applied

sciences
Article
Sampietrini Stone Pavements: Distress Analysis
Using Pavement Condition Index Method
Pablo Zoccali, Giuseppe Loprencipe * and Andrea Galoni
Department of Civil, Constructional and Environmental Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome,
Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy; pablo.zoccali@uniroma1.it (P.Z.);
galoni.1395156@studenti.uniroma1.it (A.G.)
* Correspondence: giuseppe.loprencipe@uniroma1.it; Tel.: +39-064-458-5112

Academic Editor: Zhanping You

Received: 1 June 2017; Accepted: 27 June 2017; Published: 29 June 2017

Abstract: In several Italian cities, it is possible to find historical pavements such as the Sampietrini
pavements, which are mainly located in the center of the city of Rome. The Sampietrini pavement is
a particular road surface paved in natural stone with irregular sharp elements that are assembled
by hand with the evident not plan effect. Because of their peculiarities, they are not suitable for
streets where high speed is allowed. In many cases, high vibration and noise levels due to road traffic
traveling on Sampietrini pavements are caused by inadequate maintenance, which is also affected
by the absence of specific evaluation criteria regarding surface conditions and performances of
Sampietrini pavements. It is not possible, in fact, to adopt common approaches developed to be used
for flexible and rigid pavements, because they present completely different features and distresses.
In this paper, to overpass this problem, a new evaluation criterion based on Pavement Condition
Index (PCI) method established for block pavements is proposed. Furthermore, to fully characterize
this kind of pavements, other analyses, i.e., International Roughness Index (IRI) and comfort level
evaluation based on ISO 2631 standard, were also carried out. The results showed a good correlation
between PCI and IRI approaches (R2 = 0.82), also highlighting that new or reconstructed Sampietrini
pavements present not negligible roughness level. This aspect was also confirmed estimating the
comfort level perceived by users traveling at several speeds (≤50 km/h). Finally, speed related
threshold values to be adopted for PCI and IRI methods are proposed. The proposed method can
be implemented by pavement managers in a PMS ad hoc for stone block paving and thus, it can be
integrated with other equivalents methods of visual inspection based on PCI.

Keywords: stone pavement; sampietrini; International Roughness Index; Pavement Condition Index;
road pavement distress; ISO 2631

1. Introduction
In order to guarantee the proper maintenance of a road network, it is very important to monitor
the conditions of road pavements along their service life. In this sense, the development of an adequate
Pavement Management System (PMS) is a very useful tool for road agencies, identifying appropriate
intervention thresholds and maintenance strategies for the restoration of the optimal performances, in
terms of grip, bearing and roughness levels. [1–4].
Most PMSs, actually adopted, are related to major roads and airport infrastructures [5] but,
nowadays, considering the lack of budget available to administrations, a general attention to the
applications of PMS to urban areas is paid [5–8]. Many PMSs include both visual and automatic
surveys in their procedure, adopting several indices for the evaluation of road pavement performances.
Among these, two of the most commonly used ones are the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) elaborated

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669; doi:10.3390/app7070669 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 2 of 22

by Shahin [2] and the International Roughness Index (IRI), which was elaborated from a World Bank
study in the 1980s [9]. The first one provides a global assessment of pavements condition surveying
several distress categories. In particular, it was designed for the assessment of distress related to rigid
and flexible pavements [10], which are the most common types that can be found in a generic road
network. IRI, instead, is used worldwide as road roughness evaluation criterion and its calculation
requires the measurement of road profiles using specific devices, also known as profilometers [11].
In recent studies [12,13], the correlation between IRI and PCI was investigated, with particular
attention to urban roads. In addition, based on IRI and distresses relation, some IRI threshold values
to be used in urban areas are proposed in [14].
In urban networks, however, different kinds of pavement can be found, such as block or modular
pavements, which are defined as pavements composed of pre-formed modular pavers of brick
and concrete, which, generally, have been successfully used worldwide for low volume roads and
pedestrian areas [15,16]. Considering the peculiar characteristics of these types of pavements, it is not
possible to extend to them distresses and evenness evaluation methods designed for rigid and flexible
pavements. In particular, starting from the PCI method described in [2,10], some authors developed
specific guidelines to survey and evaluate distresses affecting block pavements [17–19].
In several Italian cities, it is possible to find historical pavements such as the Sampietrini
pavements [20], which share similar features with modular block pavements. This kind of pavement
is especially present in the center of Rome and, because of its peculiar characteristics, it is not
possible to apply consolidated survey methods or threshold values commonly adopted for flexible
and rigid pavements.
For this reason, a specific case of study related to the Sampietrini block pavement was performed
in this paper, modifying the PCI method related to block pavement in order to be suitable for this
kind of pavement. Furthermore, for each section the sample surface evenness evaluation was carried
out calculating the corresponding IRI value, investigating also possible correlations between the
proposed PCI method and IRI. In addition, some considerations concerning users’ comfort perception
traveling at different speeds (<50 km/h) along this type of pavement were performed using the
frequency-weighted vertical acceleration (awz ) approach described in [21–23].

2. Methodology and Data

2.1. Sampietrini Pavements

In several Italian cities, it is possible to find historical pavements such as the Sampietrini
pavements, which are especially present in the center of the city of Rome. The first documented
use of Sampietrini stones in Rome was during the reign of Pope Pius V (1566–1572). The name derives
from their first use in St. Peter’s Square and later, over the next centuries, the stones were used to pave
all the main streets of Rome, providing a smoother and stronger surface for carriages than bricks. This
kind of pavement is made of beveled stones of black basalt, also simply called Sampietrini, placed one
next to the other. The shape of each block (also called sampietrino) can be approximate by a cubic or a
square-based truncated pyramid solid. Sampietrini blocks of different dimensions can be used. The
largest ones are characterized by a square head of 12 cm × 12 cm and height of approximately 18 cm;
however, the common height is equal to 6 cm. The smallest and rare ones, which are located in specific
areas of Rome such as Navona Square, present a square head of 6 cm × 6 cm. In Figure 1, a typical
cross section of this type of pavements is represented, while Figure 2 presents the two main geometric
patterns which can generally be realized using Sampietrini blocks. The mechanical properties of
Sampietrini material are reported in Table 1 and, as shown by some studies performed by Penta in
the 1950s, the performance of the Sampietrini pavements depends on the resistance of each block
but also on the tile pattern realized, which meaningfully affects the global behavior of this kind of
pavement [20].
 Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 3 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 3 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 3 of 22

