AlAA-84-22’85

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Advances In High Speed Jet

Aeroacoustics

John M. Seiner
NASA Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia

AIAAINASA 9th Aeroacoustics Conference

October 15-17, 1984/Williamsburg, Virginia

For permission to copy or republish, contact the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019
 ADVANCES IN HIGII SPEEO JET AEROACOUSTICS
, Abstract
This paper provides an assessment from an
experimental point of view of the present
understanding of high speed jet noise primarily as
it pertains to shock containing supersonic jet
plumes. The nature of this assessment involves an
examination of the complex flow and related
acoustic field associated with this problem. A By way of illustration consider the 2usec
certain emphasis is placed on prediction of the
near acoustic field to satisfy a motivation driven
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by a new set of guiding principles. namely the
high performance tactical fighter and second
generation space transportation vehicles. The
review concludes that after weighing all the
experimental evidence, only after consideration of
the role of large scale coherent Structure is
adopted can a consistent unifying theme be
achieved to physically interpret and properly
predict n o i s e generation by the fundamental
mechanisms.
Intraductioo
In the last several years review
articles'-' appear on the subject
AerOaCoUStiCS: a branch of the physical sciences
that involves the study of sound generated
aerodynamically. These articles assess progress
in this field primarily using what is now termed
the Lighthil16 Acoustic Analogy Approach. These
, reviews are comprehensive in scope, but
surprisingly focus little attention on recent
developments of sound production by supersonic jet
plumes, particularly those that contain shocks.
The primary purpose of this article is therefore
to provide some account for recent developments in
this specific area based on viewpoints acquired
from experimental observations by the author and
his colleagues. It is perhaps an appropriate time
to do this for research in this area, at least i n
the immediate future at NASA Langley, will be
motivated by military and second generation space
transportation endeavors rather than by community
noise criteria for the airline industry. This new
emphasis centrally involves the abiltty to predict
acoustically excited structural loads that
accompany operation of high performance aircraft.
Adequate prediction of these loads requires an
accur'ate understanding of the dominant sound
production mechanisms for high speed flow that
charactertze the acoustic near field.
Two fundamental differences exist between low
and high speed flows that have a profound effect
on what is observed as the dominant sound
production mechanism. These differences are
manifest whenever flow disturbances attain
supersonic phase speed relative to the ambient
medium and o r shock waves are present in the
flow. The secoyd phenomenon of course requires
\.
*Senior Research Scientist, A I M Member
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John M. Seiner*
NASA Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia
the flow to be supersonic, but the first
phenomenon can also occur with hot subsonic jets,
and can first become observed in unheated jet
flows when the plume Mach number achieves a value
near 2. Both phenomena when present are known to
produce intense noise emission, and attain
sufficient energy to be directly visualized by
standard optical methods.
duration spark Schlieren photographic record of
figure 1 . This record, taken with a horizontal
knife edge in the focal plane, essentially
captures conditions associated with an unheated
supersonic jet plume with the nozzle operating at
its design point. The nozzle is designed to
produce a uniform axial exhallst Mach number of 2
across the entire 4.989 cm diameter n o z z l e exit
plane. Only weak shock waves appear in the
plume. Clearly defined wavefronts also appear in
the photograph that emanate along the outer
periphery of the turbulent mixing layer and are
confined to a conical envelope centered along the
jet axis with a half angle near 65" with a
corresponding complementary wave propagation angle
of 25* to the jet a x i s . As will be shown later,
this wave propagation angle is the same as that
of determined from far field acoustic measurements
for the principle direction of radiation for this
particular jet flow condition. Using unpublished
Schlieren records of Lilley and Peduzzi, undoubtly
similar to that shown in figure 1, Lighthill
interpreted these waves in terms of ballistic
shock waves emitted bj supersonically convecting
eddies. Later Kramer likened the phenomenon to
the process of Cherenkov radiation. Based on
these interpretations the cone half angle of 65'
would correspond to the Mach angle
e=sin-l(l/Mc). which produces an estimate for
the convection Mach number M, of 1.1. This
corresponds to a convection velocity that is 75
percent of the fully expanded jet velocity that is
i n the range of measured values.
Historically the observation by Lighthill of
the effect an sound production by supersonically
convecting disturbances was of great significance
to future refinements to the Acoustic Analogy
Approach, which at the time predicted infinite
sound radiation at the wave propagation angle.
This singularity was later removed by Ffowcs
Williams', by accounting for retarded time
differences between individual components of the
multipole sources. Phillips'o, however. who was
concerned about separating refractive effects from
multipole source constituents, took an important
step by recasting the theory in terms of a
convective wave equation. Phillips' theory was
the first to analytically treat the phenomenon of
supersonically convecting disturbances, a
mechanism which he termed eddy %ch wave
radiation. The convective wave equation concept
of Phillips was later improved by Pao". Using
the convective wave equation introduced by
Lilley'', Tester and S~ewczyk'~were able to
obtain impressive comparisons to measured far
1
 f i e l d a c o u s t i c d a t a f o r b o t h h e a t e d and unheated
s u b s o n i c or s u p e r s o n i c j e t s . T h e i r method,
a l t h o u g h based on a n e m p i r i c a l scheme, d i d i n c l u d e
acoustic-mean flow i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s as o b t a i n e d
from high-frequency approximate solutions
L i l l e y ' s equation.
While t h e method used by T e s t e r and Szewczyk
is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e most advanced form f o r
acoustic predictions based on the Acoustic
Analogy, i t c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l serious f l a w s from
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h i s paper. These are t h a t
r e s u l t s d e r i v a b l e from i t a r e o n l y v a l i d i n t h e
a c o u s t i c f a r f i e l d of the sources, i t r e q u i r e s t h e
g e n e r a t i o n of new e m p i r i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r j e t
plumes t h a t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from uxisyminetric
behavior. and most i m p o r t a n t of a l l i t does n o t
predict the acoustic radiation i n the principle
d i r e c t i o n when t h e mechanism of eddy Mach wave
r a d i a t i o n is observed as i n f i g u r e 1. T h i s means
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e v o l u t i o n is p a r t l y what t h i s paper is a b o u t .
T h i s e v i d e n c e , which runs as a common u n i f y i n g
theme t h r o u g h o u t t h i s paper, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e
is some c o n n e c t i o n between t h e two dominant noise
to p r o d u c t i o n mechanisms d i s c u s s e d above f o r t h e h i g h
speed j e t plume. T h i s c o n n e c t i o n can o n l y be
understood t h r o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e common
bond a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h mechanisms, which is of
course t h e time dependent flow s t r u c t u r e . \
At an early stage Mollo-Christensen 22
r e c o g n i z e d t h e importance of l a r g e s c a l e flow
s t r u c t u r e s t o t h e j e t noise problem. His
experimental studies inferred that turbulence i n a
j e t mixing l a y e r is composed of w e l l d e f i n e d
packages in which c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c y components
p r e s e r v e t h e i r phase over s e v e r a l j e t d i a m e t e r s .
Highly c o h e r e n t l a r g e scale flow s t r u c t u r e s , i f
t h e y e x i s t e d i n h i g h Reynolds number j e t plumes,
would be e x p e c t e d t o be h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t e m i t t e r s

t h a t p r e s e n t s o l u t i o n s a v a i l a b l e from t h e A c o u s t i c of sound i f t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d a r a p i d d i s t o r t i o n a t
Analogy Approach have n o t as y e t s u f f i c i e n t l y some p o i n t d u r i n g t h e i r l i f e t i m e . L i t t l e near
evolved t o p r e d i c t tk domJ.nant noise component of f i e l d c a n c e l l a t i o n would occur, and i f convected
full scale high performance military type at s u p e r s o n i c speed would have a lifetime
engines. Even worse, when shocks are p r e s e n t i n s u f f i c i e n t t o produce i n t e n s e b a l l i s t i c shock
t h e plume of a s u p e r s o n i c e n g i n e , t h e second waves l i k e t h o s e shown i n f i g u r e 1. E x p e r i m e n t a l
phenomenon, which is nut accounted f o r i n t h e e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e of l a r g e s c a l e
present Lilley type solutions, completely w a v e l i k e s t r u c t u r e s i n h i g h speed j e t plumes has
dominates a c o u s t i c r a d i a t i o n t o a l l o t h e r a n g l e s been around a t least as long as L i g h t h i l l ' s
not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h eddy Mach wave r a d i a t i o n . theory. The s p a r k S c h l i e r e n photographs r e p o r t e d
Shock containing plumes are always to be by P o w e l l z 3 i n 1953 r e v e a l e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of a
a n t i c i p a t e d with f u l l s c a l e supersonic engines. h e l i c a l wavelike s t r u c t u r e i n t h e shock c o n t a i n i n g
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e second phenomenon when plume from a choked sonic nozzle. More r e c e n t
s h o c k s are p r e s e n t i n a s u p e r s o n i c plume c o n s i d e r experimental invy+tigations by McLaughliq
t h e s p a r k S c h l i e r e n p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d of f i g u r e Morrison,and T r o u t t , and T r o u t t and McLaughlin S
2 associated with the underexpanded flow have c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of such
(Pe/Pa=3.05) from an unheated sonic n o z z l e of s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o j e t
d i a m e t e r 3.960 cm. Two d i s t i n c t wave f i e l d s noise p r o d u c t i o n f o r low and moderate Reynolds
appear superimposed around the jet plume number s u p e r s o n i c J e t s w i t h presumably shock f r e e
boundary. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e waves t h a t are flow. T h e o r e t i c a l roodels have been proposed t o
i n c l i n e d a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e Mach a n g l e as in t h e p h y s i c a l l y a c c o u n t f o r such s t r u c t u r e s in h i g h
p r e v i o u s example, a second set of w a v e f r o n t s can s p e s $ j e t plumes. Tam and Burtonz6 and Norris and
be observed whose p r o p a g a t i o n p a t h a p p e a r t o be Tam have f o r example c o n s t r u c t e d such t h e o r i e s L
d i r e c t e d s l i g h t l y upstream w i t h o r i g i n s c e n t e r e d based on an i n s t a b i l i t y wave model f o r t h e
near t h e t e r m i n a l l o c a t i o n s of shock waves i n t h e s u p e r s o n i c plume and have o b t a i n e d i m p r e s s i v e
j e t mixing l a y e r . These waves are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h agreement w i t h measured inear and f a r f i e l d
t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of c o n v e c t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s w i t h a a c o u s t i c r e s u l t s i n t h e p r i n c i p l e d i r e c t i o n of
shock wave. e m i s s i o n f o r shock f r e e f l o w s . For t h i s speed
The e a r l y t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i a t i o n s of t h i s regime, ,$his was t h e r e g i o n where T e s t e r and
mechanism by Ribner", Lighthilll', and iloore16 Szewczyk could not achieve satisfactory
c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r e f f o r t s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e agreement w i t h measured d a t a u s i n g t h e a n a l o g y
physical p r o c e s s involved when an a r b i t r a r y method.
d i s t u r b a n c e i n t e r a c t s w i t h a s i n g l e weak shock With t h e above t h o u g h t s i n mind, t h i s review
wave. These t h e o r i e s p r e d i c t e d t h a t t u r b u l e n c e on paper w i l l p r i m a r i l y c o n s i d e r t h e two dominant
c o n v e c t i o n through a shock wave would g i v e r i s e t o n o i s e p r o d u c t i o n mechanisms f o r h i g h speed j e t
Kovasznay's " three modal fluctuations of plumes t h a t are expected t o be p r e s e n t i n f u l l
v o r t i c i t y , e n t r o p y , and sound. The sound mode w a s s c a l e e n g i n e s of h i g h performance a i r c r a f t . In
found to have a preference for upstream k e c p i n g w i t h t h e above d i s c u s s i o n t h e s e dominant
r a d i a t i o n . L a t e r a n a l y s i s on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of a components w i l l be termed eddy Mach wave r a d i a t i o n
v o r t e x f i l a m e n t w i t h a plane shock e n e r a t e d i n a to describe the mechanism associated with
shock t be were conducted bToRibne$8, Weeks and d i s t u r b a n c e s t h a t have components w i t h s u p e r s o n i c
LlosanjhP9, and Pao and Salas . Their t h e o m t i c a l phase s p e e d , and shock noise t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
r e s u l t s are i n agreement w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n t e r a c t i o n of c o n v e c t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s w i t h a
shock typ" measurements of Hallingswortli and Shock wave. Also considered is noise,
R i c h a r d s , whose S c h l i e r e n d a t a d a t e shows conventionally known as jet mixing noise.
d e t a i l s of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s and r e s u l t i n g Examination of t h i s component is unavoidable when
sound f i e l d . Over t h e 'years application of t h e s e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e eddy Mach wave mechanism. This
shock n o i s e t h e o r i e s t o t h e shock c o n t . i i n i n g component, which is c l e a r l y o b s e r v a b l e i n l p w
s u p e r s o n i c plume problem was p r i m a r i l y i n h i b i t e d speed f l o w s , is a d e q u a t e l y p r e d i c t e d by models 3
by l a c k of d e t a i l c o n c e r n i n g t h e a x i a l evolution based on t h e A c o u s t i c Analogy Approach. Noise
of t h e complex f l o w f i e l d . produced by combustion d r i v e n i n s t a b i l i t i e s s h a l l
Recently obtained experimental evidence not be c o n s i d e r e d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e
examining aerodynamic a s p e c t s of t h i s complcx f l o w two dominant noise p r o d u c t i o n mechanisms under

2
 consideration will be examined using available
experimental evidence. The current capability to
predict the noise produced by these important
mechanisms will be examined from the perspective
of the new mtivating factors at NASA Langley. A
specific example for future application of
aeroacoustics technology will be illustrated. and
two noise reduction mechanisms w i l l be discussed
, due to their merit a8 practical alternatives to
engine nozzle design. We will begin the review
first by considering shock noise, since it is much
easier to establiah a relationship between large
scale structure and noise emission.
Shock Associated Noise
Imperfectly expanded supersonic plumes
contain an almost periodic train of shock waves
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whose decay rate is governed by dynamlcs of the
plume's turbulent mixing layer. The acoustic
field associated with such plumes exhibits two
fundamental features that characterize the
mechanism of shock n o i s e . These features are most
easily observed at large angles to the jet axis as
shown in the example far field (R/U=73.)
narrowband acoustic power spectrum of figure 3 .
This particular spectrum is obtained by operating
a nozzle designed for an exhaust Mach number of 2
at a nozzle pressure ratio appropriate for a
nozzle designed for an exhaust Mach mmber of
1.5. Thus for this illustration the unheated flow
is overexpanded having a nozzle exit to ambient
static pressure ratio of 0.47. The acoustic data
refers to free field conditions at 0=1509 to the
jet axis.
As indicated in figure 3 the spectrum is
composed of contributions from several
mechanisms. The dominating spectral components
above a Strouhal number St=fU/V.-0.38 (D. jet
diameter; V., fully expanded 'ielocity) are
4 associated wilth the shock noise mechanism. These
components would not be present if the jet plume
were shock f r e e , as would occur if the nozzle
instead were designed to produce an exhaust Mach
of 1.5 for the same nozzle pressure ratio. AS can
be seen in figure 3 the shock noise mechanism
produces a discrete spectral component and a band
limited broadband component ykth an identifiable
spectrum peak value. Powell developed a model
to predict the discrete component, which he call
jet screech, and later Harper-Bourne and Fisher54
developed a model based in part on Powell's
concept to predict the broadband shock noise
component. In the following we shall examine
progress made on understanding each of the shock
noise mechanisms individually, but shall later
include a discussion of common features between
them.
Jet Screech
In order to place recent jet screech results
in perspective, it is worthwhile to first recall
some of the major fin ings from the pioneering
research of Powell2 3 * 2 ' . His studies on choked
jet noise were confined to sonic n o z z l e s ( % . e . ,
those with an exhaust Mach number of 1.) which
were either two-dimensional or axisymetric.
Powell noted that increasing nozzle pressure
ratios were accompanied by increasing screech tone
W
3
wavelengths, and that the tone had a strong
preference to propagate back to the nozzle exit.
The screech data of Powell's consisted of
discontinuous and disjoint frequency jumps with
nozzle pressure ratio for axisymmetric nozzles,
whereas the two-dimensional nozzle exhibited a
smooth variation of screech wavelengtp with nozzle
pressure ratio. Davies and Oldfield were among
the first to later show that the various screech
modes reported by Powell were not disjoint, but
actually overlapped indicating that several modes
could either simultaneously exist, or that the
plume's preference for a particular mode switched
randomly back and forth.
The screech tone data presented i n figure 4
is included to illustrate what has been typically
observed by numerous investigators since Powell
for the unheated flow from axisymmetric nozzles.
The data only includes values of jet screech that
are clearly identifiable in the measured
narrowband spectra. The fundamental screech tone
wavelength As, inferred from measurement of the
fundamental screech frequency, were obtained near
the nozzle exit (R/D=2.44; 0=90'), and are
presented as a function of the jet plume's fully
expanded Mach number Mj (*.e., Mj can be
determined from the nozzle pressure ratio through
the isentropic relations). The data in figure 4
clearly show the existence of the discontinuous
frequency jumps, and show that for most fully
expanded jet plume Mach numbers, at least two
fundamental modes can be preferred. The various
modes have been labeled according to established
convention, except for the E mode which does not
appear to have been measured by previous
investigators.
Using information such as tl& and
photographic Schlieren records, Powell noted
that an integral relationship could be established
between variations in acoustic wavelength and
corresponding changes in the shock cell and flow
disturbance spacings. Most important of all, he
observed from far field acoustic data that the
screech tones were not Doppler shifted. which
implied that the mechanism of jet screech could be
modelled by stationary sources. From this and the
above observations Powell proposed a mechanism for
jet screech based on a self-sustained aeroacoustic
feedback loop. The resonant phenomenon was
maintained by the shedding of an embryo
disturbance at the nozzle exit by the passing of
sound past the nozzle lip. The disturbance was
amplified as it evolved downstream, and at a
certain point achieved sufficient energy to
interact with several consecutive shocks to
produce intense noise. Powell modelled this
process by using an array of several stationary
point monopoles located at the shock termination
points in the shear layer. whose phasing was
determined by the disturbance convection
velocity. From this model he obtained good
agreement between measured and computed
directivities of the fundamental and several
higher order harmonics of jet screech.
Norurn3' recently examined Powell's phased
linear array model in connection with a study on
screech suppression by means of altering nozzle
exit conditions from choked t u b e n o z z l e s . Example
comparisons between the measured and Powell
predicted acoustic far field ( R / D = 9 2 ) directivity
of jet screech obtained by Norum3' are shorn in
figure 5 for the C-mode screech of figure 4 at
 Mj=1.49. As can be seen excellent agreement was
achieved using the Powell model for the
fundamental and to a lesser extent harmonics
through the third order. Further confirmation of
the importance of feedback in the Powell model has
been demonstrated by investigators using baffles
near the nozzle exit. Far example Glass3' found
that a hard wall reflector near the nozzle exit
could enhance the initial energy of disturbances
at the nozzle exit leading to screech tones of
much larger amplitudes and plumes with substantial
increase in spread rate. On the other hand mo
recent applications have be n employed by Norum
and Naagel and Papathanasioua to eliminate screech
through cancellation of the upstream propagating
screech tones by their reflected counterpart from
a baffle.
While the Powell model of jet screech has
been of great assistance in describing the zeneral
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jet screech is axisymmetric for the A1 mode, and
helical for the B mode. The heated flow
illustration of figure b c , where the exit to
Static temperature ratio T,/T,=1.96 and
Mj=l.12, show that the preferred structure
remains axisymmetric. No phase averaged Schlieren
record could be taken of the B mode structure with
heated f l o w at T,/T,=l.96 due to the absence
of screech. Also evident from these illustrations L
is an indication of where screech is principally
generated. The unheated flow results show intense
near field pressures in the vicinity of the third
55 through the seventh shock diamond. The heated
flow result shows that intense emission occurs
slightly further downstream, and that the phase
fronts are curved through the shear layer
presumably because one can estimate a supersonic
disturbance convection Mach number
M,=0.7 Vj/ao=1.09, where Vj is the fully

