CBSE Class 9 Science, Matter in Our Surroundings: Chapter Notes

Key notes for Chapter- Matter in Our Surroundings, are:

Matter:
 Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter.
 It exists in the form of five basic elements, the Panch tatva – air, earth, fire , sky and water.
 For example: Chair, bed, river, mountain, dog, tree, building, etc.

Characteristics of matter:
 Matter is made up of small particles called atoms.
 These particles are too small to be observed with naked eye.
 These particles are constantly moving constantly.
 These particles have spaces between them.
 Particles of matter attract each other because of the force of attraction.

Diffusion:

Particles of matter intermix on their own with each other. They do so by getting into the spaces between the
particles. This intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion.

Applications of Diffusion:

Dissolving a solid in a liquid:

 When a crystal of potassium permanganate is placed in a beaker of water, the water slowly turns purple on
its own, even without stirring.
 Both potassium permanganate crystal and water are made up of tiny particles.
 When the potassium permanganate crystal is put in water, the purple colored particles of potassium
permanganate spread throughout water making the whole water look purple.
 Actually, on dissolving, the particles of potassium permanganate get into the spaces between the particles of
water.
 This shows that the particles have spaces between them and are continuously moving on their own.

Mixing of two gases:

 Fragrance of an incense stick (agarbatti) lightened in one corner of a room, spreads in the whole room
quickly.
 The particles of gases (or vapours) produced by burning the incense stick move rapidly in all directions and
mix with the moving particles of air in the room
 This also shows that the partices of matter are constantly moving.

Brownian motion of particles (By Robert Brown):

 The random or zig-zag movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, as a result of continuous bombardment
from molecules of the surrounding medium, is known as Brownian motion.
 For example: Dust moves randomly because the random moving particles of air collide with dust particles.

Basis of Classification of Matter:

 Based upon particle arrangement
 Based upon energy of particles
 Based upon distance between particles
Three States of Matter:

Solid Liquid Gas

Constituent particles are very Constituent particles are less Constituent particles are far
closely packed. closely packed. apart from each other.

Force of attraction between Force of attraction between Force of attraction between

particles is very strong. particles is less strong. particles is negligible.

Force of attraction between Kinetic energy between particles is Particles have maximum
particles is very strong. more than that in solids. kinetic energy.

Have definite shape and Do not have definite shape but Neither have definite shape
volume. definite volume. nor definite volume.

Have high density and and can Density is lower than solids and can Density is least and can easily
not be diffused. diffuse. diffuse.

Incompressible. Almost incompressible. Highly compressible.

Try the following questions:

Q1. What are the conditions for something to be called matter?

Q2. Why do gases neither have fixed volume nor fixed shape?

Q3. How does the smell of food being cooked in the kitchen reaches us even from a considerable
distance?

Q4. Explain why does diffusion occurs more quickly in gases than in liquids?
Temperature: Common and SI units
 Common unit: Degree Celsius (oC)
 SI unit: Kelvin (K)
 Relation between common unit and SI unit of temperature:

0 oC = 273K

Change of State of Matter:

Physical states of matter can be interconverted into each other by following two ways:

1. By changing the temperature

2. By changing the pressure

1. Effect of Change of Temperature:

Solid to liquid:
 On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases which overcomes the
forces of attraction between the particles thereby solid gets converted to a liquid.
 Melting: Change of solid state of a substance into liquid is called melting.
 Melting point: The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is
called its melting point.
 Melting point of ice is 0oc.

(a) Liquid to gas:

 On heating a liquid like water, the kinetic energy of its particles increases as high as in a gas, thus causing
the liquid to change to a gas.
 Boiling: The change of a liquid substance into gas on heating is called boiling.
 Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boils and changes rapidly into a gas at the atmospheric
pressure is called its boiling point.
 Boiling point if water is 100oC.

(b) Gas to liquid:

 On cooling a gas like steam (or water vapour), the kinetic energy of its particles is lowered down, causing
them to move slowly and bringing them closer, forming a liquid.
 Condensation: The process, in which a gas, on cooling, turns into a liquid at a specific temperature is
called condensation or liquefaction.

(c) Liquid to solid:

 When a liquid is cooled down by lowering its temperature, its particles lose the kinetic energy and come to a
stationary position, causing the liquid to turn to soilid.
 Freezing: The change of a liquid substance into soilid by lowering its temperature is called freezing.
 Freezing point: The temperature at which the state of a substance changes from a liquid to a solid is called
the freezing point of that substance.
Fusion: The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion.

Latent heat: The heat energy that is required to change the state of a substance without causing any ruse in the
temperature of the substance is called latent heat. Since, the heat energy is hidden in the bulk of the matter, it is
called latent heat.
 Latent heat of fusion: The heat energy required to convert 1 kilogram of a solid into liquid at atmospheric
pressure, at its melting point, is known as the latent heat of fusion
 Latent heat of vaporisation: The heat energy required to convert 1 kilogram of liquid into gas, at
atmospheric pressure, at its boiling point, is known as the latent heat of vaporisation
Note: Water vapour at 373 K have more energy than water at the same temperature because
particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of vaporisation.

Sublimation: The change of state of a substance directly from a solid to gas or gas to solid, without changing
into the liquid state, is called sublimation.

2. Effect of change of pressure

 Gas to liquid: Gases can be liquefied by applying pressure and reducing the temperature. When a high
pressure is applied to a gas, it gets compressed and if the temperature is lowered, the gas is liquefied.
 Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming
into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.

Evaporation:
The process of conversion of a substance from the liquid state to the gaseous state at any temperature below its
boiling point is called evaporation or vaporisation.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:

 Surface area: The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the surface area of the liquid.
 Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in temperature.
 Humidity: Decrease in the humidity increases the rate of evaporation.
 Wind speed: An increase in the wind speed increases the rate of evaporation.

Evaporation causes cooling:

During the process of evaporation, the particles of liquid absorb energy or latent heat of vaporisation from the
surrounding to get converted to gaseous state. This absorption of energy from the surroundings make the
surroundings cold.

For example: The perspiration or sweating in our body keep the body temperature constant by taking away the
extra heat from body as the latent heat of vaporisation.

Basic physical quantities and their SI units:

Try the following questions:

Q1. What is the common name of solid carbon dioxide?

Q2. What is meant by saying that the latent heat of ice is 3.34 × 105 J/kg?

Q3. State two conditions necessary to liquefy a gas.

Q4. Why does temperature remain constant during the boiling of water even though heat is being supplied continuously?

Q5. Why does desert cooler cool better on a hot, dry day?

Q6. Why does the naphthalene balls kept in stored clothes in our home disappear over a period of time?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Is Matter Around Us Pure: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Matter in Our Surroundings: Chapter Notes, are:
 Matter and its Types
 Elements
 Compounds
 Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
 Mixture and its Types
 Solution and its Types
 Solubility
 Factors Affecting the Solubility
 Concentration of Solution

Key notes for Chapter- Is Matter Around Us Pure, are:

Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. It may be solid, liquid or gas.
Types of Matter

It is of two types :
1. Pure Substance
2. Impure substance

1. Pure Substance: It may be defined as a material which contains only one kind of atoms or molecules.
Pure substances are again of two types:

(a) Elements (b) Compounds

(a) Elements:
 Pure substances which are made up of only one kind of atoms are known as elements.
 They cannot be split up into two or more simpler substances by any of the usual chemical methods.
 For example: Iron, gold, silver, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and sodium etc.
Elements are further grouped into the following three categories:

(i) Metals, for example: Iron, copper, gold, sodium, silver, mercury, etc.

(ii) Non – metals, for example: Carbon, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.

(iii) Metalloids : Boron, silicon, germanium, etc.

Properties of Metals:
 These are lustrous (shine).
 They conduct heat and electricity.
 All metals are malleable and ductile.
 They are sonorous.
 All metals are hard except sodium and potassium.
 All metals are solids at room temperature except mercury which is a liquid.

Properties of Non-metals:
 These are dull in appearance.
 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity except diamond which is a good conductor of heat and
graphite which is a good conductor of electricity.
 They are neither malleable nor ductile.
 They are generally soft except diamond which is the hardest natural substance known.
 They may be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature.

Metalloids: The elements that have properties intermediate between those of metals and non-metals, are called
metalloids.

(b) Compounds:
 It is a form of matter formed by combining two or more elements in a definite ratio by mass.
 It Can be decomposed into its constituent elements by suitable chemical methods
 For example: Water (H2O), oxygen (O2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), etc.

2. Impure Substance: It may be defined as a material which contains only one kind of atoms or molecules.

It is also named as mixture.

Mixtures:
A mixture is a material which contains two or more different kinds of particles (atoms or molecules) which do not
react chemically but are physically mixed together in any proportion.
Types of mixture

It is of two types:
(a) Homogeneous mixture (b) Heterogeneous mixture

S. No. Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

1. All the components of the mixture are All the components of the mixture are not
uniformly mixed. thoroughly mixed.

2. No separation boundaries are visible. Separation boundaries are visible.

3. It consists of a single phase. It consists of two or more phases.

4. Example: Sugar dissolved in water Example: Air, sand and common salt.

Difference between mixtures and compounds:

S. No. Mixtures Compounds

1. Various elements just mix together to form Elements react to form new compounds.
a mixture and no new compound is formed.

2. A mixture has a variable composition. The compound has a fixed composition.

3. A mixture shows the properties of its Properties of a compound are totally different
constituents. from those of its constituents.

4. They do not have a fixed melting point, They have a fixed melting point, boiling point,
boiling point, etc. etc.

5. The constituents can be seperated easily The constituents can be separated only by
by physical methods chemical processes.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Is air around us a compound or a mixture?

Q2. Water is a compound. Justify.
Q3. Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Q4. Give reasons for the following:

(a) Copper is used for making electric wires. And (b) Graphite is used for making electrode in a dry cell.
Q5. List any four characteristics by which compounds can be differentiated from mixtures.

Solution:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. For example: Lemon water, sugar solution,
soda water, etc.

Components of Solution:
(1) Solvent: The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it and is usually present in
larger amount, such component of solution is called the solvent.
For example: Water, alcohol etc.

(2) Solute: The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent and is usually present in lesser
quantity, such component is called the solute.For example: Salt, sugar, iodine etc.

Properties of solutions:
(i) It is a homogeneous mixture.
(ii) Particle size in a solution is less than 1 nm in diameter.

(iii) Particles of a solution cannot be seen even with a microscope.

(iv) A true solution does not scatter the light.
(v) Solution is stable.
(vi) The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.

Types of solutions:

Various types of solutions are:

(i) Solid in a solid solution: Alloys.

(ii) Solid in a liquid solution: Sugar solution, salt solution.

(iii) Liquid sin a liquid solution: Lemon water, vinegar (acetic acid in water)
(iv) Gas in a gas solution: Air.

(v) Gas in a liquid solution: Soda water.

Solubility:

The maximum amount of the solute which can be dissolved in 100 grams of a solvent at a particular
temperature is known as its solubility in that particular solvent.

Conditions affecting solubility:

(i) Temperature: Solubility of solids in liquids increases with the increase in temperature, whereas solubility of
gases in liquids decreases on increasing the temperature.

(ii) Pressure: Solubility of gases in liquids increases on increasing thepressure, whereas the solubility of solids
in liquids remains unaffected by the change in pressure.

Concentration of a Solution

It is defined as the mass of the solute in grams present in 100 grams of the solution.
Mathematical expression for concentration of solution:

In case of liquid solute in liquid solvent concentration can be expressed as:

Saturated Solution

A solution in which no more quantity of solute can be dissolved at a particular temperature, is called saturated
solution.

Unsaturated Solution

A solution in which more quantity of solute can be dissolved without raising its temperature, is called unsaturated
solution.

Try the following questions:

Q1. What would it mean by saying a 15% of alcohol solution?

Q2. Calculate the concentration of a solution containing 2.5g of salt dissolved in 50g of water.

Q3. Name the different types of solutions along with an example for each.

Q4. Define (a) Solute (b) Solvent.

CBSE Class 9 Science, Is Matter Around Us Pure: Chapter Notes (Part-II)

This part is a continuation of CBSE Class 9 Science notes on chapter 2 ‘Is Matter Around Us Pure’ (Part-I). In
Part-I, the main topics explained were: Matter and its Types; Elements; Compounds; Metals, Non-metals and
Metalloids; Mixture and its Types; Solution and its Types; Solubility and Concentration of Solution.

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Matter in Our Surroundings: Chapter Notes, are:
 Suspension

Definition and properties

 Colloid

Types and properties

 Tyndall Effect
 Physical change
 Chemical change
 Methods for separation of mixtures

These chapter notes are prepared by the subject experts to discuss every important topic from the chapter. In
between these notes you can try the questions asked from the discussed set of topics. These questions will help
you to track your preparation level and get a hold on the subject.

Key notes for Chapter- Is Matter Around Us Pure, are:

Suspension:

The heterogeneous mixture in which solids are dispersed in a liquid are called suspensions. For example:
Chalk-water mixture, muddy water, flour in water, etc.
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
throughout the bulk of the medium.

Properties of a Suspension:
(i) It is a heterogeneous mixture.
(ii) The particles of a suspension can be seen by naked eyes.

(iii) The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
(iv) A suspension is unstable.
(v) Constituents of a suspension can be separated by the process of filtration.
Colloid or Colloidal solution:
Solutions in which the size of particles lies in between those of true solutions and suspensions are called
colloidal solutions or simply colloids. For example: Milk, smoke and starch solution etc.

Properties of Colloids:
(i) A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
(ii) The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
(iii) The particles of a colloidal solution are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it.
(iv) A colloid is quite stable.
(v) Colloidal particles cannot be separated by the process of filtration.

