Sickle cell anemia=drepanocytosis the Hb precipitates when it gives up oxygen, the cells block the vessel
and deprive tissue of oxygen.
Hypersensitivity = harmful overreaction of the immune system=allergy (caused by allergens=pollen,
animal dander, dust, foods). Response : rash, itching, asthma, urticaria=hives. A generalized allergic
reaction is anaphylactic reaction that can rapidly lead to death. Treated with adrenaline and
antihistamines.
 AIDS= AQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME caused by infection with HIV(human
immunodeficiency virus) attacks certain T cells. It spreads by sexual contact, contaminated needles, blood
transfusion, infected mother to fetus. The host is susceptible to infection. There is no cure or vaccine.
Disorders of the circulatory system
Angina pectoris =chest pain that occurs in atherosclerosis of the coronary vessels(fatty deposits).
The pain may radiate to the left arm. There is anxiety, diaphoresis, dyspnea. Treatment : exercise,
nytroglycerin to dilate the vessels.
Occlusion of the coronary artery by a thrombus leads to necrosis of the tissue and formation of an
infarct. This is known as myocardial infarction/heart attack. Symptoms : pain over the heart, upper
abdomen, paleness/pallor, nausea, dyspnea, heartburn, arrhythmia.
Heart failure = the heart fails to empty effectively. Pressure in the venous system increases leading
to edema, often to the lungs. Cyanosis, dyspnea, syncope.
Hypertension = high blood pressure is defined as a systolic pressure over 140mmHg pr diastolic
greater than 90. It causes hypertrophy of the left ventricle as a result of the increased work.
The surgeon
=person who performs surgery, a broad category of invasive medical treatment that involves the cutting of
a body (to remove a diseased organ or to repair a tear or breakage).
Types :
 General :abdominal organs
 Cardiothoracic surgery : heart and lungs
 Colorectal : rectum and anus = proctology (proktos=anus/hindparts and logos=science/study)
 Pediatric/plastic/vascular/transplant(from donor to recipient)/trauma(initial resuscitation and
stabilization)/breast(reduction, augmentation mammpplasty, mastectomy, lumpectomy,
mastopexy)/surgical oncology/ endocrine (thyroidectomy)/skin surgery / otolaryngology / orthopaedic/
oral and maxillofacial surgery/ neurosurgery/ ophthalmology/ podiatric/ urology(urinary tract of males
and females and reproductive system of males)
Terminology :
 Ectomy : excision : lumpectomy, thyroidectomy
 Otomy : cutting into an organ or tissue : laparotomy (cutting through the abdominal wall)
 Oscopy : make incision through which an endoscope is inserted : laparoscopy
 Ostomy : making a permanent opening : tracheotomy
 Oplasty : reconstruction, plastic or cosmetic surgery: rhinoplasty
 Rraphy : reparation of damaged or abnormal structure : herniorraphy, perineorraphy
 Centesis : punctie: amniocentesis
 Pexy : fixation
 Suction : removing : liposuction
Steps of a surgery: !!!! Lectia pe care o adoraaa Sfetea
It is done in an operating theater, operating room, OR using surgical instruments, the sterile (germ
free ) ones being separated from the contaminated ones. The stuff must wear sterile atire(scrubs, scrub
cap, surgical gown, glovel and surgical mask) and they must scrub hands and arms with disinfectant agent
before each procedure.
Before surgery : the patient is given a medical examination, pre-operative tests are performed. The
patient signs a consent form and is given surgical clearance. Some weeks before an autologous blood
donation may be made prior to the surgery if blood loss is expected. The must not drink or eat and if it is a
surgery involving the digestive system the patient must drink a solution to prep the bowel or he is given an
enema. In the pre-op holding area the patient changes out of his/her clothes, vital signs are recorded, an
IV line is placed, and medication is given. The skin surface to be operated is cleaned and prepared with
antiseptic to reduce the posibility of infection. Hair is clipped off. The patient is covered with sterile drapes
(not the surgicat site) that are clipped to a pair of poles near the head to separate de
anesthetist/anesthesiologist-determines the drug and dosage (unsterile) from the surgical site.
 Anesthesia is administered (prevents pain). Spinal anesthesia may be used when the site is too large
or deep for a local one, so the patient is conscious. In general anesthesia the patient is unconscious and
paralyzed. He is intubated and ventilated.