features of the phenomenon, there continue to be
many unexplained physical observations of the jet
screech mechanism that are not fully understood.
Some of these naturally involve the influence of
forward flight and total temperature. but perhaps
more important is an appropriate explanation for
the discontinuous frequency jumps, preference for
source emission points from shock locations
distant from the nozzle exit. absence of Doppler
shift for radiated screech tones when both shocks
and flow disturbances are in motion, and
prediction of multimode Structure with
corresponding amplitudes. It should be noted that
the predicted screech tone amplitude levels i n the
directivity comparisons of figure 5 were obtained
only by scaling to the measured levels. In the
following an attempt is made to examine each issue
based on recently acquired evidence. The
discontinuous frequency jumps shall be considered
first.
expanded plume Mach number and a, the ambient
sound speed.
The helical flow pattern exhibited by the B
stage screech mode also shows that the remaining
shock cell pattern beyond the region of the second
shock cell is perturbed from the center of the jet
a x i s in response to the local fluid dynamic
helical structure. With helical structure there
is a substantial increase in both the plume spread
and shock wave decay rates as compared to a plume
with axisymmetric structure. In addition to the
A1 stage being axisymmetric Davies and
old field'^'^ photographic records show that the A2
stage is also axisymmetric, and that both the B
and C stages are helical. The A0 stage is
presumed axial from observation of plume spresd
rate. and the structure associated with stage E i s
unknown. Even though multiple modes can be
associated with a given value of Mj, only one is
found to dominate for that value of3,Mj
previously shown by Westley and Woolley
sonic axieymmetric nozzles with thin exit lips and
. as
For

Discontinuous Frequency Jumps sharp exterior taper the axisymmetric made is L,

dominant below Mj=1.17, and helical
Aside from both Powell'sz8 and ham mitt'^^^
observation that two-dimensional jets do not have
structure above this value. nor:/'^'^
reflector experiments with choked tube nozzles
baffle

discontinuous frequency jumps o r multi-ma indicate that the regton of dominance around
Structure. the limited data of Seiner and Norumj% M,=I.L7 can be affected depending on whether the
with convergent-divergent nozzles designcd for baffle is positioned for enhancement or
exhaust Mach numbers of 1.5 and 2.0 also indicate cancellation of a particular modal structure. I n
that only a single mode structure exists. Thus general the figure 4 data represents what is
the sonic axisymmetric, nozzle would appear to typically observed for the sonic round Jet. That
represent a special case. P r i ~ t j ~ r e s e a r c h for
, is axisymmetric or toroldal structure is limited
example by uavies and Oldfield , relate the to low values of Mj. This also corresqyds to
nature of these frequency discontinuities to a the phase averaged results of Ku and Seiner , who
change in the preferred spatial Structure in the found that helical structure was preferred over
flow disturbance associated with jet screech. To anisymmetric structure f o r both overexpanded and
illustrate this point consider the A I and H underexpanded flow from axisymmetric supersonic
screech modes at respective value of E,-c . - l . l l and nozzles (i.e., design Mach numbers M.j=1.5 and
1.22 fxom the figure 4 data. These values of M j 2.0) operating over the range 1.25Mj<2.2&.
are selected since the data indicates the presence 'Only a small region of axisymmetric structure was
of a single mode. Figure 6 displays a Series of f o w d near Mj=1.22 for the &=1.5 nozzle.
phase averaged Schlieren records associated with Rased on these results it is worth noting that
these fully expanded plume Mach numbers, where even though the fully expanded velocity Vj of
both the flow and near pressure field are locked the heated flow example of figure 6c exceeds the
to a given phase of the fundamental screech highest value for the unheated results of Ku and
cycle. The experimental methodology for this Seiner and the data of figure 4, the
Schlieren techni e is the same as that reported preferred Structure remains axisymmetric.
by YU and seinergY. Figure 6a and 6c respectlvely Presumably this could occur, for the value of M.
refer to unheated and heated flow around between heated and unh%ated results are nearly
Mj=l.ll, and figure 6b to unheated flow at identical i n the figure 6a and 6c illustrations.
M.-1.22. For unheated flow the illustrations The photographic illustrations of figure 6
siiw that the spatial structure associated with and prior cited research indicate that the

4
 wavelength jumps i n f i g u r e 4 are accompanied by
the plume's adjustment t o a new preferred
s t r u c t u r e , and t h a t t h e f u l l y expanded Mach number
M is t h e i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r i n d e t e r m i n i n g
d e t h e r t h e s t r u c t u r e is t o r o i d a l or h e l i c a l .
Even though t h e s e r e s u l t s have p r o v i d e d i n s i g h t
i n t o t h e mcchanism of j e t s c r e e c h . t h e y now l e a v e
us w i t h t h e problem of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p h y s i c a l where w is t h e r a d i a n s c r e e c h t o n e f r e q u e n c y , ro
1 p r o c e s s t h a t c o n t r o l s s e l e c t i o n of p r e f e r r e d modal and r j d i s t a n c e s t o f a r f i e l d l o c a t i o n from
structure. n o z z l e e x i t and j t h monopole source, e a n g l e t o
T h i s q u e s t i o n is examined in t h e Yu and t h e j e t a x i s , Sd monopole source s t r e n g t h , a,
37 ambient sound s p e e d , and V, and MC t h e f l u j d
Seiner paper. W e s t l e y and Woolley3' have
p r e v i o u s l y demonstrated t h a t the h e l i c a l s t r u c t u r e d i s t u r b a n c e c o n v e c t i o n v e l o c i t y and Mach number.
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j e t s c r e e c h r o t a t e s around t h e j e t Maximum a m p l i t u d e of t h e far f i e l d a c o u s t i c
column a t t h e fundamental s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y . The p r e s s u r e occurs a t t h o s e f a r f i e l d l o c a t i o n s where
phaSe a v e r a g e d S c h l i e r e n r e c o r d s o f f i g u r e 7 , s i g n a l s from a l l sources i n t h e a r r a y a r r i v e
which cover one c o m p l e t e c y c l e of screech, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , which from e q u a t i o n 1 can occur
i n d i c a t e t h i s f o r t h e Md=z n o z z l e a t Mj=l.58. if,
Along t h e s o n i c s u r f a c e , which c o r r e s p o n d s roughly
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Lo( l-Mccose)/Vc = 2nn (2)

t o t h e j e t I i p l i n e , t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l phase
speed of t h e h e l i x is C nfsD and t h e t o t a l
phase speed is 9=
Cp=(a, +Ce2) I/ 2. It is where n is an i n t e g e r . Thus from e q u a t i o n 2 t h e
unreasonable to expect that Cp should fundamental f r e q u e n c y and a s s o c i a t e d harmonics f o r
s u b s t a n t i a l l y exceed a t y p i c a l j e t plume v e l o c i t y , maximum r e i n f o r c e m e n t a t a g i v e n a n g l e E t o t h e
say V j . With d e c r e a s i n g v a l u e s f o r M j t h e j e t axis would be,
plume's fully expanded velocity of course
d e c r e a s e s , but as shown i n f i g u r e 4 t h e screech
( 3)
f r e q u e n c y increases and 60 a l s o t h e e x p e c t e d value
of Ce. A t some p o i n t t h e r e s h o u l d be a
t r a n s i t i o n from h e l i c a l t o a x i s y m m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e , E q u a t i o n 3 is t h e Same as t h a t o b t a i n e d by
f o r o t h e r w i s e one would e s t i m a t e t h a t Cp>V.. Harper-Bourne and F i s h e r 2 ' t o p r e d i c t s p e c t r u m
There are several problems witi this peak a m p l i t u d e l e v e l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h broadband
concept. F i r s t i t p r e d i c t s mode t r a n s i t i o n from shock n o i s e , a t o p i c t o be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e n e x t
h e l i c a l t o a x i s y m m e t r i c a t t o o large a value of section. TO o b t a i n a p r e d i c t i o n f o r s c r e e c h
M j . and second c a n n o t e x p l a i n why t h e h e a t e d f r e q u e n c y t h a t involves t h e f e e d b a c k l o o p in t h e
r e s u l t of f i g u r e 6c s t i l l p r e f e r s a x i s y m e t r i c Powell model, t h e a n g l e e=n r e p r e s e n t s the
Structur'C. Based on t h e h e a t e d flow r e s u l t s i t d i r e c t i o n where maximum s y s t e m g a i n can be
may a p p e a r more reasonable to expect that achieved. Thus from e q u a t i o n 3 t h e Powell
a x i s y m m e t r i c s t r u c l u r e would be d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t e d f u n d a m e n t a l s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y can be
m a i n t a i n when t h e flow s t r u c t u r e is convected a t a e x p r e s s e d as,
g r e a t e r speed t h a n t h c speed a t which p r e s s u r e
/ d i s t u r b a n c e s can be t r a n s m i t t e d a c r o s s t h e j e t
plume t o m a i n t a i n s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n i n t h e flow. I n
t h e h e a t e d and u n h e a t e d f l o w example of f i g u r e 6 ,
t h i s r a t i o between t h e f l o w s t r u c t u r e s c o n v e c t i o n
v e l o c i t y t o t h e l o c a l sound speed has remained where from t h e c r o s s e d l a s e r bean e x p e r i m e n t s of
COnStdnt, as has the basic preference for Harper-Bourne and Fisher" the disturbance
axisymmetric S t r u c t u r e . The above arguments are c o n v e c t i o n v e l o c i t y is e s t i m a t e d as
h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e and much more r e s e a r c h is Vc = 0.7 V (5)
required to understand fully the physical 1
mechanism responslble for preferred spatial
StCUCture. and from Tam and Tanna" t h e r a t i o of the fully
expanded plume d i a m e t e r D j t o t h e j e t exit
d i a m e t e r is g i v e n by.
Jet Screech Frequency and Shear Layer
Instabilities

I n t h i s s e c t i o n we will c o n s i d e r r e c e n t
p r o g r e s s made i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n of t h e j e t s c r e e c h
f r e q u e n c y and show how C u r r e n t research r e l a t e s
t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s t o t h o s e measured f o r t h e most
u n s t a b l e mode of t h e s u p e r s o n i c s h e a r l a y e r .
H a m m i t t 3 5 was one of t h e f i r s t t o r e c o g n i z e an
e x p l i c i t r e l a t i o n between t h e s e two mechanisms i n
h i s s t u d y of choked two-dimensional j e t s .
We s h a l l f i r s t b e g i n by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
p r e d i c t e d s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y as o b t a i n e d from t h e
Powell model. The f a r f i e l d acoustic p r e s s u r e P
r e s u l t i n g from a phased linear a r r a y of monopgle
sources spaced a n e q u a l d i s t a n c e L a p a r t can be
I __
W r L L L e n as,
where M j and Md are In t h e u s u a l n o t a t i o t I
E q u a t i o n 6 , which can be d e r i v e d from Packs
l i n e a r i z e d a n a l y s i s . h a s been used by Tam and
Tanna t o c o r r e l a t e t h e peak Spectrum v a l u e of
broadband s h o c k noise f o r various nozzles w i t h
d i f f e r e n t s u p e r s o n i c e x h a u s t Mach numbers.
I n e q u a t i o n 4 t h e d i s t a n c e between che
monopole s o u r c e s L (i.e., t h e d i s t a n c e between
shock cells) approximated by an a v e r a g e s h o c k
c e l l s p a c i n g L , which w e i g h t s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
l e n g t h scale f o r t h e problem c l o s e r t o t h e s p a c i n g
of shock cells where t h e near f i e l d p r e s s u r e is
most i n t e n s e as i n t h e f i g u r e 6 p h o t o g r a p h s .

v
5
 Numerical prediction of shock cell spacing
is d e f e r r e d t o a l a t e r s e c t i o n of t h i s paper.
While o p t i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s have i n t h e p a s t been
emplor5d t o d e t e r m i n e shock s p a c i n g , S e i n e r and
Norum chose-to use plume S t a t i c pressure s u r v e y s
t o d e t e r m i n e L f o r a g i v e n n o z z l e as a f u n c t i o n of
M.. F i g u r e 8a shows a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e z x a m p l e of
t& method employed t o d e t e r m i n e L. This
aerodynamic d a t a , which is a c q u i r e d a l o n g t h e
c e n t e r l l n e of a Q=Z nozzle a t Mj=2.24, c h a r t s
t h e v a r i a t i o n of mean s t a t i c p r e s s u r e as a s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e prob; d e s i g n e d f o r s u p e r s o n i c f l o w is
t r a v e r s e d t h r o u g h t h e compression and e x p a n s i o n
zones of t h e s h o c k c e l l s . The d i f f e r e n c e between
t h e l o c a l minimum and maximum s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s can
be t a k e n as p r o p o r t i o n a l t o shock wave s t r e n g t h ,
so t h a t t h e d a t a p r o v i d e s a good i n d i c a t i o n as t o
t h e a x i a l e x t e n t and decay r a t e of t h e shock wave
field. The shock cell s p a c i n g d e r i v e d from t h i s
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The o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e fundamental s c r e e c h
f r e q u e n c y f a l l s s e n s i b l y near a v a l u e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e most u n s t a b l e s h e a r l a y e r mode f o r a
g i v e n f u l l y expanded Mach number M j is of g r e a t
value. Azimuthal p h a s e a v e r a g e d measurements of
t h e most u n s t a b l e modes i n t h e j e t s h e a r l a y e r
r e p o r t e d by M o r r i s o n and M ~ L a u g t i l i n ' ~ show t h a t
t h e s t r u c t u r e is h e l i c a l f o r shock f r e e s u p e r s o n i c
j e t s where &=Mj>l.4, and c o n t a i n s s i g n i f i c a n t \
a x i s y m m e t r i c S t r u c t u r e when Mj=0.9. The h e l i c a l
s t r u c t u r e r e p o r t e d c o n s i s t e d of both a r i g h t and
l e f t hand h e l i x of t h e e x p e c t e d s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e
of jet screech. The low Reynolds number
s u p e r s o n i c e x p e r i m e n t s o f t e n show t h e e x i s t e n c e of
a multi-mode s t r u c t u r e , a l t h o u g h t h e values used
i n f i g u r e 9 a p p l y t o t h e dominant mode f o r a g i v e n
v a l u e of M j .
Whether t h e s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y c o r r e s p o n d s
p r e c i s e l y t o t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e most u n s t a b l e

method is found t o be i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h s h e a r l a y e r modes remains a m a t t e r of s p e c u l a t i o n ,

