Contents

1. Lab Session # 1 ............................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Apparatus: ............................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Formula: .................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.3. Procedure: ............................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.4. Observations and calculations:................................................................................................................................ 1
1.5. Valve Timing diargram: .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.6. Comments: .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
2. Lab Session # 2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1. Equipment required:................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.2. Formula: .................................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.3. Procedure: ............................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.4. Observations and Calculations: ............................................................................................................................... 3
2.5. Valve Timing diagram: ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.6. Comments: .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
3. Lab Session # 3 ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1. Equipment required:................................................................................................................................................ 5
3.2. Procedure: ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.3. Observations and Calculations: ............................................................................................................................... 5
3.4. Valve Lift Diagram ................................................................................................................................................. 6
3.5. Comments: .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
4. Lab session # 4 ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
4.1. Equipment required:................................................................................................................................................ 7
4.2. Fixing The Dead Centers: ....................................................................................................................................... 7
4.3. Identification of ports: ............................................................................................................................................. 7
4.4. Direction of rotation: ............................................................................................................................................... 7
4.5. Formula: .................................................................................................................................................................. 7
4.6. Procedure: ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
4.7. Results: .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
4.8. Port timing diagram: ............................................................................................................................................... 8
4.9. Comments: .............................................................................................................................................................. 8
5. Lab Session # 5 ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
5.1. What is bio-diesel? .................................................................................................................................................. 9
5.2. Blend with diesel oil: .............................................................................................................................................. 9
5.3. Transesterification process:..................................................................................................................................... 9
5.4. Why raw plant oil can’t be used directly in to the CI engine .................................................................................. 9
5.5. Advantages of biodiesel ........................................................................................................................................ 10
5.6. Disadvantages of biodiesel.................................................................................................................................... 10
5.7. Procedure of preparation: ...................................................................................................................................... 10
5.8. Comments: ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
 1. Lab Session # 1
“To draw the valve timing diagram of a 4 stroke petrol engine”

1.1. Apparatus:
1. Petrol engine model
2. Measuring tape
3. Scale
4. Thread
5. Marking Pencil

1.2. Formula:
𝐷 × 360°
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Where,

D = Distance of the valve opening or closing position marked on the flywheel with respect to their dead center.

1.3. Procedure:
1. T.D.C. is identified and marked on the fly wheel with respect to one fixed point in the engine.
2. The circumference of fly wheel is measured using thread and scale.
3. The BDC is marked on the flywheel by taking half the circumference.
4. By slowly cranking the camshaft in the direction of rotation the opening of inlet valve
5. is marked on the fly wheel w.r.t. fixed point when the push rod of inlet valve becomes tight to move.
6. Mark a point on the fly wheel where the inlet valve is completely closed.
7. In the same way mark the points where the exhaust valve open and close.
8. The distance of opening of inlet valve and closing of exhaust valve from TDC and closing of inlet valve and
opening of the exhaust valve from BDC are measured using thread and scale.
9. The angles of opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves are calculated w.r.t. TDC and BDC.

1.4. Observations and calculations:

Event Distance from their respective DC in “in” Valve opening period in Degrees

Inlet valve opens 1.2 13.2

Inlet valve closes 7.8 83.9
Exhaust valve opens 1.8 18.9
Exhaust valve closes 3 32.5

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1.5. Valve Timing diargram:

Figure 1-Valve Timing Diagram

1.6. Comments:
1. Errors maybe present because we cannot measure the exact point at which valve opens or close. Error can also be
due to measurement of thread to record circumference.
2. Cranking should be done carefully and slowly so that the salient points are located carefully.
3. In a practical diagram inlet valve opens before TDC while in an ideal diagram it opens at TDC. An ideal diagram
assumes that valves open and close instantaneously. On the other hand, in a real engine, the valve begins its lift,
holds its lift at maximum opening and then begins its descent.
4. Inlet valve closes after BDC in a practical diagram instead of at BDC. The reason for that piston moves down from
TDC to BDC very quickly. Reason for this delay in closing the inlet valve is to allow the rushing inlet gases to push
out the exhaust gases out of the cylinder before the beginning of compression stroke.

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 2. Lab Session # 2
“To draw the valve timing diagram of a 4-stroke diesel engine.”

2.1. Equipment required:

1. Petrol engine model
2. Measuring tape
3. Scale
4. Thread

2.2. Formula:
𝐷 × 360°
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Where,

D = Distance of the valve opening or closing position marked on the flywheel with respect to their dead center.

2.3. Procedure:
1. T.D.C. is identified and marked on the fly wheel with respect to one fixed point in the engine.
2. The circumference of fly wheel is measured using thread and scale.
3. The BDC is marked on the flywheel by taking half the circumference.
4. By slowly cranking the camshaft in the direction of rotation the opening of inlet valve
5. is marked on the fly wheel w.r.t. fixed point when the push rod of inlet valve becomes tight to move.
6. Mark a point on the fly wheel where the inlet valve is completely closed.
7. In the same way mark the points where the exhaust valve open and close.
8. The distance of opening of inlet valve and closing of exhaust valve from TDC and closing of inlet valve and opening
of the exhaust valve from BDC are measured using thread and scale.
9. The angles of opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves are calculated w.r.t. TDC and BDC.

