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Abstract
Effects of ambient pressure on fretting friction and wear behavior between SUS 304 steels were investigated. The ambient pressure
varied from 105 to 10−4 Pa. The experiments were conducted at normal loads of 0.6, 1.0 and 1.8 N, slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 m,
frequency of 10 Hz and 105 cycles. It was found that there was a critical pressure below which coefficient of friction was increased. The
peak wear volume occurred at pressure of 103 Pa, not at atmospheric pressure (105 Pa), it was revealed that the wear volume depends on the
formation of metallic particle or oxide particle and the effects of these particles on the contact surface. In order to examine the formation
and removal of the oxide debris particles on the wear scar, another experiments were carried out in which ambient pressure was changed
alternately from 105 to 10−3 Pa and from 10−3 to 105 Pa for every 103 cycles. Oxidized particle volumes were measured by subtracting
the disk wear volumes before and after 3% HCl solution treatment which was used to remove oxidized particles. Oxide particle volume
was proved to be larger after fretting wear at 105 Pa. These particle remains in the roughs of wear scar were difficult to be removed during
the consequent fretting wear in 10−3 Pa even up to 106 cycles which results in coefficient of friction not increasing at 10−3 Pa as expected.
© 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fretting; Friction and wear; Coefficient of friction; Oxide layer; Oxide particles; Ambient pressure
0043-1648/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 5 4 7 - 6
380 R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388
in how the coefficient of friction is affected in much lower ball specimen using an elastic beam, and a screw thread and a
pressure, whether it increases or saturates at a certain value piezoelectric actuator gave the normal load. Frictional force
with decreasing pressure. Lower pressure can be obtained and normal force were measured with strain gages attached
by using a turbo-molecular pump. to the elastic beam supporting the lower specimen. Relative
In second part, the formation and removal of oxide debris slip amplitude was measured with a leaf spring type dis-
and wear behavior at 105 and 10−3 Pa were investigated. The placement transducer. Frictional force, normal load and slip
experiments were done by alternating the pressure from 105 amplitude were recorded in PC with a sampling time of 2 ms.
to 10−3 Pa and from 10−3 to 105 Pa for every 103 cycles. Normal load and slip amplitude were controlled with PC.
The oxide particle volume was measured by subtracting the The apparatus was put in a vacuum chamber, which was
disk wear volumes before and after 3 vol.% HCl solution evacuated with a rotary pump and a turbo-molecular pump
treatment which was used to remove the oxide debris. From to 10−4 Pa. The ambient pressure was measured with a mer-
the change of the coefficient of friction, we try to understand cury manometer, a Schlutz gage and a B–A gage depending
at how long cycles, the oxide particle could be removed form on the pressure. The pressure was controlled to a certain
the wear scars. The adhesive wear behavior of fretting wear value manually. The residual gas pressure below 10−3 Pa
in lower pressure was also investigated. was measured with a mass-spectroscopy. At 10−3 Pa resid-
ual gas includes 62% of H2 O, 28% of N2 , 7% of O2 and
other gases.
2. Experiment
Two series of experiment were carried out, as noted above.
2.1. Materials The experimental condition for the first one was as follows:
a normal force of 1.0 N, slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 m, a
The specimen material was type-304 (JIS SUS 304) stain- frequency of 10 Hz, and 105 fretting cycles at room temper-
less steel for both specimens. A moving upper specimen ature. Ambient pressure was changed form 105 to 10−4 Pa
was a ball with a 8 mm diameter. The lower disk specimen with 10 steps. Coefficient of friction was measured contin-
was turned to a diameter of 12 and 4 mm thick. Surface was uously.
buff-polished. The peak-to-galley surface roughness Ry was The second experiment was under the following con-
0.60 m for a ball and 0.26 m for a disk. Hardness of the dition: the ambient pressure was alternated from 105 to
specimen Hv was 2087 MPa for a ball and 1852 MPa for 10−3 Pa and from 10−3 to 105 Pa for every 103 cycles. Nor-
a disk. Specimens were cleaned ultrasonically with acetone mal load was given 1.0 N, slip amplitudes were 50 and
for 10 min before setting-up. 100 m and frequency was 10 Hz. At first situation, the test
was first carried out for 103 cycles at 105 Pa. Then, the fret-
ting test was stopped to evacuate the chamber to 10−3 Pa.
2.2. Fretting wear tests
After evacuation, the fretting test of 103 cycles was restarted.
At second situation, the test was first carried out for 103
A schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus used
cycles at 10−3 Pa. Then, after air was introduced into the
in this work is shown in Fig. 1 [11]. Piezoelectric actuator
chamber, the fretting test was restarted. These tests were re-
provided the oscillating motion. A moving ball specimen
peated up to 6000 cycles. In order to evaluate the possibility
was supported with a horizontal beam consisting of two elas-
if the oxide particles could be removed form the wear scar,
tic hinges, and the relative slip amplitude between specimens
a test was carried out first at 105 Pa for 103 cycles and then
could be amplified by about eight times of the vibration of
put in vacuum up to 106 cycles. The tests were carried out
the actuator. A lower disk-like specimen was pressed onto a
more than three times at the same condition.
3. Results
3.1.1. Friction
Fig. 2 shows the change in coefficient of friction with
fretting cycles at different pressures from 10−4 to 105 Pa. It
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an experimental apparatus. was very steady after 100 cycles for higher pressures above
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 381
3.1.2. Wear
Wear volume loss of the upper specimens ball and lower
specimens disk was measured for 50 and 100 m slip ampli-
tude, as shown in Fig. 4. The negative wear volume below
the critical pressure means the apparent volume increase due
to surface roughening with plastic deformation and transfer
from the opposite surface. It reveals that the extensive wear
volume was obtained above the critical pressure. The wear
of an upper specimen was greater than that of a lower sta-
tionary specimen.