During surgery : an incision is made to acces the site, blood vessels may be clamped, retractors may
be used, bones may be cut. The work may involve : excision, resection, reconnection of organs, tissues,
ligation, grafts, insertion of prostheti parts, creation of a stoma, arthrodesis(connection of adjacent bones),
draining fluids, debridement.
Blood may be administered. At the end of the procedures sutures and stapels are used to close the
incision, the anesthetic agent is stopped and the patient is extubated.
Post-op : transferred to post anesthesia care unit and monitored. When he recovers he is
transferred to the ward or discharged.early ambulation prevents blood clot or bed sores. Post-op care may
include adjuvant treatment (chemotherapy, radiation, anti-rejection medication for transplants).
Types of surgery :
 Exploratory : for diasnostic purposes
 Emergency : in a life threatening crisis
 Urgent : requires prompt but not immediate action
 Required : it can be postponed for weeks
 Elective: can correct a condition bur is not necessary to the health
 Optional : rather done for cosmetic reasons
People in the OR: the surgeon, assistant surgeon(interns or residents), chief nurse supervises the
nursing staff(scrub nurse in charge of supplies, circulating nurse, orderly to move the patient).
Instruments: catheter(tube for evacuating, injecting fluids), dressing(covering), foreps(for holding,
grabbing, extracting), IV, retractors (keep the site open), scalpel/surgeon’s knife, sponge/absorbant pad.
Types of medication orders
Drugs are prescribed(by physiacians), dispensed( by pharmacists) and administered(by nurses).
Requirements:
 may need one or 2 forms
o inpatient : the medication order cand be along with all other orders(x-ray, lab work)
o outpatient :the order is on a prescription pad sheet and given to the patient who takes it to the
hospital or pharmacy to be filled
 full name of the patient, birth day, hospital number, room number and date of admission
 after RX (take thou) the generic or trade name of the drug and its dosage form, the dose at each
administration, the route of administration(oral, im, subcutaneous, iv)
 after sig (let it be labeled )time schedule for administration and times per day (directions to the patient
 prescriber’s signature, adress, telephone number, date and time of the day
 the number of times the prescription can be fille
7 types:
1. standard written orders : the apply until another order is written to alter or discontinue the first. They
may have a termination date(narcotic drugs for 3 days, antibiotic for 7 days)
2. single orders : for medication given only once : tetanus injection
3. stat orders : for medication to be administered immediately for an urgent problem (antianxiety drum)
4. p.r.n orders ( pro re nata - as the occasion arises) : given when needed, but only in case of x problem (a
drug serves multiple purposes, but must be given only in x case)
5. standing orders= protocols: establish guidelines for treating a particular disease or set of symptoms
6. verbal orders : the nurse writes one and the prescribes signs it. In insulin shock the prescriber instructs
the nurse what to administer, the nurse should show the label on the vial while repeating the name of
the drug.
7. telephone orders: the call should be monitored to confirm the order.
The doctor and the law
When a patient dies the doctor must write the death certificate(legal document) to confirm the
patient is dead and state the cause. The certificate cannot be written without seeing the body.
 A coroner = doctor +lawyer. He investigates any dead where the cause isn;t obvious by doing a post
mortem examination/authopsy.
If doctors suspect non-accidental injury (violence within the family, where parents beat their
children), he must give evidence to the courts and is then called expert witness. Several conditions may be
confused with „non-accidental injury” (brittle bones, hemophilia, skin disease). Doctors can be expert
witnesses in compensation claims (someone claims somebody has caused him injury and seeks
compensation, the doctor must confirm )
The intensive care doctor (ICU doctor)
Patients here are extremely sick (road accidents, victims of violence, recovering from major surgery) and
have difficulty performing basic functions: breathing, eating, maintaining blood flow.
For breathing a ventilator is used that pumps air or oxygen into the patient;s lungs. If the pressure is
too high, the lungs might puncture. =life support machine. Sometimes patients with brain damage ar
connected to the ventilator, the cause is discovered just after. There is an ethical problem.
Some patients are in shock = severe low blood pressure, kidneys are unable to work, waste
products and fluids build up. A blood transfusion may help restore blood pressure in case of a blood loss.
Patient unable to eat must be fed through a nasogastric tube if the digestive system works,
otherwise food must be given directly into the bloodstream (intravenous feeding).
