Microwaves

L1. Transmission Line Theory

Objectives:
1. To understand the difference between TL theory and circuit theory.
2. Types and properties of different waveguiding structures.
3. To get familiar with MEFiSTo-2D, an electromagnetic simulation tool.

1. Microwaves in the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Microwaves are radio waves with frequencies ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz. The frequency
domain is divided into three sub-bands:
- EHF (Extremely High Frequency)
Frequency: 30GHz – 300GHz
Wavelength: 10mm – 1mm  millimeter band

- SHF (Super High Frequency)

Frequency: 3GHz – 30GHz
Wavelength: 10cm – 1cm  centimeter band

- UHF (Ultra High Frequency) F

Frequency: 300MHz – 3GHz
Wavelength: 10dm – 1dm  decimeter band

ITU Frequency
Band Name Abbr. Applications
Band Wavelength
< 3Hz
>100000Km
Extremely Low ELF 1 3 - 30Hz Communications with
Frequency 100000 -10000 km submarines
Super Low SLF 2 30 – 300 Hz Communications with
Frequency 10000 -1000 km submarines
Ultra Low ULF 3 300 – 3000 Hz Communications within mines
Frequency 1000 -100 km
Very Low VLF 4 3 – 30 kHz Submarines communications,
Frequency 100 -10 km geophysics
Low Frequency LF 5 30 – 300 kHz AM long-wave broadcasting,
10 -1km navigation
Medium MF 6 300 – 3000 kHz AM medium-wave broadcasts
Frequency 1000 -100 m

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High Frequency HF 7 3 – 30 MHz Short-wave broadcasts,

100 – 10 m amateur radio, aviation
communications
Very High VHF 8 30 – 300 MHz FM, television, ground-to-
Frequency 10 – 1 m aircraft and aircraft-to-aircraft
communications
Ultra High UHF 9 300 -3000 MHz Television, microwave ovens,
Frequency 1m -100mm mobile phones, wireless LAN,
Bluetooth
Super High SHF 10 3 -30 GHz Microwave devices, wireless
Frequency 100 -10mm LAN, radars, satellite
Extremely High EHF 11 30 – 300 GHz Radio astronomy, high speed
Frequency 10 -1mm microwave radio relay
Above 300GHz
<1mm

Table 1. Microwaves in the electromagnetic spectrum

Applications of Microwaves

- Wireless communications
Personal Communications Systems (PCS)
Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Systems
Wireless Local Area Computer Networks (WLANS)
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) Television
Telephone Microwave/Satellite Links
- Remote sensing
Radar - are used for detecting and locating targets and for air traffic control systems, missile
tracking radars, automobile collision avoidance systems, weather prediction, motion detectors
Radiometry - radio astronomy
- Industrial and home applications

Microwave properties

(+) Wider bandwidth due to higher frequency

(+) Smaller component size leading to smaller systems
(+) More available frequency spectrum with low interference
(+) Better resolution for radars due to smaller wavelengths
(+) High antenna gain possible in a smaller space
(-) More expensive components
(-) Existence of higher signal losses

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 Microwaves

2. Waveguiding structures

Waveguiding structures are used to transfer electrical signals (information) or electrical power from
one point to another in an electrical system. They take a wide variety of forms, from simple wire pairs and
cables to more complicated integrated structures for high-frequency applications. Some common structures
and their properties are illustrated bellow:

 Transmission lines (two-wire line, coaxial line)

- Have two conductors
- Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory) – high bandwidth
- Become lossy at high frequency
- Can handle low or moderate amounts of power
- Do not have signal distortion, unless there is loss
- May or may not be immune to interference
- Do not have Ez or Hz components of the fields (TEMz)
- Difficult medium in which to fabricate complex microwave components.

• Waveguide
- Has a single hollow metal pipe
- Can propagate a signal only at high frequency
- The width must be at least one-half of a wavelength
- Has signal distortion, even in the lossless case
- Immune to interference
- Can handle large amounts of power
- Has low loss
- Has either Ez or Hz component of the fields (TMz or TEz)

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L1. Transmission Line Theory_______________________________________________________________________

• Planar transmission lines: stripline, microstrip, slotline, coplanar waveguide

- compact, low cost, easily integrated with active devices

3. Transmission Line Theory

The characteristic feature of microwave engineering is the short wavelengths. They are of the same
order of magnitude as the circuit elements and devices employed. Because of the high frequency, standard
circuit theory cannot be used directly to solve microwave problems.