Pack's'' t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e r i v e d p r i m a r y wavelength but an a r e a c u r r e n t l y b e i n g pursued t h e o r e t i c a l l y
Ll/D, and t h e o p t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d s e c o n d a r y by Tam46947. The p o s s i b i l i t y c e r t a i n l y e x i s t s
wavelength Lz/D of Love, Grigsby. Lee and f o r i t would a l s o a p p e a r t h a t t h e j e t noise
W ~ o d l i n g ~ ~Both . of t h e s e shock w a v e l e n g t h s are mechanism must be dependent on Some form of
-
i n d i c a t e d i n f l g u r e 8a i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a v e r a g e
L. F i g u r e 8 b , which is r e p r o d u c e d from r e f e r e n c e
a c o u s t i c f e e d b a c k so as t o p r o v i d e a means for t h e
observed S t r o u h a l number s c a l i n g . P e r h a p s one
42, p r o v i d e s an i n d i c a t e d measure of how t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e most u n s t a b l e s h e a r l a y e r mode
measured f o r several nozzles varies w i t h the becomes a u d i b l e as j e t s c r e e c h is t h a t t h e f l u i d
plume's f u l l y expanded Mach number where, dynamic d i s t u r b a n c e , which in t h i s case a p p e a r s t o
be a coherent large scale structure, is
E/D = at3b a(M
j
* - l)b/2 (7) s u b s t a n t i a l l y a m p l i f i e d on i n t e r a c t i o n w l t h shock
waves w i t h o u t change i n a v e r a g e axial s p a t i a l
s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n on broadband shock
The c o e f f i c i e n t s a and b o b t a i n e d f o r t h e t h r e e
n o i s e , e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e is p r e s e n t e d t h a t
nozzles Q = l . O , 1.5 and 2.0 are l i s t e d i n f i g a r e
tends t o support t h i s concept.
8. -
With t h e s e e s t i m a t e s f o r Vc and L i n
e q u a t i o n 4 , f i g u r e 9 shows measured and p r e d i c t e d
Prediction of Jet Screech Amplitude
v a l u e s f o r t h e fundamental s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y u s i n g
a l l t h e d a t a of f i g u r e 4 e x c e p t t h e E mode. Also
While l i t t l e has been done by way of
i n c l u d e d is t h e s u p e r s o n i c n o z z l e i t Mach number
p r e d i c t i n g t h e a m p l i t u d e of j e t s c r e e c h ,
f a r f i e l d d a t a of S e i n e r and Norum". The d a t a is
i m p o r t a n c e h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d by Hay and Rose iE8
p r e s e n t e d as a f u n c t i o n of t h e f u l l y expanded Mach \\

who documented sonic f a t i g u e f a i l u r e due t o

number M j , and as is e v i d e n t t h e d a t a from t h e in-flight j e t s c r e e c h f o r a VC-IO subsonic
various n o z z l e s are d e c e n t l y c o l l a p s e d w i t h f a i r
aircraft. I n view of t h e new major emphasis a t
p r e d i c t i o n b e i n g a f f o r d e d by e q u a t i o n 4. Also
NASA Langley to predict noise from high
i n c l u d e d i n f i g u r e 9 are t h e measured S t r o u h a l
performance aircraft it is clear t h a t more
number v a l u e s f o r t h e most u n s t a b l e f r e q u e n c i e s of
emphasis w i l l be placed In t h e future on
t h e s u p e r s o n i c f r e e j e t s h e a r l a y e r as measured in
p r e d i c t i n g t h e a m p l i t u d e of j e t s c r e e c h .
t h e low Reynolds numb r e x p e r i m e n t s of McLaughlin,
P r e d i c t i o n of s c r e e c h a m p l i t u d e is of course
M o r r i s o n , and T r o u t t f 4 and r e c e n t l y t a b u l a t e d by
e x t r e m e l y complex, since as t h e r e f l e c t i n g b a f f l e
Morrison and M ~ L a u g h l i n ~ ~ .The d a r k c i r c u l a r e x p e r i m e n t s have shown, t h e a m p l i t u d e can g r e a t l y
symbols i n d i c s t e t h i s d a t a , and also incl.ude a
s u b s o n i c v a l u e of M j . depend on i n i t i a l j e t boundary coj5ditions. As an
i n i t i a l a t t e m p t , Yu and Seiner attempted t o
Figure 9 is representative of results
r e l a t e s i m p l e p a r a m e t e r s of t h e shock c o n t a i n i n g
p r e v i o l y r e p o r t e d by Hu and McLaughlin4', Yu and
plume t o t h o s e r e g i o n s where s c r e e c h was most
SeinerY' and most r e c e n t l y by Tam et a146. Tam's
i n t e n s e and t h e a m p l i t u d e s t a b l e w i t h time. The
r e s u l t s are of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t f o r i n s t e a d of
p h o t o g r a p h i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s of f i g u r e 7 r e p r e s e n t
e m p i r i c a l values f o r V c and T i n e q u a t i o n 4 ,
an example of t h i s f o r t h e overexpanded flow from
a n a l y t i c e x p r e s s i o n s were d e r i v e d f o r t h e s e u s i n g
t h e Md=2 n o z z l e . For t h i s case i t was observed
an i n s t a b i l i t y wave a n a l y s i s f o r t h e flow
t h a t b o t h t h e s c r e e c h wavelength A s and t h e
s t c u c t w e c o u p l e d t o a m u l t i p l e - s c a l e s model of
a x i a l i n s t a b i l i t y w a v e l e n g t h , s a y A,, were b o t h
t h e shock cell S t r u c t u r e . The major d i f f e r e n c e
n e a r l y equal t o t w i c e t h e shock c e l l s p a c i n g
between t h e o b s e r v e d S t r o u h a l number b e h a v i o r
1.2. The s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y ' s wavelength was
shown in f i g u r e 9 and t h e p r e v i o u s r e s u l t s is t h a t found t o be s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e
t h e d a t a of f i g u r e 9 i n c l u d e s a l l t h e multi-mode flow's helical structure. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e i t was
s c r e e c h d a t a and not j u s t C mode t y p e s c r e e c h p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e upstream p r o p a g a t i n g s c r e e c h
r e f e r r e d t o p r e v i o u s l y as i n t e n s e s t a b l e s c r e e c h .
t o n e would p r o v i d e maximum r e i n f o r c e m e n t t o t h e
The t h r e e p r e d i c t e d curves in f i g u s 9 are p r o c e s s as i t p a s s e d s u b s e q u e n t shock c e l l s on i t s
r e l a t i v e t o e a c h t y p e of nozzle where L has been t r a v e l t o t h e nozzle e x i t .
d e f i n e d from e q u a t i o n 7. and are used t o i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e d a t a d o e s not f a l l on a u n i v e r s a l curve
b e c a u s e of t h e multi-mode s t r u c t u r e .