Figure
Figure1.1.
1.Typical
Typicalcross
crosssection
sectionof aablock pavement structure.
Figure Typical cross section of
of a block
block pavement
pavement structure.
structure.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Geometric patterns: (a) herringbone at 45°; (b) arc.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Geometric
Geometric patterns:
patterns: (a)
(a) herringbone at 45
herringbone at 45°;
◦ ; (b)
(b) arc.
arc.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of basalt used for Sampietrini.
Table 1. Mechanical
Table 1. Mechanical properties
properties ofof basalt
basalt used
used for
for Sampietrini.
Sampietrini.
Material Property Value
Material Property Value
Young’s modulus
Material (GPa)
Property 37–60
Value
Young’s modulus (GPa) 37–60
Poisson ratio (-) 0.15–0.38
Poisson ratio
Young’s modulus (GPa)(-) 0.15–0.38
37–60
Compressive resistance (MPa) 241–320
Poisson
Compressive ratio (-) (MPa)
resistance 0.15–0.38
241–320
Flexural resistance
Compressive (MPa)
resistance (MPa) 32–75
241–320
Flexural resistance (MPa) 32–75
Tensile resistance
Flexural resistance(MPa)
(MPa) 18–20
32–75
Tensile resistance (MPa) 18–20
Tensile resistance (MPa) 18–20
The main problem associated with Sampietrini blocks concerns that they get very slippery when
The main problem associated with Sampietrini blocks concerns that they get very slippery when
they are wet, being a hazardpresents
above all for two-wheeled invehicles moving in the city. In addition, due
they Sampietrini
are wet, being pavement
a hazard above all someforadvantages;
two-wheeled fact, it does
vehicles not completely
moving in the city.cover the ground,
In addition, due
toleaving
their irregular
small spaces shape,
for traveling
the water on
to this
pass kind
throughof pavement
and can is
easily very
adapt uncomfortable
to the and
irregularities noisy;
of the
to their irregular shape, traveling on this kind of pavement is very uncomfortable and noisy;
moreover,
ground. heavy
Furthermore, vehicles passing
being on
of volcanicit may cause
basalt, wide vibrations
Sampietrini that
are verythat can
strong damage the surrounding
moreover, heavy vehicles passing on it may cause wide vibrations canand resistant.
damage the surrounding
buildings,
The with particular
main problem attention with
associated to historical ones.blocks concerns that they get very slippery when
Sampietrini
buildings, with particular attention to historical ones.
theyBecause
are wet,of
Because beingtheira hazard
of their
peculiarities,
above all
peculiarities,
Sampietrini pavements
for two-wheeled
Sampietrini
are moving
vehicles
pavements
not suitable
are not suitablein thefor streets
city. where due
In addition,
for streets
highto
where high
speed
their is allowed, thus, nowadays, Sampietrini were replaced in many roads of Rome but they are
speedirregular
is allowed, shape, traveling
thus, nowadays,on this kind of pavement
Sampietrini is veryinuncomfortable
were replaced many roads ofand noisy;
Rome butmoreover,
they are
still
heavyused in slow
vehicles traffic
passing areas (speed
on it may ≤
cause 50 km/h), such as the center of Rome such as Trastevere (Figure
still used in slow traffic areas (speed ≤ 50wide
km/h),vibrations that
such as the can damage
center of Romethe such surrounding
as Trastevere buildings,
(Figure
3).
with
3). particular attention to historical ones.
Although
Because ofthe percentage
their of the
peculiarities, urban road
Sampietrini network characterized
pavements not suitableby forSampietrini pavement is
Although the percentage of the urban road networkare characterized by streets where
Sampietrini high speed
pavement is
pretty
is low
allowed, (about
thus, 2%), it
nowadays, presents a whole
Sampietrini extension
were equal
replaced into about
many 100
roads km,
of which
Rome cannot
but they be
areneglected
still used
pretty low (about 2%), it presents a whole extension equal to about 100 km, which cannot be neglected
inin an
slow appropriate
traffic areasand (speedoptimized
≤ 50 km/h),PMS.such Furthermore,
as the center theof aforementioned
Rome pavements
such as Trastevere not 3).
(Figure only
an appropriate and optimized PMS. Furthermore, the aforementioned pavements not only
constitute an important historic heritage of the city of Rome, but they are also located in the most
constitute an important historic heritage of the city of Rome, but they are also located in the most
visited and prestigious areas of Rome, as can be seen in Figure 3.
visited and prestigious areas of Rome, as can be seen in Figure 3.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 4 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 4 of 22

Figure
Figure 3. Extension
3. Extension of Sampietrinipavements
of Sampietrini pavements (in
(in red)
red)within
withinthe urban
the road
urban network
road of Rome.
network of Rome.

In addition to the urban road network of 100 km, several other roads in Sampietrini are located
Although
within the the Lazio percentage
region andofinthe urban
other road
towns network
in Italy, characterized
whose extension andbythe Sampietrini pavement
accurate location is is
prettydifficult
low (aboutto know 2%), it presents
with sufficientaprecision.
whole extension equal to about 100 km, which cannot be neglected
The construction
in an appropriate of this kind
and optimized PMS. of Furthermore,
pavement is very thecomplex (Figure 4) pavements
aforementioned and it requires
notvery
onlyskilled
constitute
and specialized
an important historic workers,
heritagewhich are city
of the veryof
rare nowadays.
Rome, In the
but they arepast,
alsoinlocated
fact, thein
knowledge
the most and the and
visited
know-how were handed down from
prestigious areas of Rome, as can be seen in Figure 3.father to son.
For this reason, the costs to construct Sampietrini pavements are significantly greater than the
In addition to the urban road network of 100 km, several other roads in Sampietrini are located
costs required for asphalt concrete pavements. The estimated costs provided by the city of Rome [24],
within the Lazio region and in other towns2 in Italy, whose extension and the accurate location is
in fact, indicate a cost equal to about 200 €/m for Sampietrini pavement and about 50 €/m2 for asphalt
difficult to know with sufficient precision.
concrete ones. This meaningful gap (ratio of 4:1) further motivates the need to pay particular attention
The construction
to identifying of thistype
distresses’ kindandof location
pavement andisselecting
very complex (Figure 4)
the appropriate and it requires
maintenance very
actions skilled
to fix
and specialized
them. workers, which are very rare nowadays. In the past, in fact, the knowledge and the
know-how were handed down from father to son.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 pavements need a lot of maintenance since the blocks are not fixed into the ground
Sampietrini 5 of 22
with cement or any other bonding agent, but are simply hammered into the sandbed.
In many cases, high vibration and noise levels due to road traffic traveling on Sampietrini
pavements are caused by inadequate maintenance [25], which is also affected by the absence of
specific evaluation criteria regarding surface conditions and performances of Sampietrini pavements.
It is not possible, in fact, to adopt common approaches developed to be used for flexible and rigid
pavements, because they present completely different features and distresses.

Figure 4. The construction phase of a block pavement structure.

Figure 4. The construction phase of a block pavement structure.
In this paper, in order to overpass this problem, a new evaluation criterion based on PCI method
established for block pavements is proposed. In particular, 14 sections belonging to different low
volume roads and located in the center of the city of Rome, were analyzed according to three different
approaches: PCI, IRI and awz. In Figures 5 and 6, two examples of the examined road sections are
depicted.
For all sections, having a length of 80 m and width equal to 3 m (for a total pavement area of
240 m2), the two alignments (right and left) were measured using a contact profilometer (i.e., Dipstick).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 5 of 22

For this reason, the costs to construct Sampietrini pavements are significantly greater than the
costs required for asphalt concrete pavements. The estimated costs provided by the city of Rome [24],
in fact, indicate a cost equal to about 200 €/m2 for Sampietrini pavement and about 50 €/m2 for
asphalt concrete ones. This meaningful gap (ratio of 4:1) further motivates the need to pay particular
attention to identifying distresses’ type and location and selecting the appropriate maintenance actions
to fix them.
Sampietrini pavements need a lot of maintenance since the blocks are not fixed into the ground
with cement or any other bonding agent, but are simply hammered into the sandbed.
In many cases, high vibration and noise levels due to road traffic traveling on Sampietrini
pavements are caused by inadequate
Figure maintenance
4. The construction [25],
phase of which
a blockispavement
also affected by the absence of specific
structure.
Figure 4. The construction phase of a block pavement structure.
evaluation criteria regarding surface conditions and performances of Sampietrini pavements. It is not
possible,
In thisin fact, to adopt
paper, common
in order to overpass approaches developed
this problem, a newto evaluation
be used forcriterion
flexible and rigid
based on pavements,
PCI method
In this paper, in order to overpass this problem, a new evaluation criterion based on PCI method
because
established they present completely different features and distresses.
established for block pavements
for block pavementsisisproposed. proposed.InInparticular,
particular,1414 sections
sections belonging
belonging to different
to different lowlow
In
volume this paper,
roads and in order
located to
in overpass
the center this
of problem,
the city of a new
Rome, evaluation
were analyzedcriterion
volume roads and located in the center of the city of Rome, were analyzed according to three different based
according on
to PCI
three method
different
established
approaches:for
approaches: block
PCI,
PCI, IRI pavements
IRI and aawzwz. . In
and is proposed.
InFigures
Figures andIn
55and particular,
6,6,two
twoexamples 14 of
examples sections
of
thethe belonging
examined
examined tosections
road
road different
sections
arelow
are
volume
depicted.
depicted. roads and located in the center of the city of Rome, were analyzed according to three different
approaches:
For
For allall sections,
sections, and awz
PCI, IRI having
having aa.length
In Figures
length ofof80
80m5mand
and 6,width
andwidth twoequal
examples
equalto to
3m 3 of
m the
(for(for examined
a total
a total roadarea
pavement
pavement sections
area
of of
are
240 depicted.
m 22), the two alignments (right and left) were measured using a contact profilometer (i.e., Dipstick).
240 m ), the two alignments (right and left) were measured using a contact profilometer (i.e., Dipstick).

(a)
(a) (b)(b)

Figure 5. Sampietrini pavement Section 01: (a) top-down; (b) street views.
Figure5.5.Sampietrini
Figure Sampietrinipavement
pavementSection
Section01:
01:(a)
(a)top-down;
top-down;(b)
(b)street
streetviews.
views.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Sampietrini pavement Section 06: (a) top-down; (b) street views.
Figure6.6.Sampietrini
Figure Sampietrinipavement
pavementSection
Section06:
06:(a)
(a)top-down;
top-down;(b)
(b)street
streetviews.
views.