Tyndall Effect: The scattering of light by the colloidal particles is known as Tyndall effect.

It can be observed when:

 A fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole.
 Sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.

Note: The colloidal particles are not the true solutions as their particles are big enough to show the Tyndall
effect, whereas the particles of a true solution do no show Tyndall effect.

The components of a colloidal solution:

(i) Dispersed Phase: The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed
phase.

(ii) Dispersion Medium: The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing
medium.

Types of Colloids:

Different types of colloids are discussed in the table given below:

Physical Change:
Those changes in which only physical properties of the substances change but no new substances are formed
are called physical changes.
For example - Melting of ice to form water, breaking of glass, preparing a solution etc.
Chemical change:
Those changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes and chemical properties of a
substance gets changed in a chemical change.

For example - Rusting of iron, bumning a piece of paper etc.

Difference between Physical and Chemical changes:

S. No. Physical Change chemical change

1. Here only the physical properties like state, It brings about a change in the chemical
shape or size of a substance change. properties of a substance.

2. There is no change in chemical There is always a change in chemical

composition of a substance. composition of a substance.

3. No new substance is formed. A new substance is always formed.

4. It is temporary and hence reversible. It is permanent and hence irreversible.

Try the following questions:

Q1. How will you distinguish a colloid from a solution?

Q2. What is effect of temperature on the solubility of solids in liquids?

Q3. Sea water can be classified both as a homogeneous as well as a heterogenous mixture. Comment?

Q4. Distinguish between the following as physical changes and chemical changes?

(a) Burning of a magnesium wire

(b) Rusting of iron

(c) Condensation of steam

(d) Glowing of an electric bulb

The separation of components of a Mixture:

Some of the important methods used to separate different mixtures are explained below::

(1) Evaporation:

Evaporation is a process which is used to separate a

solid substance dissolved in liquid. It is based on the fact that
liquids vaporize easily whereas solids do not.

Applications of Evaporation:
 Obtaining salt from see water.

(2) Centrifugation:
It is a method of separating the
suspended particles of a
substance from a liquid in
which the mixture is rotated at
high speed in a centrifuge.

This method is useful in case

the suspended particles in a
liquid are too small too be
retained by filter paper.

Principle of Centrifugation: When a mixture is rotated very

fast, the denser particles are forced to go to the bottom of
the centrifuge and the lighter
particles stay at the top.
Applications of Centrifugation:
 Used in dairies to separate cream from milk.
 Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.

(3) Separating funnel

It is used to separate a mixture of two immiscible liquids, like oil and water.

Principle of Separating funnel :

When a mixture of two immiscible liquids is kept in a separating

funnel, the liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities with
the heavier forming the top layer.
Applications of Separating funnel:
 To separate mixture of oil and water.
 In the extraction of iron from its ore where the lighter slag (molten waste material) is removed from the top
by to leave the molten iron at the bottom of the blast furnace.

(4) Sublimation:

This method is used to separate those components from a mixture which can sublime on heating.

For example: Ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene etc, can be separated from their mixture by
sublimation

Applications of Sublimation:
 Iron can be separated from a mixture of iron fillings and camphor (volatile).
 Common salt can be separated from a mixture of salt and ammonium chloride (volatile).
(5) Chromatography

This method is used to separate two or more dissolved solids

which are present in a solution in very small quantities.

Principle of Chromatography:

This method of separation is based on the fact that though two

substances are dissolved in the same solvent but their solubilities
can be different. The component which is more soluble in, rises faster and gets separated from the mixture.

Applications of Chromatography:
 To separate colours in a dye by paper chromatography.
 To separate drugs from blood.

(6) Distillation:

This method is used to separate a mixture solid in a liquid. It is

the process of heating the liquid to form vapour, and then
cooling the vapour to get back liquid.

It is used for the separation of components of a mixture

containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition
and have sufficient difference in their boiling points.

Principle of Distillation:

The volatile liquid evaporates on heating which can be recovered by cooling its vapours by the process of
condensation.

Applications of Distillation:
 It is used to remove salt from sea water to obtain drinking water.

(7) Fractional distillation

It is the process of separating two or more miscible liquids by

distillation, the distillate being collected in fractions due to boiling
at different temperatures.

Fractionating Column:

The apparatus used in this process is similar to that for simple

distillation except a fractionating column which is fitted in
between the distillation flask and the condenser. A simple
fractionating colunrn is a tube packed with glass beads. The
beads provide surface for the vapours to cool and condense
repeatedly.
Principle of Fractional Distillation:

In a mixture of two or more miscible liquids, the separation of various liquids depends on their boilibg points. The
liquid having lower boiling point boils first and can be obtained first from the fractionating column than the liquid
having higher boiling point.

Applications of Fractional Distillation:

 It is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids like alcohol-water mixture.
 It is used to separate cruid oil ‘petroleum’ into useful fractions like kerosene, petrol, diesel, etc.
 It is used to separate different gases of the air by taking the liquid air.

(8) Crystallisation :

Crystallisation is a process used to separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. The process
involves cooling a hot, concentrated solution of a substance to obtain crystals.

Applications of Crystallisation:
 Purification of common salt obtained from sea water.
 To obtain crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.
 To obtain pure copper sulphate from an impure sample.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Name the method of separation that you will apply for separation of the following mixtures?
(a) Amnonium chloride from a powdered mixture of sodium chloride and Ammonium chloride.
(b) Butter from cream.
(c) Oil from water.

Q2. Which of the following will show Tyndall effect:

(a) Salt solution
(b) Milk
(c) Starch

Q3. How will you separate a mixture of iron filings, chalk powder and common salt?

Q4. Discuss the process of purification of impure copper sulphate by crystallization.

Q5. Explain how nitrogen, oxygen and argon gases are separated from air?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Atoms and Molecules: Chapter notes

Main topics covered in CBSE Class 9 Science, Atoms and Molecules: Chapter Notes, are:
 Laws of Chemical Combination
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 Atoms and their Symbols
 Atomic Mass
 Gram Atomic Mass
 Ions
 Molecule
 Formula of Simple and Molecular Compounds
 Molecular Mass
 Formula Unit Mass
 Mole Concept

Key notes for Chapter- Atoms and Molecules, are:

Laws of Chemical Combination:

The process of combination of two or more elements to form new compounds is governed by certain laws called
laws of chemical combination. These are:

1. Law of conservation of mass.

2. Law of constant proportions.

1. Law of conservation of mass (by Lavoisier in 1744):

This law states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

2. Law of constant proportions (by Proust in 1797):

This law states that in a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite proportions by mass.

For example, the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in pure water is always 1: 8 by weight.

This law is also called law of definite proportions or law of constant proportions.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is composed of
small particles called atoms

Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory:

 Matter is made up of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms that can neither be created nor
destroyed.
 Atoms of the same substance are identical in all aspects, i.e., they possess same size, shape, mass,
chemical properties etc.
 Atoms of different substances are different in all aspects, i.e., they possess different size, shape, mass etc.
 Atom is the smallest particle that takes part in a chemical reaction.
 Atoms of different elements combine with each other in a simple whole number ratio to form compound.
 The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Try the following questions:

Q. 3 g of carbon on burning in 8 g oxygen produces 11 g of carbon dioxide. What mass of carbon dioxide will be
formed when 3 g of carbon is burnt in 50 g of oxygen?

Q.. Hydrogen and oxygen combine in the ratio of 1:8 by mass to form water. What mass of oxygen gas would be
required to react completely with 3 g of hydrogen gas? Which law of combination will govern the answer?

Q. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory explains the law of definite proportions?

Q. 12 g of magnesium powder was ignited in a container having 20 g of pure oxygen. After the reaction was over,
it was found that 12 g of oxygen was left unreacted. Show that it is according to law of constant proportions.

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Atoms:

The smallest tiny particles of matter which can't be divided further is called atom, i.e., an atom is the smallest
building block of matter.

For example: Sodium (Na), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), etc.

Names of Atoms or Elements and Their Symbols:

 IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) approves names of elements.
 The abbreviation used for lengthy names of elements are termed as their symbols.
 The symbol of an element is formed by writing only the first letter or first letter followed by the second or
some other letter of English name or Latin name of the element.
 While writing a symbol, the first letter is always capital and the second is always small.
 Symbols used for some common elements are given below:

Atomic Mass

Atomic mass of an element may be defined as the average relative mass of an atom of the element as compared
with the mass of an atom of carbon (C-12 isotope) taken as 12 amu.
Gram Atomic Mass: The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is known as gram atomic mass.

Molecules:

A group of two or more than two atoms of the same or different elements that are chemically bonded together is
called a molecule.

For example: Two atoms of hydrogen (H2) and one atom of oxygen (O2) react with each other and form one
molecule of water.

Atomicity:

The number of atoms present in a molecule of an element or a compound is known as its atomicity.

For example, atomicity of oxygen (O2) is 2 while atomicity of ozone (O3) is 3.

Molecules of Elements:

The molecules of an element are constituted by the same type of atoms.

For example, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen to form a diatomic molecule O2.

Molecules of Compounds:

Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form molecules of compounds.

For example, a molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen to form a triatomic
molecule H2O.

Ion:

It is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms. It is formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons by
an atom.

Ions are of two types:

(i) Cation: It is positively charged ion and is formed by the loss of one or more electrons from an atom

For example: sodium atom, loses one electron to form a sodium ion Na

Na – e− → Na+

(ii) Anion: It is a negatively charged ion and is formed by the gain of one or more electrons by an atom.

For example a chlorine atom gains one electron to form a chloride ion Cl−.

Cl + e− → Cl−

Valency:

It is defined by the combining power (or capacity) of an element.

Depending on their valency, elements can be classified as following:

(i) Monovalent cation: Having cationic valency of 1.

For example: Sodium ion (Na+ ). Potassium ion (K+ ), Hydrogen ion (H+ ).

Monovalent anion: Having anionic valency of -1.

For example: Chloride ion (Cl-), Bromide ion (Br-)

(ii) Divalent cation: Having cationic valency of 2.

For example: Magnesium ion (Mg2+), Ferrous ion (Fe2+).

Divalent anion: Having anionic valency of −2.

For example: Oxide ion (O2−), Sulphide ion (S2−).

(iii) Trivalent cations: Having cationic valency of 3.

For example: Aluminium ion (Al3+), Ferric ion (Fe3+).

Trivalent anion: Having anionic valency of -3.

For example: Nitride ion (N-3), Phosphate ion (PO43−) etc.

Formula of Simple and Molecular Compounds:

Steps to construct the chemical formula of a compound:

(i) While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, write the constituent elements with their valencies written
down the respective elements.

(ii) Then crossover the valencies of the combining atoms as shown in the following examples.

Steps to represent the chemical formula of a compound:

(i) The valencies or charges on the ions must be balanced.

(ii) For a compound made up of a metal and a non-metal, the symbol of metal is written first.
(iii) In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing the number to
indicate the ratio.

Molecular Mass:

The number of times a molecule of a compound is heavier than the 1/12 of the mass of C-12 atom, is known as
its molecular mass.

The molecular mass is equal to the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms present in one molecule of the
substance.

For example, Molecular mass of H2O= 2 × Mass of one H-atom + Mass of one O-atom = 2 ×1 + 16 = 18 u.

Formula unit mass:

It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound.

Formula unit mass is used for those substances whose constituent particles are ions.

For example, formula unit mass of ionic NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 u.

Mole Concept:
 Mole: A collection of 6.023 × 1023particles is named as one mole.

1 mole = 6.023 × 1023 particles = Mass of 1 mole particles in grams

 The mass of 1 mole particles is equal to its mass in grams.

1 mole atoms = gram atomic mass

1 mole molecules = gram molecular mass

 Avogadro’s constant or Avogadro’s number:

The number of particles present in one mole (i.e. 6.023 x 1023 particles) is called Avogadro’s number or
Avogadro’s constant.

Try the following questions:

Q. Distinguish between atoms and molecules.

Q. Define the mole concept and molar mass.
Q. Represent the following molecules with the help of chemical formula:
(a) Alminium chloride
(b) Calcium carbonate
(c) Copper nitrate
(d) Nitric acid
Q. Convert 20 g of water into moles.
Q. Calculate the number of molecules of sulphur (S8) present in 16 g of solid sulphur.
CBSE Class 9 Science, Structure of the Atom: Chapter notes

Main topics covered in CBSE Class 9 Science, Structure of the Atom: Chapter Notes, are:
 Sub Atomic Particles of an Atom and Their Discovery
 Thomson’s Model of atom
 Rutherford’s Model of Atom
 Bohr’s Model of Atom
 Arrangement of electrons in an atom:
 Orbit
 Valency
 Atomic number
 Mass number
 Isotopes
 Isobars

Key notes for Chapter- Structure of the Atom, are:

Introduction:

Dalton’s atomic theory in suggested that an atom was indivisible. However, the discovery of two fundamental
particles named as electrons and protons, inside the atom, led to the failure of Dalton’s atomic theory.

Fundamental particles of an atom:

Three particles; electron, proton and neutron from which an atom is consisted of, are called fundamental particles
of an atom or sub atomic particles.

Discovery of Electron:

By J. J. Thomson in 1897.
He carried a cathode ray experiment in which observed
a stream of negatively charged particles coming out of
cathode towards the anode. These particles were
named as electrons.

Discovery of Proton:

By Ernest Goldstein in 1886.

He observed in the same gas discharge tube, with
different situations that the anode emitted positive particles which he named as Canal Rays. His experiment led
to the discovery of proton.
Discovery of Neutron:

By J. Chadwick in1932.

Neutron is present in the nucleus of all atoms.

1. Thomson’s Model of Atom (by Joseph James Thomson in

1897)

Thomson’s model of an atom proposed that:

 An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges (due to
presence of protons) as well as negative charges (due to
presence of electrons).
 Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative
and positive charges are equal in magnitude.