6
 To test the general validity of this
observation we can use the screech frequency data
of figure 9 to estimate the axial wavelength of
the associated fluid dynamic structure, l i b that
shown in figure 6 . Since the frequency of both
the screech and instability wave are the same, we
have that
,
Using this relation and equation 4 we have
alternatively,
where the average shock cell spacing shall again
be taken as the relevant parameter. Figure IO
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displays the estimated axial wavelength of the
flow structure associated with jet screech, and 88
can be observed in almost all instances where
screech has been measured the structure's
wavelength is nearly 2 i . This is especially true
for the helical type of fluid dynamic structure.
The axisymmetric A2 mode which lies closer to
A,/i-3/2 is never found to be a particularly
intense screech mode. The results of figure 10
may imply that a gener_al criteria for audible jet
Screech is when AXIL is near 2. For those
instability waves that do not Satisfy this
relation, insufficient gain is achieved for
detection.
The data of figure 10 indicate that it was not
unusual for Yu and Seiner to find Ax/L2 near
2. The second condition for intense screech was
when As/L2 was also near 2. Figures lla and
llb display the measured amplitude levels for
AJi .
fundamental screech tones and the variation of
as a function OF M Figure 11a ahows
the recorded sonic nozzle data for both the B and
c C stage of screech. and figure llb the results for
the Q '
1.
5 and 2.0 nozzles. As indicated from
the measurements i n figure Ila, the screech
amplitude remains nearly constant over the range
of Mj where helical structure i s found. The B
stage screech dominates both high and low values
of Mj, but abruptly yields to stage screech in
the central region. While AslL decreases toward
a value near 2 in this region, no general
conclusion can be drawn about its Eignificance.
From figure Ilb we see that the As/L value near
2 represents a special case for the Q=2 nozzle,
and again no general conclusion concerning of
significance of AJZ can be drawn.
I n c nection with the earlier work of Seiner
and Norum", it was shown that the strength of the
downstream shocks asymptote to a given strength
when a Mach disc is present in the plume, like the
normal shock in figure 2, and the preferred flow
structure is modified by the basic annular
appearance of the plume. This occurs due to
non-isentropic losses associated with the strong
oblique shocks in the shear layer. Thus from
anywhere above a value of Mj=1.5 for the sonic
n o z z l e the strength of the downstream shock waves
do not increase, and as we see i n figure Ila
neither does the amplitude of measured screech.
AS the value of M is decreased toward the
design point of all the n o z z l e s examined the
amplitude of screech diminishes. For the nozzles
examined here, intense screech can always be
associated with strong shock wave amplitudes of
7
the downstream shock structure. Even though the
As/i=2 criterion may also lead to the most
intense screech for a given shock wave strength,
it by itself is not a reliable predictor for
maximum screech amplitude.
Influence of Temperature on Screech
For many years it was thought that jet
screech phenomenon would not be present in full
scale engines due to irregular nozzle exit
conditions, non-uniform exit velocity profile
and jet exhausts. The experiments of Jungowski&s
clearly demonstrate just how irregular a flow can
be and still generate jet screech. Antonw and
Sladkevich" report measuring jet screech for
model supersonic nozzles with design exhaust Mach
numbers ranging from Md=2.4 to 3.53 with gas
flow total temperatures to 2100'K. All their
nozzles were examined in the overexpanded regime
where the maximum value of M examined was near
2. Their results indicate tiat with increasing
jet total temperature the measured jet screech
appears to propagate mre downstream than toward
the nozzle exit. This may explain the general
appearance of the 6c photograph, and also why with
a microphone near the nozzle exit screech was not
recorded with heated flaw corresponding to the
figure 6b nozzle pressure ratio. As Antanov and
Sladkevich suggest this may be the main reason why
jet screech has been overlooked with hot gas jet
studies.
Roshford and TomsS1 also investigated the
influence of jet total temperature To on jet
screech from a sonic nozzle with Mj and To
ranging respectively to 1.9 and 800'K. They show
that with increased heating the screech frequency
increases for a fixed value of M.. Figures 12a
and 12b show the general trend observed with
increase in jet total temperature. This data,
recently acquired at NASA Langley, refers to the
AI screech mode at Mj=l.ll when initially
unheated. This particular screech mode
corresponds to the phase averaged Schlieren
results of figures 6a and 6c. As can be observed
in figure 12a the screech wavelength decreases as
heat is applied. The data is presented as a
function of the jet exit static to ambient
temperature ratio to later provide correlation to
results obtained with nozzles with supersonic
exhaust Mach numbers. Figure 12b displays the
same data, except as a Function of the estimated
convection Mach number.
The curves in figures 12a and 12b represent
predictions of the screech frequency using
equation 4 . The solid curve was obtained by
selecting for L Pack'e'' analytically derived
primary wavelength as given by
L~/O-1.31(Mj2-1)1/2. The dashed curve
assumes L is given by the average shock c e l l
spacing as defined by equation 7. The open and
solid symbols are used simply to distinguish the
two modal structures that appear.
As can be observed equation 4 provides
adequate account for the dependence of screech on
convection Mach number. The use of the primary
wavelength of Pack relative to the average shock
cell spacing suggests as is indicated in figure 6
that heated flows produce screech further
downstream than cold flows. Figure 12b shows that
 the modal structure, which begins as the A I mode
for unheated flow, disappears when & = I .
Based on the above observations. and
particularly those of Antonov and Sladkevick we
can expect jet screech to be present i n hot-gas
flows. However, thus far inclusion of jet total
temperature for predicting the frequency of jet
screech appears accounted for within the context
of the model proposed bT6 Powell" o r the
theoretical work of Tam et a1 . results refer to unheated sonic jet flows and the
Effects of PoNard Plight on Jet Screech
The influence of flight on noise emitted by
jet flows is extremely important i n assessing
whether one would expect sonic fatigue to occur.
In supersonic flight the noise generated by
interaction of disturbances with shock waves is
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not considered to play a fundamental role for one
expects to see partial transmission of plume
shocks to free Gpace. However, even for current
generation supersonic fighter aircraft, the
majority of flight hours involve operation at
subsonic forward flight speeds where the nozzle
pressure ratio is still supercritical.
The study of shock generated noise with
simulated forward flight represen s a reasonably
new area for current research'2-54, and one
which requires much more research to derive full
understanding of the physical process involved.
By way of illustration we consider the complex
behavior of the unheated sonic plume wlth
relatively low forward flight speeds (i.e.,
Shearin .
Mf=0.15~5 as recently reported by Norum and
Figures 13a and llb reproduced from
data in their report show respectively the
centerline variation of measured static pressure
with downstream distance and far field narrowhand
acoustic data for several angles to the jet a x i s
for both static and simulated forward flight. 'The
acoustic data shows the B stage screech mode
obtained at a value of Mj=1.38. The figure 13a
static pressure data shows that with an i n c r e a s e
in flight speed there is a slight increase i n the
measured shock cell spacing of the downstream
shocks. Figure 13b shows that the screech
frequency in flight is reduced, as might be
expected from equation 4 due to a slight increase
I n L. The results i n figure 13 are representative
of what may occur i n low speed simulated flight
when there is no shift i n the preferred modal
structure of screech.
To illustrate what can occur when the
preferred screech mode changes due to forward
flight $?wider the results obtained by Norum and
Shearin as shown i n figure 14a and 14b. In this
example the jet plume's fully expanded Mach number
has increased to Mj-1.67. The simulated forward
flight speed remained at Mf=0.15. Comparison of
the plume centerline static pressures in figure
14a show that with even this low speed simulation
the resulting shock structure has heen
substantially modified. While the average shock
wavelength has increased compared to the static
c a s e , the shock wave amplitude decay rate has been
substantially increased to where it begins to
emulate that found for B stage screech of the
figure 13 illustration. The acoustic data of
figure 14b, which for the static case is C stage
screech in the Norum and Shearin experiment, again
shows that the screech frequency has been
reduced. However as observed by them this change
i n frequency with corresponding change in shock
spacing can only be accounted for by equation 4 by
assuming that the preferred modal structure has
shifted to B stage screech. This example
illusLrates that the preferred modal Structure of
jet screech, as shown in the figure 4 screech
data, can be strongly influenced by forward
flight. It i s important to note that these
general result of figure 14 coiild be substantially
modified with heating due to a large increase i n
the fully expanded jet velocity relative to the
same forward flight value.
Location of P r i n c i p l e Region for Jet Screech
mssion
~-
From the above discussion in the preceding
sections, and particularly the illwtratlons of
figure 6 , screech 1s generated from shocks
that a r e not near the nozzle exit. We have also
shown that the most unstable jet shear layer modes
are close to what is measured as jet screech when
one equates fully expanded Mach number between
shock containing "2%shock free supersonic jets.
Hu and McLaughlin have shown that results
simil.ar to that obtained i n figure 9 can also be
observed i n low Reynolds number improperly
expanded supersonic j e From the theorflical
work of Tam and Burtonz'and Morris and Tam and
the ex erimental work of McLaughlin. Morris. and
Troutt" the most unstable shear layer modes grow
rapidly i n the annular region of flow, achieve
neutral stability near or slightly beyond the jet
potential core, and decay beyond this region.
These observations provide a plausible explanation
for the observation that screech is principally
generated f r m regions typically beyond the third
shock cell.
L
Stationary Source Model
We have shown t.hat the stationary linear monopole
array of phased sources as envisioned by Powell
predicts within a certain degree of accuracy the
screech frequency and associated directional
field. The accuracy is however dependent on ones
choice for the source or shock c e l l spacing and
convection velocity of the associated fluid
dynamic disturbance. It is surprising to the
author that fundamental experiments have still not
been conducted attempting to demonstrate that the
motion of the shocks, clearly evident on cine
records, i s phase locked to the motion of the
fluid dynamic disturbance. It would appear that
this i s a necessary condition to assume that jet
screech sources can be viewed as stationary.
Phased averaged cine records indicate that the
motion is phase locked, but detailed analysis is
required.
Broadband Shock Noise
We return now to consider the band limited
broadband spectral components of figure 3 that
have been denoted as broadband shock associated
noise. Detailed study of this component is $6
more recent vintage, Harper-Bourne and Fisher
'd
 making the first real attempt to model the
mechanism for the unheated flow of the shock
Containing supersonic jet plume as produced by a
choked sonic nozzle. Their model closely
parallels the concept of the Powell jet screech
model, where previously it was noted that equation
3 also represents their result for prediction of
the broadband component's spectrum peak value
, fP. Harper-Bourne and Fisher show good
agreement between measured and predicted Doppler
shifted spectrum peak values, where the Doppler
shift is associated with the (l-M,cose)-l term
in equation 3 . Figure 15. reproduced from
reference 5 6 , illustrates the associated Doppler
shift using a sequence of far field narrowband
spectra for various angles to the jet axis for the
same nozzle and fully expanded Mach number of the
figure 3 spectrum. Figure 15 shows that shack
noise in this illustration clearly dominates all
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other noise radiation at angles greater than 75"
to the jet axis. A l s o evident from figure 15 is
the appearance of a secondary spectrum peak value
that is typically always found to be less than
2fp.
Harper-Bourne and Fisher's experimental
results also show that the spectrum shape around
the spectrum peak value fp for any given value
of E is invariant to details of the associated
time dependent Structure in the supersonic shear
layer, that the mechanism can like jet screech be
associated with downstream shocks, and that the
energy produced by the shock noise mechanism is
proportional to shock wave strength as represented
by
I a B4 = (Mj2 - 1) 2 (10)
( i . e . , proportional to the pressure jump s uared
across a normal shock). Seiner and have
shown that this proportionality is only valid up
1
to a point where a Mach disc begins to form in the
plume, like the normal shock evident in the figure
2 photograph. Other than this broadband shock
noise energy was not found to be highly dependent
on in;$ial conditions as has jet screech energy.
Tanna shows that the Harper-Bourne and Fisher
model also provides satisfactory agreement for
measured data acquired from hot choked sonic
nozzle plumes.
Several new shock noise theorie have been
propo28d by Howe and Ffow s william^'^, Tam and
Tanna , and Pa0 and Seine)'. These theories are
basic, their formulation being founded on the
conservation equations. The Howe and Ffowcs
Williams theory envisions a continuum of
axisymmetric Vortex rings which, when convect d
through the weak shock wave field of Pack's",
interact with shocks and produce sound. Their
results indicate that the scattering of this noise
by the random turbulence and shocks gives rise to
the characteristic broadband spectral shape that
does not depend on initial specific ions of the
vortex sheet. In the Tam and Tanna?" theory the
physical mechanism for shock noise production is
viewed as arising from the interaction of a large
scale coherent Structure with the weak shock wave
field derivable from the linear inviscid theory
due to Pack. The sound is emitted in terms of
eddy Mach wave radiation when the coherent
structure's wavelength and that of the shock cell
pattern are of the same order. Thus far, however,
9
we have s h o w in figure 9 and 10 that the
wavelength of the most unstable shear layer mode
is more nearly twice the plume's aver ge shock
cell spacing. In the Pa0 and Seiner6$ theory,
which relies heavily on the shock tube numerical
shock- ortex interaction simulation of Pao and
Salas", physical aspects of the interaction of a
single vortex with an oblique shock are examined
within the context of the shock containing
supersonic jet plume. Both the Howe and Ffowcs
Williams and Tam and Tanna theories predict
multiple spectral peak values for broadband shock
noise that exceed 2 fp, which as we have
indicated in figure 15 appears to be in the w o n g
direction. These proposed shock noise theories
are quite involved, so it is sufficient to say
that they do recover the frequency formula of
equation 3 , the intensity scaling of relation 10,
and explicitly account for varying oblique shock
strength so that they are applicable as well to
the flow fTom improperly expanded
convergent-divergent nozzles. To date the
theoretical potential of these theories has not
yet been fully explored, due to a certain extent
to limited understanding the shock containing
supersonic turbulent plume structure, particularly
in the region away from the jet nozzle where most
intense shock noise is apparently generated.
The direction for early shock noise research
at NASA Langley was directed toward improved
understanding of the supersonic shock containing
far fie1 plume structure, and was stimulated by
Ribner's'' shock noise theory, in which he had
derived a relatively simple expression for shock
noise energy produced by the interaction of
isotropic turbulence with a plane shock. His
theory only required specification of the upstream
turbulence energy level, shock strength and area
of shock interaction.
In the following sections of this paper on
shock noise, we shall examine some of the recent
experimental results pertaining to both the w a n
and turbulent plume's far field structure. With
the aid of this information the physical mechanism
for shock noise production is explored as well as
the preferred region for broadband shock noise
emission. Predictive capabilities for the
amplitude and spectrum peak value for this shock
noise component is examined based on this
additional information. The directional
characteristic of the mechanism is briefly
examined, and the section concludes with effects
of flight and temperature on broadband shock
noise. The illustrations in the following
sections are made based on results from the same
basic set of n o z z l e s used to describe the Jet
screech phenomena.
mean Aeberodyoanie Behavior of Shock Containing
supersarllic Pl-a
As an aid to defining general regions i n a
shock containing supersonic jet plume that are
relevant to this and the following sections,
figure 16 illustrates the underexpanded flow
produced by a Md=2.0 supersonic nozzle operating
with unheated flow at M 2.24 (i.e.,
PeIP,=1.47). The figure l d = illustration
actually represents output from a new numericgt
plume prediction model, the Dash and Wolf
SCIPVIS code. This code explicitly accounts for
 plume spreading through turbulent mixing using a
new shock capturing viscidlinviscid computational
model with three optional two equation turbulence
closure models i n its code. To improve clarity in
the resulting output from this code, the radial
a x i s is magnified by a factor of 2.5 in figure 16
so that angles of shocks and plume spread rates
are not shown i n true perspective. Both the x and
nozzle's radius R .
R coordinates are normalized by the jet exit
In figure I i the inner edge of the mixing
layer, denoted n ~ , is outlined by the interior
cone. The outer solid lines show the radial
extent of the outer edge of the mixing layer,
denoted as nu, which along with the lower edge
of the mixing layer characterizes the rate of
plume spreading. The region of supersonic flow is
enveloped by the sonic line, shown here by the
dashed cone. It represents the boundary for shock
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wave terminations. The shock wave reflections on
the sonic cone produce a repetitive shock wave
pattern. which forms the familiar diamond shape
cell as evident in the figure 6 and 7 Schlieren
records. As can be observed in figure 16 the
shock wave field extends well beyond the nozzle
exit providing a large area for the interaction of
the Lime dependent fluid dynamic disturbances and
shock waves. These shocks which are located near
the end of the inner mixing layer are what we have
previously referred to as the downstream shocks.
All shocks in the mixing layer are curved since
they propagate into B region of nonuniform flow.
This curvature. along with the radial increase in
sonic line location, is responsible for the
gradual steepening of the average wave angle
relative to the mean flow. This leads to the
observable decrease in shock cell spacing and
shock wave strength with axial distance. The
entire decay process is governed by those fluid
dynamic structures that control the ra e of plume
spreading. which according to Townsendk4 would be
associated with large scale structure.
Before showing how well the SCIPVIS code
fairs when compared to experimental evidence, it
is important to first review the mean aerodynamic
field of the fully expanded supersonic jet plume
f o r later points of view expressed in this paper.
For this purpose the Q=2 supersonic nozzle
oprating fully expanded at M.-1.99 (i.e.,
Pe/Pa=l.O) is used as a 'representative
example. Figure 17, reproduced from reference 65,
shows the typical variation with axial distance
observed for the plume's half velocity jet radius
r.5. and the velocity half width b=r.5-nL,
where n~ as defined in figure 16 is the inner
edge of the annular mixing region. Beyond the
region where nL=O note that re5=b. Figure 18
also from reference 65 shows that the radial mean
velocity profiles collapse to the half Gaussian
form U/U,=exp[-(1n2)n21 in terms of the radial
coordinate !l=(r-nL)/b. The behavior of the
centerline mean velocity U, with axial distance
can be inferred from the centerline mean Mach
number variation in figure 19 which shows the
characteristic variation beyond the region
where q,=O. The mean velocity data of f i g u r e
18, which includes radial velocity p r o f i l e
measurements at 27 axial stations ranging from I
to 67 x/Rj, clearly shows that the plume, on an
average, experiences a linear growth rate in the
annular mixing region and i n the far field region
where Uax-l. The above mean flow shape
assumptions have previously been applied by Morris
and Tamz7 and Tam and Burtonz6 in their
quasi-linear instability wave models with
apparently good justification.
Comparison of the measured and SCIPVIS
computed centerline mean Mach number for the
Q=2 nozzle operating underexpanded at Mj-2.24
is shown in figure 19. The experimental data is
derived from supersonic total and static tube
pressure measurements, and the compressibility
modified kW turbulence closure option is chosen
for @e numerical plume prediction (see Dash and
Wolf for details of this model and the SCIPVIS
code in general). As is evident a remarkably good
agreement is obtained for this case. Figure 19
also includes the fully expanded condition to show
that the underexpanded jet behaves in a similar
fashion but with an annular mixing and fully
developed region occurring further downstream as
would he obtained if Md=M.-2.24. Of greater
utility for shock noise prediction purposes is to
show how well the SCIPVIS code emulates the
plume's average static pressure distribution.
Figure 20 compares both measured and predicted
(kw) plume static pressure as a function of
downstream axial distance. Both a centerline
(R/Rj=O.) and near lipline (R/Rj=0.45) are
included in the figure. The results of figure 20
show that for this underexpanded condition the
SCIPVIS ?de would perform well in estimating an
average L, as was done using measured data i n
figure 88 to scale the jet screech phenomenon.
The deviation that does occur between measured and
predicted static pressure i n the transition zone
is primarily due to the absence of a necessary
potential flow iterative coupling to accurately
account f o r jet entrainment induced effects.
However, in the initial mixing region the
evolution of the plume's turbulent mixing region
is modeled with adequate precision as s h o w by the
comparison between the measured and predicted
sonic l i n e i n figure 21. The minimum values in i
ftgure 21 correspond to the axial and radial
locations for shock terminations.
In a recent paper by Seiner, Dash and Wolf 63
extensive comparisons between measured and
predicted results are carried out for both
overexpanded and underexpanded conditions using
the s o n i c choked nozzle and those designed for
~ = 1 . 5 and 2.0. In general it was found that
SCIPVIS adequately describes the interactive
supersonic jet mixing and wadshear-layer
interactions phenomena that describe the average
evolution of a shock containing jet plume. This
remark. however, is only valid for those
supersonic plumes where strong resonant behavior
is absent. For example, the Reynolds averaged
equations of SCIPVIS do not describe plume
devclopment for the sonic nozzle when B stage
screech is the dominant mode. On the positive
side. however, it should be noted that the SCIPVIS
code contains the necessary algorithms to deal
with hig? temperature jet plumes for aircraft in
subsonic and supersonic fltght.
Besides obtaining an estimate for shock cell
spacing, the SCIPVIS code can also be used to
furnish estimates for the shock wave strength and
average position as would for example be required
in Ribner'S61 shock noise theory to compute shock
noise energy. Before this could be accomplished
however one would need to have an estimate for the
turbulent kinetic energy incident or convected
 through the oblique shock waves. We will now
consider some elementary turbulent shock
containing plume properties that have been only
recently acquired experimentally, and compare
these results to that available from SCIPVIS.
Turbulent Plume Behavior
1
The turbulence measurements described in this
section were acquired using a commercial wedge
hot-film anemometer whose profile v i e w is shown in
figure 22. The dynamic heat transfer
characteristics of this probe were found to
significantly differ from that of the cylindrical
wire probe in transonic to supersonic flow a s
indicated by the mean Nusselt number correlation
with a free Stream Reynolds number as shown in
figure 2 3 . The hot wire probe's response varies
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with a Reynolds number based on stagnation
conditions, and as such has the same sensitivity
to density as velocity for free stream Mach
numbers exceeding 1 . 3 . With the wedge probe
however the Sensitivity between these modes is
always unequal. A complete analysis of the wedge
probe's behavorial response characteristics are
reported in reference 6 6 .
In figure 24 the measured longitudinal
turbulence intensity is compared to that derived
from the SCIPVIS code using the kW option for the
same &=2 nozzle and underexpanded condition at
M.=2.24 as used to compare mean flow results.
Since the SCIPVIS code contains a transport
equation for the turbulent kinetic energy per unit
mass k=1/2ujui=1/21u'2+v'2+w'2), the
as .
longitudinal turbulence intensity can be expressed
(u ' 2 , / 2 / U = ( 2g(x) k) 2U11
function g(x) then represents the fractional part
The
of k due to longitudinal fluctuations. With shock
containing supersonic jet plumes virtually **thing
is known about how g(x) varies in the shear
layer. Its numerical value can of course never
exceed 1, and probably is never less than 113
which describes a state of isotropic turbulence.
Actual values of g(x) should f a l l between these
limits. I n figure 24 the predicted longitudinal
turbulence intensity is shown for various values
of g(x). As can be seen the measured data falls
within the envelope of predicted values. Both the
measured and predicted turbulence intensity values
are f o r the axial evolution along the jet lipline
R=R.. Both the measured and predicted
t u r h n c e data indicate that the turbulence l e v e l
peaks at the end of a compression zone and i s a
minimum at the end of an expansion zone ( s e e
reference 4 2 and 6 3 ) . The level of agreement
exhibited in figure 2 4 would appear adequate for
shock noise energy predictions, although to date
this has not yet been carried out.
One advantage of using a wedge hot-film probe
for supersonic shear layer measurements is its
inherent high frequency response ( i . e . , typically
greater than 100 kHz). This feature permits
examination of the following point. Do multiple
shock wavelturbulence interactions in a shock
containing plume alter the evolution of the
governing fluid dynamic disturbances so as to
modify jet noise radiation? In certain respects
the correspondence between jet shear layer
instability frequency i n the fully expanded jet
with jet screech frequency at the same fully
v
11
expanded Mach number suggests that shock
wavelturbulence interactions do not.
To examine this, first recall from figure 17
that in the annular mixing region the jet spreads
linearly. Along the jet lipline (i.e., RIRj=I)
one can record narrowband one-dimensional
turbulence spectra like those shown in figure 2 5 a
for axial locations ranging from x/0=2.25 to 10.
This data, previously reported in reference 6 7 , is
normalized by the jet exit velocity and presented
as a function of the Strouhal number
St=fDIUe, For this illustration the flow is
produced by a Q=2 nozzle operating fully
expanded. This data is thus presented on an
absolute basis, but if instead both the amplitude
l e v e l and frequency are normalized to local values
in the shear layer the spectral data collapses to
a more universal form as shown by figure 25b.
This result is of course expected since the jet
spreads linearly in this region, and the collapse
would be expected to improve if instead the r.5
line of figure 17 rather than the lip line had
been selected.
For the Same &=2 nozzle we can now examine
the behavior of measured one-dimensional
turbulence Spectra when the jet is operated
underexpanded at Mj=2.24 (i.e.,
Pe/P,=1.47). Figure 26, reproduced from
reference 4 2 . shows mass flux per unit volume
spectra in term of the local flow properties a s
was done in the figure 25b fully expanded
example. For reference purposes the fully
expanded universal spectrum of figure 25b is also
included OD each figure. The axial locations for
each spectra are chosen to correspond to the
minimum and maximum turbulence intensity l e v e l s of
figure 2 4 . These points generally correspond to a
location before the start of a compression cycle,
the end of a compression cycle, and a point near
the completion of the expansion cycle (this can be
seen from the static pressure data of figure 20 or
the sketch in figure 2 9 ) . The radial location for
these measurements are along the jet lip line
R/Rj=I. The spectra in figure 263 correspond to
conditions in the second shock cell, and figure
26b to conditions i n the third shock cell.
The local Strouhal number scaling indicates
that the spectrum level rises above that for the
fully expanded condition at the end of the
compression cycle, and after each expansion cycle
returns back to the self similar spectrum shape
only after accounting for a linear average plume
spread rate. The similarity in the shock cell
spectra imply that on an average the shock
containing plume spreads linearly, and more
importantly that variation in turbulence level
through a shock c e l l are simply governed by local
variation of the jet plume boundary which occur's
as a result of mean flow variations produced by
the presence of shock Structore. Thus on an
average all spectral s c a l e s of the turbulence are
expected to e v o l v e in a similar fashion
independent of the presence of shocks i n the
plume. The example selected refers to a condition
when only weak shocks ( i . e . , Ps/P,<l) are
present i n the plume.
On the basis of the above turbulent shock
containing plume properties, one would expect then
that those fluid dynamic disturbances that govern
the principle component of noise radiated by a
supersonic jet would be invariant to the presence
of shocks i n the plume. This could be
 demonstrated by examining far field noise spectra
for two nozzles with the same ideal thrust where
one is operated fully expanded and the other
underexpanded. Figure 27 shows such a comparison,
where it is difficult to distinguish one spectrum
from the other. In this example a far field
spectrum obtained from a sonic nozzle operating
underexpanded is compared to one obtained f o r a
supersonic nozzle designed for %=I .5 operating
fully expanded. Both n o z z l e s have the same ideal
thrust at this condition. The data is presented
In terms of a Strouhal number based on the fully
expanded diameter Dj of equati n 6 . Subsequent
examples of Seiner and Norum'' show that when
strong shocks are present in the plume the above
behavior ceases to be observed, and jet noise is
reduced at the peak spectrum value.
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Shod: Noise Heeehanism
Up to this point we have examined general
features of the turbulent shock containing plume
and the capability to predict such interactive
phenomenona. We now turn to consider the physical
mechanism for the production of broadband shock
noise. As was discussed in the previous section
on the jet screech mechanism, a large scale
coherent type structure can be associated with the
phenomena, and from cine records the motion of
both the shocks and coherent structure appear to
be phase locked together. Although it will be
shown later that experimental evidence indicates
that the same coherent structure can be linked to
the production of broadband tho k noise
theoretical evidence 1, go, 1 9 , 1 6 , I <
suggests that broadband shock noise is principally
associated with fluid disturbances that have a
relative motion to shocks.
To examine this, the recent numerical work of