2.4. Observations and Calculations:

Thus the valve timing for the given four stroke engine is found out and is drawn.

Table:
Event Distance from their respective DC in “in” Valve opening period in Degrees

Inlet valve opens 1.1 12

Inlet valve closes 5.3 59.1
Exhaust valve opens 1.8 19.7
Exhaust valve closes 1.6 18.3

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2.5. Valve Timing diagram:

Figure 2- Valve Timing Diagram

2.6. Comments:
1. Errors maybe present because we cannot measure the exact point at which valve opens or close. Error can also be
due to measurement of thread to record circumference.
2. Cranking should be done carefully and slowly so that the salient points are located carefully.
3. In a practical diagram inlet valve opens before TDC while in an ideal diagram it opens at TDC. An ideal diagram
assumes that valves open and close instantaneously. On the other hand, in a real engine, the valve begins its lift,
holds its lift at maximum opening and then begins its descent.
4. Inlet valve closes after BDC in a practical diagram instead of at BDC. The reason for that piston moves down from
TDC to BDC very quickly. Reason for this delay in closing the inlet valve is to allow the rushing inlet gases to push
out the exhaust gases out of the cylinder before the beginning of compression stroke.
5. The diesel engine valve timing varies slightly from the petrol engine valve timings

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3. Lab Session # 3
“To draw the valve lift diagram of a 4-stroke petrol engine.”

3.1. Equipment required:

1. Petrol engine model
2. Dial indicator
3. Measuring tape
4. Scale
5. Thread

3.2. Procedure:
1. Initially we are to find the following points TDC, BDC, IVO, IVC, EVO and EVC by repeating the procedure of
Experiment # 1.
2. After that we have to find the Valve lift of the intake valve and the exhaust valve.
3. The lift of the Valves is found using the dial gage/dial indicator.
4. Place the dial gage on the desired valve while the engine is running, the lift will be calculated by reading the value
shown in the dial gage.

3.3. Observations and Calculations:

It is obvious that the maximum valve lift will take place exactly between the two events i.e. valve opening and valve closing.

Table:

Event Position of Crank w.r.t Distance from the Angle in Degrees

Nearest Dead Centers respective Dead
Centers
IVO Before TDC 1.22 13.2
IVC After BDC 7.75 83.91
EVO Before BDC 1.75 18.95
EVC After TDC 3 32.48
Valve Overlap About TDC 4.22 45.68

Min Valve Lift of Intake Valve = 0.34 in

Max Valve Lift of Exhaust Valve = 0.31 in

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3.4. Valve Lift Diagram

Figure 3-Valve Lift Diagram

3.5. Comments:
1. Errors maybe present because we cannot measure the exact point at which valve opens or close.
2. Valve overlap occurs which means that both IV and EV are open at same time.
3. Valve Lift diagram for diesel engine cannot be drawn because there is no place to attach gauge.

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4. Lab session # 4
“To draw the port timing diagram for the given two stroke engine.”

4.1. Equipment required:

1. 2-stroke petrol engine model
2. Measuring tape
3. Scale
4. Thread

4.2. Fixing The Dead Centers:

For fixing up the dead center a chalk mark is made on the piston. The fly wheel is rotated. When the chalk mark coincides
with the end of the cylinder a mark is made on the flywheel and it represents TDC.

Now the flywheel is again rotated and the position at which the piston reaches the lower most position is noted on flywheel
and it represents the BDC.

4.3. Identification of ports:

The port which has more area and is nearer to the TDC is the exhaust port and the other is the inlet port.

4.4. Direction of rotation:

As the port opening and closing are symmetrical about the dead center, any arbitrary direction of rotation may be selected.

4.5. Formula:
𝐷 × 360°
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Where,

D = Distance of the valve opening or closing position marked on the flywheel with respect to their dead center.

4.6. Procedure:
1. The flywheel is turned in any arbitrary direction.
2. During the downward traverse position when it just uncovers a port it is marked as the opening of the port on the
flywheel.
3. The rotation is further continued until the piston covers the port during its upward travel.
4. A mark is made on the flywheel against the fixed mark. This gives the closing of the port.
5. The same procedure is repeated for other ports also.

4.7. Results:
Thus the port time for the given two stroke engine is found out and the port timing diagram is drawn.

Table:

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 Sr. No. Event Position w.r.t TDC or Distance (cm) Angle (degrees)
BDC

1 IPO Before TDC 2.5 25

2 IPC After TDC 5.5 55
3 EPO Before BDC 8.5 85
4 EPC After BDC 10.5 105
5 TPO Before BDC 5.7 57
6 TPC After BDC 9.5 95

4.8. Port timing diagram:

Figure 4- Port timing diagram

4.9. Comments:
1. Port timing is the determination of points in the cycle at which the ports are set to open and close. In the ideal
cycle inlet, exhaust and transfer port opens and closes at dead centers, but there is a difference between actual and
ideal cycle.
2. Cranking should be done carefully and slowly so that the salient points are located carefully.

