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Wear 249 (2001) 379–388

Effects of ambient pressure on fretting friction and wear


behavior between SUS 304 steels
Rong Chen∗ , Akira Iwabuchi, Tomoharu Shimizu
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka 020-8551, Japan
Received 27 March 2000; received in revised form 11 September 2000; accepted 22 February 2001

Abstract
Effects of ambient pressure on fretting friction and wear behavior between SUS 304 steels were investigated. The ambient pressure
varied from 105 to 10−4 Pa. The experiments were conducted at normal loads of 0.6, 1.0 and 1.8 N, slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 ␮m,
frequency of 10 Hz and 105 cycles. It was found that there was a critical pressure below which coefficient of friction was increased. The
peak wear volume occurred at pressure of 103 Pa, not at atmospheric pressure (105 Pa), it was revealed that the wear volume depends on the
formation of metallic particle or oxide particle and the effects of these particles on the contact surface. In order to examine the formation
and removal of the oxide debris particles on the wear scar, another experiments were carried out in which ambient pressure was changed
alternately from 105 to 10−3 Pa and from 10−3 to 105 Pa for every 103 cycles. Oxidized particle volumes were measured by subtracting
the disk wear volumes before and after 3% HCl solution treatment which was used to remove oxidized particles. Oxide particle volume
was proved to be larger after fretting wear at 105 Pa. These particle remains in the roughs of wear scar were difficult to be removed during
the consequent fretting wear in 10−3 Pa even up to 106 cycles which results in coefficient of friction not increasing at 10−3 Pa as expected.
© 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fretting; Friction and wear; Coefficient of friction; Oxide layer; Oxide particles; Ambient pressure

1. Introduction Oxide plays an important role in fretting. The wear con-


trol factor is generally considered as the debris separated
Fretting wear is caused by external vibration with small form the bulk surface for usual sliding wear. Trapped wear
amplitude. The important factor of the mechanism for fret- particles at the interface are not taken into account seriously.
ting wear is oxidation process and subsequent behavior of However, it is the removal rate of wear particles from the in-
oxide debris particles between surfaces. As a result, fretting terface, which controls the fretting wear [8]. The oxide par-
wear is sometimes referred to as “fretting corrosion” [1]. ticles are compacted and act as the solid lubricant in fretting.
Fretting wear is also complicated by the contact problem The separation and following recovery of this compacted
[2,3]. oxide layer determines the wear rate. However, oxide par-
One of the authors had examined the oxidation process in ticles abrade the surface before the compaction as a loose
fretting. It was found that the high temperature fretting ac- particle [9]. In order to explore the oxidation or adsorption
celerated the oxidation rate on the fretting surface, and com- of oxygen on metal surface affecting the growth process of
pacted oxide layer formed on the wear surface could reduce the transferred particles, the ambient pressure was alternated
fretting damage and the coefficient of friction [4]. Fretting between air and vacuum [10]. This experimental method is
in vacuum up to 10−3 Pa was also investigated for under- also useful to clarify the formation and separation process of
standing the effect of oxidation and oxide particles on fret- compacted oxide layer in fretting. However, until now, it is
ting wear, where the oxidation process was forbidden [5–7]. still not clear if the trapped oxide particle could be removed
It was found that the change in the coefficient of friction form the fretting surface in lower pressure up to long cycles
with fretting cycles was affected by the formation of oxide. at the condition that the oxide particles are already formed
In the first few 100 cycles, coefficient of friction increased, during wear in higher pressure.
then it dropped to certain value depending on the pressure. In this paper, fretting wear experiments at constant am-
bient condition and varying ambient condition were con-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +81-19-621-6417; fax: +81-19-621-6417. ducted. In first part, the coefficient of friction at lower
E-mail address: chenrong@iwate-u.ac.jp (R. Chen). pressure below 10−3 Pa was examined. We are interested