 Low- frequency domain

The wavelength is several orders of magnitude larger than the greatest dimensions/physical
extend of the circuit. The time delay is not significant, so the voltage and the current are assumed

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to have constant values for all the circuit at a certain time. The circuit is modeled as a lumped-
element circuit.

 High-frequency domain
The physical extend of the circuit is considered as a fraction of the wavelength. The transmission
line is modeled as a distributed-element circuit. The consequence for an RF circuit is that
voltages and currents no longer remain spatially uniform when compared to the geometric size of
the discrete circuit elements: they have to be treated as propagating waves.

In order to analyze the circuit, we consider a small section of the transmission line:

These unit sections are so small that the electrical effects are occurring instantaneously, so the circuit
theory can be applied.
I1 I2

V1 V2

dz

Figure 1. The lumped-element circuit model for z

For sinusoidal steady-state, the distributed (or per-unit length) parameters are:
Rz[ / m] - resistance due to losses in the conductor;
Lz[ H / m] - inductance due to current in the conductors and the magnetic flux linking the
current path;
Gz[S / m] - conductance due to losses in the dielectric between the conductors;
Cz[ F / m] - capacitance due to the time varying electric field between the two conductors

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L1. Transmission Line Theory_______________________________________________________________________

4. Software tool for wave propagation simulation- Mefisto-2D

The MEFiSTo-2D simulator is a Multi-purpose Electromagnetic Field Simulation Tool for the
analysis of two-dimensional electromagnetic structures of arbitrary shape. It employs the two- dimensional
Transmission Line Modeling (TLM) method. A uniform shunt-connected mesh with square cells models
the field space. The TLM algorithm is solved in the time domain. This means that the time response of a
structure to arbitrary excitation in 2D space and time is computed.
Frequency characteristics such as S-parameters and return loss are extracted during or after the
simulation via discrete Fourier transform. MEFiSTo-2D can also display the time evolution of the
electromagnetic fields and dissipated power in a generated-solution mode for field animation, both forward
and backward in time.
The features of the MEFiSTo-2D Simulator can be summarized as follows:
 The topology of an electromagnetic structure, including boundaries, dielectric and
magnetic properties, losses, nonlinear subregions, sources, and probes or an animation
region are entered with the mouse directly into the discrete space (a uniform TLM mesh
with square cells) just like in a standard drawing program. The user defines the size of
the unit cell (Mesh Parameter Dl or Delta_L). All space dimensions are thus normalized
to that unit
 The excitation function can either be selected from a menu of standard waveforms
(Dirac, sine, raised cosine, Gaussian pulse, etc.), or may be specified in a user-generated
ASCII file.
 The time response of the structure can be observed and displayed simultaneously at up
to three output points called "probes", together with their discrete Fourier transforms
(Magnitude and phase of the frequency response).
 Alternatively, any of the three field components of a scalar electromagnetic problem can
be visualized in the entire structure or in a part of it for 3D dynamic field animation.
Power dissipated in a lossy medium can be visualized as well.
 Time and frequency responses, source waveforms, scattering parameters and field
pictures can be displayed and printed. Data can be stored in output files for subsequent
simulation, modification, analysis, or for continuation of a task at a later time.
 Advanced features include modeling of frequency-dispersive boundaries, in particular
modal non-TEM absorbing boundary conditions, and partitioning of structures in the
time domain, as well as the recursive generation of modal absorbing Johns Matrix
boundaries. Models for active diodes and varactor diodes are also included. Special
cornernodes for error correction at sharp edges and corners are available, and a special
electric wall (variable link) has been implemented as well. The position of that wall can
be programmed to change in time, thus modeling a moving boundary.
In summary, the MEFiSTo-2D Simulator combines the functions of a time domain reflectometer, a
microwave/millimeter-wave vector network analyzer, a spectrum analyzer, a signal processor, and a video
system.

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 Microwaves

Using the simulator

When you open MEFiSTo-2D for the first time, you see a rectangular area formed by of 17 x 11
squares (Figure 2). It represents a two-dimensional grid or mesh of transmission lines, seen from above.
We will discuss this grid shortly.