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 5. Lab Session # 5
“Introduction to Alternative Fuel and Preparation of Bio-Diesel”

5.1. What is bio-diesel?

Biodiesel (mono alkyl ester) is a liquid fuel obtained from vegetable oils, animal fats and recycled cooking oil through a
chemical process known as Transesterification. It can be used in compression ignition engines as a fuel either in its pure
form or as a mixture blended with diesel oil.

The oils mostly used for biodiesel production around the globe are rapeseed, canola, soybean, palm and sunflower. Given
the cost of production of biodiesel, many non-edible vegetable oils (castor oil and cotton oil) have been under research and
usage for several years.

5.2. Blend with diesel oil:

Blends with diesel fuel are indicated as “BX”, where ‘X’ shows the percentage of biodiesel in the mixture. For instance,
“B20” indicates a blend with 20% biodiesel and 80% Diesel Oil, similarly B100 indicates pure biodiesel.

5.3. Transesterification process:

Figure 5-Transesterification process

5.4. Why raw plant oil can’t be used directly in to the CI engine
Raw or refined plant oil or recycled greases that have not been processed into biodiesel, are not biodiesel and should be
avoided. Research shows that plant oils or greases used in CI engines at concentrations as low as 10% - 20% can cause long-
term engine deposits, ring sticking, lube oil gelling and other maintenance problems and can reduce engine life. These
problems are caused mostly by the greater viscosity or thickness of the raw oils (around 40 mm2/s) compared with that of
the diesel fuel for which the engines and injectors were designed (1.3 – 4.1 mm2/s). Through the process of converting plant
oils or greases to biodiesel by transesterification, the viscosity of the fuel is reduced to values similar to conventional diesel
fuel (biodiesel values are typically 4-5 mm2/s).

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5.5. Advantages of biodiesel
1. It is a renewable form of energy.
2. Low toxicity as compared to diesel.
3. Lower emissions of contaminants; carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon and aldehydes.
4. Less carcinogenic emissions.
5. No sulfur dioxide emissions.
6. It can be used in a diesel engine without any modification if used as a B20 blend. For higher blend or pure biodiesel
i.e. B100, a slight modification can be required.
7. It is an excellent lubricant.
8. Raw materials like used cooking oil and fat residue can easily be accessed.

5.6. Disadvantages of biodiesel

1. Slightly higher fuel consumption as compared to pure diesel fuel due to less calorific value.
2. When used in pure form i.e. B100, produces more nitrous oxide (NOx) in comparison to diesel engine.
3. Less stable than diesel so storage for longer periods of time can create problems.
4. B100 can degrade plastics and rubber gaskets so slight modification in engine is required to use it.
5. Cleaning of fuel tanks prior to the filling of biodiesel must be done.
6. One of the disadvantages of pure biodiesel is its higher cloud point temperature than pure diesel.

5.7. Procedure of preparation:

1. Add 200 ml of methanol in a glass blender/mixture slowly without producing any splashes. The blender should be
set at low speed.

Figure 6- Adding Alcohol

2. Add 3.5 grams of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) called as lye. A proper mixture of lye and methanol should be formed
in about two minutes.

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 Figure 7-NaOH

Figure 8-Mixing NaOH & Alcohol

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3. After all the lye is completely dissolved in methanol, sodium methoxide will form.
4. Add one liter of vegetable oil in this mixture. Blend for further 20-30 minutes.
5. Pour the mixture in a wide-mouthed glass container.

Figure 9-Vegetable Oil

6. The mixture should separate in two layers – biodiesel and glycerin. The top layer will be of biodiesel (less dense
than glycerin).

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 Figure 10- Magnetic Stirrer

7. Allow the mixture to set for several hours so that the layers are completely formed.
8. Separate the top layer by carefully pouring it off.

5.8. Comments:
1. Major precautions are necessary to avoid personal poisoning, fire, and contamination of soil and water resources.
Methanol and lye are two dangerous chemicals that are required to convert vegetable oil into biodiesel. Methanol
presents a significant fire risk and overexposure can cause neurological damage. Lye can cause skin and lung
irritation and eye damage.
2. Biodiesel blends are denoted as, "BXX" with "XX" representing the percentage of biodiesel contained in the
blend (ie: B20 is 20% biodiesel, 80% petroleum diesel).
3. B20 has demonstrated significant environmental benefits with a minimum increase in cost
4. The fuel should be stored in a clean, dry, dark environment
5. Biodiesel can be operated in any diesel engine with little or no modification to the engine or the fuel system.

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