Patients in pain sometimes cannot speak, doctors must look for signs : increased pulse rate, sweat
and give them painkillers.
Nurses are very important as some patient are too sick to wash themselves, use a toilet, turn over
in bed and are predisposed to bed sores and skin infection
Physiotherapists can help by stretching and excercising the muscles.
Depression may appear ( after a major accident where a loved one died). Nurses should anticipate
and prevent it.
Physicians and medical specialties
The physician is the head of the medical team of technically trained personnel. In addition to
medical knowledge and techniques, they need to have social skills, to be able to interact without problems
with the patient. They have to be able to explain to the patient in layman’s terms the nature of their
condition, give advice and offer alternatives. A very important aspect is having good bedside manner
(being able to comfort, reassure the patient).
A physician in training may serve as an intern, get an internship/hands-on hospital training.
Steps to practicing medicine:
 take the state’s examination in order to get a license to practice
 then, they must specialize, during their residency(specialty training), that may take up to 7 years
depending upon the field. They are called residents(specialists-in-training) and are supervised. An
examination given by the specialty board follows =>they are board certified specialist
 they can choose to subspecialize in a branch of his specialty, which requires 2 more years of training
(internal medicine or pediatrics in general) in a full time education program = fellowship
 factors to consider when choosing a specialty: interest, short supply of specialists, matching their
abilities, be a good diagnostiacian
 surgical or medicaln specialty
Characteristics of good surgeons:
1. good eye-hand coordination
2. manual dexterity
3. physical stamina(operate for hours)
GP(general practitioner) is the primary physician a patient consults first and treats all medical
problems rather than specializing. The GP later on will refer them to a specialist.
Physicians must also make rounds :check their hospitalized patients and write orders for their
nursing care.
Disease’s symptoms and treatment
Disease’s can be categorized by:
1. the cause
 2. the system of the body affected
3. severit
4. usual form of treatment
5. likelihood of recurrence
6. expected outcome
Disease’s can be : serious or minor, chronic or acute, benign or malignant, localized or widespread,
communicative or non contagious
When patients notice abnormal changes in their body = symptoms. They are subjective. Disturbing
one:pain(algia, odynia), bleeding. A pain bearable but persistent = ache(headache, stomach ache). What
physician notice = sign, objective.
Cough= may be dry or produce phlegm/sputum.
Anemia = low red blood cell count: fainting, dizziness, persistent fatigue.
Various symptoms that fit together= syndrome, indicating a particular disease or condition
The illness can be infectious or noninfectios. An infectious disease is caused by
microorganisms(germs, pathogens, microbes) and can be communicative/contagious/transmissible.
Noninfectious diseases may be degenerative, congenital. There are also idiopathic diseasea = without any
recognizable causes.
Immunity = the body;s ability to resist microorganism. Natural immunity is provided by the body’s
defence mechanism(skin, tear, mucous membranes). Aquired immunity is developed by exposure to germs
and depends on antibodies produced by certain lymphocytes. Germs may be introduced artificially in the
body, in a controlled manner in order to stimulate the production of antibodies, by vaccination. This
aquired immunity does not often last forever, so booster shots of the vaccine may be necessary.
Substances prescribed to treat illness are drugs/medicine:
 antibiotics/”miracle drugs” bring rapid improvemen.
 Narcotic drugs (morphine) can be obtained only with a prescription, are addictive, excellent painkillers.
 Digitalis(strengthen the failing heart), anticoagulants, diuretics.
 There are drug that do not require prescription and are available in a pharmacy = aspirin = over the
counter medications.
The hospital
=institution for health care providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment.
There has been a major change from a ward-based system (patients are accommodated in
communal rooms- efficient for the medical staff, stressful for the patient and detrimental to their privacy)
to one very patients stay in an individual room.(more expensive). On the ward there can be found:sheets,
drip stands, crutch(use it when you have a broken leg), trolley, urine bottle, hoist(for lifting and moving),
observation chart, wheelchair, monkey pole.
Patients: inpatient (admitted and stay overnight or for several days), outpatient/ambulatory( come
just for diagnosis, treatment or therapy then leave)
Letter of referral : the GP writes it to a consultant, asking him to see/examine the patient(the
patient consult the doctor) and explaining the problem.