This model is also known as water melon model, plum pudding

model and apple pie model.

Limitations of Thomson’s Model:

 It failed to explain how protons and electrons were arranged in atom so close to each other.

2. Rutherford’s Model of Atom (By Ernest Rutherford in

1909)

This was based on an experiment in which α – particles were

bombarded on a thin gold foil.

Observations of Rutherford’s α-particle scattering

experiment are:

(a) Most of the α – particles passed without any hindrance.

(b) Some of the α – particles deflected from their original path at a noticeable angle.

(c) Very few of the α – particles bounced back at their original path.

Postulates of Rutherford’s Model of Atom:

(a) Most of the part in an atom is empty.

(b) There is a positively charged center in atom, which contains nearly the whole mass of atom. The centre is
called nucleus.

(c) The size of nucleus is very small compared to an atom.

(d) Electrons revolve round the nucleus.

Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

(a) According to Rutherford’s Model, electron revolves round the positively charged nucleus which is not expected
to be stable. But a charged particle in an accelerated motion along a circular path would continuously undergo
loss of energy and finally would fall into nucleus. This makes an atom unstable while atoms are quite stable.

(b) Rutherford model could not solve the problem of atomic mass of atom as it proposed only the existence of
protons in the nucleus.

3. Bohr’s Model of Atom (By Neils Bohr in 1913)

This model of atom states that:

 An atom consists of heavy positively charged nucleus. The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus.
 The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in definite circular paths called orbits or energy level.
 Each energy level is associated with definite amount of energy.
 The change in energy takes place when electron jumps from one energy level to another energy level.

Try the following questions:

Q.1 Why is the relative mass of an electron is taken as negligible ?

Q.2 Which observation of Rutherford’s scattering experiment established the presence large empty space in
atom?

Q.3 What are canal rays? What is the nature of the constituents of canal rays?

Q.4 How was Rutherford’s model of atom failed to explain the stability of an atom?

Arrangement of electrons in an atom:

The arrangement of electrons in various shells (energy levels) of an atom of the element is known as Electronic
configuration.

The Maximum number of electrons that could be put in a particular shell, i.e., energy levels, was given by Bohr
and Bury.
According to Bohr-Bury Scheme:
 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any energy level is given by 2n2where n =
1, 2, 3, 4, …. (for K, L, M, N…..)
 The maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit will be 8 electrons even if it has capacity to
accommodate more electrons.
 Electrons, are not accommodated in a given shell. Unless earlier shells are filled, that is stepwise filling of
shells is followed.
Orbit

The circular path around the nucleus is called orbit, energy level or shell. Energy level are represented by English
alphabets: K, L, M, N, …. and so on.

Therefore,
 1st orbit is denoted by K
 2nd orbit is denoted by L
 3rd orbit is denoted by M, and so on.

Distribution of Electrons in a Orbit or Shell

The distribution of electrons in an orbit can be obtained by using formulae 2n 2 where ‘n’ is number of that orbit.

For example:

Number of electrons in K-shell i.e. in 1st orbit

Here n = 1

Therefore, 2n2 = 2 × 12 = 2

Thus, maximum number of electrons in K-shell, i.e. 1st shell = 2

Number of electrons in L-shell, i.e. in 2ndorbit

Here n = 2, therefore,

2n2 = 2 × 22 = 8

Thus, maximum number of electrons in L-shell = 8

In similar way maximum number of electrons in any shell can be calculated.

Valence Electrons

The electrons present in the outer most shell of an atom are known as valence electrons. These electrons
determine the valency of an atom.

Valency

Valency is the combining capacity of an atom, i.e. their tendency to react and form molecules with atoms of the
same or different elements.

For the atoms having valence electrons less than or equal to 4, valency is same as that of the number of valence
electrons in that atom.

For example, valency of Magnesium (2, 8 , 2) = 2

If number of valence electrons exceed 4, then valency = 8 – Number of valence electrons.

For example, valency of Oxygen (2, 6) = 8 – 6 = 2.

Valency of atoms with 8 valence electrons is zero as they have fully filled valence shell and cannot gain or lose
electrons to form, molecules or compounds.

Atomic number (Z)

Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.

Since an atom is electrically neutral, thus number of protons and number of electrons are equal, therefore:

Atomic number (z) = number of protons = number of electrons.

Mass Number (A)

The total number of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called mass number. It is
denoted by A.

The protons and neutrons together are called nucleon.

The number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is rperesented by N.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass numbers are known as Isotopes.

For example:

Applications of Isotopes
 Isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactor
 Isotope of cobalt is used in treatment of cancer
 Isotope of iodine is used in treatment of goitre.

Isobars

Atoms of different elements having same mass numbers are known as Isobars,

For example: - Potassium, K and Argon. Ar both have the mass numbers equal to 40.

Try the following questions:

Q 1. Helium atom has an atomic mass of 4 u and two protons in its nucleus. How many neutrons does it have?

Q 2. Number of electrons and neutrons in an atom are 3 and 4 respectively. Find its:

(a) Atomic number and (b) Mass number?

Q 3. Name the particles which determine the mass of an atom.

Q 4. What is octet rule?

Q 5. Why does Helium has Zero valency? And Q 6. The isotopes of an atom are chemically same. Why?
CBSE Class 9 Science, The Fundamental Unit of Life: Chapter notes (Part-I)
Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, The Fundamental Unit of Life: Chapter Notes, are:

 Definition of Cell
 Shape and Size of Cell
 Types of Cell
 Structure of Cell
 Cell Organelles
 Difference Between Animal Cell and Plant Cell

Key notes for Chapter- The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Cell

It is the structural and functional unit of life.

 Cell is termed as the structural unit of life as it provides structure to our body.
 Cell is considered as the functional unit of life as all the functions of the body take place at cell level.

Discovery of cell:
 Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 Robert Brown in 1831 discovered the nucleus in the cell.

Cell Theory:

Cell theory states that:

 All living organisms are composed of cells.
 Cell is the fundamental unit of life.
 All new cells come from pre-existing cells.

Types of Organisms on the Basis of Number of Cells

There are two kinds of organisms on the basis of cells:
(i) Unicellular Organisms: The organisms that are made up of single cell and may constitute a whole
organism, are named as unicellular organisms.

For example: Amoeba, Paramecium, bacteria, etc.

(ii) Multicellular Organisms: The organisms which are composed of a collection of cells that assume function
in a coordinated manner, with different cells specialized to perform particular tasks in the body, are named as
multicellular organisms.

For example: Plants, human beings, animals, etc.

Shape and Size of Cells

 Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval, spherical, rectangular, spindle shaped, or totally irregular
like the nerve cell.
 The size of cell also varies in different organisms. Most of the cells are microscopic in size like red blood
cells (RBC) while some cells are fairly large like nerve cells.
Types of Cells
The cells can be categorized in two types:
1. Prokaryotic Cell 2. Eukaryotic Cell

1. Prokaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is absent.
They are primitive and incomplete cells. Prokaryotes are
always unicellular organisms. For example,
archaebacteria, bacteria, blue green algae are all
prokaryotes.

2. Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryobc cells are the cells in which true nucleus is
present. They are advanced and complete cells.
Eukaryotes include all living organisms (both
unicellular and multicellular organisms) except
bactera and blue green algae.

Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells:

S. No. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Size of cell is generally small (1-10 Size of cell is generally large (5-100 mm).
1.
mm).

2. Nucleus is absent. Nucleus is present.

3. It contains single chromosome. It contains more than one chromosome.

4. Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.

Memrane bound cell organelles are Memrane bound cell organelles such as
absent. mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic
5.
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, etc.,
are present.

Cell division takes place by fission or Cell division takes place by mitotic or
6.
budding. meiotic cell division.
Structure of Cell
Cell is generally composed of three basic components:

(i) Cell wall and cell membrane

(ii) Nucleus

(iii) Cytoplasm

(i) Cell membrane or Plasma membrane:

Plasma membrane is the covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its external
environment.

It is a living part of the cell and is present in cells of plants, animals and microorganisms.

It is very thin, delicate, elastic and selectively permeable membrane.

It is composed of lipid and protein.

Function:
As it is selectively permeable membrane, it allows the flow of limited substances in and out of the cell.

(ii) Cell wall:

cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable covering made up of cellulose.

It is present in eukaryotic plant cells and in prokaryotic cells.

Functions:
 It determines the shape and rigidity to the plant cell.
 It protects the plasma membrane.
 It prevents desiccation or dryness in cell.
 It helps in the transport of varous substances in and out of the cell.
(iii) Nucleus:

Nucleus is dense and spherical organelle.

Nucleus is bounded by two membranes, both forming nuclear envelope. Nuclear envelope contains
many pores known as nuclear pores.

The fluid which present inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.

Nucleus contains chromosomes and chromosomes contain genes which are the centres of genetic
information.

Functions:
 Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
 It regulates the cell cycle.
 Nucleus is the storehouse of genes.It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent
to offspring.

(iv) Cytoplasm:

It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance that occurs between the plasma membrane
and the nuclear membrane.

The aqueous ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol that contains a variety of cell organelles
and other insoluble waste products and storage products, like starch, glycogen, lipid, etc.

Functions:
• Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids, proteins, sugars, vitamins, etc.
• It is the site of certain metabolic reactions, like glycolysis, synthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides, etc.

Cell organelles:

Inside the cell there are different parts performing different activities to keep the cell alive anf functionable. These
part are called Cell organelles. They are explained below:

1. Golgi Apparatus:

Golgi apparatus consists of a set of membrane bound, fluid filled vesicles, vacuoles and flattened
cisternae (closed sacks).

Cisternae are usually arranged parallel to each other.

Functions:
 Its main function is to store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.
 It is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.

2. Endoplasmic Reticulum:

It is a membranous network of tube like structures extending from nuclear membrane to plasma
membrane.

It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:

(i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Here ribosomes are present on the surface for the synthesis
of proteins.
(ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Here ribosomes are absent and is meant for secreting lipids.

Functions:
 It gives internal support to cell.
 It helps in transport of various substances from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane or vice versa.
 RER helps in synthesis and transportation of proteins.
 SER helps in synthesis and transportation of lipids.

3. Ribosomes:

These are extremely small, dense and spherical bodies which occur freely in the matrix (cytosol) or
remain attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

These are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.

Function:

They play a major role in the synthesis of proteins.

4. Mitochondria:

They are small rod-shaped organelles.

It is a double membrane structure with outer membrane being smooth and porous whereas inner
membrane being thrown into a number of folds called cristae.

They contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

They are absent in bacteria and red blood cells of mammals.

Functions:
 They are the sites of cellular respiration, hence provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.
 They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP (Energy currency of the cell). Therefore,
they are also called ‘power house’ of the cell.

5. Centrosome and Centrioles:

Centrosome is found only in eukaryotic animal cells. It is not bounded by any membrane but consists
of centrioles.

Centroles are hollow cylindrical structures arranged at right angle to each other and made up of
microtubules.

Function:
Centrioles help in cell division and also help in the formation of cilia and flagella.

6. Plastids:

Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and absent in animal cells.

They are usually spherical or discoidal in shaped and double membrane bound organelles.

They also have their own DNA and ribosomes.

Plastids are of three types:

(a) Chloroplasts: These are the green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts aid in the
manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.
(b) Chromoplasts: These are the colourful plastids (except green colour).
(c) Leucoplasts: These are the colourless plastids.

Function:
 Chloroplasts trap solar ebergy and utilise it to manufacture food for the plant.
 Chromoplasts impart various colours to flowers to attract insects for pollination.
 Lecuoplasts help in the storage of food in the form of starch, proteins and fats.

7. Lysosomes:

Lysosomes are small, spherical, sac like structures which contain several digestive enzymes enclosed
in a membrane.

They are found in eukaryotic cells mostly in animals.

Functions:
 Lysosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.
 They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
 They help to keep the cell clean.
 During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may
burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as suicide bags of a cell

8. Vacuoles:

Vacuoles are liquid/solid filled and membrane bound organelles.

In plant cells, vacuoles are large and permanent. In animal cells, vacuoles are small In size and
temporary.

In mature plant cell, It occupies 90% space of cell volume.

Due to its size, other organelles, including nucleus shift towards plasma membrane.

Function:
 They help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell.
 They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.

9. Peroxiomes:

They are small and spherical organelles containing powerful oxidative enzymes.

They are bounded by a single membrane.

They are found in kidney and liver cells.

Function:
 They are specialized to carry out some oxidative reactions, such as detoxification or removal of toxic
substances form cell.

Difference Between Animal Cell and Plant Cell:

S. No. Animal cell Plant cell

1. Animal cells are generally small in size. Plant cells are larger than animal cells.

Cell wall is absent. Plasma membrane of plant cell is surrounded by

2.
a rigid cell wall of cellulose.
 Plastids are absent except in case of Plastids are present.
3
protozoan Euglena.

Here vacuoles are many, small and They have a permanent and large central sap
4.
temporary. vacuole.

5. They have centrosome and centrioles. They lack centrosome and centrioles.

Structure of Plant cell and Animal cell:

Try the following questions:

Q1. What is the characteristic of nuclear envelope?

Q2. Where does ATP synthesis occur in mitochondria?

Q3. What would happen if the plasma membrane ruptures or break down?

Q4. Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags?

Q5. Which cell organelle is also known as the ‘Power house of the cell’ and why?
CBSE Class 9 Science, The Fundamental Unit of Life: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, The Fundamental Unit of Life: Chapter Notes, are:
 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Hypotonic solution
 Isotonic solution
 Hypertonic solution
 Mediated Transport
 Endocytosis
 Exocytosis

Key notes for Chapter- The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Transport of Substances through Plasma Membrane

Selectively Permeable Membrane:

Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit of certain materials in the cells. Therefore, it is named as selectively
permeable membrane.