Figure 2. Startup Screen of MEFiSTo-2D showing the TLM Grid and the Main Menu

You may think that this TLM grid is rather coarse, but it will be appropriate for your first trials of the
Simulator. You will learn how to select a finer mesh. (As fine as 300 x 200 cells). The z-axis is the horizontal
(left-to-right), and the x-axis the vertical (top-to-bottom) axis on the screen. The y-axis points into to the
screen. (This is the convention used in many textbooks on electromagnetics).
The main menu and several toolbars appear above the grid. The main menu items each designate a
pulldown menu or submenu. The Graph and Field items are disabled at startup.
The Help facility resides in the HTML Document accessible under Help. It can be modified or
customized using the editor feature of your web browser.

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L1. Transmission Line Theory_______________________________________________________________________

Structure of the MEFiSTo-2D menu system

The structure of the main menu conforms to that of other Windows applications.

File The File menu allows you to open, save and print documents, and to exit the
program.
View The View menu has three distinct functions.
The first is to alternate between the three display modes of MEFiSTo-2D (Draw,
Graph and Field). Only one of these can be active at a time. The inactive items appear
dimmed in the menu bar.
The second is to view and edit the parameters of special elements (Varactor Diode,
Active Diode and Variable Link).
The third is to show or hide the various toolbars, coordinate area and Reset button.

Draw The Draw menu is for drawing and editing the structure to be modeled. The TLM
grid is displayed when Draw is active.

Graph The Graph menu is for graphing and visualizing all input and output functions of the
Simulator.

Field The Field menu is for visualizing all electromagnetic field components and the
dissipated power distribution in all or part of the structure.

Source The Source Waveform menu lets you select the type of excitation signal you want to inject
Waveform into the structure. It is your synthesizer.

Sampling The Sampling Mode menu lets you choose the field quantity that you want to graph or
Mode visualize.
Simulation The Simulation Control menu lets you set the simulation parameters such as the number
Control of time steps, the frequency window of the Fourier Transform, etc., and lets you control the
simulation process.

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 Microwaves

Wizard The Wizard menu contains handy calculators for 2D model definition.

The Microstrip wizard allows you to find the effective width and the effective dielectric
constant of the equivalent parallel-plate waveguide with magnetic sidewalls (that is the
model you can implement in a 2D simulation of microstrip lines and certain microstrip
components). It uses quasi-static formulas to generate these values from the characteristics of
the original microstrip structure.

The Waveguide wizard allows you to calculate the cutoff frequencies, guided wavelengths
and wave impedances of TEn0-modes in a rectangular waveguide with uniform dielectric
filling. Those are the waveguide modes that can be modeled accurately in a 2D simulation.

Help The Help menu features several HTML documents. The item MEFiSTo-2D is the top-level
document with links to the User Guide and Operating Manual, the Tutorials, and the Virtual
Electromagnetics Laboratory. The three following items of the Help menu allow you to
access these documents directly. With Set Browser you can select the browser you prefer for
displaying the HTML documentation. About MEFiSTo-2D contains information on the
version of the MEFiSTo-2D software you are using.

Right Mouse Clicking the right mouse button once brings up a hidden menu that repeats the principal
Button items of the regular menus and will save you time.

5. Laboratory work

TEM Propagation in Parallel-Plate Waveguide

Objective: Draw a parallel-plate waveguide, 10 mm wide and 90 mm long. Terminate it at both ends with a
matched load. Study the propagation of TEM waves in this structure.

We will place the longitudinal axis of the waveguide along the z-axis. The node voltage Vy in the 2D
shunt TLM network represents the transverse Ey component in the guide, while the currents in the mesh
simulate the two companion magnetic field components. (Iz models -Hx, and Ix models Hz).

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L1. Transmission Line Theory_______________________________________________________________________

Figure 3.

(a) View of the parallel-plate waveguide with magnetic sidewalls and

orientation of the three field components of TEm0-modes propagating in z-
direction. For m=0 we have a TEM mode with Hz = Ix = 0.
(b) Orientation of the TLM mesh and of the voltage and currents that model
these modes. All field and network quantities are independent of y. The
magnetic sidewalls are modeled by open-circuits.

Create a new mesh

• In the File menu, select New,

• In the Mesh New dialog box, set

Number of cells in Z-direction: 91

Number of cells in X-direction: 11
Cell size Delta L in [mm]: 1
Click OK. The new mesh appears.