Pa0 and Salas" will be used to qualitatively
describe the transient interaction process of a
single line vortex and a plane shock in a two-
dimensional chann& This problem was p r e y p l y
treated by Ribner , and Weeks and Dosanjh with
experimental results obtained by Hollingsworth and
RichardsZ1. The finite difference numerical
calculations of Pao and Salas employ the Ruler
equations, where at each time step the
Rankine-Hugonoit relation is satisfied. In the
computed results a simple clockwise rotating
vortex embedded in the supersonic freestream is
convected through an initially plane shock front
from right to left. Figure 28 represents an
exampl&acomputed time frame taken from the Pao and
Seiner paper which shows the resulting complex
pressure pattern after the vortex has passed the
shock. The shock wave now appears deformed in the
direction of the vortex rotation. The contour
levels in figure 28 are normalized to the
unperturbed pressure downstream of the shock. The
vortex center can be located as the deep pressure
depression marked with a cross. A cylindrical
acoustic wave front propagating outward from the
vortex center can be identified and the location
of this wavefront is indicated by the circle with
dashed lines. Behind the shock the vortex center
has been moving subsonically relative to the
shock. The cylindrical wavefront can intersect
the shock s i n c e it propagates at the sonic speed,
but cannot propagate through the shock into
supersonic flow. This leads to both a high and
12
low pressure region marked i n the figure with an H
and L whose location corresponds to the original
direction of vortex rotation. A sequence of such
frames shows the subsequent motion of the
cylindrical acoustic wave, and that it is trapped
to a region behind the shock.
The numerical results clearly show, as others
have before, that sound is produced when a fluid
disturbance, in this case a vortex, is moving at a
relative speed to a shock and interacts with the
shock wave. The above result depicts what
happens. however, when there is no applied mean
shear. In the supersonic plume shear layer there
is of course a strong mean shear, directed such
that along any oblique shock wave the mean flow
density decreases reaching almost an ambient value
near the sonic line. Thus for the supersonic
shear layer one expects the trapped cylindrical
wave to be re racted outward toward the sonic line
f
( s e e Crighton ).
Experimentally some aspects of this process
have been observed for the supersonic plume in the
measurements reported in reference 4 2 . These
experiments involved the use of correlated
signals derived from a wedge hot-film probe
located at the symboled locations in figure 29,
and a near field microphone located directly above
the shock termination point but otherwise beyond
the subsonic mixing layer. The center frequency
of the filtered bands were selected to correspond
to the broadband shock n o i s e and jet noise
spectrum peak values. Both the first and third
shock cell were examined for the underexpanded
flow produced by the Md=2 nozzle operating at
M.-2.24. Figure 29 illustrates conditions
ti;ough the third shock c e l l in that actual best
estimated shock locations are included. The
objective of this experimental survey was to
determine if a preferred region existed for shock
noise production i n the supersonic plume shear
layer.
Figure 30 shows results obtained for L
correlations obtained for the various radial
locations of the wedge probe. These correlations
are expressed in physical units between the near
field pressure and mass flux fluctuations per unit
volume. This data refers to correlations obtained
without a filter, and this particular flow
condition was.,selected since shock waves are still
weak and jet screech is minimal. As indicated i n
figure 30 considerably stronger correlations were
obtained in the third shock cell than the first.
but inaximum values in both cells were found to
occur only slightly inside the lower mixing layer
boundary 'IL of each shock cell. Beyond the
sonic l i n e the correlations were found to be
negligible. thus indicating that the shock noise
dominated near field microphone spectrum received
its components from within the region of
supersonic flow bounded by shock waves.
In an attempt to further determine where
shock noise originated, the time delay information
of figure 31 for axial trace through the third
shock cell were analyzed in the following
fashion. Assuming a disturbance convection
velocity based on equation 7, and that sound
produced within a shock cell region would travel
directly to the near field microphone above
without significant path length change due to
refraction produces a possible set of solutions
that satisfy the time delay equation. Figure 32
shows a set of possible solutions to this time
w
 delay equation based on the data shown in figure
31. It is apparent that the possible solutions to
the time delay equation focus to a region near the
oblique shock wave in the shear layer that forms a
characteristic boundary for the third shock cell.
This experimental evidence is consistent with
the theoretical concepts for shock noise
production previously described. Figure 33 from
I reference 60 represents a summary between the
numerical results and experimental evidence. Here
the fluid dynamic disturbance, which can also be a
coherent wavelike structure. produces the most
intense sound on interaction with an oblique shock
in the vicinity of the lower edge of the mixing
layer boundary where the shock wave is the
strongest. The resulting cylindrical acoustic
wave incident at the shock, travels along the
oblique shock boundary due to refraction effects
and produces what appears to be an apparent source
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region at the intersection of the oblique shock
and sonic line. The figure 2 photograph shows a
set of circular concentric rings with an apparent
source near where the oblique shock terminates in
the shear layer. In the figure 2 photograph jet
screech cannot be detected so these rings Can most
likely be associated with broadband shock noise.
Principle Loeation for Broadband Shock Noise
mission
To follow up the results of the previous
section which show that more broadband shock noise
engggy is generated further downstream, Seiner and
Yu have recently reported data that indicates
the major portion of this energy is generated near
the end of the plume's annular mixing region.
Figure 34 from their paper show estimated regions
for maximum shock noise generation. Figure 34a
represents filtered correlations between a written a s ,
traversing near field microphone and one fixed in
the acoustic far field at 90' to the jet a x i s .
The filter center frequencies for both microphones
were centered at the frequency of the broadband
shock noise spectrum peak value Of the far field
microphone. Figure 34a shows haw the normalized
correlation coefficient i n this filtered band
v a r i e s as the near field microphone is located at
various x/D distances along the jet plume. The
flow in this example is produced by a nozzle
designed for Q=l.5 and is overexpanded for the
two eases at Mj=1.28 and 1.37. In this example
nozzle exit ( s e e Tanna $9) .
jet screech is suppress with a tab device at the
The numbered symbols
indicate which shock termination point the near
field microphone is almost directly above. This
experimental evidence indicates that the principle
component for broadband shock noise is generated
by shocks far downstream. The peak value for the
normalized correlation coefficient for both
overexpanded conditions is found to occur near the
end of the annular mixing region, denoted as
n ~ = 0on the figure. Here the axial length of
the annular mixing region is estimated fr9f the
empirical ersults of Nagamatsu and Horvay who
determine that this length can be expressed as,
Lc/O = 5.22 M + 0.22 (n,, = 0) (11)
j strong imbedded shock is present in the Q=1.5
Figure 34b shows a similar result for both the
Md-1.5 and 2.0 n o z z l e s operating underexpanded
W
13
at respective values of Mj=1.80 and 2.24. These
correlations however were acquired from the
correlation of the wedge hot film probe and a near
field microphone each located at various axial
locations where shocks terminate i n the shear
layer. These correlations are expressed in
physical units. As can be seen the results
correspond to the figure 34.3 micmphone
correlations in that the principle reglon for
shock noise emission occurs near the er+q of the
annular mixing region. Norum and Seiner show a
similar result can be obtained for the sonic
nozzle.
As will be shown in the spectrum on jet
n o i s e , large scale coherent structures, associated
with the principle component of jet noise like
those visualized in figure 6 , achieve maximum
growth where " ~ ' 0 . Beyond this point they
rapidly decay.
Prediction of Broadband Shock Noise f p
In this section use shall be made of the
above observation of where the principle component
of broadband shock noise is apparently emitted.
This must be factored in to provide prediction of
the associated peak spectrum level frequency fp
of figure 15. Toward this purpose, recall that
equation 3 requires that one properly choose a
characteristic length scale L that represents the
shock spacing in the vicinity of principle shock
noise generation. This suggests that the shock
cell spacing near the end of the annular mixing
region where n ~ = 0would represent an appropriate
choice for L in equation 3, which we shall denote
at b.
At normal viewing angles to the jet axis i n
the acoustic far field, equation 3 can then be
= M, (e=90°) (12)
where Le denotes the shock the shock cell length
where n~=0, Ap the acoustic wavelength at the
spectrum peak value, and MC the convection Mach
number of the associated fluid dynamic
disturbance. The convection Mach number will
again be estimated from equation 7. The
experimentally determined value for Le is
derived first from an estimate of the axial
location where n ~ = 0 as computed from equation
Then from the shock cell spacing data of
11.
reference 56, Le is computed from a least
squares first at the axial location where 'IL is
estimated to be zero.
Figure 35 shows how the measured ratio
Le/Ap varies as a function of Mj for three
different supersonic nozzles. The solid l i n e
represents prediction of this ratio using equation
12. The dashed curves represent 210 prcent error
bands around this prediction which corresponds to
the experimental uncertainity in determining
Ap. As can be observed however equation 12
describes the general trend of the data, the
majority of data falling within 510 percent of the
predicted value. The largest deviations in this
result occurs at a low value of Mj, where a
and 2.0 plume. Figure 35 also includes %=2
data, where instead of using measured values for
Le, the SCIPVIS code estimate for Le has been
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I
A
 We can show that equation 13 can also be used
to scale convergent-divergent nozzle data using
the same scheme as is shown in figure 39. In this
figure we see that in the vicinity where a strong
imbedded shock can be expected for the convergent-
divergent nozzle, substantial deviation occurs
between predicted and estimated broadband shock
noise intensity. In the underexpanded region of
flow (1.e.. Mj-Md>O) equation 13 scales the
data adequately for the weak shock condition, but
overestimates the shock noise intensity in
overexpanded regions when the same scaling
Parameter E is used from the underexpanded
condition.
Broadband Shock Noise Directivity
The photograph of figure 2 illustrate8 that
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the centered waves near the shock termination
points have phase fronts that appear directed
slightly upstream. These waves, as previously
discussed, are associated with broadband sho
noise. Theoretically, Howe and Ffowcs Williams slr
indicate that the basic directivity for static
jets is near 8=105" to the jet axis with an
anticipated increase toward a larger angle to the
jet axis with flight. The theoretical results
were found to be in good agreeyent with the
by Jacques .
experimental,5 results of Deneuville ' as reported
To demonstrate that there is
reasonable agreement between experimental evidence
and the directivity predicted by the Howe and
Ffowcs Williams eory the experimental results of
Norm and SeinerFP will be used, since the Jacques
report was unavailable to the author.
We have already shown that the broadband
shock noise spectrum peak value frequency f is
Doppler shifted by a factor D=(l-Mccos8)-f in
equation 3. To compare spectra at different
angles to the jet axis, the spectral amplitudes
/
must be adjusted by this factor (1.e.. IOlog~oD)
to account for the spectral compression. A However, for the aircraft designer concerned about
similar process is also applied to obtain the
universal turbulent velocity spectrum of figure
25b. When spectra for various angles are compared
in this way the spectrum peak values are aligned
as we would expect, but the amplitude levels
require additional Doppler factor corrections to
align their spectrum peak values. The additional
Doppler factors required to match the
spectra indicate a directivity pattern for
broadband shock noise that is slightly inclined in
the upstream jet direction. The number of
additional Doppler factors required to align the
spectrum peak value serves as a measure for
broadband shock noise directivity.
Figure 40 shows a series of spectra
normalized in this manner for the sonic
axisymmetric choked nozzle where the jet screech
was suppressed with a tab ( s e e
;:::?';: The data encompasses an operating range
of plume Mach numbers Mj from 1.17 to 1.67
(<.e., 8-0.6 to 1 . 3 4 ) and the flow is unheated.
The spectral amplitudes associated with broadband
shock noise are seen to collapse for all angles
between 8=75 to 135 degrees. Those spectral
components associated with jet noise are
uncorrelated by this normalization procedure. The
number of additional Doppler factors n required to
achieve satisfactory normalization are summarized
in figure 41. A value of n equal to zero
V
15
represents omni-directional radiation for
broadband shock noise. It is evident from figure
41 that the experimental evidence indicates that
broadband shock is fairly directional at low
values of 6, but approaches omni-directionality at
higher values of 6.
The Howe and Ffowcs Williams theory
explicitly contains two additional Doppler factors
for the predicted shock noise intensity. This
agrees reasonably well with the experimental
results of figure 41 near 6=0.8. Since the Howe
and Ffowcs Williams theory is based on a
linearized analysis one would not expect their
theory to apply to the higher values of 6, due to
expected shock wave amplitudes beyond the range
where the linearized analysis is valid. The above
results point out a real problem in the method
used to achieve shock noise intensity scaling from
90' data alone, where omni-directionality was
assumed.
As a final example on broadband shock noise
directional behavior, several acoustic near field
directivity comparisons for a shock free and shock
containing supersonic jet plume reported in
reference 65 are shown in figure 42. This data
compares various one-third octave band levels
between the choked sonic nozzle and the Q=I.5
nozzle where bath have the same ideal thrust at
Mj=1.5 ( s e e figure 2 1 for far field spectral and
amplitude Similarity for these nozzles).
rotation Of the peak spectral level with angle to
The
the jet axis is due to the Doppler factor, and the
value St=0.59 refers to the spectrum peak
amplitude value fp where 8=90". The directivity
data of figure 42 have been principally included
to show that shock noise should not be overlooked
for angles 8<90". As can be observed the high
frequency content of spectra at angles even as low
as 8=30' can be dominated by shock noise. For the
standpoint of community noise driven criteria this
means little, for the amplitudes are considerably
lower than the dominant spectral component.
sonic fatigue the level increase of spectral
components in this direction can be of great
value.
Effect of Forward Plight a n d Temperature on
Broadband Shock Noise
Up to now all experimental evidence presented
for broadband shock noise only involves static
unheated axisymmetric jets. To provide an
effective message for the properties discussed
above requires consideration of the modification
that temperature and forward flight may have on
the mechanism. Earlier studies have shown that
the relative importance of shock n o i s e diminishes
with increasing nozzle total temperature5
However recent model jet results of Yamato et a1 6
indicate that this is not true. as is for example
shown by their acoustic data in figure 43a. Here
we see that the underexpanded choked sonic n o z z l e
substantially dominates the overall sound power
level of a convergent-divergent nozzle operating
at its design point for angles above 70' to the
jet axis (i.e., their angles are referenced to the
inlet axis). Of particular value to this acoustic
result is that they measured with a laser
velocimeter the degree to which their heated
convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle was actually
 operating fully expanded. As shown in figure 43b
the C-D nozzle plume contains only a very weak
shock wave system and one would expect little
shock noise radiation from this nozzle. This
result is expected, since their C-D n o z z l e was
designed to include real gas effects and provtde
for essentially a shock free plume. The earlier
studies involving the influence of temperature on
shock noise designed their nozzle for unheated
flow, and in all probability never achieved a
reference shocln free flow. The results of Yamato
et a1 clearly indicate that the importance of
shock noise does not decrease with an increase in
jet total temperature.
In the same study Yamato also has shown that
the broadband shock noise intensity slightly
increases in forward flight as shown in figure
448. This can be judged by comparing the actual
OASPL l e v e l s between figures 43a and 43b f o r
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angles near the inlet a x i s . Also consistent with
numerous other investigators is that the jet noise
overall level at high angles to the inlet a x i s
decreases with forward flight. Of important v a l u e
to the interpretation of these acoustic results is
that in forward flight the C-D nozzle's plume
shock structure remains insignificant. These
results clearly indicate that shock noise remains
an important noise contributor at least wtth
subsonic flight. It is important to note that the
Howe and Ffowcs WilliamsS8 theory predicts an
increase in the shock noise mechanism efficiency
with forward flight.
Jet N o i s e Mechanism for aigh Speed P l o w s
As pointed Out by Ffowcs Williams9 many years
ago the prediction for total acoustic power
radiated from,prbo jet engines of military power
(circa 1950 ) cannot be estimated from
Lighthill's famous eighth power law. Instead for
these engines one needs to consider the more
efficient noise production mechanism due to
supersoni ally convecting distutbances which
Phillips" termed eddy Mach wave radiation.
Figure I shows an example of the radiat-d near
acoustic field for this mechanism. As discussed
in the introductory remarks, current and future
research efforts are being directed to obtain a
better understanding of the phenomenon since it
would clearly be active i n the noise field Of high
performance military aircraft and second
generation space transportation vehicles. For
these class vehicles the mechanism would dominate
acoustic radiation within the Mach cone of figure
1. which for most applications involve4 a
substantial portion of radiation in the jet plume
quadrant.
The radiated acoustic field visualized in the
figure 1 photograph is actually compoyed of
several distinct grouping of vaves. Hall ', f o r
example, classifies these waves into the following
categories. N o z z l e centered high frequency fintte
amplitude waves that originate in the initially
thin supersonic shear layer near the nozzle exit
(these waves are visible in the figure I
photograph). Wider spaced with wavelengths
of jet diameter order originate between 1 and 6
nozzle diameters and are associated with eddy Mach
wave radiation (these are the predominate waves o t
figure I ) . Lar angle waves with wavelengths
spaced two jet diameters apart originate near the
16
end of the annular mixing region. These latter
waves are not visible in the figure 1 photograph
since the annular dxlng regfgn7$tends beyond the
field of v i e w . Oertel * however shows
excellent photographic visualizations for these
longer waves and the other two distinct groups.
oectel reports from laser velocimeter studies that
these three different wave groups can be related
to three different convection speeds in the
supersonic shear layer. From his studies he
concluded that a l l wave groups resulted from the
convection of large scale coherent structures.
Within the context of the Lighthill Acousti
Analogy approach, Parthasarathy and Massier88
report that the Ffowcs Williams and Maidanik'l
approximate theory for eddy Mach wave radiation
compares well to their measured acoustic data for
the waves in the wider spaced grouping which
predominate the near acoustic field of figure 1.
Their experimental results cover the range of jet
total temperature from 422' to 1366'K, where from
their Md'1.43 convergent-divergent nozzle eddy
Mach wave radiation would be expected. Their
study also shows the increasing presence of shock
n o i s e with increase in jet total temperature since
their C-D nozzle was designed for a fixed jet
total temperature.
Westley and Woolley'882 experiments with
small choked axisymetric helium jets have shown
that the radiated Mach waves are actually
positioned "on-symmetrically around a jet,
differing by a half wavelength on opposite sides
of the jet. This can he seen in the figure 1
photographic record if one exercises great care.
Based on the nature of the radiation pattern.
Westley and Woolley concluded that the planar
flapping mode of jet oscillation (i.e., nearly
equal left and right hand helices) would be most
consistent. Recall that the low Reynolds
supersonic plume measurements of McLaughlin,
Morrison and Troutt" also show that the preferred
mode of instability for the initial jet shear \c
layer is the jet flapping mode. For the previous
discussions on the jet screech mechanism this may
not be entirely surprising. Both figures 6 and 7
show that, even before the eddy Mach wave
mechanism is cut-on by supersonic convection
effects, the helical structure is the preferred
mode of instability for the initial jet shear
layer. As shown above this type of preferred
Structure is already indirectly linked to intense
screech tone emission through the Strouhal number
s c a l i n g of figure IO.
The supersonic jet noise mechanism has more
recently been modelled
theorcticallyZ6s 2 ' 9 83 by considering the
r o l e of coherent type structures in the turbulent
mining layer. Such consideration is not
restricted to supersonic flow, but is also
considered relevant to 8Ehe subsonic jet noise
mechanism. Crighton's paper examines this
issue, and provides substantial references to
current work i n this field. For supersonic flows
the quasi-linear instability wave models of Tam
and Burtonz6 and Morris and Tam" have progressed
to the point where direct evaluation with
experiment has been possible. Both models when
applied to the problem of spatially growing
instability waves can provide prediction of the
near acoustic field. The more recent model of Tam
and Burton has extended the analytical method to
now include the supersonic damped wave phenomenon,
W
 and thereby render the solution valid where eddy
Mach wave radiation is observed. Due to the
importance of obtaining near field acoustic
predictions, recent results obtained using these
models will be examined.
The degree to which the wave model can
predict properties he acoustic field was
demonstrated by MorrOifs'' several years ago in
Yu and Dosanjh' .
comparison to mgasured results obtained earlier by
Representative results from his
report are shown in figures 45 and 46. Figure 45
shows the degree to which Morris was able to
predict the far field directivity for a fully
expanded high Reynolds number (i . e . ,
Re=pjVjD/v>106) supersonic plume as produced
by a convergent-divergent nozzle designed for an
exhaust Mach number of %-1.5. For this example
we expect that +<l, and that the preferred m d e
of instability is helical. The measured data
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consists of one-third octave band sound pressure
levels with a center frequency at St=0.25 which
was close to the peak spectral value in the
principle direction of radiation. The predicted
directivity pattern, which assumed the preferred
instability mode was axisymmetric (i.e., m=O),
adjusted at only a single pint to match measured
pressure levels. From this comparison it would
appear that the major features of radiation in the
principle direction of radiation for the dominant
spectral component B K ~well represented by the
model of a spatially growing instability wave.
The near field pressure contours in figure 46 at
this same flow condition show that the overall
features are represented by this model. The
uplifted contours near x/rj=O are due to shock
noise, and should not be considered in making a
qualitative comparison. However, closer
examination reveals that the instability wave
model produces an apparent source location for
this Strouhal number component much farther
upstream than is indicated by the measured data.
I The directional mirror teles 0 e measurements of
Laufer, Schlinker and KaplanP8'have shown, that
for this M,y1.5 supersonic plume, the apparent
source location is near the end of the annular
mixing region (i.e., n~=0). This agrees well
with the measured pressure contour levels of Yu
and Dosanjh.
reference 67 the numerical code of
Morrift6 was used for a similar purpose to compare
measured and predicted near field pressure contour
levels for the Md=2 nozzle when operated fully
expanded (i.e., this corresponds to the condition
in the figure 1 photograph). Figure 47 shows the
result obtained i n this study for the dominant
one-third octave spectral components centered at
St=0.3. Again the hasic near field pattern is
represented well by prediction. the difference in
apparent source location from that indicated by
measured data appears similar to what was observed
when b = 1 . 5 . For the Q2. nozzle the acoustic
mirror measarements of Laufer, Schlinker and
Kaplan identify two apparent source locations,
with approximately equal source strengths. The
first originates in the annular mixing region,
which they were able to identify with higher
frequency eddy Mach wave radiation like that shown
in figure I . The second apparent source location
originates from a region beyond the annular mixing
region, and for the St=0.2 component, agrees
well wtih the measured contour data in figure 47.
At higher exhaust Mach numbers near Md=2.5,
W
Laufer, Schlinker and Kaplan show that the eddy
Mach wave mechanism is the dominant source. For
heated flows, the relative importance of the eddy
Mach wave mechanism would be expected to occur at
decreasing values of &.
As to why the quasi-linear instability wave
model predicts an apparent source location far
upstream of that indicated by experimental
evidence remains an unanswered question. Inherent
to the derivation of the quasi-linear instability
wave model is that it assumes all wave induced
stresses are zero, although it is otherwise cast
i n conservative form. This means that the wave
exchanges no energy with the random field
components as it evolves downstream. The
instability wave, perhaps initiated at the nozzle
exit by acoustic feedback like that in jet
screech, rapidly grows 8 6 it is convected
downstream by the imposed local mean shear. Due
to jet spreading the growth rate of a fixed
frequency instability wave is reduced, and at some
point in the flow becomes critically damped. As
Tam and Morris have explained, acoustic radiation
occurs for a fixed frequency instability wave due
to the spatial change of wave amplitude that
produce wavenumber components with supersonic
phase speed. The theory is called quasi-linear in
the sense that the field equations are linearized
by specifying the mean flow development hy
incorporating empirically generated parameters
like that shown in figures 17 and 18. Thus the
instability wave analysis of either reference 26
or 27 can be used to predict the coherent flow
structure evolution and acoustic near field
properties for supersonic jets with varying
Reynolds numbers, provided that the appropriate
mean flow structure is specified The
measurements of Morrison" and Troutt" clearly
show that the r . 5 and b lines of figure 17 is
considerably different i n low Reynolds number
flows.
on the basis of the above discussion, in
particular that wave induced stresses are set
equal to zero, one m y expect that a better
agreement exists between the apparent source
location for predicted and measured results in
lower Reynolds number flows where the above
assumption &s more likely to be unquestioned. Tam
and BurtonZ have recently done this. and compare
their new analysis to both the flow evolution and
.
near ~ C O U S c field results reported by Troutt and
McLaughlink i The data acquired by Troutt and
McLaughlin refer to a small nozzle designed for an
exhaust flow Md=2.1 and operating at a Reynolds
number of 70,000. To afford understanding of what
will be discussed later about these comparisons it
is important that the similarity in acoustic
properties between supersonic jets with varying
Reynolds numbers first be illustrated.
The narrowband spectral data in figure 48,
acquired at RIP40 and 8=30" illustrates how the
spectrum shape varies as a function of jet
Reynolds number for exhaust Mach numbers near 2.
The lower Reynolds number spfctra are orig,,hally
from the thesis of Morrison and Troutt , the
higher Reynolds number data is from NASA data
using the M,3=2 nozzle whose near field is
illustrated in figure 1. All n o z z l e s are operated
fully expanded for this illustration. Even though
the flow is unheated we expect for these Mach
numbers that the lower Reynolds number jets should
also exhibit eddy Mach wave radiation. The
 s p e c t r u m f o r Re=7900 c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y of a
s i n g l e peak a t St=0.22. which is i d e n t i c a l t o
4
t h e one r e p o r t e d by Morrison and McLaughlin as
t h e most h i g h l y a m p l i f i e d in t h e annular mixing
region. T h i s is t h e Same S t r o u h a l number t h a t is
p l o t t e d w i t h j e t s c r e e c h d a t a a t M.=2.1 in
1
f i g u r e 9. The s m a l l e r s e c o n d a r y peak near
St=0.43 can be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e eddy Kyjh
chanism based on t h e r e s u l t s o f H a l l ,
Wave % , I 9
nertei , and Laufer, Schlinker and
Kaplans8. T h i s s e c o n d a r y peak is also v i s i b l e i n
t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s p e c t r u m a t Re=70000, but not
c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n t h e h i g h Reynolds number
spectrum f o r as shown p r e v i o u s l y by L a u f e r e t a1
a t t h i s e x h a u s t Mach number t h e eddy Mach wave
mechanism r a d i a t e s n e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t e n e r g y t o
t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j e t mining n o i s e ( t o use 8
p o p u l a r acronym). As can be o b s e r v e d i n f i g u r e 48
even though t h e s p e c t r u m broadens w i t h a d v a n c t n g
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN - ANN ARBOR on September 18, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1984-2275
The s t u d i e s o f r e f e r e n c e 67 also made
comparisons between measured and predicted
p r e s s u r e c o n t o u r levels f o r t h e St=0.4 component
which we can i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e eddy Mach wave
r a d i a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1. The p r e s s u r e
c o n t o u r d a t a f o r t h e St=0.4 v a l u e from t h e
r e f e r e n c e 67 s t u d y is shown i n f i g u r e 50 f o r t h e
h i g h Reynolds number %=2 nozzle. As is e v i d e n t
b o t h t h e i n c l i n a t i o n and a p p a r e n t source r e g i o n \L
are w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by p r e d i c t i o n . The p r e d i c t e d
c o n t o u r s i n t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n were d e r i v e d from
t h e e a r l i e r n u m e r i c a l code of M o r r i s 86 ,
From t h e above i l l u s t r a t i o n s it would a p p e a r
t h a t t h e q u a s i - l i n e a r i n s t a b i l i t y wave a n a l y s i s
h a s p r o g r e s s e d t o t h e p o i n t wvre t h e i m p o r t a n t
eddy Mach wave mechanism can be p r o p e r l y p r e d i c t e d
even i n t h e a c o u s t i c near f i e l d . why t h e a n a l y s i s
does not do as w e l l w i t h t h e lower S t r o u h a l number
components remains an u n r e s o l v e d issue.
Tb7