Substances can pass through the plasma membrane by two processes:

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

Diffusion

It is the process of movement of substances from a region of high concentration to the region of low concentration
until uniform concentration is finally acheived.

For example:
 During the respiration, due to the difference of the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), inside and outside
of the cell, CO2 is given out a waste product, moving out from region of high concentration to region of low
concentration.
 Similarly, oxygen (O2) enters the cell by the process of diffusion when level of concentration of O2 inside the
cell decreases.

Osmosis

It is the process of movement of water from its high concentration region to its low concentration region through
semi-permeable membrane.

Different types of solutions exhibiting osmosis are:

(i) Hypotonic Solution:

If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell, i.e., if the solution is very
dilute solution, then the cell will gain water by osmosis. Such dilute solution is called Hypotonic solution.
Endomosis: Though water molecules are free to pass across plasma membrane in both sides but more water
will enter inside the cell. The cell will therefore swell up and increase in volume. This process is
called Endosmosis.

(ii) Isotonic Solution:

If the medium surrounding the cell is of exactly the same water concentration as inside the cell, there will be no
net movement of water across membrane resulting in no change in size of cell. Such solution is called Isotonic
solution.

(iii) Hypertonic solution:

If the medium surrounding the cell has a lower water concentration than inside the cell, i.e., if the solution is highly
concentrated, then the cell will lose water through osmosis. Such concentrated solution is called Hypertonic
solution.

Exomosis: When the water moves out of the cell placed in a highly concentrated solution, it wall cause the cell
to shrink. This process is known as Exosmosis.

Plasmolysis and Cytolysis:

The biological phenomena of exosmosis when a cell or tissue is placed into a strong hypertonic solution, is
termed as plasmolysis, whereas the reverse process is cytolysis, which occurs if the cell is placed in a hypotonic
solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell.

Difference between Diffusion and Osmosis:

S. No. Diffusion Osmosis

1. It can take place in any medium. It can take place only in liquid medium.

2. Semipermeable membrane is not required. Semipermeable membrane is required.

Here the diffusing molecules may be solids, It involves the movement of solvent molecules
3.
liquids or gases. only.

It is dependent on the free energy of the Here the diffusion of the solvent molecules is
4. molecules of the diffusing substance only. affected by the presence of other substances
(solute) in the system.

An equilibrium in the free energy of the Equilibrium in the free energy of the solvent
5.
diffusing molecules is achieved. molecules is never achieved.
Mediated Transport:

Plasma membrane renders the transposrt of many molecules of biological significance. Such essential molecules
are moved across the membrane by special proteins called transport proteins or permeases. This process of
forced diffusion of certain substances through the plasma membrane is called mediated transport.

Note: Permeases used in the process are quite specific to the substance they transport.

Types of Mediated Transport:

It is of the following two types:

(i) Facilitated transport/diffusion: Here, the permeases assists a molecule to diffuse through the membrane
that it cannot otherwise penetrate.

(ii) Active transport: In this case, the energy is supplied to the system to transport the molecules in a direction
opposite to a concentration gradient.

Endocytosis:

It is the process of ingestion of materials by the cells through the plasma membrane.

It describes all three similar processes: phagocytosis (cell eating), potocytosis (cell drinking) and receptor-
mediated endocytosis.

Phagocytosis: It is a method of intake of food materials by

certain organisms like protozoa (Amoeba). The flexibility of
the cell membrane enables the cell to engulf the solid particles
of food and other materials from its external environment.

Exocytosis:

In this process the membrane of a vesicle can fuse with plasma

membrane and extrude its contents to the surrounding
medium. This process is also named as cell vomiting.

Cells exhibit exocytosis to:

 Remove the undigested residues od=f substances brought in by endocytosis.
 Secrete substances such as hormones, enzymes
 Transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier.
Try the following questions:
Q1. Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively permeable membrane?
Q2. How do substances like CO2 and water move in and out of the cell? Discuss.
Q3. How does an Amoeba obtain its food?
Q4. What is Plasmolysis?
Q5. Differentiate between endocytosis and exocytosis.
Q6. Why does the skin of our hands shrink when we wash clothes for a long time?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Tissues: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Tissues: Chapter Notes, are:
 Definition of Tissues
 Plant Tissues
 Meristematic Tissues and Their Types
 Permanent Tissues and Their Types

Key notes for Chapter- The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Tissue

A group of cells that are specialized to perform a particular function forms a tissue.

Tissues are mainly classified into two types:

1. Plant Tissues 2. Animal Tissues

1. Plant tissues
 Plants do not move, i.e., they are stationary.
 Most of the tissues they have are supportive, which provides them with structural strength.
 Most of these tissues are dead, as they can provide better mechanical strength than the live ones, and need
less maintenance.
 Some of the plant tissues keep on dividing throughout the plant life. These tissues are localised in certain
regions.

Types of Plant Tissues:

Based on the dividing capacity of the tissues, various plant

tissues can be classified as growing or meristematic tissue
and permanent tissue which have further sub-divisions as
explained below:

A. Meristematic Tissue
Meristematic tissues are responsible for growth in plants. Cells in these tissues
can divide and form new cells.

Meristematic tissues are of three types:

(i) Apical Meristem: It is present at the growing tip of the stem and roots and
increases the length. .

(ii) Lateral Meristem (cambium): It is present beneath the bark. It is responsible

for growth in girth of trunk.

(iii) Intercalary Meristem: It is present at internodes or base of the leaves and

increases the length between the nodes.
B. Permanent Tissue
 Cells of meristematic tissues change their shape & size to get specialised in performing other functions in
plants body. This process is called Differentiation.
 Once the cells of meristematic tissue divide to a certain extent, they become specialized for a particular
function.

Permanent tissues are of two types:

Simple tissues and Complex tissues

(i) Simple tissues: This type of tissue is composed of same type of cells.
These are again of four types:

(a) Parenchyma simple tissues: Cells of parenchyma tissues are live. They are oval, elongated and loosely
packed with large inter-cellular space, forming basic packing of tissue and are found throughout the plant body.

Functions of parenchyma:
 They provide mechanical support to the plant body.
 They store food and nutrients in vacuoles.

Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma with chlorophyll which performs photosynthesis is called as chlorenchyma.

Aerenchyma: In aquatic plants, cells of parenchyma have large air cavities to give buoyancy to the plant and is
called aerenchyma .

(b) Collenchyma simple Tissues: Cells of collenchyma are live. They are oval and elongated and tighily packed
with no inter-cellular spaces. They are found below epidermis in leaves and stem.

Functions of collenchymas tissues:

 They provides mechanical support to plant.
 They also provide flexibility to plants so that they can bend without breaking.

(c) Sclerenchyma Simple Tissues: Cells of sclerenchym are dead. They are narrow and elongated. The cell
wall in sclerenchyma is composed of lignin which makes it hard. Sclerenchyma are found around vascular
bundles, veins of leaves in hard covering of seeds and nuts. For example: Scalerenchyma tissues are found in
coconut husk.

Functions of sclerenchyma:
 They help to makes parts of plant hard and stiff.
 Also provides mechanical strength.

(d) Protective tissues: They protect the plant body by forming an outer layer.

There are two types of protective tissues:

1. Epidermis Simple Tissues: Epidermis tissue covers the entire body of plant. They protect plant from injury,
germs and water loss.
Cells of epidermal tissue form a continuous layer without intercellular spaces.
Stomata are small openings on epidermal layer of leaf and soft part of stem to facilitate the gaseous exchange
and transperation in plants. Each stomata is composed of two guard cells which regulate the opening and
closing of stomata.
In desert plants, epidermis and cutin (a water proof waxy substance secreted by epidermis) are thicker to
reduce loss of water due to transpiration.
2. Cork Simple Tissues: These types of tissue consist dead cells with no intercellular spaces. They form the
outer layer of old tree trunks.
Cork cells have a chemical called suberin in their walls that makes them impervious to gases and water.
Cork tissue protects plants from injuries, germs and water loss.
Cork being light in weight is used for making several products like bottle stoppers and shuttle cork.
(ii) Complex tissues: Group of different type of cells performing common task together are named as complex
tissues.
Complex tissues are of two types:
(a) Xylem (b) Phloem

(a) Xylem: This is the tissue that transports water and nutrients from root
to upper parts of plant. It is composed of four types of cells i.e., tracheid,
vessel, xylem parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma (fibre).

1.Trachieds are long elongated cells with tapered ending. Trachied cells
are dead. Trachied transports water through pits.
2. Vessel is a pipe like structure. Vessels are dead and have lignified
thick cell wall. Upper and lower portion of cell wall is absent.
3. Parenchymas are living cells. They store food and nutrients.
4. Sclerenchymas (fibres) are dead cells. They provide mechanical
support to plant.

(b) Phloem: Phloem is the tissue that

transports food from site of
photosynthesis to different parts of
plants.

It is composed of four types of cell i.e. sieve cells, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma, phloem fibre or blast fibre. Al types of cells are live except phoem
fibres.

(1) Sieve cells are elongated and have thin cell wall. They have cytoplasm but no nucleus and other organelles.
These cells are responsible for transportation of food and nutnents (2) Companion cells have cytoplasm, nucleus
and other organelles. They perform the tasks required for sieve cells for living. (3) Phloem parenchyma store
food. (4) Phloem fibres have thick cell wall and they provide mechanical support to plant.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Name the tissue which allows easy bending in various parts of a plant.
Q2. What is the function of xylem?, Q3. Name the tissues which make up the husk of coconut.
Q4. Which type of permanent tissue does carrot contain?
Q5. Name the part of phloem with perforated walls.
CBSE Class 9 Science, Tissues: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Tissues: Chapter Notes, are:
 Animal Tissues
 Epithelial Tissue and its Types
 Connective Tissue and its Types
 Muscular Tissue and its Types
 Nervous Tissue

Key notes for Chapter- The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Animal Tissues
 Animals move around in search of food, mates and shelter.
 Most of the tissues they contain are living.
 The structural organisation of organs and organ systems is far more specialised and localised in animals
than in plants.

Types of Animal Tissues:

Animal tissues are classified into four types based on the functions they perform:
(i) Epithelial
(ii) Connective
(iii) Muscular
(iv) Nervous
(i) Epithelial tissues
They form the covering of the external surfaces, internal cavities and organs of the animal body.

Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.

The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules are all made of
epithelial tissue.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue:

(i) Epithelitum covers most organs and cavities within the body.
(ii) It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
(iii) The permeability of the cells of various epithelia play an important role in regulating the exchange of
materials between the body and the external environment.

Types of epithelial tissues:

Various types of epithelial tissues are:

(a) Simple squamous epithelium: In cells lining blood vessels or lung alveoli, where transportation of
substances occurs through a selectively permeable surface, there is a simple flat and extremely thin kind of
epithelium which is named as simple squamous epitheliun.

It is found in the lining of the mouth, oesophagus, lung, alveoli, etc.

(b) Stratified Squamous Epithelium: The skin, which protects the body, is also made of squamous epithelium.

Skin epilhelial cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and tear. Since they are arranged in a pattern
of layers, the epitheliunim is called stratified squamous epithelium.

(c) Cuboidal epithelium: This is cuboidal in shape and forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts of salivaiy
glands.

In some cases a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward to form a multicellular gland. This is called glandular
epithelium.

It performs a function of secretion and absorption.

(d) Columnar Epithelium: Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner lining of the intestine, tall
epithelial cells are present and are named as cohunnar epithelium.

In the respiratory tract, on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells there are hair like projevtions called cilia. These
cilia can move, and their movement pushes the mucus forward to clear it. This type of epithelium is named as
ciliated columnar epithelium.

(ii) Connective tissues

The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.

They are specialised to connect various body organs.

For example:
Blood (plasma), bones, Cartilage. ligaments and tendons etc.

Plasma: The fluid (liquid) matrix of blood is called plasma.

Plasma is a yellowish liquid like material.

Plasma contains three types of blood cells suspended in it. These are:
(i) RBC - Red blood cells
(ii) WBC - White blood Cells
(iii) Platelets

Bones: It is also a connective tissue that forms the framework that supports the body.

It is a strong and nonflexible tissue.

Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium and phosphorus compounds.

Ligaments: Two bones are connected to each other by a connective tissue called the ligament.

This tissue is flexible or elastic in nature.

Tendons: Bones are connected to muscles by another type of connective tissue named as Tendons.
Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.
Cartilage: Cartilage is another type of connective tissue which has widely spaced cells. The solid matrix of this
tissue is composed of proteins and sugars.
Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at joints and is also present in the nose, ear, trachea and larynx.
Cartilage of ear can be folded.

Types of connective tissue:

Various types of connective tissues are:

(a) Areolar tissue: They are found in the skin and muscles, around the blood vessels, nerves, etc.

Function of areolar tissue:

 It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in repair of tissues.

(b) Adipose tissue: It is found between the internal organs and below the skin.

Function of adipose tissue:

 It stores fats.
 It act as an insulator.
(iii) Muscular tissues
Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells, also called muscle fibres. This tissue is responsible for movement in
our body.

Main function of muscular tissues is to provide movement to the body.

Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract and relax to cause movement.

Types of Muscular Tissues:

Muscular tissues are of three types:

(a) Striated muscles or skeletal muscles or voluntary
muscles: These muscles are also called skeletal muscles as
they are mostly attached to bones and help in body movement.

Cells are cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate.

(b) Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles: They

are found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the
bronchi of the lungs.

Cells are long, spindle-shaped and possess a single

nucleus.
 (c) Cardiac muscles or involuntary muscles: They help
in rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart.