0043-1648/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 5 4 7 - 6
380 R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388

in how the coefficient of friction is affected in much lower ball specimen using an elastic beam, and a screw thread and a
pressure, whether it increases or saturates at a certain value piezoelectric actuator gave the normal load. Frictional force
with decreasing pressure. Lower pressure can be obtained and normal force were measured with strain gages attached
by using a turbo-molecular pump. to the elastic beam supporting the lower specimen. Relative
In second part, the formation and removal of oxide debris slip amplitude was measured with a leaf spring type dis-
and wear behavior at 105 and 10−3 Pa were investigated. The placement transducer. Frictional force, normal load and slip
experiments were done by alternating the pressure from 105 amplitude were recorded in PC with a sampling time of 2 ms.
to 10−3 Pa and from 10−3 to 105 Pa for every 103 cycles. Normal load and slip amplitude were controlled with PC.
The oxide particle volume was measured by subtracting the The apparatus was put in a vacuum chamber, which was
disk wear volumes before and after 3 vol.% HCl solution evacuated with a rotary pump and a turbo-molecular pump
treatment which was used to remove the oxide debris. From to 10−4 Pa. The ambient pressure was measured with a mer-
the change of the coefficient of friction, we try to understand cury manometer, a Schlutz gage and a B–A gage depending
at how long cycles, the oxide particle could be removed form on the pressure. The pressure was controlled to a certain
the wear scars. The adhesive wear behavior of fretting wear value manually. The residual gas pressure below 10−3 Pa
in lower pressure was also investigated. was measured with a mass-spectroscopy. At 10−3 Pa resid-
ual gas includes 62% of H2 O, 28% of N2 , 7% of O2 and
other gases.
2. Experiment
Two series of experiment were carried out, as noted above.
2.1. Materials The experimental condition for the first one was as follows:
a normal force of 1.0 N, slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 ␮m, a
The specimen material was type-304 (JIS SUS 304) stain- frequency of 10 Hz, and 105 fretting cycles at room temper-
less steel for both specimens. A moving upper specimen ature. Ambient pressure was changed form 105 to 10−4 Pa
was a ball with a 8 mm diameter. The lower disk specimen with 10 steps. Coefficient of friction was measured contin-
was turned to a diameter of 12 and 4 mm thick. Surface was uously.
buff-polished. The peak-to-galley surface roughness Ry was The second experiment was under the following con-
0.60 ␮m for a ball and 0.26 ␮m for a disk. Hardness of the dition: the ambient pressure was alternated from 105 to
specimen Hv was 2087 MPa for a ball and 1852 MPa for 10−3 Pa and from 10−3 to 105 Pa for every 103 cycles. Nor-
a disk. Specimens were cleaned ultrasonically with acetone mal load was given 1.0 N, slip amplitudes were 50 and
for 10 min before setting-up. 100 ␮m and frequency was 10 Hz. At first situation, the test
was first carried out for 103 cycles at 105 Pa. Then, the fret-
ting test was stopped to evacuate the chamber to 10−3 Pa.
2.2. Fretting wear tests
After evacuation, the fretting test of 103 cycles was restarted.
At second situation, the test was first carried out for 103
A schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus used
cycles at 10−3 Pa. Then, after air was introduced into the
in this work is shown in Fig. 1 [11]. Piezoelectric actuator
chamber, the fretting test was restarted. These tests were re-
provided the oscillating motion. A moving ball specimen
peated up to 6000 cycles. In order to evaluate the possibility
was supported with a horizontal beam consisting of two elas-
if the oxide particles could be removed form the wear scar,
tic hinges, and the relative slip amplitude between specimens
a test was carried out first at 105 Pa for 103 cycles and then
could be amplified by about eight times of the vibration of
put in vacuum up to 106 cycles. The tests were carried out
the actuator. A lower disk-like specimen was pressed onto a
more than three times at the same condition.

2.3. Fretting scar assessment

Wear scars were observed by SEM, EDX was used for


chemical element analysis of wear debris. Wear volumes
were evaluated by a 3D profilometer with a trace pitch of
20 ␮m.

3. Results

3.1. Constant ambient conditions

3.1.1. Friction
Fig. 2 shows the change in coefficient of friction with
fretting cycles at different pressures from 10−4 to 105 Pa. It
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an experimental apparatus. was very steady after 100 cycles for higher pressures above
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 381

to increase below 1.0 or 0.1 Pa depending on slip amplitude.


It reveals the effect of slip amplitude on the coefficient of
friction.