For all sections, having a length of 80 m and width equal to 3 m (for a total pavement area of
240 m2 ), the two alignments (right and left) were measured using a contact profilometer (i.e., Dipstick).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 6 of 22

2.2. Performed Analyses

In order to fully characterized Sampietrini stones pavements, three different approaches were
considered: PCI for global distresses assessment, IRI for evenness evaluation and awz for ride quality
estimation. The aim of the analyses performed using the two latter indices, is trying to define (or
to estimate) the roughness level and the ride comfort related to new or reconstructed Sampietrini
pavements. In the following sections, a brief description of each road evaluation method applied to
the Sampietrini pavements is provided.

2.2.1. Pavement Condition Index (PCI)

The PCI is a numerical indicator, based on the inspection of different distress types affecting
road pavement surface. For each distress, the corresponding severity and quantity are identified and
recorded on specific survey data sheet reported in [10]. PCI rating scale (Table 2) varies from 0 (failed
pavement) to 100 (perfect condition).

Table 2. Standard PCI rating scale.

PCI Verbal Rating

86–100 Good
71–85 Satisfactory
56–70 Fair
41–55 Poor
26–40 Very Poor
11–25 Serious
0–10 Failed

As already stated, this method was developed to be used for rigid and flexible pavements [2,10],
even though some authors have proposed guidelines in order to apply PCI approach to concrete block
pavements [18,19].
Considering the similarities between Sampietrini and concrete block pavements (i.e., they are
both modular pavement, and each block presents homogeneous mechanical characteristics), a specific
distresses catalogue for Sampietrini pavements was established starting from the one reported in [18].
In particular, threshold values related to the three severities (low, medium and high) were modified,
taking into account the specific shape size of a single block of Sampietrini pavements.
Therefore, the distress catalogue proposed for Sampietrini pavements includes all the distresses
(Table 3) described in Appendix A, whose descriptions are mostly taken from [18]. Compared to distress
catalogue presented in [18], horizontal creep distress (distress identified by 107) can be considered
negligible for Sampietrini pavements.

Table 3. List of distresses proposed for Sampietrini pavements.

Distress ID. Description

101 Damaged Sampietrini
102 Depressions
103 Edge restraint
104 Excessive joint width
105 Faulting
106 Heave
108 Joint sand loss/pumping
109 Missing Sampietrini
110 Patching
111 Rutting
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 7 of 22

2.2.2. International Roughness Index (IRI)

The International Roughness Index (IRI) is the worldwide used road roughness evaluation
indicator, elaborated from a World Bank study in the 1980s. It is based on a mathematical model called
quarter-car and developed in order to assess the ride quality on road pavements. The assessment is
performed by a simulation model, calculating the suspension motion on a single profile and dividing
the sum by the distance traveled according to Equation (1):

l
Zv 
1 z. s − z. u dt

IRI = (1)
l
0

.
where l is the length of the profile in km, v is the simulated speed equal to 80 km/h, zs is the time
.
derivative of vertical displacement of the sprung mass in meters and zu is the time derivative of vertical
displacement of the unsprung mass in meters. The result is the IRI value and it is expressed in slope
units (e.g., m/km or mm/m).
In the present work, the IRI calculation was performed by means of a Matlab© code, where the
algorithm provided by ASTM E1926 [26] standard is implemented. For each analyzed section, two
alignments (right and left) were measured, calculating the corresponding IRI value for both of them.
Finally, the mean value characterizing the whole section was obtained using Equation (2):

IRIle f t + IRIright
IRIsection = (2)
2

2.2.3. Frequency-Weighted Vertical Acceleration (awz )

In addition to IRI and PCI methods, a further analysis performed to fully characterize Sampietrini
pavements was the ride quality evaluation carried out adopting the frequency-weighted vertical
acceleration (awz ) parameter, described in [27]. To determine the frequency-weighted vertical
acceleration on users due to road roughness [28], several simulations at different speeds (10–50 km/h)
were performed using the eight degrees of freedom (d.o.f.) full car model developed by Cantisani and
Loprencipe [21] and calibrated in order to represent the behavior of a common passengers’ car.
Starting from the vertical accelerations calculated by this model traveling along the road profiles,
it is possible to determine the root mean square (RMS) accelerations through the evaluation of the
power spectral density (PSD). Acceleration PSD is then calculated in correspondence of the 23 one-third
octaves bands, representative of the frequency range of interest for the human response to vibrations
(0.5–80 Hz), as specified by ISO 2631 standard. The final value for awz index is then obtained using the
following Equation (3): v
u 23
∑
awz = t (W × a )2
u
k,i iz (3)
i =1

where Wk,i are the frequency weightings in one-third octaves bands for seated position, provided
by the standard, and aiz is the vertical root mean square (RMS) acceleration for the i-th one-third
octave band.
Then, awz values can be compared with the threshold values proposed by ISO 2631 for public
transport (Table 4) to estimate the corresponding comfort level perceived by users traveling along the
examined road sections.
By means of this analysis, it is possible to estimate the maximum speed at which drivers can
transit on new or reconstructed Sampietrini pavements that cannot present a perfectly smoothed
surface. In this way, the chance of using this type of pavement for certain road categories in the urban
network is also assessed.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 8 of 22

Table 4. Comfort levels related to awz threshold values proposed by ISO 2631 for public transport.

awz Values (m/s2 ) Comfort Level

<0.315 Not uncomfortable
0.315–0.63 A little uncomfortable
0.5–1 Fairly uncomfortable
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 8 of 22
0.8–1.6 Uncomfortable
1.25–2.5 Very uncomfortable
By means of this analysis, >2
it is possible to estimate the uncomfortable
Extremely maximum speed at which drivers can
transit on new or reconstructed Sampietrini pavements that cannot present a perfectly smoothed
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 8 of 22
surface. In this way, the chance of using this type of pavement for certain road categories in the urban
3. Results network
and Discussions
By ismeans
also assessed.
of this analysis, it is possible to estimate the maximum speed at which drivers can
PCI values
transitcalculated for the sections
on new or reconstructed examined
Sampietrini pavementsin this paper,present
that cannot present a goodsmoothed
a perfectly variability going
3. Results and Discussions
surface. In this way, the chance of using this type of pavement for certain road categories in the urban
from 12 to 94, although just one section has PCI <40, corresponding to very poor pavement condition or
network is alsocalculated
PCI values assessed. for the sections examined in this paper, present a good variability going
worst. More details about the distresses presented in each inspected section are reported in Appendix B.
from 12 to 94, although just one section has PCI <40, corresponding to very poor pavement condition
As can be seen in Figure 7, a good 2 0.82). In particular,
or3.worst.
Results and Discussions
More details aboutcorrelation between
the distresses presentedPCI in and
each IRI was found
inspected section(Rare=reported in
it can be noted
Appendix that
PCI B. forcan
As
values good Sampietrini
be seen
calculated in
forFigure 7, apavements
good
the sections in(PCI
correlation
examined > 86),
between
this paper,PCI IRI
andvalue
present IRI wasvaries
a good found (Rbetween
variability 2 = 0.82).
going 6 and 8.
Infrom
These values, particular,
in12 case it although
to 94, can be noted
of rigid orthat
just one for goodhas
section
flexible Sampietrini pavements
PCI <40, corresponding
pavements, might be (PCI > 86),poor
tocommonly
very IRI value varies
pavement between
condition
associated to damaged
6 or
and 8. These
worst. Morevalues,
detailsinabout
case the
of rigid or flexible
distresses pavements,
presented in each might be commonly
inspected section are associated
reported into
pavement damaged
[11]. pavement [11].
Appendix B. As can be seen in Figure 7, a good correlation between PCI and IRI was found (R = 0.82). 2

In particular, it can be noted that for good Sampietrini pavements (PCI > 86), IRI value varies between
6 and 8. These values,
100
in case of rigid or flexible pavements, might be commonly associated to
damaged pavement [11].
90
80
y = -5.94x + 137.12
100
70 R² = 0.82
90
60
80
y = -5.94x + 137.12
PCI

50
70 R² = 0.82
40
60
30
PCI

50
20
40
10
30
0
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
10 IRI (m/km)
0
Figure 7. Correlation0between Pavement
5 Condition
10 Index 15
(PCI) and International
20 Roughness
25 Index
Figure 7. Correlation between
(IRI) for Sampietrini Pavement Condition
pavements. Index (PCI) and International Roughness
IRI (m/km) Index
(IRI) for Sampietrini pavements.
Figure
The 7. Correlation
peculiarity of IRIbetween Pavement
range values Condition
found Index (PCI)
for Sampietrini and International
pavements Roughness
is better Index
underlined looking
(IRI)
at Figure 8,for Sampietrini
where pavements.
the relation between PCI and IRI for different types of pavement is depicted.
The peculiarity of IRI range values found for Sampietrini pavements is better underlined looking
The peculiarity of IRI range values found for Sampietrini pavements is better underlined looking
at Figure 8, where the relation between PCI and IRI for different types of pavement is depicted.
at Figure
1008, where the relation between PCI and IRI for different types of pavement is depicted.