Cells are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate

(iv) Nervous Tissues

Cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialised for being
stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly
from one place to another within the body.

The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the
nervous tissue.

Neuron: Cells of the nervous tissue are called neurons.

A neuron consists of a cell body, an axon and a dendrite.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Which tissues are called covering or protective tissues?

Q2. Where do you find simple squamous in an animal body?

Q3. What is the shape of cuboidal epithelium? Where do we find these tissues? State one of their main
function.

Q4. What type of epithelium tissues are found in respiratory tract and in intestinal lining?

Q5. Name the fat-storing tissues? Where are they located?

CBSE Class 9 Science, Diversity in Living Organisms: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Diversity in Living Organisms: Chapter Notes, are:
 Definition of Biodiversity
 Taxonomy
 Classification: It’s Importance and Basis
 Hierarchy of classification
 Classification System
 Robert H. Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification

Key notes for Chapter- Diversity in Living Organisms, are:

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms present on a particular region. Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats,
Tropical rain forests, Nilgiri mountain range and Himalayas are Biodiversity rich regions of India.

Taxonomy
It is a branch of biology which deals with identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. Carolus
Linnaeus is called the father of taxonomy.

Classification
The method of arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and differences is called
classification.

Classification and Evolution:

It is a well established fact that all the life forms have evolved from a common ancestor. Scientists have proved
that the life begun on the earth in the form of simple life forms. During the course of time, complex organism
evolved from them. So, classification is also based on evolution.

Importance of classification:
 It makes the study of wide variety of organisms easy and in systematic manner.
 It helps to understand how the different organisms have evolved with time.
 It helps to understand the relationships between different groups of organisms.
 It forms a base for the study of other biological sciences, like biogeography.

Basis of classification:

There are the certain features or properties used for the classification of living organisms which are known
as characteristics. Organisms with same characteristics are placed in same groups.
Some important characteristics used for hierarchical classification are
 Presence and absence of nucleus in the cell.
 Body composed of single cell or group of cells.
 Autotrophs (producing own food) and heterotrophs (getting food from outside).
 Development and organisation of different body parts.
Hierarchy of classification
Linnaeus proposed a classification system by arranging organisms into taxonomic groups at different levels
according to the characteristics they have. The groups or the levels from top to bottom are:

Species is the basic unit of classification. A species is a group of living beings which can reproduce among
themselves and keep their population alive.

Classification System
1. Two kingdom classifications: Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 classified the living organisms into two groups as
plants and animals.

2. Five kingdom classification: H. Whittaker in 1959 further classified the organisms into five kingdoms as
Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae, and kingdom Animalia.

The five kingdoms and their key characteristics are given below:

1. Monera:
 These are prokaryotes; which means nuclear materials are
not membrane bound in them.
 They may or may not have cell wall.
 They can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 All organisms of this kingdom are unicellular.
 Examples: Bacteria, blue green algae (cyanobacteria) and
mycoplasma.
2. Protista:
 These are eukaryotes and unicellular.
 Some organisms use cilia or flagella
for locomotion.
 They can be autotrophic or
heterotrophic.
 Examples: Plants like unicellular
algae, diatoms; animals like
protozoans (Amoeba, Paramecium,
Euglena)

3. Fungi:
 These are eukaryotic organisms with cell wall, made
up of Chitin. They do not perform Photosynthesis
(Heterotrophs).
 They may be unicellular (yeast) or filamentous (most
fungi).
 They feed on decaying organic materials. Such a
mode of nutrition is called saprophytic. Some fungi
live in symbiotic relationship with other organisms
(Lichens), while some are parasites as well.
 Examples: Mushrooms(Agaricus), green
mold(Penicillium), smut(Aspergilus).

4. Plantae:
 These are multicellular and autotrophs.
 Presence of chlorophyll is a distinct characteristic of plants, because of which they are capable of taking out
photosynthesis.
 Cell wall is present.

5. Animalia:
 These are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.
 Cell wall is absent.

Try the following questions:

Q 1. Name one basic characteristic for classifying organisms.

Q 2. Why is it difficult to classify bacteria? Give two reasons.

Q 3. Why is it difficult to classify bacteria? Give two reasons.

Q 4. Explain the basis for grouping organisms into five kingdoms?

Q 5. What is symbiotic relationship?

CBSE Class 9 Science, Diversity in Living Organisms: Chapter notes (Part-II)

In the previous part, i.e., CBSE Class 9 Science notes on chapter 7 ‘Diversity in Living Organisms’ (Part-I), the
main topics discussed were: Biodiversity, Classification, Rober H. Whittaker’s five kingdom classification. Further
topics are discussed here.

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Diversity in Living Organisms: Chapter Notes, are:
 Classification of Kingdom Planate
 Classification of Kingdom Planate
 Binomial Nomenclature
 Conventions for Writing the Scientific Name

Key notes for Chapter-Diversity in Living Organisms, are:

Classification of Kingdom Plantae:

Kingdom Plantae can be further classified into five divisions. Their key characteristics are given below:

1. Thallophyta:
 Basic and elementary plants with undifferentiated body parts (thallus type).
 Reproduce through spores.
 Commonly known as algae.
 Examples: Spirogyra, Chara, Ulva, Ulothtrix, etc.

2. Bryophyta:
 Plant body is differentiated into stem and leaf like structure.
 Vascular system is absent, which means there is no specialized tissue for transportation of water, minerals
and food.
 Found on both land and water therefore known as ‘Amphibians of Plantae kingdom’.
 Examples: Moss, Liverwort, Hornwort, etc.

3. Pteridophyta:
 Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaf.
 Vascular system is present.
 Plants do not bear seeds and hence are called cryptogams.
 Examples: Marsilea, Fern, horsetails, etc.

Note: Plants of rest of the divisions bear seeds and hence are called phanerogams.

4. Gymnosperms:
 Plants have naked seeds without fruits or flowers
 The word ‘gymnos’ means naked and ‘sperma’ means seed.
 They are perennial, evergreen and woody plants.
 Examples: Pine, Cycas, Deodar, etc.
5. Angiosperms:
 The seeds are covered. The word ‘angios’ means covered.
 They are also known as flower-bearing or flowering plants.
 Plant embryos in seeds have structures called cotyledons.
 Cotyledons: Cotyledons are called ‘seed leaves’ because in many instances they emerge and become
green when the seed germinates.
On the basis of the number of cotyledons present in the seed, angiosperms are divided into two groups
(a) Monocotyledonous: Seeds have a single cotyledon. For examples: wheat, rice, maize, etc.

(b) Dicotyledonous: Seeds have two cotyledons. For example: Mustard, gram, mango, etc.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Write names of few thallophytes.

Q2. What are Phanerogams?

Q3. Differentiate between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms on the basis of fruits.

Q4. Give three points of difference between monocot and dicot plants.

Q5. How are Pteridophytes different from Phanerogams?

Classification of Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Animalia is further classified into different phylum. Their key characteristics are given below:

1. Porifera:
 Cellular level of organization.
 These animals have pores all over which led to a canal system for circulation of water and food.
 The body is covered with a hard outer layer called skeleton.
 Commonly known as sponges.
 They are aquatic animals.
 Examples: Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectelia, etc.

2. Coelenterata:
 Cellular level of organization.
 There is a cavity in the body hence the name Coelenterate (coelom means cavity).
 The body wall is made up of two layers of cells (diploblastic).
 They are also aquatic animals.
 Examples: Hydra, Jelly fish, Sea anemone, etc.

3. Platyhelminthes:
 The body is flattened from top to bottom and hence they are also named as flatworms.
 The body wall is composed of three layers of cells (triploblastic).
 A true internal body cavity or coelom is absent, hence lacks proper organs.
 They are free-living or parasitic animals.
 Examples: Planaria, liver fluke, tapeworm, etc.
4. Nematohelminthes:
 The body is bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic.
 Body is cylindrical in shape.
 A pseudocoelom is present.
 Examples: Roundworms, Pinworms, Wuchereria, etc.

5. Annelida:
 These are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 True body cavity is present.
 The body is divided into segments and hence the name annelida.
 Extensive Organ differentiation.
 Examples: Earthworm, leech, etc.

6. Arthropoda:
 Animals have jointed appendages which gives the name arthropoda (the word ‘arthropod’ means jointed
legs’).
 Tough exoskeleton made of chitin, is present.
 This is the largest group of animals; in terms of number of species.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic
 Examples: Cockroach, housefly, spider, prawn, scorpion, etc.

7. Mollusca:
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical.
 The soft body is covered with a hard shell made of calcium carbonate.
 Circulatory system is open and kidney like organ is present for excretion.
 The body has well developed muscular feet for locomotion.
 Examples: Snail, mussels, octopus, etc.

8. Echinodermata:
 The body is covered with spines, which gives the name echinodermata (In Greek, echino means hedgehog,
and derma means skin).
 Body is radially symmetrical, Triploblastic with coelom.
 The animals have well developed water canal system, which is used for locomotion.
 Skeleton is made of calcium carbonate.
 Examples: Starfish, sea urchins, etc.

9. Chordata:
 Animals have notochord, pharyngeal gill slits and post anal tail; for at least some stages of life.
 They have segmented muscles in an unsegmented trunk.
 Exhibit a complete digestive system.
Chrodata is further divided into two groups as explained below:

A. Protochordata:
 Animals are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and ceolomate.
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic with coelom.
 Notochord, a long rod-like structure which runs along the back of the animal, is present at least at some
stages of life.
 This provides attachment points for muscles.
 It also separates the nervous tissues from the gut.
 Examples: Balanoglossus, herdmania, amphioxus, etc.

B. Vertebrata:
 Notochord is replaced by spinal column.
 Dorsal nerve chord is present.
 Animals are triploblastic and coelomate.
 Animals have paired gill pouches.

Vertebrates are further divided into two main classes, viz. pisces and tetrapoda.

(a) Pisces:
 They are commonly known as fish.
 The body is streamlined.
 Muscular tail is present which assists in locomotion.
 Streamlined body covered with scales.
 They are cold-blooded animals.
 Paired gills are present as respiratory organs.
 The heart is two chambered.
 They lay eggs.
 Fishes can be bony (Rohu and Katla) or cartilaginous (Shark).

(b) Tetrapoda:
 Animals have four limbs for locomotion and hence the name tetrapoda.

Tetrapoda is again divided into four classes, that are explained below:

(i) Amphibia:
 They are adapted to live both in water and land.
 Mucus glands on skin keep the skin moist.
 Respiration is through gills when in water and through lungs when on land.
 Three-chambered heart is present.
 They are cold blooded animals.
 Examples: Frog, toad, salamander, etc.
(ii) Reptilia:
 These are crawling animals.
 Skin is covered wth scales.
 Most of the reptilians have three chambered heart but crocodile has four-chambered heart.
 They don’t need water to lay eggs, rather eggs are covered with hard shells and laid on land.
 They are cold blooded animals.
 Examples: Snakes, lizards, crocodile, turtle, etc.

(iii) Aves:
 The body is covered with feathers.
 Forelimbs are modified into wings.
 Respiratory organs are gills.
 These are warm-blooded animals.
 Four-chambered heart is present.
 Bones are hollow (pneumatic) to assists in flying.
 All the birds belong to this class.

(iii) Mammalia:
 Mammary glands are present in females to nurture their young ones.
 The body is covered with hairs.
 Skin has sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
 Most animals are viviparous (giving birth to live young ones), some are oviparous (producing eggs).
 Examples: Human, horse, chimpanzee, lion, etc.
Binomial Nomenclature of Organisms:
Binomial nomenclature system was given by Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778). He suggested a scientific name
to each organism to prevent the confusion over different names in different languages.

Conventions for writing the scientific name:

 The biological name is composed of two terms. The first term is called genus name and the second term is
called species name.
 The genus name always begins with a capital letter, while the species name begins with a small letter.
 In print, the scientific name is written in italics.
 When handwritten, the genus name and species name have to be underlined separately.
Try the following questions:
Q1. Why does tapeworm not have digestive trait?
Q2. Why do we keep both snake and turtle in the same class?
Q3. Write the important characteristics of sponges.
Q4. Name the following:
(a) An egg laying mammal. (b) A reptile with four chambered heart.
(c) A mammal which can fly. (d) An aquatic mammal.
Q5. What is the difference between cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals?
Q6. List two distinguishing features between annelids and arthropods.?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Motion: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Motion: Chapter Notes, are:
 Motion
 Distance and Displacement
 Speed and Velocity
 Acceleration
 Graphical Representation of Motion

Key notes for Chapter- The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Motion:

Movement of any object from one position to another position with respect to the observer is called as Motion.

Motion Along a Straight Line:

When an object moves along a straight line, the motion of the object is called rectilinear motion. For example;
motion of a car on highway.

Vectors and Scalar Quantities:

 Vector is a quantity which have both magnitude and direction. For examples: Force, position etc.
 Scalar is quantity with which direction is not associated. For examples: Mass, temperature, time etc.

Distance:
 Length of path covered by a moving an object in the given time irrespective of direction
is called distance.
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Its SI unit is metre(m).

Displacement:
 The shortest distance measured from initial to the final posftion of an object is known as the displacement.
 It is a vector quantity.

Uniform Motion:
 When an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion.

Non-Uniform Motion:
 When an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in non-uniform motion.

Speed (s):
 The distance travelled by an object in unit time is referred to as speed.
 It is represented as:
 Its SI unit is metre/ second (m/s).
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Average speed: For non-uniform motion, the average speed of an object is obtained by dividing the total
distance travelled by an object by the total time taken.

Velocity (v):
 Speed of an object in a particular direction is named
as velocity, i.e., it is the displacement of body in unit
time.
 It is represented as:
 It is a vector quantity.
 Average velocity: It is given by the arithmetic mean of
initial velocity and final velocity for a given period of
time.