3.1.2. Wear
Wear volume loss of the upper specimens ball and lower
specimens disk was measured for 50 and 100 ␮m slip ampli-
tude, as shown in Fig. 4. The negative wear volume below
the critical pressure means the apparent volume increase due
to surface roughening with plastic deformation and transfer
from the opposite surface. It reveals that the extensive wear
volume was obtained above the critical pressure. The wear
of an upper specimen was greater than that of a lower sta-
tionary specimen.
Besides, Fig. 4 shows that the maximum wear volume
was not at the atmospheric pressure (105 Pa), but at 103 Pa.
Wear rate is dependent on the dimension of wear debris
and the number of debris particles. In the previous tests, the
wear peak appeared at around 10 Pa for pin-on-disk type
unidirectional sliding wear test [13,14]. Such a wear peak
may be resulted form the formation of large metallic wear
particles, because of lack of oxygen to oxidize the particles.
Fig. 4 also shows the decrease in wear at 102 Pa at 50 ␮m

Fig. 2. Coefficient of friction against the number of cycles at 1.0 N, 50,


100 ␮m, and various ambient pressures.

10 Pa. However, it increased with cycles and decreased for


the pressures below 10−1 Pa. The peak coefficient of friction
with the cycles shows that the peak depend on the ambient
pressure. Apparently, the peak cycle is delayed by the lower
pressure.
Fig. 3 shows the coefficient of friction against the ambient
pressure at slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 ␮m, where it was
obtained as the mean value after 104 cycles. The coefficient
of friction was kept at 0.8–1.0 independent of pressure and
slip amplitude when the pressure was above 1.0 Pa. It started

Fig. 3. Dependence of mean coefficient of friction on ambient pressure Fig. 4. Dependence of wear volume of upper (ball) and lower (disk) on
at 105 cycles. ambient pressures.
382 R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388

or 10 Pa at 100 ␮m. Below these pressures, wear increases Fig. 6(b). The morphology of wear scar in Fig. 5 reveals that
again, and decreases. the degree of oxidization was changed by ambient pressure.
Many small oxide particles occurred in high ambient pres-
3.1.3. Scar observations sure. However, larger metallic particles were easy to form in
Apparently, patterns of wear scar and wear debris was very low ambient pressure. Comparative to the oxide parti-
different at varied pressure form SEM observation. Fig. 5 cles occurred in high pressure, the number of metallic debris
represents the typical wear scars from 105 to 10−3 Pa at the particles in lower pressure was less.
condition of 1 N and 50 ␮m. The chemical elements of the
wear debris were analyzed by EDX. The results in Fig. 6(a) 3.2. Varying ambient conditions
reveals that the debris at 105 Pa after 105 cycles was oxide
particles, for the shape of O element distribution was the 3.2.1. Friction
same as that of particle. However, the debris at 10−3 Pa after Fig. 7 shows the typical coefficient of friction at alternat-
105 cycles was metallic particles, for no O element could ing pressure between 105 and 10−3 Pa at 1 N and 50 ␮m. The
be detected at the position of the two particles, as shown in coefficient of friction was not increased from 105 to 10−3 Pa

Fig. 5. SEM photographs of wear scars after 105 fretting cycles at 1 N and 50 ␮m at (a) 105 Pa; (b) 100 Pa; (c) 10−3 Pa.
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 383

Fig. 6. Element analysis of wear debris by EDX after 105 fretting cycles at 50 ␮m and 1 N (a) at 105 Pa; (b) 10−3 Pa.

as expected. It may be due to the oxide particle remained in


the wear scars.
In order to determine if the oxide particles could be ex-
cluded from wear scars after long cycles, we did the experi-
ment at the process first at 105 Pa for 1000 cycles, and then
at 10−3 Pa up to 106 cycles. The result in Fig. 8 shows that
the coefficient of friction was not increased even up to 106
cycles.
If the fretting wear was firstly conducted at 10−3 Pa from
0 to 1000 cycles, the coefficient of friction was high, about
2.2, as shown in Fig. 9. It decreased to 0.5 immediately
at 105 Pa at the first cycle in the consequent fretting wear,
which may be due to compacted oxide layer formed soon
as the pressure was changed. When wear at 10−3 Pa again
form 2000 to 3000 cycles, the coefficient of friction was
kept at 0.5 and could not go back to the original high value.
Fig. 7. Typical example of the change in coefficient of friction with an The same result was shown form 4000 to 5000 cycles at
alternation of ambient pressure between 105 and 10−3 Pa. 10−3 Pa.
384 R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388

Fig. 8. Coefficient of friction of SUS 304 steel first under fretting wear
for 103 cycles at 105 Pa and then for 106 cycles at 10−3 Pa.