90 Sampietrini - Present work

100
80

7090 Asphalt - Arhin

Sampietrini et al. work
- Present 2015
6080
PCI

5070 Composite
Asphalt - Arhin
- Arhin et al.et2015
al. 2015

4060
PCI

3050 Composite
Concrete - -Arhin
Arhinet
etal.
al.2015
2015

2040
Concrete
Asphalt - -Park
Arhin
etetal.al.2007
2015
1030

020
Asphalt - Park et al. 2007
100 5 10 15 20 25
IRI (m/km)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 8. Correlation between
IRI (m/km)PCI and IRI for a different type of pavements.

Figure 8. Correlation between PCI and IRI for a different type of pavements.
Figure 8. Correlation between PCI and IRI for a different type of pavements.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 9 of 22

Appl.
In Sci. 2017, 7, 669
particular, it can be seen that, according to the relations found by Arhin et al. [12], regardless 9 of 22 of
the type of pavements, IRI values are always lower than 10 m/km, even for PCI close to 0. Considering
In particular,
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 it can be seen that, according to the relations found by Arhin et al. [12], regardless 9 of 22
the relation
of the type of pavements, IRI values are always lower than 10 m/km, even for PCI close tothan
found by Park et al. [29] for asphalt pavements, instead, for PCI values lower 0. 40
(corresponding
Considering the relation found by Park et al. [29] for asphalt pavements, instead, for PCI values lowerof IRI
In to pavements
particular, it can be condition
seen that, from
according very
to poor
the to failed,
relations found seebyTable
Arhin2) very
et al. high
[12], values
regardless
of the
are found.
than 40type of pavements,
(corresponding IRI values
to pavements are always
condition fromlower thanto10
very poor m/km,
failed, seeeven
Tablefor PCI high
2) very closevalues
to 0.
Considering
In anyarecase,
of IRI the
found. relation found by Park et al. [29] for asphalt pavements, instead,
it is clear that different IRI values must be associated to new or reconstructed for PCI values lower
than In
Sampietrini 40 (corresponding
any
pavements, to pavements
case, it iscompared
clear that to condition
different
the most from very
IRIcommon
values mustpoor
typesbeto
of failed,
associatedsee to
pavement Table
new2) or
very
(flexible high values
reconstructed
and rigid).
of IRI are
Sampietrini found.
pavements, compared
Starting from this result, it wastodecided
the mostto common
evaluate typestheofride
pavement
quality(flexible and rigid).
perceived by road users
In any case,
Starting from itthis
is clear
result,that
it different
was IRI to
decided values mustthe
evaluate beride
associated
quality to new or by
perceived reconstructed
road users
traveling along Sampietrini pavements at different speeds. As already stated, taking into account
Sampietrini
traveling pavements,
along Sampietrini compared
pavements to the
at most common
different speeds.types of pavement
As already stated,(flexible and account
taking into rigid). that
that this type of
Starting pavement
from this is is present
result, it wasjust in urban areas, velocity range between 10 and 50 km/h was
this type of pavement present just decided
in urbantoareas,
evaluate the ride
velocity range 2
quality
betweenperceived
10 andby 50 road
km/husers
was
considered.
travelingAs canSampietrini
along be seen in Figure 9, very weak speeds.
correlations (R =stated,
0.44–0.70) wereaccount
found thatbetween
considered. As can be seen pavements
in Figure 9,atvery different
weak correlationsAs already
(R2 = 0.44–0.70) taking
wereintofound between
IRI and
thisa type
wz values
of at different
pavement is
IRI and awz values at different speeds.speeds.
present just in urban areas, velocity range between 10 and 50 km/h was
considered. As can be seen in Figure 9, very weak correlations (R2 = 0.44–0.70) were found between
IRI and awz values at different speeds.
10 km/h 20 km/h 30 km/h 40 km/h 50 km/h
1.80

1.60 10 km/h 20 km/h 30 km/h 40 km/h 50 km/h

1.80 y = 0.30e0.08x
1.40
1.60 y = 0.40e0.07x R² = 0.70
1.20 y = 0.30e0.08x
awz2) (m/s2)

1.40
R² = 0.44
y R²
= 0.26e 0.07x
y = 0.40e0.07x = 0.70
1.00
1.20 R² = 0.59
R² = 0.44
awz (m/s

0.80 y = 0.26e0.07x
1.00
0.60 y =R²0.19e
= 0.59
0.06x

0.80 R² = 0.59
0.40
0.60 y = 0.19e0.06x
0.20 yR² = 0.590.06x
= 0.12e
0.40 R² = 0.48
0.00
0.20 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
y = 0.12e0.06x25.00
R² = 0.48
0.00 IRI (m/km)
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
IRI (m/km)
Figure 9. Correlation between IRI and awz at different speeds.
Figure 9. Correlation between IRI and awz at different speeds.
Similar results, inFigure
terms9.ofCorrelation between
correlation IRI andRa2wz, at
coefficient different
were speeds.
obtained comparing PCI and awz
approaches
Similar (Figure
results, in10). In fact,
terms as depicted incoefficient
of correlation Figure 11, R 22
R values
, wereatobtained
different speeds for IRI-a
comparing PCIwz and
and awz
PCI-aSimilar results, in terms of correlation coefficient R22, were obtained comparing PCI and awz
wz correlations are very close to each other.
approaches (Figure 10). In fact, as depicted in Figure 11, R2 values at different speeds for IRI-awz and
approaches (Figure 10). In fact, as depicted in Figure 11, R values at different speeds for IRI-awz and
PCI-aPCI-a
wz correlations are very close to each other.
wz correlations are very close to each other.
10 km/h 20 km/h 30 km/h 40 km/h 50 km/h
1.80
y = 1.67e-0.01x
10 km/h 20 km/h 30 km/h 40 km/h 50 km/h
1.60
1.80 R² = 0.64
1.40 y = 1.78e-0.01x
y = 1.67e-0.01x
1.60 R² = 0.32
1.20 R² = 0.64
awz2) (m/s2)

1.40 y = 1.78e-0.01x
y = 1.21e-0.01x
1.00 R² = 0.32
1.20 R² = 0.56
awz (m/s

0.80 y = 1.21e-0.01x y = 0.76e-0.01x

1.00 R² = 0.56
0.60 R² = 0.59
0.80 y = 0.76e-0.01x
0.40
0.60 R² = 0.59
0.20 y = 0.47e-0.01x
0.40 R² = 0.56
0.00
0.20 0.00 y = 0.47e-0.01x
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00
R² = 0.56
0.00 PCI
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00
PCI
Figure 10. Correlation between PCI and awz at different speeds.

Figure 10. Correlation between PCI and awz at different speeds.

Figure 10. Correlation between PCI and awz at different speeds.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 10 of 22

PCI-awz IRI-awz

1
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 10 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 10 of 22
0.8

0.6
PCI-awz IRI-awz

R2
1
0.4

0.8
0.2

R2 0.60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.4 Simulation traveling speed (km/h)