Acceleration (a):
 The rate of change of velocity is termed as
acceleration.
 It is represented as:

 Its SI unit is metre/seccond2 (m/s2).

 It is a vector quantity.
 The acceleration is taken to be positive if it is in the direction of velocity and negative when it is opposite to
the direction of velocity.
 Negative acceleration is also named as retardation or deacceleration.
 An object moving on a circular path though with uniform speed, is always said to be accelerated as it
changes its direction every moment.
 Uniform acceleration: When velocity of body changes by equal amounts in equal time intervals,
acceleration is said to be uniform. For example: Motion of a freely falling ball.
 Non - uniform acceleration: When velocity of body changes by unequal amounts in equal intervals if time,
acceleration is said to be non - uniform. For example: Motion of car.

Graphical Representation of Motion

1. Distance -Time Graph for Uniform Speed:

Distance -Time graph for uniform speed, is a straight line as shown below:

2. Distance -Time Graph for Non-Uniform Speed:

Distance -Time graph for uniform speed, is obtained in the

form of a curve as shown below:
3. Distance -Time Graph for a Body at Rest:

Distance -Time graph for a body at rest is a straight line parallel to the time axis (x-
axis):

Velocity-Time Graph

1. Velocity-Time Graph for Uniform Acceleration:

Velocity-Time graph for uniform acceleration, is a straight line as shown below:

2. Velocity-Time Graph for Non-Uniform Acceleration:

Velocity-Time graph for non-uniform acceleration, is obtained as a zig-zag line

as shown below:

Try following questions:

Q 1. Distinguish between uniform motion and non, uniform motion.

Q 2. Name the quantity which represents rate of change of velocity.

Q 3. Find the acceleration of a car and its displacement from the following observations:

Time Speed (in km/h)

3:15 pm 26

3:45 pm 60

Q 4. What happens to speed, velocity acceleration when an object moves in a circle with uniform
speed?

Q 5. What does the slope of Disition – Time graph represent?

CBSE Class 9 Science, Motion: Chapter notes (Part-II)

In previous part, i.e., CBSE Class 9 Science notes on chapter 8 ‘Motion’ (Part-I), you learned about motion and
its various attributes. In this part you will learn about the three equations of motion. These chapter notes are
prepared by the subject experts and cover every important topic from the chapter. At the end of the notes you
can try the questions asked from the discussed set of topics. These questions will help you to track your
preparation level and get a hold on the subject.

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Motion: Chapter Notes, are:
 Three Equations of Motion
 Derivation of Three Equations of Motion

By simple methametical method

By graphical method
 Circular Motion

Key notes for Chapter - The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion:

There are three equations of motion for bodies travelling with uniform acceleration. These are explained below:

1. First Equation of Motion:

(Velocity-Time Relation)

v = u +at

Where, v = Final velocity of body

u = Initial velocity of body

a = Acceleration

And t = Time

Derivation:

Using formula for acceleration:

2. Second Equation of Motion:

(Position-Time Relation)
3. Third Equation of Motion:

Equations of Motion by Graphical Methods:

1. First Equation of Motion:

v = u +at

Consider the following velocity time graph:

2. Second Equation of Motion:

Let s be the distance covered.

As we know that distance covered by an object is given as area enclosed by the graph,
(iii) Third Equation of Motion:

v2 – u2 = 2as

Consider the velocity-time graph:

Here, Distance, s = Area of trapezium OABC

s = Area of rectangle ADCO + Area of triangle ABD

Circular Motion
1. Uniform circular motion: When an object moves on a circular path with constant or uniform speed, it is said
to have uniform circular motion. For example: motion of hands of a clock, motion of moon revolving around
earth.
2. Non uniform circular motion: When an object moves on circular path with varying speed, it is said to have
non-uniform circular motion.
When an object is in circular motion, direction of its velocity keeps on changing.

Speed of an Object Moving on a Circular Path:

Suppose a body moves on a circular path with radius r.

Try the following questions:

Q1. How can you find distance of an object from its speed – time graph?

Q2. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds for a distance of 110m.
Determine the acceleration of the car.

Q3. Study the speed time graph

Q4. Find following based on the graph

(i) Which path has the constant speed?

(ii) When is the maximum speed reached?

(iii) Along which path motion gets accelerated?

(iv) Along which path motion gets deaccelerated?

Q5. A car a moving at rate of 72km/h and applies brakes which provide a retardation of 5ms-2.

(i) How much time does the car takes to stop.

(ii) How much distance does the car cover before coming to rest?

(iii) What would be the stopping distance needed if speed of the car is doubled?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Force and Laws of Force and Laws of Motion: Chapter notes

(Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Force and Laws of Motion: Chapter Notes, are:
 Force and its effects
 Balanced Force
 Unbalanced Force
 Newton's First Law of Motion
 Inertia
 Momentum

Key notes for Chapter - The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Force

A push or pull on a body is called force.

Characteristics of force:
 Force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity.
 It is measured in the SI unit of Newton
 It is represented by the symbol F.

Effects of Force:
 It can change the speed of a body.
 It can change the direction of Force and Laws of Motion of a body.
 It can change the shape of a body.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

(i) Balanced Forces: If the resultant of

applied forces is equal to zero, it is called
balanced forces.

Foe example: In the tug of war game when the

force applied by both teams is equal in
magnitude then the rope does not move in
either side. This is due to the balanced forces
in which resultant of applied forces comes out
to be zero.

Characteristics:
 Balanced forces do not cause any change of state of an object.
 Balanced forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 Balanced forces can change the shape and size of an object. For example: When we press a balloon from
opposite sides, the size and shape of balloon is changed.
(i) Unbalanced Forces: If the resultant of applied forces are greater than zero, the forces are called unbalanced
forces.

To move an object unbalanced forces are to be applied from the opposite directions. In case of unbalanced forces
acting on a body, it moves a in the direction of the greater force.

Unbalanced forces can:

 Change the speed and position of an object.
 Change the shape and size of an object.

Some Common Forces

 Muscular Force: The force exerted by the human body muscles is called muscular force.
 Gravitational Force: The attractional force applied by earth on an object in downward direction is called
gravitational force.
 Frictional Force: The force which opposes the Force and Laws of Motion of an object while being in contact
with the other object, is known as frictional force.
 Air Resistance: Force which is exerted on the objects while flying in air is named as air resistance. It acts in
a direction opposite to the velocity of the object.

Newton’s Laws of Force and Laws of Motion:

There are three laws of Force and Laws of Motion those formed by Newton. They are explained below:

(i) Newton’s First Law of Force and Laws of Motion or Law of Inertia
It states that any object will remain in the state of rest or in uniform Force and Laws of Motion along a straight
line, until it is compelled to change the state by applying external force.

Inertia: Defintion: Inertia is a property or tendency of every object to resist any change in its state of rest or of
uniform Force and Laws of Motion.
It is measured by mass of an object. The heavier the object, the greater will be its inertia.

Application of Newton's first law of Force and Laws of Motion:

 When a straight mobving bus suddenly stops down, the pessengers sitting inside fall in forward direction.
This is because the body of the passenger initially moving in straight line tends to move the same way even
after the brakes are applied , making the passenger fall in forward direction.
 When we hit a carpet it loses inertia of rest and moves. But the dust in it retains inertia of rest and is left
behind. Thus dust and carpet are separated.
 When a tree is shaken, it moves to and fro. But fruit remains at rest due to its inertia of rest. Due to this fruit
breaks off the tree.

Momentum: The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.
Thus, momentum = mass × velocity
Or, p = m x v
where, p = momentum
m = mass of the body
v = velocity of the body
The Sl unit of momentum is kilograms meters per second (kg.m/s)
Change in momentum: It is defined as the difference between final momentum and initial momentum. Let u be
the initial momentum of a body and v be its final momentum, then
Change in momentum = mv - mu
Rate of change of momentum: The rate at which
the momentum of an object is changing is known
as rate of change of momentum.

Applications of Momentum:
 A small bullet can penetrate into the body of a man and kill him when fired from a gun because it has a large
momentum due to its great velocity.
 A person gets severely injured when hit by a fast moving vehicle which is due to the momentum of vehicle
due to large mass and high velocity.

Try the following questions:

Q1. State and define the SI unit of force.

Q2. When balanced forces act on a stationary body, then the body is deformed True or False

Q3. Why people sitting in bus fall backward when bus suddenly starts?

Q4. Why leaves fall when we are shacking branch of tree?

Q5. What will be the momentum of a stone having mass of 10 kg when it is thrown with a velocity of 2 m/s?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Force and Laws of Motion: Chapter notes (Part-II)

In this article you will get the CBSE Class 9 Science notes on chapter 9 ‘Force and Laws of Motion’ (Part-II). This
part is a continuation of the Chapter notes Part-I of the same chapter. In the previous part you learned about
force, effects of force, types of force and Newton’s fisrt and law of motion. Here, you will get a brief explanation
of the remaining topics.

These chapter notes are prepared by the subject experts and cover every important topic from the chapter. At
the end of the notes you can try the questions asked from the discussed set of topics. These questions will help
you to track your preparation level and get a hold on the subject.

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Force and Laws of Motion: Chapter notes, are:
 Newton's Second Law of Motion
 Mathematical formulation of Newton’s Second Law of Motion
 Applications of Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
 Newton's Third Law of Motion
 Applications of Newton's Third Law of Motion
 Law of Conservation of Momentum
CBSE Class 9 Science Solved Practice Paper 2017-2018: Set-I

Key notes for Chapter - The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Newton's Second Law of Motion

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts.
Mathematical formulation of Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
Let mass of an moving object be m.
Let is initial velocity be u and final velocity be v.
We know that momentum (p) = Mass × velocity
Therefore,
Initial momentum of object = mu
And Final momentum of the object = mv
Therefore, change in momentum = mv – mu
Where k is the proportionality constant
Now, 1 unit force is defined as the force applied on an object of mass 1kg to produce the acceleration of 1m/s2.
Thus, 1 unit of force = k ×1kg ×1m/s2

⟹ k=1

By putting the value of k=1 in equation (ii), we get:

F = ma
i.e., Force = Mass × Acceleration

The SI unit of Force

SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Since Force = Mass x Acceleration

The unit of mass = kg and The unit of acceleration = m/s2

If force, mass and acceleration is taken as 1 unit.

Therefore,

1 Newton (N) = 1kg x 1m/s2

Thus, Newton (N) = kg m/s2

Thus, one unit of force is defined as the amount that produces an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 in an object of mass 1
kg.
Applications of Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
 A fielder pulls his hand backward; while catching a cricket ball coming with a great speed. Actually, while
catching a cricket ball the momentum of ball is reduced to zero. If the ball is stopped suddenly, its
momentum will be reduced to zero instantly causing the instant rate of change in momentum due to which
ball will exert great force on the hands of player due to which the player’s hand may get injured. Therefore,
by pulling the hand backward a fielder gives more time to the change of momentum to become zero. This
prevents the hands of fielder from getting hurt.
 For athletes of long and high jump, sand bed or cushioned bed is provided at the place of landing. This is
because when an athlete falls on the ground after performing a high or long jump, the momentum of his
body is reduced to zero. If the momentum of an athlete will be reduced to zero instantly, it will result in the
production of a large force which may hurt the player. Whereas, by providing a cushioned bed, the
momentum of player’s body is reduced to zero in a delayed period due to which less force acts on his body
hence, preventing the athlete from getting hurt.
 Seat belts in a car are provided to prevent the passenger from getting thrown in the direction of motion. In
case of sudden braking or any accident, passengers may get thrown in the direction of motion of vehicle and
may get fatal injuries. Whereas, the stretchable seat belts prevent the passenger’s body to fall suddenly and
thus increase the time of the rate of momentum to be become zero. This will reduce the effective force
hence preventing the passenger from getting any fatal injury.

Newton's Third Law of Motion

Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that there is always reaction for every action in opposite direction and of
equal magnitude, i.e., action and reaction forces are equal and opposite.
Applications of Newton's Third Law of Motion:
 Recoil of gun: When bullet is fired from a gun, it moves ahead. By the Newton’s 3rd law of motion, the bullet
apply same force on gun in backward direction. Due to this force, gun moves back giving a jerk to the
shoulder of the gunman. This is called recoil of gun. Here, gun moves back only by small amount due to its
heavy mass.
 Walking of a person: A person is able to walk due to the Newton’s Third Law of Motion. During walking, a
person pushes the ground in backward direction and in the reaction the ground also pushes the person with
equal magnitude of force but in opposite direction. This enables him to move in forward direction against the
push.
 Swimming in water: Man pushes water back by applying force. By Newton's 3 Law, water applies equal and
opposite force on swimmer. Due to this force man moves ahead.
 Propulsion of a boat in forward direction – Sailor pushes water with oar in backward direction; resulting
water pushing the oar in forward direction. Consequently, the boat is pushed in forward direction.

Conservation of Momentum
If t or more objects apply force on each other with no extemnal force, their final momentum remains same as
initial momentum.
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

Mathematical Formulation of Conservation of Momentum:

Suppose, two objects A and B each of mass m1 and mass m2 are moving initially with velocities u1 and u2, strike
each other after time t and start moving with velocities v1 and v2 respectively.

We know that, Momentum = Mass x Velocity

Therefore,

Initial momentum of object A = m1u1

Initial momentum of object B = m2u2

Final momentum of object A = m1v1

Final momentum of object B = m2v2

Now, Rate of change of momentum = Change in momentum/ time taken

Therefore,

Thus, Total initial momentum = Total final momentum

Applications of Conservation of Momentum:

 Propelling of rocket: The chemicals inside the rocket burn and produce the high velocity blast of hot gases.
These gases get ejected downwards with a great velocity. To conserve the total momentum of gases, the
rocket moves up with a large velocity.
 Flight of jet planes: In jet planes, a large volume of gases produced by combustion of fuel is allowed to
escape through a jet in backward direction. Due to the high velocity, the backward moving gases have a
large momentum. In order to conserve the momentum, the plane get a push in forward direction and moves
with the great speed.