3.2.2. Wear
The wear volumes at the alternation pressure from 105 to
10−3 Pa at slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 ␮m were shown in
Fig. 10. Here, only wear volumes of disk were measured.
The white and dark points were the wear volumes before and
after HCl solution treatment, “upper” and “lower” were sign
as the heap and loss volumes which were above and below
the original unworn specimen surface. It shows that at 105 Pa
by 1000 cycles, the heap and loss volumes were small. They
were increased at 10−3 Pa after 2000 cycles, especially for
the heap volume. It may be due to the fact that adhesive
wear easily occurred in low pressure. The difference of the Fig. 10. Wear volume of disk specimen before and after 3 vol.% HCl
volume before and after HCl treatment was connected with treatment at an alternation of ambient pressure between 105 and 10−3 Pa.
the oxide debris. It was discussed in the next chapter.
The wear volumes form 10−3 to 105 Pa at 50 ␮m were also 3.2.3. Scar observations
measured, the results were shown as in Fig. 11. It also proves Wear scars during varying ambient pressure at 105 Pa for
the heap volume was larger at 10−3 Pa by 1000 cycles. It 1000 cycles and 10−3 for 2000 cycles were investigated by
may be due to the plastic deformation for there was less SEM and EDX. Fig. 12 shows the wear scar surface after
oxide particle formation at 10−3 Pa. After 2000 cycles at 1000 cycles at 105 Pa, there were many small oxide particles
105 Pa, the oxide particle volume was increased.

Fig. 9. Typical example of the changes in coefficient of friction with an Fig. 11. Wear volume of disk specimen before and after 3 vol.% HCl
alternation of ambient pressure between 10−3 and 105 Pa. treatment at an alternation of ambient pressure between 10−3 and 105 Pa.
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 385

4. Discussion

4.1. The effect of amplitude on fretting behavior at


constant ambient conditions

The critical pressure is defined as the pressure at which


the coefficient of friction begins to increase. It seems that the
critical pressure was higher for small slip amplitude, and the
coefficient of friction at small slip amplitude was higher than
that at large slip amplitude at the same ambient pressure,
as shown in Fig. 3. This behavior can be explained as the
great attack of residual oxygen to the contacting surfaces
with larger slip amplitude. The mutual overlap coefficient
(MOC) was defined as
Ac
MOC = (1)
Aw
where Ac was the apparent contact area and Aw the wear
scar area [12]. For pin-on-disk unidirectional sliding wear
test, Ac was the worn area of a pin and Aw the worn area of
a disk. In this case, Ac was the wear scar of a ball and Aw
that of disk. Compared with pin-on-disk, MOC for fretting
becomes high and approaches unity depending on slip am-
plitude because the sliding distance was rather smaller than
a dimension of contact area. MOC determines the area that
oxygen can attack or the difficulty of movement of trapped
wear particles to be removed form the interface. As MOC
was smaller with larger slip amplitude, the exposed area to
oxygen attack becomes large and oxide formation was cer-
tainly facilitated. Therefore, coefficient of friction becomes
low with increasing slip amplitude at a certain pressure be-
Fig. 12. SEM photographs of wear scars after 1000 cycles at (a) 50 ␮m low the critical pressure. At the pressure above the critical
and 1.0 N; (b) magnitude. pressure oxygen attack was not important, because sufficient
oxide was formed to maintain the low coefficient of friction.
In other words, the rate of controlling factor for the forma-
tion of oxide was not the oxygen attack to the surface in this
pressure region.
on the wear scar, the feature of oxidization of wear scar was
The increase in coefficient of friction with decreasing
very obvious. The chemical element analysis of the wear
pressure also results from the decrease in oxygen attack rate
scar by EDX shows that the distribution of O element was
to the interface even at a constant slip amplitude, i.e. MOC.
similar with the shape of wear scars, as shown in Fig. 13(a),
When the pressure was decreased form 10−3 to 10−4 Pa,
it means the wear scar surface was oxidized after 1000 cycles
the increase of coefficient of friction was very obvious. The
at 105 Pa. For comparison, the wear scars after consequent
oxygen attack in super lower pressure was decreased obvi-
wear at 10−3 Pa up to 2000 cycles was measured, as shown
ously at smaller slip amplitude.
in Fig. 13(b), O element cannot be detected at the area of
wear scar. The wear scar surface was not obviously oxidized
after 2000 cycles at 10−3 Pa. The compacted oxide layer 4.2. The oxide particle volume at varying ambient
formed after 1000 cycles at 103 Pa could be removed by the conditions
consequent fretting wear. However, parts of oxide particles
were still remained in the scar. HCl solution was used to remove the oxidized particles
Fig. 14(a) shows oxide particles remained in the roughs at wear scar surface, the time should be controlled to avoid
of wear scars at 10−3 Pa and 2000 cycles. These particles removing the metallic surface. The oxide particle volumes
could be removed by 3 vol.% HCl treatment, as shown in could be obtained by subtracting the disk wear volume be-
Fig. 14(b). Fig. 15 shows the oxide particles were clustered fore and after HCl treatment. As shown in Fig. 10, at first
at the center of the wear scar after fretting wear at 10−3 Pa 1000 cycles at 105 Pa and 50 ␮m before HCl solution treat-
by 6000 cycles. They were difficult to be removed. ment, the heap volume was about −10 × 10−6 mm3 , after
386 R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388