0.2
Figure 11. Correlation coefficient R2 as function of traveling speed used for awz calculation.
0
Considering for example 0 two10 sections 20 having 30 40
PCI >85 (corresponding 50 to a60pavement in good
Simulation traveling speed (km/h)
condition), it is possible to evaluate the comfort level induced on road users traveling at different
velocities on new or reconstructed Sampietrini pavements. As can be seen in Figure 12, also moving
at 50 km/h Figure
(maximum
Figure 11. Correlation
11. Correlation
legal speedcoefficient
allowed
coefficient R22 as
R asonfunction of
Italianof
function traveling
urban speed
roads)
traveling used
theused
speed worstforcomfort
for aawz
wz calculation.
level perceived
calculation.
by drivers is equal to “fairly uncomfortable”. In the same figure, two sections characterized by PCI
valuesConsidering
between 41for andexample two sections
55 (corresponding to having PCI >85 condition)
poor pavement (corresponding
are alsoto reported.
a pavement in good
In this case,
Considering for example two sections having PCI >85 (corresponding to a pavement in good
condition),
at the it
maximum is possible
allowableto evaluate
speed the comfort
(i.e., 50 level
km/h), induced
the on
comfort road users
level was traveling
found at
to different
be very
condition), it is possible to evaluate the comfort level induced on road users traveling at different
velocities on new
uncomfortable. or reconstructed
Furthermore, levels Sampietrini
equal to pavements.
fairly As can be seen in Figure
uncomfortable/uncomfortable are 12, also moving
already reached
velocities on new or reconstructed Sampietrini pavements. As can be seen in Figure 12, also moving at
at
at 50
30 km/h
km/h. (maximum legal speed allowed on Italian urban roads) the worst comfort level perceived
50 km/h (maximum legal speed allowed on Italian urban roads) the worst comfort level perceived by
by drivers
The is equal to “fairly uncomfortable”. In the same Sampietrini
figure, two sections characterized byroad
PCI
drivers is aforementioned results
equal to “fairly uncomfortable”. show theInchancethe sameof using
figure, two sections pavements
characterized on the
byurban
PCI values
values
network,between
allowing 41 and 55 level
(corresponding to poor pavement condition) arean
also reported. In this case,
between 41 and 55 a(corresponding
little of discomfort
to poor pavementon users. In order
condition) toare
prevent excessive
also reported. decay
In this case,ofatlevel
the
at
of the maximum
service (in terms allowable
of comfort), speed
it would (i.e.,
be 50 km/h),
appropriate the
to comfort
adopt level
comfort and was
speed found to
related be very
threshold
maximum allowable speed (i.e., 50 km/h), the comfort level was found to be very uncomfortable.
uncomfortable.
values for IRI levels Furthermore,
and PCI levels as
approaches, equal
alsotoproposed
fairly uncomfortable/uncomfortable
in [30]. are already reached
Furthermore, equal to fairly uncomfortable/uncomfortable are already reached at 30 km/h.
at 30 km/h.
The aforementioned results show the chance of using Sampietrini pavements on the urban road
network, allowing a little Little uncomfortable
level of discomfort on users. InUncomfortable
order to prevent an excessive decay of level
of service (in terms of comfort), it would be appropriate to adopt comfort and speed related threshold
Comfortable Fairly uncomfortable Very uncomfortable
values for 60IRI and PCI approaches, as also proposed in [30].

50 PCI=54
Little uncomfortable Uncomfortable PCI=88
40
Speed (km/h)

Comfortable Fairly uncomfortable PCI=92

Very uncomfortable
60
30 PCI=46

50 PCI=54
20
PCI=88
40
Speed (km/h)

10 PCI=92

30 PCI=46
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
20
awz (m/s2)
10

Figure 12. Estimation

0 12.
Figure Estimation of
of ride
ride quality
quality on
on new
new or
or reconstructed
reconstructed Sampietrini
Sampietrini pavements
pavements (PCI
(PCI >> 85).
85).
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
awz (m/s 2)
Using
The the correlations
aforementioned previously
results show thefound, for
chance ofexample,
using it is possible
Sampietrini to determine
pavements on theIRI androad
urban PCI
limits, respectively,
network, allowing a depicted
little levelinofFigures 13 and
discomfort on14.
users. In order to prevent an excessive decay of level
of service (in terms of comfort), it would be appropriate to adopt comfort and speed related threshold
values Figure
for IRI12.
andEstimation of ride quality
PCI approaches, on proposed
as also new or reconstructed
in [30]. Sampietrini pavements (PCI > 85).

Using the correlations previously found, for example, it is possible to determine IRI and PCI
limits, respectively, depicted in Figures 13 and 14.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 11 of 22

Using the correlations previously found, for example, it is possible to determine IRI and PCI
limits,
Appl. Sci.respectively,
2017, 7, 669 depicted in Figures 13 and 14. 11 of 22

Figure 13. Speed related IRI thresholds.

Figure 14. Speed related PCI thresholds.

As already
As already stated,
stated,weak
weakcorrelations
correlationswere
were found
found between
between thethe
twotwo aforementioned
aforementioned indices
indices andand
awz .
aFor
wz. For this reason, it would be necessary to increase the sample size to better investigate these
this reason, it would be necessary to increase the sample size to better investigate these correlations,
correlations,
eventually eventually
improving improving them.
them.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this
In this paper, several road
paper, several road pavement evaluation methods
pavement evaluation methods werewere applied
applied to
to 14
14 sections
sections of
of historical
historical
Sampietrini pavements: PCI, IRI, and a . In particular, starting from the PCI method established
Sampietrini pavements: PCI, IRI, and awz . In particular, starting from the PCI method established
wz for
block
for pavements,
block pavements, specific severity
specific threshold
severity thresholdvalues
valuesfor
forall
allpossible
possible distress
distress types characterizing
types characterizing
Sampietrini pavements were proposed.
Sampietrini pavements were proposed.
A good correlation factor (R2 = 0.82) was found between PCI and IRI values calculated for the
aforementioned sections. In addition, considering that PCI values greater than 85 correspond to
pavements in excellent conditions, it was confirmed that new or reconstructed Sampietrini
pavements are characterized by not negligible roughness level (IRI = 6–8 m/km). In fact, they cannot
be used for high-speed roads (>50 km/h).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 12 of 22

A good correlation factor (R2 = 0.82) was found between PCI and IRI values calculated for the
aforementioned sections. In addition, considering that PCI values greater than 85 correspond to
pavements in excellent conditions, it was confirmed that new or reconstructed Sampietrini pavements
are characterized by not negligible roughness level (IRI = 6–8 m/km). In fact, they cannot be used for
high-speed roads (>50 km/h).
For a Sampietrini pavement in good condition (PCI = 88–92, good), the values of awz calculated at
velocities within the range from 10 to 50 km/h showed that, for speed equal to 40 and 50 km/h, ride
quality might be little or fairly uncomfortable. When the pavement conditions get worse (PCI = 46–54,
poor), ride comfort also decreases, arriving at a very uncomfortable level at 50 km/h.
Although weak correlations were found between PCI-awz and IRI-awz , to develop an appropriate
Sampietrini management system based on the ride quality perceived by road users, speed related PCI
and IRI thresholds are also proposed.
In this sense, wider and extensive in situ measurements should be performed to improve
the accuracy and the efficiency of the proposed approach for the surface conditions assessment
of Sampietrini pavements.

Acknowledgments: All sources of funding of the study should be disclosed. Please clearly indicate grants that
you have received in support of your research work. Clearly state if you received funds for covering the costs to
publish in open access.
Author Contributions: Giuseppe Loprencipe had the original idea. Andrea Galoni performed the pavement
inspection data of Sampietrini pavements in Rome. Giuseppe Loprencipe and Pablo Zoccali carried out the data
and results analyses of the work. Pablo Zoccali wrote the manuscript and was in charge of the overall outline and
editing of the manuscript. Andrea Galoni was involved in the revision and completion of the work. Giuseppe
Loprencipe contributed to the outline as well as to the revision, completion, and editing of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

awz Frequency-weighted vertical acceleration

ASTM American Society of Texting and Materials
CDV Corrected Deduct Value
DV Deduct Value
IRI International Roughness Index
ISO International Organization for Standardization
PCI Pavement Condition Index
PMS Pavement Management System
PSD Power Spectral Density
RMS Root Mean Square

Appendix A. Distress Identification Catalogue for Sampietrini Pavements

This appendix includes a list of the distresses defined in the proposed distress Identification Catalogue for
Sampietrini pavements. Besides, it includes guidelines for distress identification and security level assessment
and provides recommendations to conduct the pavement survey.
The Deduct Curves for each distress and the Total Deduct Value/Corrected Deduct Value diagram used in
the PCI calculus are the same as reported in Interlocking Concrete Pavement Distress Manual [18] and, for this
reason, they are not reported in this paper.
In this study, new definitions of the severity levels (low, medium and high) were proposed for Sampietrini
pavement; these new definitions for each distress type are reported in the following sections.