Reynolds numbers, t h e spectrum r e m a i n s c e n t e r e d h o t - f i l m band p a s s e d wedge probe measurements

around the majoq' Strouhal value peak at around t h e St=0.2 v a l u e i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e growth
St=0.22. The d i r e c t i v i t y of t h e o v e r a l l sou"? rate for a preferred structure a t this fixed
p r e s s u r e l e v e l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e same t h r e e f r e q u e n c y is much l e s s t h a n would be p r e d i c t e d by
Reynolds numbers is shown i n f i g u r e 49, As is t h e quasi-linear i n s t a b i l i t y wave a n a l y s i s . This
e v i d e n t good s i m i l a r i t y is o b t a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n t of may s u g g e s t that the instability wave does
t h e spectrum c o n t e n t . The l o w Reynolds number exchange s i g n i f i c a n t e n e r g y w i t h random f i e l d
data i n t h i s f i g u r e have been c o r r e c t e d t o components as i t e v o l v e s downstream, as s u g g e s t e d
s t a n d a r d ISA c o n d t t i o n s f o r t h i s comparison ( i . e . . by Liu".
t h e ambient p r e s s u r e i n t h e law Reynolds number
experiments is s u b - a t m o s p h e r i c ) . It is of
i n t e r e s t t o note that the pressure levels nearly Discussion of Supersouic Source H e c h a u i w
a g r e e a f t e r t h i s is done, s u g g e s t t n g t h a t t h e
e n e r g y r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e i s o l a t e d peaks a t In t h i s p a p e r we have e x h i b i t e d many f e a t u r e s
Re=7900 becomes d i s t r i b u t e d across t h e Spectrum a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h t h e plume development and
w i t h advancing Reynolds numbers. The above a c o u s t i c f i e l d of s u p e r s o n i c j e t s t h a t are e i t h e r
acoustic data indicates that the physical noise p e r f e c t l y or i m p e r f e c t l y expanded. We have where
p r o d u c t i o n mechanism is h i g h l y s i m i l a r between p o s s i b l e shown how t h e n a t u r e of t h e aerodynamic
j e t s of v a r i o u s Reynolds numbers. s o u r c e and j e t plume s t r u c t u r e are r e q u i r e d t o
We r e t u r n now t o c o n s i d e r what Tam and Burton enable prediction of the major noise
found when comparing t h e i r p r e d i c t i o n s t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n mechanisms, even though, as i n t h e case
Re=70000 d a t a of T r o u t t and McLaughlin. In their of shock noise, e l e m e n t a r y models were a p p l i e d .
comparison of t h e most h i g h l y a m p l i f i e d shear Based on t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s paper i t L
layer instability wave at St=0.22, good would a p p e a r t h a t a l l t h e dominant mechanism a r e
agreement was o b t a i n e d f o r t h e overall growth of c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o l a r g e s c a l e s t r u c t u r e s in t h e
the s t r u c t u r e , but i t s i n i t i a l growth rate plume, and t h a t t h e s e are p a r t l y d e t e r m i n i s t i c due
exceeded t h a t of t h e o n e - t h i r d o c t a v e band passed t o t h e a c o u s t i c f e e d b a c k t h a t a s s i s t s maintenance
d a t a of T r o u t t and McLaughltn. Thus t h e p r e d i c t e d of t h e p r e f e r r e d s t r u c t u r e . I n the following a
l l a u t r a l p o i n t of s t a b i l i t y f o r t h e f i x e d f r e q u e n c y brief discus,;ion is attempted citing the
h i s t a b i l i t y wave occurs f u r t h e r u p s t r e a m t h a n t h a t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e v a r i o u s mechanisms.
. i h o m by t h e measured d a t a . The measured a x i a l F i r s t i n t h e j e t s c r e e c h mechanism i t was
peak l o c a t i o n occurs in t h e v i c i n i t y where t h e shown i n f i g u r e 9 t h a t t h e s c r e e c h f r e q u e n c y and
annular mixing region ends (1.e.. q~=0). t h a t o f t h e most a m p l i f i e d s t r u c t u r e i n t h e
llowever t h e p r e d i c t e d growth and decay of t h e a n n u l a r mixing r e g i o n have n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l v a l u e s
h i g h e r S t r o u h a l [number value of 0.4 showed [near a t t h e same value of t h e f u l l y expanded plume Mach
p e r f e c t agreement between b o t h t h e growth and number. In f i g u r e 10 i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e
dec.ay of t h e i n s t a b i l i t y wave. For t h i s S t r o o h a l a s s o c i a t e d f l o w s t r u c t u r e ' s wavelength-was near
,wt:nber v a l u e t h e p r e d i c t e d n e u t r a l p o t n t o f twice the average shock spacing L. the
s t a b i l i t y is n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o the axial i n s t d b i l i t y wave a n a l y s i s and phase a v e r a g e d
l o c a t i o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e measurements. which f o r hot-wire plume measurements i n l o w Reynolds number
t h i s component occur's n e a r l y halfway between t h e s i m u l a t i o n s shows t h a t t h e axial wavelength of t h e
d i s t a n c e between t h e nozzle e x i t and t h e [ p o i n t structure increases as It is convected
where nL-O. Tam and Burton also show t h a t t h i s downstream. On t h e o t h e r hand t h e shock cell
d i f f e r e n c e in l o c a t i o n of t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t of s p n d n g d e c r e a s e s w i t h d i s t a n c e from t h e n o z z l e ,
s t a b i l i t y f o r a f i n e d f r e q u e n c y wave also can be as is t y p i c a l l y s h o w i n f i g u r e 8 a . From
observed when comparisons are made betwccn c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of t h e phased source a r r a y model of
predtcted and measured near field pressure P o w e l l , i t i s known t h a t maximum system g a i n
contours. For the St=0.4 value b o t h t h e occurs when t h e i n d i v i d u a l sources of t h e a r r a y
i n c l i n a t i o n and a p p a r e n t source l o c a t i o n are a r e phased by f a c t o r s 2nn. T h i s means t h a t i n t h e
c o r r e c t l y predicted. However f o r t h e St=0.2 r e g i o n where t h e a s s o c i a t e d l a r g e scale s t r u c t u r e
v a l u e b o t h t h e b a s i c c o n t o u r i n c l i n a t i o n and of f i g u r e s 6 and 7 f o r example have a wavelength
a p p a r e n t GOUTCB l o c a t i o n d i f f e r , s i m i l a r t o t h a t comparable t o t h e s h o c k s p a c i n g s c r e e c h s h o u l d be
shown i n f i g u r e 41. most i n t e n s e . The e x p e r i m e n t a l e v t d e n c e i n d i c a t e s