Careers in health care
Paramedical/ allied health personnel :
 Nurses –in and out of the hospital, assist in the OR, attend to the needs of the patient, according to
the doctors’ orders. They have to follow vocational school nursing courses
 Technicians:
o Ekg : places electrodes to the chest, arms and legs of the patient, the machine makes a paper
record , that is interpreted by the physician . these technicians ar generally trained on the job.
EEG technicians require 1-2 years of training
o Dialysis technician : hemodialysis machines (describe). Trained on the job
o Radiologic technicians:
 Diagnostic technicians (take and develop X-rays, read them)
 Radiation therapy technicians provide radiation to destroy tumors
 Nuclear medicine technicians introduce radioactive materials into the bloodstream.
 o Occupational therapists use patient activity in order to help them recover from physical,
mental, emotional disability
o Physical therapists – use heat, massage.
o Inhalation therapist – help people with respiratory ailments to breathe
o Physician assistant (PAs)- work under the supervision of the physician, can perform even minor
surgery
o Pharmacists dispense drugs.
o Nurses’ aides
o Orderlies
Paramedics= emergency medical technicians (EMTs) operate mobile medical facilities, equipped to
provide emergency medical care. They are trained to deliver CPR, provide IV injections and blood
transfusions
Medical professionals that ar not MDs : podiatrists, optometrists, chiropractors.
High tech medicine
In the hospital(and sometimes even before arrival there) high-tech equipment helps to save lives and
minimize injury.
1.CCU-Cardiac Care Unit nu scrie nimic altceva despre asta.
2.Stereotaxis(precise, 3D imaging) used for both diagnosis and treatment.It was introduced in 1950
as a treatment for people with Parkinsons disease.Today, thanks to ct scanning, MRI, and special
stereotactic instruments, the technology is used to LOCATE,BIOPSY and TREAT brain tumors.Stereotactic
surgery is very useful in treating tumors that are very hard to reach.There are 3 steps:
1)finding the tumor
2) under local anesthesia>biopsy
3) treating the tumor with radioactive implants around it or a single radioactive dose that kills it.
3.Laser- is a high tech device that enables the surgeons to dispense safer,less painful and more
accurate treatment.
Lasers are used on the human body from head to foot, treating everything from major eye problems to
minor foot problems.
LASER-Light Amplification by Stimulating Emission of Radiation.The very first one was produced in 1959.
Lasers work by creating an intense amount of light and energy which is converted into heat that is used to
control bleeding or destroy diseased tissue.It is considered to be the chief medical tool of the future by
many physicians.
4.Robotz-1900 a robot named ROBODOC performed a successful hip replacement on a dog.Because
of the precision that a robot can deliver, robot will likely soon be utilized to operate on human beings.
MEDICAL IMAGING
Technique and process used to create images of the human body for clinical purposes or medical science.
It includes:
 Radiology,
 Endoscopy : looking inside with an endoscope, inserted directly into the organ : arthroscopy,
bronchoscopy, colonoscopy
 (medical) thermography: allows to see variations in temperatura, warm objects stand out against
cooler background
 medical photography : used in articles, journals
 microscopy: to see samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye
Radiology includes:
a) X-ray(Rontgen)-2D technique still in wide use despite the advance of 3D tomography due to low cost,
high resolution and lower radiation dosages.
  Fluoroscopy: images of the internal structures of the body, with constant input of X-rays, at lower
dose rate. Contrast media are used. We see the LIH(last image hold)
 Projectional radiographs=X-rays – determine type and extend of a fracture and pathological
changes in lungs. Diagnoses ulcers or certain types of colon cancer with radio-opaque contrast
media.
b)medical ultrasonography = ecography-3D associated with imaging the fetus in pregnant women, but also
abdominal organs, breast, muscles, tendons, arteries, veins.
c) CT=computed tomography(tomos=slice, graphein=to write)=CAT computed axial tomography: medical
imaging method employing tomography created by a computer processing.Creates 3D images from a large
series of 2-d X-rays images(made up of 256 shades of gray=density scale) taken around a single axis
rotation. MRI-Scanners produce about the same pictures without using X-rays, thereby removing the
increased risk of cancer.CT diagnoses bleeding, brain injury and skull fractures, or a bleeding due to a
leaking aneurysm or a stroke or brain tumors, blood clot, CVA, brain tumors, hydrocephalus
Other uses
 detects both acute and chronic changes in the lung parenchyma; CTPA=CT pulmonary angiogram to
detect pulmonary embolism
 diagnoses abdominal diseases(cancer)
 images complex fractures especially around joints.
d)NUCLEAR MEDICINE-medical specialty involving the application of radioactive substances in the diagnosis
and treatment of disease. Scientography(2D) and SPECT(3D)=singe photon emission computed
tomography use Gamma-room. They use radiopharmaceuticals that localize to certain cell receptors.