Appendix A.1. Damaged Sampietrini

Damaged Sampietrini describes the condition of the paver blocks. Block damage would include paver
distresses such as a chip, crack, or spalls. This kind of distress would be indicative of load related damage, such as
inadequate support causing shear breakage, etc.
Damaged pavers are measured in square meters of surface area. Random individual cracked pavers are not
counted. The severity is evaluated by level of distress (Figure A1), according to indications reported in Table A1.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 13 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 13 of 22

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 13 of 22

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
(a) A1. Damaged Sampietrini(b)
severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c)(c)
high.
Figure A1. Damaged Sampietrini severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A1. Damaged Sampietrini severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Table A1. Severity level of damaged Sampietrini distress.
Table A1. Severity level of damaged Sampietrini distress.
Table A1. Severity level of damaged Sampietrini distress.
Severity Level Item
Severity
Low Level
Severity Level Individual cracks, ItemItem
separations or alterations
Medium
Low
Low Advanced
Individualcracking,
Individual cracks, separations
cracks,separations
separationsor ororalterations
alterations
alterations
Medium
High
Medium Advanced
Blocks are incracking,
Advanced multiple
cracking,separations
pieces or or
separationsarealterations
ordisintegrated
alterations
High
High Blocks are
Blocks are in
in multiple
multiplepieces oror
pieces areare
disintegrated
disintegrated
Appendix A.2. Depressions
Appendix A.2. Depressions
Appendix A.2. Depressions
Depressions are areas of the pavement surface that present lower elevations than the
Depressions are areas of the pavement surface that present lower elevations than the
Depressions
surrounding are
areas. areas of the pavement
Depressions surface that present lower elevations thansubgrade
the surrounding areas.
surrounding areas. Depressionsare are caused
caused by by settlement
settlement ofofthethe underlying
underlying subgrade or granular
or granular
Depressions are caused by settlement of the underlying subgrade or granular base. The settlement is common
base. TheThe settlement is is common over over utility cuts andandadjacent
adjacent to to road hardware. Depressions can
over base.
utility cutssettlement
and adjacentcommon utilityDepressions
to road hardware. cuts can cause road hardware.
roughness in theDepressions
pavement, and,can when
cause roughness
cause roughness in the
in pavement,
the pavement, and,
and, when
when filled
filled with
with water,
water, can can cause
cause hydroplaning
hydroplaning
filled with water, can cause hydroplaning of vehicles. Depressions are measured in square meters of surface of of vehicles.
vehicles.
area and
Depressionsthe maximum
Depressionsareare depth of
measured
measured depression
ininsquare defines
squaremeters
meters ofthe
of severity
surface
surface (Figure
area
area and
and A2),
thethe according
maximum
maximum todepth
depth the
ofvalues reported in
of depression
depression
Tabledefines
A2.
defines the the severity
severity (Figure
(Figure A2),according
A2), according toto the
thevalues
valuesreported
reported in in
Table A2.A2.
Table

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Figure A2. Depressions severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high. (c)
(b) severity:
Figure A2. Depressions (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A2. Depressions severity:
Table A2. Severity (a)oflow;
level (b) medium; (c) high.
depressions.
Table A2. Severity level of depressions.
Severity Level Maximum Depth of Depression
Table A2. Severity level15–30
Low of depressions.
mm
Severity Level Maximum Depth of Depression
Medium 30–50 mm
Severity Level Maximum Depth of Depression
Low
High 15–30
>50 mmmm
Low
Medium 15–30 mm
30–50 mm
Medium 30–50 mm
Appendix A.3. Edge RestraintHigh >50 mm
High >50 mm
Edge strips and curbing are forms of restraints that provide lateral support for paver pavements.
Appendix
LateralA.3. Edge Restraint
restraint is considered essential to resist lateral movement, minimize loss of joint and bedding
Appendix A.3. Edge Restraint
sand, and prevent
Edge strips and curbing blockare
rotation.
forms ofEdge strips/curbs
restraints can comprise
that provide prefabricated
lateral support angle
for paver supports,Lateral
pavements.
Edge
restraint
concrete strips and
is considered
curbs, etc.curbing
essential are
to
This distressforms
resist of restraints
is lateral movement,
accelerated that provide
minimize
by traffic lateral
loss
loading. support
of joint
Loss for paver
andrestraint
of edge bedding issand,pavements.
and prevent
measured
block
Lateral restraint is considered essential to resist lateral movement, minimize loss of joint anddistress
rotation. Edge strips/curbs can comprise prefabricated angle supports, concrete curbs, etc. This bedding is
sand, and prevent block rotation. Edge strips/curbs can comprise prefabricated angle supports,
concrete curbs, etc. This distress is accelerated by traffic loading. Loss of edge restraint is measured
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 14 of 22
Appl.
Appl. Sci.Sci. 2017,
2017, 7, 669
7, 669 14 14
of 22
of 22

in inlinear
linear
accelerated meters
bymeters
traffic ofof pavement
loading. pavement edge
Loss of edgeedge (measure
restraint is measured
(measure the movement
thein linear meters of
movement ofof the
the edge
pavement edge restraint).
edge (measure the
restraint).
movement
The of the edge
corresponding restraint).
level of The corresponding
severity (Figure A3)level
is of severity
defined (Figure
according
The corresponding level of severity (Figure A3) is defined according to Table A3. A3)
to is defined
Table A3. according to Table A3.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure A3. Edge restraint severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A3. Edge restraint severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A3. Edge restraint
Table severity:
A3. Severity level(a) low; (b)
of edge medium; (c) high.
restraint.

Severity Level Table A3. Severity level Description

of edge restraint.
Table A3. Severity level of edge restraint.
SeverityLow
Level Evidence of increased joint width; (11–15 mm) to no evidence of paver/curb rotation
Description
Medium Increased joint width (16–30 mm), with evidence of paver/curb rotation
Low Level
Severity Evidence of increased joint width; (11–15 mm) to no evidence of paver/curb rotation
Description
Increased joint width (>30 mm), with noticeable of paver/curb rotation and local
Medium
High
Low Increased
Evidence joint width (16–30 mm), with evidence of paver/curb
of increased joint width; (11–15 mm) to no evidence rotationrotation
of paver/curb
settlement
Medium Increased jointwidth
Increased joint width (>30 mm),
(16–30 mm),with
withevidence
noticeable of paver/curb
of paver/curb rotation and local
rotation
High
High Increased joint width (>30 mm), with noticeable of paver/curb rotation and local settlement
settlement
Appendix A.4. Excessive Joint Width

AppendixExcessive joint width

A.4. Excessive is a surface distress feature in which the joints between blocks have
Joint Width
widened. Excessive joint width can occur from a number of factors, including poor initial
Excessive joint
Excessive width
joint is a surface
width issand, distress distress
a surface feature in feature
which theinjoints
whichbetween blocks have
the joints widened.
between blocksExcessive
have
construction,
joint width can occurlackfrom
of joint
a number ofpoor edge
factors, restraint,
including pooradjacent settlement/heave,
initial construction, lack of etc.
jointAs joints
sand, poorgetedge
widened.
restraint, Excessive
wider,adjacent
the block joint width
layer becomes etc.
settlement/heave, can occur
lessAsstiff and
joints from
getcan a number
leadthetoblock
wider, of factors,
overstressing including
the less
layer becomes substructurepoor
stiff and can initial
layers.
lead to
construction,
overstressing
Excessive jointlack
the of joint
substructure
width sand,
layers. poor
is measured edgejoint
Excessive
in square restraint,
widthof
meters isadjacent
measured
surface settlement/heave,
in square
area meters
and the etc.
jointAs
of surface
average joints
area and get
widening the
average
wider, joint
thethewidening
block defines
layer the
becomes severity (Figure
less stiff toandA4), according to the reference values reported in Table A4.
defines severity (Figure A4), according thecan lead to
reference overstressing
values reported inthe substructure
Table A4. layers.
Excessive joint width is measured in square meters of surface area and the average joint widening
defines the severity (Figure A4), according to the reference values reported in Table A4.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure A4. Excessive joint width severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A4. Excessive joint width severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure A4. Excessive joint width severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 15 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 15 of 22

Table A4. Severity level of excessive joint width.

Table A4. Severity
Severity Level levelAverage
of excessive
Jointjoint
Widthwidth.
Low 11–15 mm
Severity
MediumLevel Average Joint
16–45 mmWidth
High
Low >45 mm
11–15 mm
Medium 16–45 mm
Appendix A.5. Faulting High >45 mm

Faulting are areas of the pavement surface where the elevation of adjacent blocks differ or have
Appendix A.5. Faulting
rotated. Faulting can be caused by surficial settlement of the bedding sand, poor installation,
Faulting are areas of the pavement surface where the elevation of adjacent blocks differ or have rotated.
pumping of the joint or bedding sand. Local roughness can reduce the ride quality. Faulting can pose
Faulting can be caused by surficial settlement of the bedding sand, poor installation, pumping of the joint or
abedding
safety sand.
hazard forroughness
Local pedestrians. Faulting
can reduce can quality.
the ride be corrected
Faultingby
canresetting the hazard
pose a safety blocks.forFaulting is
pedestrians.
Faulting can be corrected by resetting the blocks. Faulting is measured in square meters of
measured in square meters of surface area. The maximum elevation difference defines the severity surface area. The
maximum elevation difference defines the severity (Figure A5), based on threshold values reported in Table A5.
(Figure A5), based on threshold values reported in Table A5.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure A5. Faulting severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A5. Faulting severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.

Table A5. Severity level of faulting.