v
18
 t h a t it would be i n t h e a x i a l plume l o c a t i o n where
one f i n d s s h o c k s p a c i n g s n e a r L. For t h e n o z z l e
f l o w s examined E i s l o c a t e d d i s t a n t from t h e
n o z z l e e x i t , b u t u p s t r e a m and w i t h i n t h e a n n u l a r
mixing r e g i o n . I t is i n t h i s r e g i o n t h a t b o t h
p r e d i c t e d and measured r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e
preferred shear layer i n s t a b i l i t y has sustained
J maximum g r o w t h , which we have shown h a s t h e same
f r e q u e n c y as t h a t of t h e r a d i a t e d s c r e e c h t o n e .
T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t b o t h t h e mechanism of s c r e e c h
and j e t n o i s e may be c o u p l e d t o t h e same f l u i d
dynamic s t r u c t u r e .
From p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n s ye have a l s o shown
that the jet screech mechanism is h i g h l y
i n f l u e n c e d hy j e t i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s , where w i t h a
t a b or r e f l e c t i v e b a f f l e t h e mechanism's gain
c o u l d be a d j u s t e d . I f s c r e e c h and j e t n o i s e Were
c o u p l e d t o g e t h e r by the same f l o w s t r u c t u r e , we
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN - ANN ARBOR on September 18, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1984-2275
would e x p e c t t h a t r e d u c t i o n of t h e s y s t e m g a i n
would lower b o t h t h e measured j e t and s c r e e c h tone
amplitude levels. F i g u r e 51 shows t h a t b o t h
components are r e d u c e d when a t a b is used t o
r e d u c e t h e B s t a g e s c r e e c h mode f o r t h e sonic
nozzle a t Mj-1.37. S i m i l a r r e s u l t s can be
o b t a i n e d as w e l l f o r t h e C s t a g e s c r e e c h mode.
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s to what was o b s e r v e d in t h e low
Reynolds number 2xperiments of McLaughlin,
M o r r i s o n and T r o u t t ', when t h e glow d i s c h a r g e
e x c i t e r is o p e r a t e d a t t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e
preferred shear layer instability. Here t h e j e t
noise was found t o i n c r e a s e due t o p o s i t i v e s y s t e m
gain.
From t h e same phased l i n e a r a r r a y model i t
h a s a l s o been shown t h a t b o t h t h e f r e q u e n c y of
s c r e e c h f, ( e q u a t i o n 4 ) and t h a t f o r broadband
s h o c k noise f p ( e q u a t i o n 3) can be p r e d i c t e d
w i t h i n a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y . We found
however t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t s o u r c e l o c a t i o n would be
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l o w p r o p e r t i e s beyond t h e a n n u l a r
mixing r e g i o n , like t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e j e t
/ n o i s e process. It is i n t h i s r e g i o n where t h e
p h a s e a v e r a g e d o r band p a s s e d plume measurements
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p r e f e r r e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e
a n n u l a r mixing r e g i o n becomes c r i t i c a l l y damped.
While phased a v e r a g e d c i n e r e c o r d s show t h a t t h e
s h o c k wave s t r u c t u r e is coupled t o t h e motion o f
t h e i n s t a b i l i t y wave i n t h e a n n u l a r mixing r e g i o n ,
one wanders i f i n t h e r e g i o n where t h e wave i s
damped, i f t h e n o t i o n becomes uncoupled t o t h a t of
the s h o c k s . I f i t were t o do so. t h e n t h e
r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y between t h e wave and t h e s h o c k s
would be at a maximum, and as shown by t h e
s h o c k l v o r t e x i n t e r a c t i o n model i n t e n s e shock noise
would be e m i t t e d . The spectrum would be e x p e c t e d
t o be broadband.
Much more r e s e a r c h is of course. r e q u i r e d t o
d e t e r m i n e s u c h f l o w f e a t u r e s , b u t i t d o e s seem
clear t h a t p h y s i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s e various
mechanisms a p p e a r t o be mst s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t when
viewed w i t h i n t h e framework of c o h e r e n t t y p e
structure. The v a l u e of t h e q u a s i - l i n e a r wave
model a l s o p r o v i d e s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a means t o
a n a l y t i c a l l y unify these various mchanisms within
the structure of the conservative field
equations. For t h e f u t u r e i t h o l d s g r e a t promise
i n t h a t i t a p p e a r s t o c a p t u r e t h e major f e a t u r e s
of t h e a c o u s t i c n e a r f i e l d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t
a s s o d a t e d w t i h eddy Mach wave r a d i a t i o n .
B e f o r e c l o s i n g t h e s e c t i o n i t s h o u l d be
mentioned that the effects of non-linear
p r o p a g a t i o n d i s t o r t i o n have n o t been c o n s i d e r e d .
S t r o n g p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e s are t h e j e t s c r e e c h
L
and eddg, Mach wave mechanisms C r i g h t o n and
Bashfort and Morfey and H o ~ e l ; ~ * have r e c e n t l y
a d d r e s s e d t h i s i s s u e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h noise
r a d i a t e d from f u l l scale a i r c r a f t , and c o n c l u d e d
t h a t n o n - l i n e a r p r o p a g a t i o n e f f e c t s need t o be
a c c o u n t e d f o r a c c u r a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e f a r
f i e l d a c o u s t i c spectrum.
T w Supareodic Noise Suvpression Devices
It would n o t be a p p r o p r i a t e t o o v e r l o o k some
r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d j e t nose s u p p r e s s i o n d e v i c e s
t h a t r e p r e s e n t clear p o t e n t i a l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o
f u l l scale h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e engines where t h r u s t
l o s s is n o t e a s i l y n e g o t i a t e d . The two t h a t would
a p p e a r t o d e s e r v e s p e c i a l m e r i t are t h e POKOUS
p l u g n o z z l e s u p p r e s s o r and the i n v e r t e d v e l o c i t y
p r o f i l e c a a n n u l a r j e t w i t h c r i t i c a l Mach number
r a t i o between t h e t w o streams.
The porous p l u g nozzle co c e p t was f i r s t
e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d by b e s t r e l l o ' as a means f o r
r e d u c i n g jet n o i s e , which he found i t d i d f o r b o t h
s u b s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c f l a w s . Maestrello also
found t h a t s h o c k noise was e f f e c t i v e l y e l i m i n a t e d
due to shock c a n c e l l a t i o n over the porous
s u r f a c e 4 b I n d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s hy Bauer, Kibene and
Wlezien t h e s e f i n d i n g s were l a t e r c o n f i r m e d , and
from d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of the annular plug
f l o w f i e l d t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e s h o c k s were
effectively eliminated, Figure 52 shows t h e
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by M a e s t r e l l o between a sonic
choked annulus w i t h o u t a p o r o u s s u r f a c e ( s t a n d a r d )
and one w i t h porous t r e a t m e n t . The f a r f i e l d
s p e c t r a a t 90' t o t h e j e t axis are used s i m p l y t o
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t b o t h t h e j e t and s h o c k noise
mechanisms are substantially reduced. In
a p p l i c a t i o n of s u c h a c o n c e p t f o r s h o c k n o i s e
c o n t r o l t h e p l u g can of course be c o n s t r u c t e d much
s h o r t e r t h a n used i n t h e above s t u d i e s . but n e v e r
s h o r t e r t h a n t h e a x i a l l o c a t i o n where t h e f i r s t
b a r r e l shock is i n c i d e n t on t h e p l u g s u r f a c e . The
p o r o s i t y and p l u g volume are s e l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e
s u f f i c i e n t r a d i a l e n t r a i n m e n t by t h e p l u g t o
weaken t h e b a r r e l s h o c k b e f o r e t h e f i r s t s u r f a c e
reflection. For j e t noise c o n t r o l M a e s t r e l l o
found t h a t t h e p l u g l e n g t h would have t o be a t
l e a s t as l o n g as t h e l e n g t h of t h e i n i t i a l mixing
region.
The second s u p p r e s s i o n c o n c e p t w 6 i n i t i a t e d
and s t u d i e d by Tanna, Tam and Brown S B . Using an
i n v e r t e d v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e c o a n n u l a r j e t , whose
i n n e r and o u t e r n o z z l e s were b o t h c o n v e r g e n t ,
t h e y found that s h o c k s would be e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e
o u t e r underexpanded stream when t h e inner s t r e a m
was j u s t s l i g h t l y underexpanded a t Mj=1.03.
T h e i r f l o w r e s u l t s are shown i n t h e s e r i e s of
S c h l i e r e n r e c o r d s i n f i g u r e 53. Their acoustic
r e s u l t s showed t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e j e t n o i s e
r e d u c t i o n due t o t h e use of t h e i n v e r t e d v e l o c i t y
profile jet, s h o c k noise was substantially
reduced. The a u t h o r s concluded t h a t t h e s h o c k
wave c a n c e l l a t i o n of t h e o u t e r stream would o n l y
o c c u r f o r an inner s t r e a m v a l u e of Mj=1.03, but
was o t h e r w i s e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e o u t e r stream(8
f u l l y expanded Mach number. This should be
examined a g a i n i n view of t h e f a c t t h a t the
geometry of t h e i r n o z z l e system remained f i x e d
throughout t h e study.
 Future Aeeroaeoutic Peeearch Opportunities
As briefly mentioned i n the introductory
remarks, the principle wtivstion for future high
speed jet aeroacoustics research at NASA Langley
will involve application of what is known about
the major noise mechanisms of high performance
military aircraft and second generation space
transportation vehicles. Aside from interest in
predicting long range acoustical contaminants, the
major emphasis is in the area of providing
prediction of aeroacoustically driven dynamic
loads spectra for these vehicles. This requires
accurate prediction of the near jet acoustic field
associated with intense acoustic emissions. Often
to meet new mission requirements a strong emphasis
is now being placed on the use of advanced
composites to lower vehicle gross weight. Already
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN - ANN ARBOR on September 18, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1984-2275
for some vehicle concepts this already requires
that noise reduction be achieved for even the high
specific thrust engines currently in use. For
existing high performance aircraft there are
already strong Suspicions that many failures with
metallic structures are related to high intensity
shock noise emissions. At the present time no
performance trade offs a r e made on the basis of
intense jet and shock noise emissions, so it is a
common practice to increase structural reliability
by increase i n structural weight in the impacted
areas. The new mission goals, however, provide
motivating factor's to change this practice.
requiring the system's designer to account for
reduction of intense acoustic emissions as a
tradeoff against performance.
As with any new ares of endeavor, it is
reasonable to first start by considering candidate
nozzle propulsion systems for the new class of
high performance vehicles. The 2-D
convergent-divergent nozzle represents such a
candidate. Model scale perfggmance studies with
this nozzle by Berrier and Re , for example, show
that when integrated to the fuselage of an
advanced tactial fighter in simulated forward
flight there is a substantial reduction in boatail
drag relative to the unshrouded twin axisymmetric
nozzle configuration. What makes this particular
2-D nozzle different than those used in prior
aeroacoustics studies is that their aspect ratio's
are very low, typically less than 4 to 1. As a
consequence the plume flow field rapidly
transitions into a complex three-dimensional
Structure that is difficult to measure and
numerically predict.
Figure 54 shows a typical 2-D C-D n o z z l e
where performance improvement was found by
reduction of boatail drag. The nozzle
configuration is shown as it would appear for
typical afterburning applications with reheat.
The aspect ratio for this nozzle ( i . e . , throac
wtdth to throat height) is 2 to 1, and, in this
configuration, the design Mach number is
Md-1.66. Recently a set of acoustic field
measurements were acquired for this nozzle, where
on the basis of throat width Wt. the distance to
a circular array of microphones centered at the
nozzle exit was R/Wt-36. Preliminary results
from this study are shown in figures 55 through
57.
The directivity data of figure 55, which
shows the overall sound pressure level as a
function of angle from the jet axis, shows that
the level differs in the two azimuthal planes at
PO' and 90' for those angles more near the jet
axis. At high angles to the jet axis the levels
eventually coincide. This directivity data refers
to operation of this nozzle at its design point,
so that MpMj. As indicated by the data
considerably more noise is radiated to the 90'
azimuthal plane, which occurs when the minor axis
of the nozzle is facing the microphone receiver.
For the structural design engineer concerned with
sonic fatigue, this represents an important
consideration.
The narrowband acoustic spectra in figure 56
show that for the angles near the jet axis, the
increase in level is totally accounted for by high
frequency emissions. At high angles to the jet
axis the narrowband spectra of gigure 57 show that
the spectrum is independent of azimuthal angle.
As can be observed in the figure 57 spectra, even
though this nozzle is being operated at its fully
expanded condition, considerable shock noise is
radiated by this nozzle.
COncluBfon
In this paper the major fundamental
mechanisms for noise production by high speed
supersonic jet plumes is reviewed from the
perspective of experimental evidence. After
weighing all the experimental evidence, this paper
shows that only after consideration of the role of
large scale coherent structure can one find a
consistent unifying theme to physically interpret
and properly predict noise generation by the
fundamental mechanisms. Future theoretical
analysis of the supersonic jet noise problem must
therefore model all mechanisms within the
framework that all are governed by similar fluid
dynamic disturbances which are preferred modes of
the jet plume Structure. The quasi-linear
instability wave analysis appears to provide the
proper approach for accomplishing this pursuit.
When considering the new application of
aeroacoustic technology to afford prediction of
dynamic loads on structures, theoretical models
must account for the dynamical evolution of the
plume to provide prediction of the important near
acoustic field.
The major noise production mechanisms
reviewed for high speed jet plumes include eddy
Mach wave radiation, jet screech and broadband
shock noise. Since most cited illustrations
involve unheated supersonic plumes, jet mixing
noise was also included. In general it can be
stated that the experimental evidence for large
scale coherent structures as an important source
t o the high apeed problem has been there for some
time. This evidence, including more recent
research endeavors, have been summarized below.
For jet screech it is clear that the
discontinuous frequency jumps are related to the
plume's preference for a given mode of
instability. Toroidal or axisymmetric type
structure is limited to lower values of fully
expanded plume Mach number Mj. typically less
than Mj-I.17 but dependent on nozzle initial
conditions. Helical structure dominates the
region beyond this value. The screech frequency
is the same as that for the most highly amplified
instability wave of the annular mixing region.
The frequency for this same preferred instability
wave is the same as that observed for the spectrum
 peak value of Jet mixing noise, so that when
screech is reduced so is jet noise due to coupling
of both mechanisms to the same fluid dynamic
disturbance. The presence of weak plume shocks do
not alter the average evolution of the shear
layer's preferred modal instability. Strong
imbedded shock can alter the preferred structure.
The amplitude of Jet screech is not easily
/
predicted, but is related to nozzll. initial
conditions and a close alignment exists between
the fixed frequency instability's wavelength and
the shock cell spacing.
The principle component for broadband shock
noise is associated with plume properties beyond
the plume's annular mixing region, and
experimental evidence suggests that the isolated
shocklvortex interaction model predicts many
observed physical features of the shock noise
generation process in a plume. Both the spectrum
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN - ANN ARBOR on September 18, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1984-2275
'Lighthill, M. J.: On Sound Generated
Aerodynamically 1 1 . Turbulence as a Source of
Sound. Proc R. SOC., A 222, pp. 1-32, 1954.
'Kramer, H. P.: Note on the Emission of
Noise by Supersonic Jets. 3. Acous. SOC. h e r . ,
Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 789-790, 1955.
'Ffowes Williams, J. E.: The Noise From
Turbulence Convected at High Speed. Phil. Trans.
Roy. SOC., A 255, pp. 469-503, 1963.
'oPhillips, 0. M.: On the Generation of Sound
by Supersonic Turbulent Shear Layers. 3. Fluid
Mech., Vol. 9, Pt. 1, pp. 1-28, 1960.
"Pao, S. P.: Aerodynamic Noise Emission from
Turbulent Shear Layers. 3. Fluid Mech., Val. 59,
Pt. 3, pp. 451-479, 1973.

peak value frequency for broadband shock noise and

screech can be adequately predicted using plume
features derived from the numerically simulated
plume. Both the screech and broadband shock noise
mechanisms remain relevant with heating and
forward flight.
The quasi-linear instability wave model was
12Lilley, G. M.: The Generation and Radiation
of Supersonic Jet Noise IV. Theory of Turbulence
Generated Noise. USAPL TR-72-53, 1972.
13Tester, B. 3.; and Szewczyk, V. M.: Jet
Mixine Noise: Comoarison of Measurement end
1

found to adequately predict the eddy mach wave Theory. AIAA 5th Aeroacoustics Conf., Paper No.
radiation when compared to near field acoustic 79-0570, 1979.
measurements. It appears however to require
future development to predict the Jet mixing noise 14pibner, H. s.: Shock-Turbulence
component. No theoretical or empirical model has Interaction and the Generation of Noise. NACA
at yet been proposed to predict jet noise when Report 1233, 1955.
there are strong imbedded shocks in the plume.
A future opportunity for application of this "Lighthill, M. J.: On the Energy Scattered
aerocoustic's technology for high speed plumes has from the Interaction of Turbulence with Sound or
been outlined in the paper. Satisfactory Shock Waves. Proc. Camb. Phil. S O C . , Val. 49,
solutions to this problem will highly depend on Pt. 3, pp. 531-51, 1953.
our understanding of the important flow
disturbances that produce intense near field 16Moore, F. K.: Unsteady Oblique Interaction
pressures. Understanding how these intense noise of a Shock Wave with a Plane Disturbance. NACA
mechanisms are related to the plume dynamic TN-2879, 1953.
J structures must be achieved to provide R
successful outcome. 17Kovasanay, L. S. G.: Turbulence in
Supersonic Flow. J. Aero. Sci., Vol. 20, No. 10,
pp. 657-674, 1953.
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21
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2 5 T r ~ ~ t t ,T. R.; and McLaughlin. D. K.: "Pack, D. C.: A Note on Prandtl's Formula
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26Tam, C. K. W.; and Burton, D. E.: Sound "Seiner, J. M.; and Norum, T. D.:
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Flows. Part 1. Two Dimensional Mixing Layers and Plumes. AIAA Paper No. 80-0965, 1980.
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27Morris, P. J.; and Tam, C. K. W.: Near and Studies of Axisymmetric Free Jets. NASA TR-6,
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Axisymmetric Jets, AIAA Paper No. 77-1351, 1977.

4rMorrison, 6. L.; and McLaughlin, D. K.:
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29Harper-Bourne, M.; and Fisher, M. J.: The '%u, T. F.; and McLaughlin, D. K.: Flow
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3 0 D a ~ i e ~ M,. G.; and Oldfield, D. E. S.:
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257-277, 1962.
'"Tam, C. K. W.; and Jackson, J. A.: On the
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235-240, 1983.
"Hay. J. A.; and Rose, E. G.: In-Flight
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84-2279, 1984. Generation in Flows. Gottingen, Germany, Ed. E.
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Vol. 8, NO. 9, pp. 673-680, 1961. 1978.

36Seiner, J. M.; and Norum, T. D.: 'lRoshford, T. J.; and Toms, H. L.: Recent
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9. pp. 1384-1386, 1975.
3'Yu, J. C.; and Seiner, J. M.: Nearfteld
Observations of Tones Generated from Supersonic 52Drevet, P.; Duponchel, J. P.; and Jacques,
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Convergent Nozzle as Observed on the Bertin
38Westley, R.; and Woolley, J. H.: An Aerotrain. AIAA Paper No. 76-557, 1976.
investigation of the of the Near Noise Fields of a
Choked Axisymmetric Jet. AFSOR-UTI& Symposium on , , W. D.: and Pinker R. A.:
53Brvce. The Noise
Aerodynamic Noise Toronto, May 1968. from Unheated Supersonic Jets in Simulated
Flight. AIAA Paper 77-1327, 1977.
39Westley, R.; and Woolley, J. H.: The
NearField Sound Preseures of a Choked Jet when
Oscillating in the Spinning &de. AIAA Paper No.
75-479, 1975.

22
 54~arohia, V.; Some Flight Simulation "Norum, T. D.; and Seiner, J. M.: Broadband
Exoeriments on Jet Noise From Supersonic Shock Noise from Supersonic Jets. AIAA J., Val.
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Underexpanded Jets. NASA TP-2308, 1984. CR-3454, 1981.
1
S6Norum, T. D.; and Seiner, J. M.: "Stone, J. R.: Interim Prediction Method for
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NASA M-84521, 1982. 74Deneuville, P.: A Simplified Prediction
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"Tanna. An Exoerimental Study of Jet
H. K . : Supercritical Jet Exhausting ., from a Conical
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the Noise Generated by an Imperfectly Expanded 6081. 1977.

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"Ribner, H. S.: Acoustic Energy Flux from "Oertel, H. : Measured Velocity Fluctuations
Shock-Turbulence Interaction. J. Fluid Mech.. Inside the Mixing Layer of a Supersonic Jet. In:
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Springer-Verlag. pp. 170-179, 1982.
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~~~
.~
Field Promr.ties Associated with Broadband Shock
~
~~

Noise. A I M J., Vol. 22, No. 9, pp. 1207-1215,

~~
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Paoer No. 71-150. 1971.