Try the following questions:

Q1. If action is always equal to the reaction, then how a horse is able to pull a cart.

Q2. Explain, why is it difficult for a fireman to hold a hose, which ejects large amounts of water at a
high velocity.

Q3. If the mass of a moving object is 50 kg, what force will be required to speed up the object at a rate
of 2ms–2?

Q4. An object of 50 kg gets the speed of 10m/s in 5 second from zero velocity. Calculate the required
force applied by engine of the car.

Q5. A bullet of 5 gm is fired from a pistol of 1.5 kg. If the recoil velocity of pistol is 1.5 m/s, find the
velocity of bullet.
CBSE Class 9 Science, Gravitation: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Gravitation: Chapter Notes, are:
 Gravitation
 Universal Law of Gravitation
 Free Fall
 Acceleration Due to Gravity (g)
 Difference between G and g
 Mass and Weight
 Weight of an Object on the Surface of Moon

Key notes for Chapter - The Fundamental Unit of Life, are:

Gravitation
Earth attracts everything towards it by an unseen force of attraction. This force of attraction is known as gravitation
or gravitational pull.

Universal Law of Gravitation

Every object in the universe attracts other
object by a force of attraction, called
gravitation, which is directly proportional to
the product of masses of the objects and
inversely proportional to the square of
distance between them. This is called Law of
Gravitation or Universal Law of Gravitation.

Let masses (M) and (m) of two objects are

distance (d) apart. Let F be the attractional
force between two masses.

Importance of The Universal Law of Gravitation

 It binds us to the earth.
 It is responsible for the motion of the moon around the earth.
 It is responsible for the motion of planets around the Sun.
 Gravitational force of moon causes tides in seas on earth.
Free Fall
When an object falls from any height under the influence of gravitational force only, it is known as free fall.

Acceleration Due to Gravity

When an object falls towards the earth there is a change in its acceleration due to the gravitational force of
the earth. So this acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity.

The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g. and The unit of g is same as the unit of acceleration, i.e., ms−2
Mathematical Expression for g
From the second law of motion, force is the product of mass and acceleration.

F = ma

For free fall, acceleration is replaced by acceleration due to gravity.

Therefore, force becomes:

F = mg ….(i)

But from Universal Law of Gravitation,

Factors Affecting the Value of g

 As the radius of the earth increases from the poles to the equator, the value of g becomes greater at the
poles than at the equator.
 As we go at large heights, value of g decreases.
To Calculate the Value of g
Value of universal gravitational constant, G = 6.7 × 10–11 N m2/ kg2,

Mass of the earth, M = 6 × 1024 kg, and

Radius of the earth, R = 6.4 × 106 m

Putting all these values in equation (iii), we get:

Thus, the value of acceleration due to gravity of the earth, g = 9.8 m/s2.
Difference between Gravitation Constant (G) and Gravitational Acceleration (g)

S. No. Gravitation Constant (G) Gravitational acceleration (g)

1. Its value is 6.67×10-11Nm2/kg2. Its value is 9.8 m/s2.

2. It is a scalar quantity. It is a vactor quantity.

3. Its value remains constant always and Its value varies at various places.
everywhere.

4. Its unit is Nm2/kg2. Its unit is m/s2.

Motion of Objects Under the Influence of Gravitational Force of the Earth

Let an object is falling towards earth with initial velocity u. Let its velocity, under the effect of gravitational
acceleration g, changes to v after covering the height h in time t.

Then the three equations of motion can be represented as:

Velocity (v) after t seconds, v = u + ght
Height covered in t seconds, h = ut + ½gt2
Relation between v and u excluding t, v2 = u2 + 2gh
The value of g is taken as positive in the case of object moving towards earth and taken as negative in the case
of obyect is thrown in opposite direction of earth.

Mass & weight

Mass (m)
 The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.
 Mass is a scalar quantity which has only magnitude but no direction.
 Mass of a body always remains constant and does not change from place to place.
 SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
 Mass of a body can never be zero.

Weight (W)
 The force with which an object is attracted towards the centre of the earth, is called the weight of the object.
Now, Force = m × a
But in case of earth, a = g
∴ F = m × g
But the force of attraction of earth on an object is called its weight (W).
∴ W = mg
 As weight always acts vertically downwards, therefore, weight has both magnitude and direction and thus it
is a vector quantity.
 The weight of a body changes from place to place, depending on mass of object.
 The SI unit of weight is Newton.
 Weight of the object becomes zero if g is zero.
Weight of an Object on the Surface of Moon
Mass of an object is same on earth as well as onmoon. But weight is different.

Weight of an object is given as,

Hence, weight of the object on the moon = (1/6) × its weight on the earth.

Try the following questions:

Q1. State the universal law of gravitation.

Q2. When we move from the poles to the equator, the value of g decreases. Why?

Q3. If two stones of 150 gm and 500 gm are dropped from a height, which stone will reach the surface
of earth first and why ?

Q4. Differentiate between weight and mass.

Q5. Why is the weight of an object on the moon 1/6th its weight on the earth??
CBSE Class 9 Science, Gravitation: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Gravitation: Chapter Notes, are:
 Circular Motion & Gravitational Force
 Thrust and Pressure
 Factors affecting Pressure
 Applications of Pressure in daily life
 Buoyancy & Buoyant Force:
 Factors affecting the Buoyant Force
 Archimedes’ Principle
 Applications of Archimedes’ Principle
 Density and Relative Density

Key notes for Chapter - Gravitation, are:

Circular Motion & Gravitational Force

In circular motion, a force must act on body as its direction of velodity changes. This force is called Centripetal
force.
 When moon revolves around earth in circular path, gravitational force of earth provides the centripetal force
to moon for circular motion,
 When planets revolve around Sun, gravitational force of Sun provides the centnpetal force to planets.
Thrust and Pressure
Thrust: Force exerted by an object perpendicular to the surface is called thrust.

Pressure: Pressure is defined as thrust or force per unit area on a surface.

 Pressure = Thurst/Area
 SI unit of pressure is Newton/meter2 (N/m2).
 SI unit of pressure is called Pascal (Pa).
Factors affecting Pressure
Pressure depends on two factors:

(i) Force applied

(ii) Area of surface over which force acts

Since, pressure is indirectly proportional to the surface area of the object, so, pressure increases with decrease
in surface area and decreases with increase in surface area.

Applications of Pressure in daily life

 The base of high buildings is made wider to spread the weight of the whole building over a large surface
area due to which less pressure acts on the ground.
 School bags are provided with broad straps so that the weight of school bags fall over a larger area of the
shoulder and produce less pressure hence making it easy to carry.
 The blades of knives are made sharp so that on applying force on it, a large pressure is produced on the
very small surface area, thus cutting the object easily.
Pressure in Fluids
 Anything that can flow is called Fluid. Example: liquid and gas.
 Molecules of a fluid move randomly and collide with walls of vessel. Thus fluids apply pressure on walls.
 Fluids exert pressure in all directions.

Buoyancy & Buoyant Force

 Force applied by the fluid on a solid which is partially or fully submerged in liquid, is called the buoyant force
and this phenomenon is named as buoyancy.
 Buoyant force acts in upward direction and it depends on the density of the fluid.

Factors affecting the Buoyant Force

Magnitude of the buoyant force depends on two factors:
 Volume of the object immersed in liquid
 Density of the liquid

Why does an object sink or float over water?

When an object is immersed in water, it exerts pressure over water due to its weight. At the same time water also
exerts upward thrust, i.e., buoyant force over the object.
 If the force exerted by the object is greater than the buoyant force of water, the object sinks in water.
 If the force exerted by the object is less than the buoyant force of water, the object floats over water.

Archimedes’ Principle
 It states that when a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force that is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

Applications of Archimedes’ Principle:

 It is used in designing ships and submarines.
 It is used in determining relative density of substances.
 Hydrometers used to determine the density of liquids, work on this principle.
 Lactometers used to determine purity of milk, are also based on this principle.

It is because of this principle that ship made of iron and steel floats in water whereas a small piece of iron like
nail, sinks in it.

Density (ρ)
 The mass per unit volume is called density of an object.
 Density (ρ) = Mass(M)/Volume(V)
 SI unit of density = kg/m3
Relative density
 It is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.

 Since relative density is a ratio of similar quantities, it has no unit.

Applications of density
 If an object has density more than that of the liquid, it will float over that liquid.
 If an object has density lower than that of a liquid, it will sink in that liquid.
 When the relative density of a substance is less than 1, it will float in water otherwise it will sink in water.

Try the following questions:

Q1. What is buoyancy and buoyant force? Upon what factors do they depend?

Q2. Why does iron sink in water but floats on mercury?

Q3. Why does a buffalo float on the river but not the man?

Q4. Why does a mug full of water appear lighter inside the water?

Q5. The density of ice is 918kgm−3 and that of sea water is 1,030kgm−3. An iceberg floats with a portion
224 liters outside water. Find the volume of iceberg.
CBSE Class 9 Science, Work and Energy: Chapter notes

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Work and Energy: Chapter Notes, are:
 Work
 Energy and its forms
 Kinetic Energy and its expression
 Potential Energy and its expression
 Conservation of Energy
 Power
 Unit of Energy

Key notes for Chapter - Work and Energy, are:

Work (W)
Work is defined as a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement

It is expressed as the product of force and displacement in the direction of force.

W=F x s
Here, W= work done on an object
F = Force on the object
s = Displacement of the object
The unit of Work is Newton metre (Nm) or joule (J).
1 Joule is defined as the amount of work done by force of 1 N when displacement is 1 m.

Sign Conventions for Work Done

 when both the force and the displacement are in the same direction, positive work is done.
W=Fxs
 when force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of displacement, the work done is negative.
W= − F x s

Angle between force and displacement is 180o.

 If force and displacement are inclined at an angle less than 180o, then work done is given as:

W= Fs cosθ
 If force and displacement act at an angle of 90° then work done is zero.
Necessary Conditions for Work to be done
Two conditions need to be satisfied for work to be done:
 Force should act on the object.
 Object must be displaced.
Energy
The capacity of a body to do work is called the energy of the body.

Unit of energy = Joules

1KJ = 1000 J

Forms of Energy

The various forms of energy are potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy
and light energy.

Kinetic Energy

 It is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed.
 Kinetic energy of body moving with a certain velocity = work done on it to make it acquire that velocity
Derivation
Let an object of mass m, starts from rest and attains a uniform velocity v, after a force F is applied on it. Let during
this period the object be be displaced by distance s.

Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or shape is called its potential energy.

For Example:
 Water stored in a dam has large amount of potential energy due to its height above the ground.
 A stretched rubber band possesses potential energy due to its distorted shape.

Types of Potential Energy

On the basis of position and change in shape of object, potential energy is of two type:
1. Gravitational Potential Energy:
It is the energy possessed by a body due to it position above the ground.
2. Elastic Potential Energy:
It is the energy possessed by a body due to its change in shape.
Expression for Potential Energy
The potential energy (Ep) is equal to the work done over an object of mass ‘m’ to raise it by a height ‘h’.

Thus, Ep = mgh, where g = acceleration due to gravity.

Law of Conservation of Energy

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be transformed from one form to another.

The total energy before and after the transformation remains the same.

Proof of Law of Conservation of Energy

Let a body of mass m falls from a point A, which is at a height h from the
ground as shown in the following figure:

At point A,

Kinetic energy Ek = 0 AND Potential energy Ep = mgh

Total energy, EA = Ep + Ek

⟹ EA = mgh + 0 ⟹ EA = mgh

During the fall, after moving a distance x from A, the body has reached at B.

At point B,

Let the velocity at this point be v.

We know, v2 = u2 + 2as

⟹ v2 = 0 + 2ax = 2ax [As, velocity at A, u = 0]

Also, Kinetic energy, Ek = 1/2 mv2

⟹ Ek =1/2 m × 2gx ⟹ Ek = mgx

Potential energy, Ep = mg(h – x)

So, total energy, EB = Ep + Ek

⟹ EB = mg (h − x) + mgx ⟹ EB = mgh – mgx + mgx ⟹ EB = mgh

At the end the body reaches the position C on ground.

At point C,

Potential energy, Ep = 0

Velocity of the body is zero here.

So, v2 = u2 + 2as ⟹ v2 = 0 + 2gh = 2gh

Kinetic energy, Ek = 1/2 mv2 ⟹ Ek = 1/2 x m x 2gh = mgh

Total energy at C

EC = Ep + Ek

EC = 0 + mgh

EC = mgh

Hence, energy at all points remains same.

Power
The time rate of doing work is defined as power (P).

Power= work/time

Unit of power
 sI unit of Power is Joule per second or Js1.
 1 watt is the power when 1J of work is done in 1s.
 The bigger unit of power is Kilowatt and represented by kW.
1kW = 1000W
 Some another units to measure power are:

1 Megawatt = 106 watt

1 horse power = 746 watt

Commercial unit of energy

 Commercial unit of energy is kilo watt hour (kWh)
 The unit kilowatt-hour means one kilowatt of power supplied for one hour.

1 kWh = 1 kW x 1 h

= 1000 W x 60 x 60 s

= 1000 Js-1 x 3600 s

= 3.6 x 106 J

1 unit = 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6x106 J.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Does work have a direction?

Q2. A body of mass 25 g has a momentum of 0.40 kgm/s.Find its kinetic energy.

Q3. A body of mass 3.0kg and a body B of mass 10 kg are dropped simultaneously from a height of 9m.
Calculate their Momenta, their Potential energies and kinetic energies when they are 10m above the
ground.