Draw the magnetic side walls

• In the Draw menu, select Magnetic Wall,

• Draw the two magnetic side walls, one from point (0,0) to point (90,0), and the other from point
(0,10) to point (90,10).

Define the computational domain and its properties

• In the Draw menu, select Computation Region,

• Fill the entire area of the guide with a single rectangle. In the dialog box, set Relative
dielectric constant = 1, Conductivity [S/M] = 0. Click OK.

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 Microwaves

Note: The Computation Region not only defines the permitivity and conductivity of the
medium, but also brings the TLM cells inside the box "alive". No computation is
performed inside cells that are not covered by a Computation Region.

Draw the matched loads at both ends

• In the Draw menu, select Reflection Wall.

• Draw a Reflection Wall across both ends of the guide. In the dialog box, accept the default value
TEM wave reflection coefficient = 0, which characterizes an absorbing boundary or matched
termination for a TEM plane wave incident normally on the boundary.

Note: The Relative dielectric constant is by default the value specified when creating the last
Computation Region. It is thus recommended to draw the Computation Region
adjacent to an absorbing wall before drawing the wall itself. However, the dielectric
constant can be changed at any time. Note that the Local impulse reflection coefficient
(Γi = -0.171573) is different from 0 as predicted by 2D-TLM Theory.

Draw a source region

• In the Draw menu, select Source Region,

• Draw a narrow vertical box around the left-most column of nodes inside the guide. In the dialog box,
accept the default Scaling Factor of 0.707107, which is the value required to launch a voltage wave of
1 V in the input ports. The source distribution is constant in x-direction.

Note: Creating a source region with a constant spatial field distribution in x-direction is
equivalent to entering a column of single source points, each having the same weight.
This type of source region is suitable for launching a uniform plane wavefront.

Draw an animation region

To observe and visualize the fields in the waveguide, we sample the node voltages and currents in a
rectangular region and display their distribution dynamically. We will first determine the display area
by drawing an animation region. We then inject a source waveform at the source region and view the
fields.

• In the View menu, select Draw,

• In the Draw menu, select Animation Region,
• Draw a box from point (3,1) to point (90,10).

You should now see the picture shown in the next figure:

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L1. Transmission Line Theory_______________________________________________________________________

Figure 4. Discretized parallel-plate waveguide with magnetic sidewalls and matched

loads at each end. The source is a narrow source region at the left extremity. An
animation region covers the bulk of the guide

Simulate and visualize TEM wave propagation

• In the Source Waveform menu, select Gaussian (T) In the dialog box, set Magnitude = 1, Sigma
in Delta_t = 6, and Mean in Delta_t =24. Click OK. The waveform appears on the screen.
• In the Sampling Mode menu, select Vy == Ey.
• In the Simulation Control menu, select Control Data. In the dialog box, set Total number of time
steps = 180, and Time steps between updates = 1. Disregard the Frequency Domain Data group
box. and click OK.
• In the View menu, select Field. A three-dimensional view of the guide in its TLM mesh
appears on the screen.
• In the Field menu, select Field Display Attributes. Shift, rotate and scale the display until you
like it.
• Start the simulation by clicking on the button.
• Observe the field as it propagates through the structure. Continue to modify the 3D View
Parameters while the program is running. Adjust the magnitude of the field using Magnify Y or
Reduce Y. Change the size of the MEFiSTO-2D client window. Stop and start the simulation
again, or step forward one step at a time using the button.

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Figure 5. Field display of a Gaussian Pulse traveling through a parallel-plate

waveguide with magnetic side walls. A TEM wave is created by implementing a source
region with a uniform transverse distribution

• You can also change the update interval in the Simulation Control Data box while the
simulation is stopped or running. This will change the speed of the field animation at the expense of
smoothness. Try also the hidden line removal feature by deselecting the Wire Frame box.
• To visualize the magnetic field components in z- and x-direction, change your selection in the
Sampling Mode window while the simulation is running or stopped.

References

1. David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 3rd Edition by David M. Pozar, 2004 John Wiley & Sons
2. Robert E. Collin, Foundations for Microwave Engineering, 2nd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-7803-6031-0,
December 2000, Wiley-IEEE Press
3. Mefisto – 2D Classic, User Guide & Operating Manual

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