1984. "Crighton, D. 6 . : The Role of Coherent

Structures in Modelling Turbulence and Mixing.
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W
23
 86Tester, B. J.; Morris, P. J.; Lau. J. C.; 92Morfey, C. L.; and Mowell, 6. P.: Nonlinear
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93plaestrello, L.: An Experfental Study on
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of Coaxial Interacting Supersonic Jet Plows. A l M 79-0673, 1979.
Paper No. 71-152, 1971. L
9*B~uer, A.; Klbens, V.; and Wlezien. R. W.:
"Laufer, 3.; Schlinker, R.; and Kaplan, R. Jet Noise Suppression by Porous Plug Nozzles.
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95Tanna, H. K.: Tam, C. K. W.; and Brown, W.
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Number Suprsonic Jets. Ph.D. Thesis, Okla. State Contractor Report 3454, 1981.
University, 1977.
96Berrier. 8. L.; and Re, R. J.:
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN - ANN ARBOR on September 18, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1984-2275

"Troutt, T. R.: Measurement8 on the Flow and Investigation of Convergent-Divergent Nozzles

Acoustic Properties of a Moderate Reynolds Number Applicable to Reduced Power supersonic Cruise
Supersonic Jet. Ph.D. Thesis. Okla. State Aircraft. NASA TP-1766. 1980.
University, 1978.

"Crighton, D. G.; and Bashford, S.:

Nonlinear Propagation of Broadband Jet Noise.
AIAA Paper No. 80-1039, 1980.

24
 SONIC NOZZLE
(UNHEATED FLOW) B&D

E
..I

A0
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Figure I . - Horizontal Spark Schliercn of fully i_/L_ILI' -~..,..-~~...~...~..

expanded (P,/Pa=l.OO) axisymetric 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 8
jet designed far an exhaust Mach
number Md=2.
9
F i g u w 4.- Fundamental wavelength variations of
the various stages of screech.

128 108 108 128

:..*?'

Figure 2.- Horizonral spark Schlieren of

underexpanded (Pe/Pa-3.05,
M.=1.8)
J axisymetric sonic nozzle.

117 97 97 117

109 89 89 109
I 3 Figure 5.- Far field directivity of C stage
St=f D/V, screech at Mj=1.49; jet exhausts to
the right; 0 measured;
Figure 3.- Typical far field narrowband shock --- predicted: (a) fundamental;
., n o i s e spectrum. (b) second harmonic; ( c ) third
harmonic; (reproduced from Norum3').
 Toroidal structure (b) Helical structure (c) Toroidal s t r u c t u r e

Pe/Pa = 1.15, Te/Ta=0.83, Nj-1.11. P,/P, = 1.33, Te/T,=0.83, Mj=1.22. P,/P, = 1.15, Te/Ta=1.96, M.=1.12.
J
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Figure 6.- Phase averaged Schlieren records illustrating spatial structure

during j e t screech from a 3.984 cm diameter sonic nozzle.

Figure 7.- Sequence of phase averaged Schlieren records far q = 2 nozzle

operating overexpanded a t Mj=1.58: fs=2810 llz, 16 exposures.
 Md
P I.0(AXISYMMETRIC)
0 1.0 (HELICAL)
'7[
.6 0 1.5
A 2.0
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.2KrI
0.
0 s
IIII
10
1L-
1s 25 30 3S 40
$D

(a) Definition of average shock spacing. Figure 9.- Fundamental jet screech and preferred
shears layer made frequency behavior
with fully expanded Mach number:
curves computed from equation 4 using
appropriate (equation 7) for each
nozzle

t.b ' 110 112 ' l!, ' 1!6 118 a ,Io 2i2 2
I
(b) i for various nozzles (from reference 42).
Mj
Figure 10.- Estimated variation of instability
axial wavelength relative to average
Figure 8.- Variation of aver e s ock cell shock cell spacing: symbols
spacing with 8-(Mj-l)1 2.eg ? correspond to legend in figure 9.

27
 4.0
SONIC NOZZLE
Po/Pa = 2.158 L
hs/D = a,3(1+ 1 /Mc)
3.5
a = 1.31
-----a = 1.16
3.0

2.5’
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2.0

1.5

I .O
l , l , l , l ,
.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 5
%/To

(a) B, D, and C Stages. (a) Static exit to ambient temperature ratio.

1.o
I40 SONIC NOZZLE ~

.9 - Po/Pa = 2.158
2.5
hs/D = a@(l+l/Mc)
-a = 1.31
- L
-
m
V
v
I20 2.0

-
As
-
>-
2 -
2 -
.B

.7
.*. -.
..-.-.
----- a = 1.16

a L
1.5

’
II

.6-

.5 -

u
1.0 1.4 2.2 2.6 .5 i

(b) Q = 1.5 and 2.0.

(b)
number .
Estimated variation with convection Mach

Figure 11.- Screech amplitude and wavelength Figure 12.- Fundamental screech wavelength
variations with M j , variations for heated flow from sonic
nozzle with fixed pressure ratio:
cold flow AI-stage of screech.

28
 2.0 M, M,
- 1.37 0.15 - 1.64 0.15
....... 1 .37 0.00 I10dB ....... 1.64 0.00
1.5 e max dB

2
hl.0
I a
.5 .... 140' 109.8

u
0 4 8

X/D
12 16
NORUU h SHEARINU
20

v, 0
C

5 IO 15 20 25 30
(a) CENTERLINE STATIC PRESSURE Frequency. kHz
NORUU & SHEARIN"
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(b) ACOUSTIC FAR FIELD PRESSURE

Figure 14.- E f f e c t of simulated forward f l i g h t

- 1.38 0.15 when B s c r e e c h modal s h i f t occurs.
I10dB ....... 1.38 0.00

n-

.-
A
140' 120.1
n
v, 0 5 10 I5 20 25 30 max dB
Frequency, kHz 110.8
HORUY & SHfARIHY
( b ) ACOUSTIC FAR FIELD PRESSURE
111.0
Figure 13.- Effect of simulated forward f l i g h t
when no s c r e e c h mode s h i f t occurs.
102.1

101.5

100.4

2.0 75' 96.7

- 1.67 0.15 -1
1.5
.. 1.67 0.00 a 60° 95.8

2 1.0
\
a
t

Figure 15.- Typical example of Lbppler s h i f t e d

f a r f i e l d s p e c t r a (from r e f e r e n c e
56).

29
 'c

INITIAL MlYlNC LAW lRANSITION Z M

1 \
4
.
\
\\ .
',
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0 0 -
-
- .
3-

0
0
0
t u
n - 0
-
M Y -
2-
0
o
L.

Figure 19.- Comparlson of p r e d i c t e d (kw) and

measured c e n t e r l i n e Mach numbers
(from r e f e r e n c e 6 3 ) .

Figure 17.- Axial d i s t r i b u t i o n of mean v e l o c i t y

.L
.-

Hd -
p r o f i l e p a r a m e t e r s r e g and b f o r
2 f u l l y expanded j e t (from
reference 6 5 ) .
.4

0.

-.4
n

1.00
1 -Bpllll
b
a
v
.e
.4

0.
L-1.0-
UC- -.4

--.e
-1.2 t u
0 10
I I II 3
20
II IIII
30
I, I I I I , I ,, , , I , , , , I , ,
50 €4 70
,,
I
$j

0. 1 Figure 20.- Comparison of p r e d i c t e d (kW) and

measured plume s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f o r
Md = 2 nozzle a t Mj = 2.24 (from
reference 6 3 ) .

Figure IS.- Mean v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s x l R j from

0.98 t o 6 6 . 1 6 f o r & = 2 f u l l y
expanded n o z z l e (from r e f e r e n c e 6 5 ) .

30
 t- o 1.0 (with subsonic doh)
0 1.5
8o
- A 2.0
Nu, = O.33(RqJ1/' + 17.

1'7[
1.6
I -SCIPVIS
-+-Measured
kW,Mf
'
= 0.15
1 Nuo
60

40-
-
-

20 -
r
I
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O c ! " " l " " l " " i " "

50 100 150 1 0
(ReJ1/'
Figure 23.- Wedge hot-film probe variation with
freestream Reynolds number (from
reference 66).

SClPVlS kW,Mf = 0.15

Figure 21.- Variation of predicted (kW) and .20 Meosured (Hot Film)
measured s'onic line (from reference
63). g(X) = 3/3

5# NICKEL F I L M

'i 0.
0 5 10 15 20 25
X/RI
.13 - tFigure 24.- Axial evolution of longitudinal
MM turbulent component along jet lipline
l
i for a sho& containing supersonic jet
plume (from reference 63).

b H l N QUARTZ SUBLAYER

Figure 22.- Profile view of hot-film wedge probe

anemometer (from reference 66).

(I.st BASED ON EXIT CONDITIONS: R/R] =1

I
.1 I 5
St=fD/Uc

31
 b. St BASE0 ON LOCAL CONDITIONS: R / R j = l
I R/DI'9 = =30°
72

'Q-'.os .I 1 10 so
I MACH 1 .O NOZZLE-,

st=cx/ur

-
Figure 25.- Universal turbulent v e l o c i t y Spectruro
in annular mixing region (from
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reference 6 7 ) .

-maIT 70
MACH 1.5 NOZZLE
F 5.m

6o .01 .l 1
Sf = fDj/Vj

Figure 27.- Acoustic far f i e l d s p e c t r a at e -

30'
for a shock free and shock c o n t a i n i n g
jet of equivalent m c h d n i c a l power
(from reference 42).

s1 * ffilU,
a) SECOND SHOCK C E U

1 1.14 ISHOCK FRELI-

Figure 28.- Typical computed pressure contours

f o r shock-vortex i n t e r a c t i o n in two
dimensions (from reference 6 0 ) .
b) THIRD SHOCK CELL

Figure 26.- Universal turbulent spectrum in shock

-
c o n t a i n i n g plume f o r Q
a t Mj
-
2 nozzle
2.24 (from reference 4 2 ) .

32
 !-END OF COMPRESSION

-0.5
-0.26 0.80 0.26 0.60 8.75

I C m-Sec >
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F i g u r e 31.- Hot-film p r o b e f n e a r f i e l d microphone

axial c o r r e l a t i o n t r a c e s through

band) f o r M,j -
t h i r d shock c e l l (2.0 Wz 1/10 f p
2 . 0 n o z z l e a t Mj *
2 . 2 4 (from r e f e r e n c e 4 2 ) .

(XIDI - 8.25

F i g u r e 29.- Schematic r e p r e s e n t s t i o n of t h i r d
shock c e l l f o r k = 2 nozzle a t
MJ n 2 . 2 4 s h o v i n g h o t - f i l m a x i a l
and r a d i a l l o c a t i o n s (from r e f e r e n c e
42).

3.8 0
? 1st CEU
D
3rd CELL

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

0
lXlDl . 8.25
SONIC
D
0
LINE
Figure 32.- E s t i m a t e of p r o b a b l e l o c a t i o n f o r
shock noise generation from axial
t i m e d e l a y i n f o r m a t i o n (from
reference 4 2 ) .

8.e

F i g u r e 30.- Radial h o t - f i l m p r o b d n e a r f i e l d

u n i t s f o r tQ - 2 n o z z l e a t Mj
2 . 2 4 (from r e f e r e n c e 4 2 ) .
-
microphone c o r r e l a t i o n s in p h y s i c a l

e..,.. .",.I 0, ,.I

F i g u r e 33.- Sound 8ource and a p p a r e n t l o c a t i o n

f o r shock noise (from r e f e r e n c e 6 0 ) .

33
 -L Md

1.5 - A 2.0 (SCIPVIS. kW)

. - Equation 12
-
____---- L
L. 1.0 -
-
AP -
-
- .A0 .
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1.51
0 MA = 2.0

a) OVEREXPANDED CONDITION

-
-
a.
f0 1.0

0.
1.o 1.5 2.0 5
i'
Figure 36.- Prediction of peak spectrum value

2.0
at e -
frequency for broadband shock noise
900.

XI0
1.5
b) UNDEREXPANDED CONDITION
Equotlon 3
fD
- 1.0 (USING SCIPVIS)
Figure 3 4 . - Major region for broadband shock
noise emission (from reference 60).
.S

0.
0 M 60 120 150 1 0
0
Figure 37.- Prediction of peak spectrum value
frequency for broadband shock noise
at various angles to jet axis.
\A
34
 "t
70

6o 0 10 20 30 40 50
b

6o 0 10 20 30 40 50
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60
--L
50 0 10 20 30 40 50
mr d

Figure 38.-
for sonic choked nozzle at e
and RID 80.
-
Prediction of shock noise intensity

- 90" 60

10 20 40
30 50
D FREQUENCY IkHz)
f

-
Md -B EQUA. 13
I
./ n 1.0
0 1.5
0.6
2.0
-
------ i A
Figure 40.- Doppler shifted power spectral
densities with amplitude corrections
for convergent nozzle with tab at e =
A 2.0 3.0
-
75, 90, 105, 120, and 135 degrees:

-
( a ) 6 = 1.34, n = 0.5; ( b ) B
n = I; (c) 6 = 0.8, n 2; (d)
1.1,

6 = 0.6. n = 2.5 (from reference 71).

Mj -Md

Figure 39.- Prediction of shock noise intensity

-
for supersonic exhaust nozzles at 8
90" and RID 80.
- B

Figure 41.- Estimate of broadband shock noise

directivity factor exponent (from
reference 71).

35
 -
St
I,.
Pr = 3.12 , Vf =0

0.59
0.63

n
0 CIRCULAR SONIC NOZZLT
n CIREUUR C-D NOZZLE
TrPW
1707
172a
Vi('/.)

ONCLf .10 I R E 1 IDEGREESI

2403
2417 I
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(a) Far field acoustic data.

1.2
St
1.17 \ 1.0
1.26
0.8

E
G
E 0.6
*
4

i
0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10
&tal Distance. XtD-,

(b) Laser velocimeter plume survey. L

St
- Figure L3.- Importance of broadband shock noise
for typical engine total temperature
1.87 (from reference 76).
2.01

100 110 110 1% ((0

Sound pressure level. dB

Figure 4 2 . -
free (Md -
Directivity comparisone between shock
1.5) and shock
containing sonic nozzle 0 with
identical mechanical power for high
frequency spectral components (from
reference 65). (a) Far field acoustic data.

36
 (b) Laser v e l o c i m e t e r plume s u r v e y .
F i g u r e 46.- Near f i e l d o n e - t h i r d o c t a v e band
F i g u r e 44.- Importance of broadband shock noise -
( S t = 0.25) pressure level contours
for % 1.5 n o z z l e ; (a) p r e d i c t e d
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i n s u b s o n i c s i m u l a t e d forward f l i g h t ( a z i m u t h a l mode m = 0); Lb) measured

(from r e f e r e n c e 76). (Yu and Dosanjh”) (from reference
86).

90”
110

100

90

F i g u r e 45.-
SPL dB re. 2 x N/m7

P r e d i c t e d ( a z i m u t h a l mode m = 0 ) and
measured (Yu and Dosanjh”)
30r
20 -
(b) Predicted.

d i r e c t i v i t y f o r St = 0.25 component YlD

from shock f r e e % = 1.5 nozzle
(from r e f e r e n c e 86).

F i g u r e 47.- Near f i e l d o n e - t h i r d o c t a v e band

sound p r e s s u r e level contours f o r
~e = 5 . 2 ~ 1 0 6 , % = 2 nozzle f o r
20.0 40.0 60.3 S t = 0.2 component (from r e f e r e n c e
Axial distance. K I I “ 67).

37
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN - ANN ARBOR on September 18, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1984-2275

r Figure 4 9 . -
Sound pressure level, dB

Effect of Reynolds number on

d i r e c t i v i t y of overall sound pressure
l e v e l s a t #D = 40 (from refrence
67).
30
(a) Measured. /

20

YID

10

30 r (b) Predicted.

/(c) Re - 5.2 x LO6; H = 2.0.

LO -
I I I YJU
.2 .4 .6 .8
st 10 -
Figure 4 8 . - E f f e c t on a c o u s t i c spectrum wlth
advancing Reynolds number (from
referenc 6 1 ) .
-
n/D

Figure 50.- Near f i e l d one-third octave band

pressure level contours f o r Re
5.2~106,
-
= 2 n o z z l e for st =
0.4 component (from reference 6 7 ) .
v
38
 Mj = 1.37 TEST %-UP
e= 60-

85 1WITHOUT SCREECH SUPPRESSION

J
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Figure 51.- Effect of screech suppression on j e t

noise component using B stage s c r e e c h
of choked s o n i c n o z z l e .

120

POWER 110
SPECTRA,
4 dB loo

90
80 L

.3 1 10 30
FREQUENCY, kHz

> CENTER
PLUG

Figure 52.- Jet and shock noise reduction by

porous plug n o z z l e concept (from
r e f e r e n c e 93).

Figure 53.- Jet and shock noise reduction by

inverted v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e coannular
concept ( f r o m reference 9 5 ) .

39
 RH 1 3/W
Md= Mj= 1.66
9 = 30°

-
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1 10 60
55 .l
FREQUENCY, k H z

Figure 54.- Typical 2-0, C-D m d e l nozzle with 2 Figure 56.- Acoustic power spectral dnesity in
to 1 aspect ratio where M,j = 1.66. t w azimuthal planes at low angles to
2-D C-D nozzle axis.

110 -

100 -
N
I
\ 90-
m
U -
d 80 -
ln
a
Sound pressure level, d8 70 -

60 -
Figure 55.- Acoustic field directivity showing
azimuthal dependence of detected
sound preasure field for 2-0 C-D
nozzle.
4 I
1
FREQUENCY, k H z
10
I

Figure 57.- Acoustic power spectral density i n

two azimuthal planes at high angles
to 2-D C-D nozzle axis.

40