Table A5. Severity level of faulting.
Severity Level Elevation Difference
Severity
LowLevel Elevation
6–10Difference
mm
Medium
Low 11–20 mm
6–10 mm
High
Medium >20 mm
11–20 mm
High >20 mm
Appendix A.6. Heave
Appendix A.6.are
Heaves Heave
areas of the pavement surface that have elevations that are higher than the
Heaves are areas
surrounding areas. Heavesof the pavement surface
are typically that have
caused by elevations that
differential are higher
frost heave than theunderlying
of the surroundingsoils.
areas.
Heaves are typically caused by differential frost heave of the underlying soils. Heaves can
Heaves can also occur as a result of subgrade instability and can also occur in conjunction with also occur as a result of
subgrade instability and can also occur in conjunction with settlement/rutting. The most frequent cause of heave
settlement/rutting. The
is a consequence of the most frequent
presence of manhole cause ofon
covers heave is a consequence
the pavement. Heaves are ofmeasured
the presence of manhole
in square meters of
surfaceon
covers area.
theThe maximum
pavement. height of
Heaves areheave definesinthe
measured severity
square (Figure
meters of A6) according
surface area. to
Thethemaximum
limits in Table A6.
height
of heave defines the severity (Figure A6) according to the limits in Table A6.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 16 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 16 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 16 of 22

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure A6. Heave severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A6. Heave severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A6. Heave severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Table A6. Severity level of heave.
Table A6. Severity level of heave.
Table A6. Severity level of heave.
Severity Level Maximum Height of Heave
Severity
LowLevel Maximum Height
15–30 mmof Heave
Severity
LowLevel Maximum Height
15–30 mm of Heave
Medium 31–50 mm
Medium
Low
High 31–50
15–30 mm
mm
>50 mm
High
Medium >50 mm
31–50 mm
High >50 mm
Appendix A.7. Joint Sand Loss/Pumping
Appendix A.7. Joint Sand Loss/Pumping
Joint sandJoint
Appendix loss/pumping is a distress feature in which the joint has been removed. Joint sand loss
JointA.7. Sand Loss/Pumping
sand loss/pumping is a distress feature in which the joint has been removed. Joint sand loss
can occur from a number of factors, including heavy rain, sweeping, pressure washing, pumping
Joint sand
can occur fromloss/pumping
a number of is afactors,
distressincluding
feature in which
heavytherain,
jointsweeping,
has been removed. Joint
pressure sand losspumping
washing, can occur
under
from traffic loading,
a number etc.
of factors, Joint sand
including is considered
heavy essential
rain, sweeping, pressure to washing,
provide interlock and stiffness
pumping under of the
traffic loading,
under traffic loading, etc. essential
Joint sand is considered essential to provide interlock and stiffness of the
paver
etc. course.
Joint sand isThe corresponding
considered severity
to provideisinterlock
definedand
by what reported
stiffness in Table
of the paver A7.The
course. Some examples
corresponding
paver
severity course. The
is defined bycorresponding
whatare
reported inseverity
Table A7.isSome
defined by what reported in Table A7. Some examples
of this kind of distress depicted in Figure A7.examples of this kind of distress are depicted in Figure A7.
of this kind of distress are depicted in Figure A7.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure A7. Joint Sand Loss/Pumping severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A7. Joint
Figure A7. Joint Sand
Sand Loss/Pumping severity: (a)
Loss/Pumping severity: (a) low;
low; (b)
(b) medium;
medium; (c)
(c) high.
high.

TableA7.
Table A7. Severity
Severitylevel
levelof
ofJoint
JointSand
SandLoss/Pumping.
Loss/Pumping.
Table A7. Severity level of Joint Sand Loss/Pumping.
Severity Level Depth of Sand Loss
Severity
Severity
Low Level
Level Depth
Depth of Sand
of
10–25Sand Loss
mmLoss
Low
Medium
Low 10–25 mm
26–45 mm
10–25 mm
Medium
Medium
High 26–45
26–45 mm
mm
>45 mm
High
High >45 mm
>45 mm
Appendix A.8. Missing Sampietrini
Appendix A.8. Missing Sampietrini
Appendix A.8. Missing Sampietrini
Missing Sampietrini, as the name implies, refers to sections of pavement that are missing
Missing Sampietrini,the
Missing Sampietrini, asname
the name implies, refers to sections that
of pavement that are missing
Sampietrini, which mayashave implies,
resulted fromrefers to sections
removal of pavement are missing
or disintegration/damage. Sampietrini,
Missing which
Sampietrini
may have resulted
Sampietrini, from
which removal
may or disintegration/damage.
have resulted from removal orMissing Sampietrini can compromise
disintegration/damage. the integrity
Missing Sampietrini
can compromise the integrity of the pavement structure and promote surface roughness similar to
can compromise the integrity of the pavement structure and promote surface roughness similar to
potholes in flexible pavements. Missing of Sampietrini is measured in square meters of surface area.
potholes in flexible pavements. Missing of Sampietrini is measured in square meters of surface area.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 17 of 22

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 17 of 22

of theAppl.
pavement structure and promote surface roughness similar to potholes in flexible pavements.17Missing
Sci. 2017, 7, 669 of 22
of
Sampietrini is measured
The severity in squareby
is evaluated meters
levelofofsurface area.
distress The severity
(Figure is evaluated
A8), according by level of distress
to indications in Table(Figure
A8. A8),
according to indications in Table A8. Random individual paver damage would not be counted.
Random
The individual
severity paver damage
is evaluated by levelwould not be(Figure
of distress counted.
A8), according to indications in Table A8.
Random individual paver damage would not be counted.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure A8. Missing Sampietrini severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A8. Missing Sampietrini severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A8. Missing Sampietrini severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Table A8. Severity level of missing Sampietrini.
Table A8.Severity
A8.
Table Severitylevel
level of missingSampietrini.
of missing Sampietrini.
Severity Level Description
Low Random individual missing Sampietrini
Severity LevelLevel
Severity Description
Description
Medium
Low Missing 2 or more Sampietrini
Random in one
individual area and
missing ride quality unaffected
Sampietrini
Low High
Medium Missing 2 orRandom
more individual
Sampietrini in missing
one area Sampietrini
and ridequality
Missing 2 or more Sampietrini in one area and ride qualityunaffected
affected
Medium High Missing 2 or2 more
Missing Sampietrini
or more Sampietriniin inone
one area andride
area and ridequality
quality unaffected
affected
High
Appendix A.9. Patching Missing 2 or more Sampietrini in one area and ride quality affected
Appendix A.9. Patching
Patching refers to sections of pavement that are missing pavers and have been reinstated with a
Appendix A.9. Patching
dissimilar material.
Patching Patch
refers to quality
sections can compromise
of pavement the integrity
that are missing paversofandthe pavement
have structure
been reinstated and
with a
promote
Patching surface
dissimilarrefers roughness
material. similar
Patchofquality
to sections to
pavement potholes
can that in
compromise flexible
are missing pavements.
thepavers
integrity Patches
of thebeen
and have are measured
pavement
reinstated in square
structure and
with a dissimilar
material. Patch
meters
promote qualityroughness
ofsurface
surface can compromise
area. similar the
The severity integrityinof
is potholes
to evaluated by the
thepavement
quality
flexible ofstructure
pavements. patchand
the Patches promote
(Figure
are A9), surface
measured roughness
according to
in square
similar to potholes
indications inin flexible
Table A9. pavements. Patches are measured in square meters of surface area.
meters of surface area. The severity is evaluated by the quality of the patch (Figure A9), according to The severity is
evaluated by the quality of the patch (Figure A9), according to indications in Table A9.
indications in Table A9.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure A9. Patching severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A9. Patching severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Figure A9. Patching severity: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 18 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 18 of 22
Table A9. Severity level of patching.

Severity Level Description

Table A9. Severity level of patching.
Low Patch is in good condition and ride quality is unaffected
Medium Patch is in good to fair condition and ride quality is starting to deteriorate
Severity Level Description
High Patch is in poor condition and ride quality is affected
Low Patch is in good condition and ride quality is unaffected
Medium Patch is in good to fair condition and ride quality is starting to deteriorate
Appendix A.10.
HighRutting Patch is in poor condition and ride quality is affected
Rutting is a surface depression in the wheel path. Depressions are areas of the pavement surface that
have elevations
Appendix that are lower than the surrounding areas. Rutting is typically caused by settlement of the
A.10. Rutting
underlying
Rutting is a surfaceordepression
subgrade granular in
base
the under vehicle
wheel path. loading. Depressions
Depressions can
are areas of the cause roughness
pavement surface thatinhave
the
pavement and,are
elevations that when
lowerfilled
thanwith water, can cause
the surrounding areas.hydroplaning of vehicles.
Rutting is typically caused Rutting is measured
by settlement in square
of the underlying
subgrade
meters ofor granular
surface base
area. under
The vehicle loading.
maximum rut depth Depressions
defines thecan cause roughness
severity in theTo
(Figure A10). pavement
determine and, when
the rut
filled with water, can cause hydroplaning of vehicles. Rutting is measured in square meters of surface area. The
depth, a straight edge should be placed across the rut and the depth measured in millimeters (Table
maximum rut depth defines the severity (Figure A10). To determine the rut depth, a straight edge should be placed A10).
Rut
acrossdepth measurements
the rut and the depth should
measuredbeintaken along the
millimeters length
(Table A10).ofRut
thedepth
rut. Varying severities
measurements of be
should rutting
takenalong
along
the length of the rut. Varying severities of rutting
the length of the rut should be measured individually. along the length of the rut should be measured individually.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure A10.
A10. Rutting
Rutting severity:
severity: (a)
(a) low;
low; (b)
(b) medium;
medium; (c)
(c) high.
high.