Besides, Fig. 4 shows that the maximum wear volume
was not at the atmospheric pressure (105 Pa), but at 103 Pa.
Wear rate is dependent on the dimension of wear debris
and the number of debris particles. In the previous tests, the
wear peak appeared at around 10 Pa for pin-on-disk type
unidirectional sliding wear test [13,14]. Such a wear peak
may be resulted form the formation of large metallic wear
particles, because of lack of oxygen to oxidize the particles.
Fig. 4 also shows the decrease in wear at 102 Pa at 50 m
Fig. 3. Dependence of mean coefficient of friction on ambient pressure Fig. 4. Dependence of wear volume of upper (ball) and lower (disk) on
at 105 cycles. ambient pressures.
382 R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388
or 10 Pa at 100 m. Below these pressures, wear increases Fig. 6(b). The morphology of wear scar in Fig. 5 reveals that
again, and decreases. the degree of oxidization was changed by ambient pressure.
Many small oxide particles occurred in high ambient pres-
3.1.3. Scar observations sure. However, larger metallic particles were easy to form in
Apparently, patterns of wear scar and wear debris was very low ambient pressure. Comparative to the oxide parti-
different at varied pressure form SEM observation. Fig. 5 cles occurred in high pressure, the number of metallic debris
represents the typical wear scars from 105 to 10−3 Pa at the particles in lower pressure was less.
condition of 1 N and 50 m. The chemical elements of the
wear debris were analyzed by EDX. The results in Fig. 6(a) 3.2. Varying ambient conditions
reveals that the debris at 105 Pa after 105 cycles was oxide
particles, for the shape of O element distribution was the 3.2.1. Friction
same as that of particle. However, the debris at 10−3 Pa after Fig. 7 shows the typical coefficient of friction at alternat-
105 cycles was metallic particles, for no O element could ing pressure between 105 and 10−3 Pa at 1 N and 50 m. The
be detected at the position of the two particles, as shown in coefficient of friction was not increased from 105 to 10−3 Pa
Fig. 5. SEM photographs of wear scars after 105 fretting cycles at 1 N and 50 m at (a) 105 Pa; (b) 100 Pa; (c) 10−3 Pa.
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 383
Fig. 6. Element analysis of wear debris by EDX after 105 fretting cycles at 50 m and 1 N (a) at 105 Pa; (b) 10−3 Pa.
Fig. 8. Coefficient of friction of SUS 304 steel first under fretting wear
for 103 cycles at 105 Pa and then for 106 cycles at 10−3 Pa.
3.2.2. Wear
The wear volumes at the alternation pressure from 105 to
10−3 Pa at slip amplitudes of 50 and 100 m were shown in
Fig. 10. Here, only wear volumes of disk were measured.
The white and dark points were the wear volumes before and
after HCl solution treatment, “upper” and “lower” were sign
as the heap and loss volumes which were above and below
the original unworn specimen surface. It shows that at 105 Pa
by 1000 cycles, the heap and loss volumes were small. They
were increased at 10−3 Pa after 2000 cycles, especially for
the heap volume. It may be due to the fact that adhesive
wear easily occurred in low pressure. The difference of the Fig. 10. Wear volume of disk specimen before and after 3 vol.% HCl
volume before and after HCl treatment was connected with treatment at an alternation of ambient pressure between 105 and 10−3 Pa.
the oxide debris. It was discussed in the next chapter.
The wear volumes form 10−3 to 105 Pa at 50 m were also 3.2.3. Scar observations
measured, the results were shown as in Fig. 11. It also proves Wear scars during varying ambient pressure at 105 Pa for
the heap volume was larger at 10−3 Pa by 1000 cycles. It 1000 cycles and 10−3 for 2000 cycles were investigated by
may be due to the plastic deformation for there was less SEM and EDX. Fig. 12 shows the wear scar surface after
oxide particle formation at 10−3 Pa. After 2000 cycles at 1000 cycles at 105 Pa, there were many small oxide particles
105 Pa, the oxide particle volume was increased.
Fig. 9. Typical example of the changes in coefficient of friction with an Fig. 11. Wear volume of disk specimen before and after 3 vol.% HCl
alternation of ambient pressure between 10−3 and 105 Pa. treatment at an alternation of ambient pressure between 10−3 and 105 Pa.
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 385
4. Discussion
Fig. 13. Chemical element analysis of the fretting wear scar by EDX after (a) 1000 cycles at 105 Pa; (b) 2000 cycles in 10−3 Pa at 50 m and 1.0 N.
Fig. 14. SEM photographs of wear scars after 2000 cycles at 50 m and 1.0 N (a) before; (b) after 3 vol.% HCl treatment.
R. Chen et al. / Wear 249 (2001) 379–388 387
with the cycles even at 10−3 Pa. It proves that the oxide par-
ticles were easily produced at high pressure, and difficult to
be removed form the wear scars after consequent fretting
cycles at 10−3 Pa.
The coefficient of friction was not obviously increased af-
ter 1000 cycles in 10−3 Pa, as shown in Fig. 7. It reveals that
even the compacted oxide layer could be removed at 10−3 Pa
by 2000 cycles, the oxide particles could not be totally es-
caped from the wear scar. Parts of them were dropped into
the wear roughs, as shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The trapped
oxide particles may be due to decrease in the coefficient of
friction.
From Fig. 9, it reveals that the coefficient of friction
at 10−3 Pa was high only in the condition of very clean
surface. If the contacted surface remained with oxide
particles due to fretting wear at 105 Pa, the coefficient
of friction was smaller, for it was difficult to remove the
oxide particles out of the wear scars at the small fretting
amplitude.
5. Conclusions
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