PET(positron emission tomography) si a nuclear imaging that produces a 3D image of a functional process
in the body.
e)MRI(magnetic resonance imaging)= exploiting the interaction that takes place between the nuclei of
hudrogen atoms in the body and externally produced magnetic fields. It is used to distinguish pathologic
tissue from normal tissue.It is believed to be harmless to the pacient unlike CT, because it uses magnetic
fields and non-ionizing radiation. MRA= magnetic resonance angiography generates pictures of the arterie
to determine stenosis and aneurysms. MRV=magnetic resonance venography . for tumors in the brain MRI
is superior to CT, but nor for tumors in the abdomen and chest.
f)angiography=arteriography: visualize the inside of blood vessels and organs, mostly arteries, veins and
heart chambers, by injecting radio opaque contrast agent.
1895-Roentgen x rayul
1976-Peter Mansfield first images obtained from MR brain scans
1983-first whole body imaging system developed
1985-MRI becomes routine clinic diagnostic tool
Technicians- CT-technologists
MR-Technologists
Mammographers
Cardiovascular technologists and technicians
Nuclear medicine technologists.
Common Diseases and Ailments
Heart disease-includes congenital heart defects, diseases of the pericardium, and diseases affecting
the heart muscle itself.Physicians can often detect heart problems by measuring the rate of the heartbeat
and by taking the patients blood pressure or EKG.
 The most common cardiovascular disease is atherosclerosis.It may cause the development of a
coronary thrombus(blood clot), which blocks the flow of the blood to the heart muscle.As a result, part of
the heart muscle dies the condition is called myocardial infarction.Signs:pain in the chest, shortness of
breath, irregular pulse, nausea, perspiration.
Another major killer is cancer.Cancer is characterized by an unrestrained growth of abnormal
cells.There are three main types of cancer:
1)carcinoma originates from the surface cells of the skin or the linings of the internal organs.
2)sarcoma- attacks the muscles, bones, tendons, cartilage, fat, blood vessels.
3)leukemias- afflict the blood forming cells.
Cancer can appear anywhere in the body some grow slowly others spread rapidly doubling in bulk
in days.
Diagnostic-biopsy,mammogram, colonoscopy.
It can be malignant of benign.The malignancy that has metastasized(spread from its place of origin to
another organ or site) requires a higher dose of chemotherapy
NEPHRITIS-there are many types and many causes including bacteria and toxins.If the disease
becomes severe enough to destroy the kidneys, the victim can be saved through the transplantation of a
donor’s kidney or by regular use of a renal hemodialysis machine.
DIABETES MELLITUS-a disease in which the body no longer uses sugar properly.In the body of a
diabetic,insulin and glucagon are inadequately produced or utilized.DB mellitus is diagnosed by the
discovery of sugar in the urine.If its not controlled the pacient may develop complications affecting the
eyes, kidneys and circulatory system.
DISEASES that affect the older ppl:
 arthritis and rheumatism
 Osteoporosis( bone loss exceeds bone replacement so that the bones become less dense)
 Cataracts(created when the lens of the eye becomes opaque and sometimes swells of shrinks)
 Deteriorating of nerves in the inner ear causes hear loss
 Loss of mental abilities(confusion, memory loss and inability to distinguish reality and fantasy-
dementia)Caused by brain damage-Alzheimers disease(variety of abnormal chemical changes in the
brain and characteristic nerve cell ‘’tangles’’(incurcaturi)
ALERGIILE-People of all ages suffer from allergic conditions.An allergy is an altered reaction of body
tissues to a substance which produces no effect upon a nonsensitive person.The substance causing the
allergic reaction is called an ANTIGEN.
Types:food allergies, airborne particles(respiratory tract), contactants(wool or chemicals that are in
contact with the skin), drugs.Allergies can be controlled with medication(antihistamines)