Fig. 13. Chemical element analysis of the fretting wear scar by EDX after (a) 1000 cycles at 105 Pa; (b) 2000 cycles in 10−3 Pa at 50 ␮m and 1.0 N.

Fig. 14. SEM photographs of wear scars after 2000 cycles at 50 ␮m and 1.0 N (a) before; (b) after 3 vol.% HCl treatment.
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 387

with the cycles even at 10−3 Pa. It proves that the oxide par-
ticles were easily produced at high pressure, and difficult to
be removed form the wear scars after consequent fretting
cycles at 10−3 Pa.
The coefficient of friction was not obviously increased af-
ter 1000 cycles in 10−3 Pa, as shown in Fig. 7. It reveals that
even the compacted oxide layer could be removed at 10−3 Pa
by 2000 cycles, the oxide particles could not be totally es-
caped from the wear scar. Parts of them were dropped into
the wear roughs, as shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The trapped
oxide particles may be due to decrease in the coefficient of
friction.
From Fig. 9, it reveals that the coefficient of friction
at 10−3 Pa was high only in the condition of very clean
surface. If the contacted surface remained with oxide
particles due to fretting wear at 105 Pa, the coefficient
of friction was smaller, for it was difficult to remove the
oxide particles out of the wear scars at the small fretting
amplitude.

5. Conclusions

From two series of fretting experiment of type-304 steel


at various ambient pressures, the following conclusions are
drawn:
1. the critical pressure existed, above which the frictional
coefficient was constant and below which the coefficient
of friction increased, and it became lower pressure with
increasing slip amplitude;
2. the maximum wear volume was not at the atmospheric
pressure (105 Pa), but at 103 Pa. It depends on the possi-
Fig. 15. SEM photographs of wear scars after 6000 fretting cycles at an
alternation ambient pressure at 50 ␮m and 1 N from 105 to 10−3 Pa (a) bility of formation of metallic particle or oxide particle
wear scar; (b) magnitude. and the effects of these particles on the contact surface;
3. the oxide particle volume was proved to be larger after
fretting wear at 105 Pa, these particles remained in the
roughs of wear scar and were difficult to be removed
HCl treatment, it was near to 0. This heap volume was re-
during the consequent fretting wear at 10−3 Pa even up
moved by HCl solution treatment. The loss volume before
to 106 cycles, which results in the coefficient of friction
HCl treatment was near 0, after treatment, it was about to
not being changed at the alternation pressure form 105
10 × 10−6 mm3 . The removal volume was equal to the loss
to 10−3 Pa.
volume, it was same at 50 and 100 ␮m. It was concluded
that an oxide particle layer as heap volume was formed in
the wear scar after 1000 cycles. This layer could be removed
Acknowledgements
by consequent fretting wear after 2000 cycles at 10−3 Pa.
Because after 2000 cycles, both the heap and loss volumes
before and after HCl treatment were the same, there was Authors thank Mr. N. Fukuda, undergraduate student, for
less oxide particle volume. It coincides with the Figs. 12 his serious help in the experiment. Authors thanks Mr. K.
and 13. When wear at 105 Pa up to 3000 cycles, the oxide Matusmoto, technician at our department, for preparation of
particle volume was increased again. It was increased to the specimens and an experiment rig.
largest after 5000 cycles at 105 Pa. It may be due to the re-
mained oxide particles and new oxide particles were more References
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