Table A10. Severity level of rutting.

Table A10. Severity level of rutting.
Severity Level Maximum Depth of Rut
Severity
Low Level Maximum Depth
5–15 mm of Rut
Medium
Low 15–30 mm
5–15 mm
High
Medium >30 mm
15–30 mm
High >30 mm
Appendix B. Distress Identification for All the Inspected Sections
Appendix B. Distress
This appendix Identification
reports fordistresses
the list of the All the Inspected
present inSections
each surveyed section. For each distress,
This appendix
the severity level,reports
total the list of the
quantity, distresses
density present
(ratio in each total
between surveyed section.and
quantity For each distress,
section area)theand
severity
the
level, total quantity, density (ratio between total quantity and section area) and the corresponding Deduct Value
corresponding Deduct Value (DV) were calculated (Tables A11–A13). In particular, DVs are
(DV) were calculated (Tables A11–A13). In particular, DVs are calculated from Deduct Curves of each distress
calculated
type report in [18],Deduct
from Curves
as already statedofineach distress
Appendix type
A. All reportareas
sections in [18],
wereasequal
already stated
to 240 m2 . in Appendix A.
All sections
Once DVareas were equal
is calculated to 240
for each m2. type and severity level combination, it is necessary to combine all the
distress
DVs for
OnceeachDVsection, as reported
is calculated forineach
[10,18], to determine
distress type andthe correspondent
severity levelmaximum Corrected
combination, Deduct Value
it is necessary to
(CDV). Finally, the PCI is calculated according to Equation (A1):
combine all the DVs for each section, as reported in [10,18], to determine the correspondent maximum
Corrected Deduct Value (CDV). Finally, PCI the PCI
= 100is −
calculated
CDVmax according to Equation (A1): (A1)

= − (A1)
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 19 of 22

Table A11. Surveyed distresses for Sections 01 to 04.

Section ID Distress ID Severity Quantity Density Deduct Value PCI

101 L 7.3 3.0% 1.4
105 L 22.1 9.2% 1.4
Section 01 105 M 5.7 2.4% 2.8 94
106 M 1.3 0.5% 0.0
110 L 2.5 1.1% 0.0
101 L 5.8 2.4% 1.4
102 L 2.9 1.2% 4.3
102 M 5.4 2.2% 14.5
Section 02 105 L 7.6 3.2% 0.4 74
106 L 5.0 2.1% 4.2
108 L 6.0 2.5% 0.4
108 M 6.0 2.5% 1.4
101 L 8.4 3.5% 1.4
101 M 1.8 0.8% 1.4
102 L 2.0 0.8% 4.3
102 H 7.0 2.9% 33.3
104 L 10.8 4.5% 6.9
104 M 14.8 6.2% 27.8
105 L 4.1 1.7% 0.1
Section 03 105 M 2.2 0.9% 1.4 12
106 L 4.0 1.7% 4.2
106 M 10.9 4.5% 26.4
106 H 10.2 4.3% 44.4
109 H 0.5 0.2% 36.6
110 L 3.2 1.3% 0.3
110 M 6.3 2.6% 0.6
110 H 1.0 0.4% 0.4
102 L 3.1 1.3% 4.3
102 M 4.7 2.0% 14.5
103 L 1.9 0.8% 2.7
Section 04 76
103 M 2.8 1.2% 9.5
108 L 26.9 11.2% 1.4
110 L 1.2 0.5% 0.1

If none or only one individual deduct value is greater than 2, the sum of DVs is used in place of the maximum
CDV in determining the PCI; otherwise, to determine maximum CDV the following procedure must be used.
Individual DVs are listed in descending order and then, the allowable number of deducts (m) is calculated
using Equation (A2):
m = 1 + (9/98) × (100 − HDV ) ≤ 10, (A2)
where HDV is the highest individual deduct value. The number of individual deduct values is reduced to the m
largest deduct values, including the fractional part. If DVs available are less than m, all the DVs are used.
The maximum CDV is then calculated iteratively, following the steps described in [10,18]: “Determine total
deduct value by summing individual deduct values. The total deduct value is obtained by adding the individual
deduct values. Determine q as the number of deducts with a value greater than 2.0. Determine the CDV from total
deduct value and q by looking up the appropriate correction curve. Reduce the smallest individual deduct value
greater than 2.0 to 2.0 and repeat until q = 1. The maximum CDV is the largest of the CDVs”.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 20 of 22

Table A12. Surveyed distresses for Sections 05 to 10.

Section ID Distress ID Severity Quantity Density Deduct Value PCI

101 L 1.9 0.8% 0.4
102 L 1.5 0.6% 4.3
102 M 4.5 1.9% 13.0
104 L 1.8 0.8% 1.4
104 M 3.0 1.3% 8.3
Section 05 51
108 L 6.2 2.6% 0.3
108 M 13.3 5.5% 2.8
108 H 3.2 1.4% 1.4
111 L 8.0 3.3% 16.9
111 H 4.8 2.0% 34.0
102 L 1.9 0.8% 4.3
Section 06 102 M 1.7 0.7% 10.1 88
105 M 0.2 0.1% 0.0
102 L 6.7 2.8% 7.2
Section 07 105 M 0.8 0.3% 0.3 92
108 L 0.8 0.4% 0.1
102 M 7.0 2.9% 8.0
102 H 5.0 2.1% 30.4
104 L 4.8 2.0% 4.2
Section 08 60
108 M 4.0 1.7% 1.4
108 H 2.0 0.9% 1.4
110 L 4.0 1.7% 0.3
102 L 1.0 0.4% 2.9
102 M 3.9 1.6% 13.0
102 H 4.5 1.9% 29.0
105 M 0.6 0.3% 0.4
Section 09 60
106 M 1.6 0.7% 11.1
108 L 1.0 0.4% 0.1
108 M 3.0 1.3% 1.1
111 L 2.4 1.0% 7.0
102 L 13.5 5.6% 11.6
102 M 11.0 4.6% 20.3
104 M 6.0 2.5% 15.3
Section 10 105 M 4.0 1.7% 1.4 55
109 L 2.0 0.8% 18.3
110 L 8.4 3.5% 0.4
111 L 3.3 1.4% 9.9

Table A13. Surveyed distresses for Sections 11 to 14.

Section ID Distress ID Severity Quantity Density Deduct Value PCI

102 L 6.5 2.7% 7.2
102 H 6.0 2.5% 31.9
104 M 5.0 2.1% 12.5
104 H 4.5 1.9% 22.2
Section 11 105 L 1.5 0.6% 0.1 45
105 M 10.5 4.4% 2.8
110 L 10.7 4.5% 0.4
110 M 0.3 0.1% 0.0
111 L 6.6 2.8% 15.5
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 669 21 of 22

Table A13. Cont.

Section ID Distress ID Severity Quantity Density Deduct Value PCI

102 L 1.0 0.4% 2.9
104 L 7.5 3.1% 5.6
104 M 1.0 0.4% 2.8
105 L 0.5 0.2% 0.1
Section 12 45
106 L 2.0 0.8% 2.8
110 L 8.0 3.3% 0.4
110 H 3.1 1.3% 1.4
111 L 10.0 4.2% 46.5
102 L 9.0 3.8% 8.7
104 M 3.9 1.6% 9.7
Section 13 71
106 L 2.4 1.0% 2.8
106 M 9.0 3.8% 23.6
101 L 0.8 0.3% 0.4
102 L 14.4 6.0% 11.6
102 M 1.5 0.6% 10.1
104 L 9.1 3.8% 5.6
Section 14 105 L 6.8 2.8% 0.3 79
105 M 4.1 1.7% 1.4
106 L 9.0 3.8% 5.6
109 L 0.4 0.2% 1.4
110 L 0.2 0.1% 0.0

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