Q4. A light and heavy body have equal momenta. Which one has greater kinetic energy?

Q5. Why does a person standing for a long time get tired when he does not appear to do any work?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Sound: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Sound: Chapter Notes, are:
 Sound-Production and Propagation
 Medium
 Wave and its Types
 Characteristics of Sound
 Audible Frequency
 Reflection of Sound and its Laws
 Applications of Reflection of Sound

Key notes for Chapter - Sound, are:

Sound
Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.

Production of Sound
Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects.
Vibration is a periodic back-and-forth motion of the particles of an elastic body or mediumkind about a central
position. It is also named as oscillation.
For example:
 Stretched strings of a guitar vibrate to produce sound.
 When membrane of a table is struck, it vibrates to produce sound.
Propagation of Sound
 The travelling of sound is called propagation of sound.
 Sound is propagated by the to and fro motion of particles of the
medium.
 When an object vibrates, the particles around the medium vibrate.
The particle in contact with the vibrating object is first displaced from
its equilibrium position. Each particle disturbs the other particle in
contact. Thus, the disturbance is carried from the source to the
listener.

Only the disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through the medium but the particles do not move
forward themselves.

Medium
 The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium.
 A medium is necessary for the propagation of sound waves.
 The medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
 Sound cannot travel in vacuum.

Wave that requires medium to propagate is called Mechanical wave.

Wave
Wave is a phenomenon or disturbance in which energy is transferred from one point to another without any direct
contact between them. For example: Heat, light and sound is considered as a wave.

Types of Waves
On the basis of direction of propagation, waves are categorized into two parts:

(i) Longitudinal waves: These are the waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate along the direction
of propagation of the wave. For example: sound wave.
(ii) Transverse waves: In this type of wave the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave. For example: waves produced in a stretched string.
Another type of waves which do not require any medium for propagation are called electromagnetic waves.
These waves can travel through vacuum also. For example, light waves, X-rays.

Compressions and Rarefactions:

 Compression is the part of wave in which particles of the
medium are closer to one another forming the region of
high pressure and density.

Compressions are represented by the upper portion of

the curve called crest.
 Rarefaction is a part of the wave where particles spread
out to form a region of low pressure and density.

Rarefactions are represented by the lower portion of the

curve called trough.

Characteristics of a sound wave

Sound waves have following characteristics:
(1) Amplitude
(2) wavelength
(3) Frequency
(4) Time period
(5)Velocity
Amplitude
 The maximum displacement of each particle from its mean position is called amplitude.
 It is denoted by A.
 Its SI unit is metre (m).
Wavelength
 The distance between two nearest (adjacent) crests or troughs of a wave is called its wavelength.
 It is denoted by the Greek letter lamda (λ).
 Its SI unit is metre.
Frequency
 The number of vibrations per second is called frequency.
 The SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
 The symbol of frequency is ν (nu).
Time period
 The time taken to complete one vibration is called time period.
 It is denoted by T.
 Its SI unit is second (s).
 The frequency of a wave is the reciprocal of the time period.

i.e., v = 1/T

Velocity
 The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the wave or speed of the wave.
 Its S.I. unit is metres per second (m/s).
 Velocity = Distance travelled/Time taken

⟹ v = λ/T , where λ = wavelength of the wave travelled in one time time period T)

⟹ v = λv (As 1/T = v)

Thus, Velocity = Wavelength × Frequency

v = λv is called the wave equation.

Pitch and loudness of Sound

Pitch: It represents shrillness or flatness of sound.

It depends on the frequency of vibration. Higher the frequency of sound wave, the higher will be the pitch of
sound and vice-versa.

Loudness: It is a measure of the sound energy reaching the ear per second.

It depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.

It is measured in decibel ‘dB’.

Music And Noise

Music: It is the sound that is pleasant to hear. For example: Sound coming out of musical instruments)
Noise: It is the sound that is unpleasant to hear. For example: Sound produced by vehicles.
Tone and Note
Tone: A pure sound of single frequency is called tone.
Note: An impure sound produced by mixture of many frequencies is called a note. For example: A musical note
has tones of various frequencies.
Audible Frequency
The audible range of human ear is 20 Hz and 20,000HZ, i.e., the human ears can hear only those waves whose
freqnecy lies between 20 Hz and 20,000HZ.

Reflection of sound
When sound waves strike a surface, they return back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called
reflection.
Laws of reflection
There are two basic laws of reflection of sound:

(i) Angle of incidence is equal the angle of reflection.

(ii) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal all lie in the same plane.

Applications of Reflection of Sound

Many instruments work on the basis of multiple reflections of sound:
 Megaphone, loudspeakers, bulb horns, musical instruments like trumpets, shehnais etc. are designed to
send sound by multiple reflections in a particular direction due to which the amplitude of sound waves adds
up to increase loudness of sound.
 Stethoscope which is used by doctors to listen to the sounds from the human body, also works on principle
of multiple reflections of sound. Here, sound of heartbeat reaches the doctor's ears by multiple reflections.
 In big halls or auditoriums sound is absorbed by walls, ceiling, seats, etc. So a curved board (sound board)
is placed behind the speaker. Then the voice of speaker suffers multiple reflections to increase its loudness
so that his speech can be heard easily by audiences.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Is sound wave longitudinal or transverse.

Q2. Which characteristic of the sound helps you to identify your friend by his voice while sitting with
others in a darkroom?

Q3. An airplane produces a sound wave with frequency of 5 KHz and wavelength 30 m. In how much
time would the sound wave cover the distance of 4 Km?

Q4. A source is producing 15 waves in 3.0 s. The distance between a crest and a trough is 10.0 cm.
Find : (a) the frequency, (b) the wavelength, and (c) the velocity of the wave.

Q5. A source is producing 1500 sounds waves in 3 seconds. If the distance covered by a compression
and an adjacent rarefaction be 68 cm, find (a) frequency (b) wavelength and (c) velocity of sound wave.

Q6. A sound wave travels at a speed of 340m/s. If its wavelength is 2 cm, what is the frequency of the
wave? Will it be in the audible range?

Q7. Can we hear the ringing of a mobile phone placed in a vacuum chamber?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Sound: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Sound: Chapter Notes, are:
 Echo
 Reverberation
 Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Waves
 Applications of Ultrasound
 Sonar
 Working of Sonar
 Human Ear:Structure and Working

These chapter notes are prepared by the subject experts to bring you a crisp and brief explanation of all important
topics so as to make your learning easy and organized. At the end of the notes you can try the questions asked
from the discussed set of topics. These questions will help you to track your preparation level and get a hold on
the subject.

Key notes for Chapter - Sound, are:

Echo
 Phenomenon of hearing back our own sound is called an echo.
 It is due to successive reflection of sound waves from the surfaces or obstacles of large size.
 To hear an echo, there must be a time gap of 0.1 second in original sound and the reflected sound.

Necessary Conditions for the formation of an Echo

There are two conditions to experience the echo of sound -
(i) Time gap between the Sound must come back to the person after 0.1 second.
(ii) For above condition, the reflecting surface must be at a minimum distance of 17.2m. It also depends on
temperature.

Reverberation
 Persistence of sound wave for a long time because of repeated (multiple) reflections of sound are called
reverberation.
 In big concert halls, due to the reverberation, sound may become blurred and distorted to be heard.
 To avoid reverberation, soft sound absorbent materials, such as curtains, plant fibre, compressed fireboard,
carpets, etc. are used in the auditorium.
Light Travels Faster Than Sound
Speed of light in air = 3 × 108 m/s
Man hears sound of thunder only after he sees the flash of lightning. This is because light travels at a very
great speed as compared to the speed of sound, we see the flash before the sound.
Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Waves
Infrasonic Waves:
 The waves having freqnecy less than 20 Hz are infrasonic waves.
 A vibrating simple pendulum produces infrasonic sounds.
 Elephants and whales produces infrasonic waves.
 Earthquakes produces infrasonic waves
Ultrasonic Waves:
 The waves having frequency more than 20,000 Hz are ultrasonic waves.
 Bats and rats can produce ultrasonic sounds.
Applications of Ultrasound
These are the sound waves having frequency more than 20,000 Hz. Due to the high frequency, ultrasound is
associated with more energy and can penetrate upto a large extent. This characteristic of ultrasound makes it
very useful for many purposes. Some of its uses are stated below:
 They are used to detect any deformities (flaws, cracks) in metal blocks or sheets.
 They are used to clean the hard to reach parts of machinery, like spiral tubes.
 Bats use ultrasoung waves tp find their prey. Bats produce high- pitched ultrasonic squeaks. These squeaks
are reflected by objects such as prey’s and are returned to the bat's ear. This allows a bat to know the
distance of its prey.
 Dolphins use ultrasound to find fish and to detect sharks that may attack them.
 Ultrasound waves are commonly used for medical diagnosis and therapy, and also as a surgical tool.
 They are used to check the development of foetus during pregnancy to detect any abnormalities.
 They find their application in breaking stones formed in the kidneys into fine grains.
 Ecocardiography: These waves are used to reflect the action of heart and its images are formed. This
technique is called echocardiography.
 Ultrasonography: The technique of obtaining pictures of internal organs of the body by using echoes of
ultrasound waves is called ultrasonography.
Sonar
 Sonar stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging.
 It is a device which is used to find distance, direction and speed of underwater objects like, water hills,
valleys, icebergs, submarines, sunken ships etc.
Working of SONAR
 SONAR consists of a transmitter and a
receptor or detector and is installed at the
bottom of a ship.
 The transmitter produces and transmits
ultrasonic waves.These waves travel through
sea water and after striking the objects on the
bottom of sea, are reflected back and
received and recorded by the detector.
 The sonar device measures the time taken by
ultrasound waves to travel from ship to bottom
of sea and back to ship.
 Half of this time gives the time taken by the
ultrasound waves to travel from ship to sea
bed.
 Let the time interval between transmission
and reception of ultrasound signal is t.

Speed of sound through sea water is v

Total distance travelled by waves = 2d.

Then, 2d = v × t.

This method of measuring distance is also known as ‘echo-ranging’.

Human Ear
Structure of Human Ear
The human ear can be divided into three main parts:
Outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

Outer Ear: The outer ear is outside the body and is

also called pinna. It extends into the ear canal. Ear
canal is filled with air.
Middle Ear: The middle ear is composed of the ear
drum or tympanunn( it is an elastic membrane,
circular in shape) and the bone ossicles. There are
three bone ossicles, namely, the hammer, the anvil
and the strirrup.
Inner Ear: The internal ear is composed of a
cochlea and three semi-circular canals. The cochlea is filled with liquid. The cochlea makes the hearing
apparatus and the auditory nerve from it goes to the brain.
Eardrum is the intersection of the outer and middle ear.
Oval window is the intersection of middle and inner ear.

Working of Human Ear: The outer ear called pinna collects the sound waves. The sound waves passes through
the ear canal to a thin membrane called eardrum. The eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified by the three
bones of the middle ear called hammer, anvil and stirrup. The middle ear then transmits the sound waves to the
inner ear. In the inner ear the sound waves are converted into electrical signals by the cochlea and sent to the
brain through the auditory nerves. The brain then interprets the signals as sound.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. But thunder is heard a few seconds after the flash
is seen, why?

Q2. An echo is returned in 3 s. What is the distance of the reflecting surface from the source, given the
speed of sound is 342 ms-1

Q3. Why are the ceilings of concert halls curved?

Q4. A submarine emits a sonar pulse, which returns from an underwater cliff in 1.02 s. If the speed of
sound in salt water is 1531 m/s, how far away is the cliff?

Q5. An explosion takes place at the moon. After what time would it be heard at the earth?

Q6. How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?

Q7. How do bats navigate even in the dark?

Q8. A submarine emits a sonar pulse, which returns from an underwater cliff in 1.02 s. If the speed of
sound in salt water is 1531 m/s, how far away is the cliff?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Why Do We Fall Ill: Chapter notes

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Why Do We Fall Ill: Chapter Notes, are:
 Health
 Disease and its Types
 Causes of disease
 Antibiotics
 Principle of Treatment
 Principles of Prevention

Key notes for Chapter - Why Do We Fall Ill, are:

Health
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing.

Disease
Any disturbance in the structure or function of any organ or part of body.

It may be caused due to the attack of pathogens (virus, bacteria), lack of nutritious diet/balanced diet and lack of
public health services.

Types of Disease
Diseases are basically of two types. They are:

(i) Acute Disease

The disease which lasts for only a short period of time is called Acute Disease.

For example: Influenza (Flu) , Common cold, etc.

(ii) Chronic Disease: The disease which lasts for long period of time is called Chronic Disease

For example: TB, Cancer, etc.

Difference between Acute Disease & Chronic Disease

S. No. Acute Disease Chronic Disease

1. They are short duration disease They are long lasting disease

2. Patient recovers completely after the cure Patient does not recover completely

3. There is no loss of weight or feeling of There is often loss of weight of feeling of

tiredness afterward tiredness

4. There is short duration loss of work and There is a prolonged loss of work and
efficiency efficiency
Causes of Diseases:
Causes of diseases are explained below:

Immediate and Contributory Cause

 Immediate cause: The organisms that enter our body and causes disease is called immediate cause. For
example, virus, bacteria, protozoa etc.
 Contributory cause: The secondary factors which led these organisms enter our body are called as
contributory cause. For example, dirty water, contaminated food, improper ourishment, poor standard of
living etc.

Infectious and Non-infectious Cause

Infectious causes: They include the agents like microbes or micro-organisms as the immediate causes which
spread the disease from an infected person to a healthy person.

Non-infectious causes: The disease which does not spread by contact between infected and healthy person
through air and water, is called non-infectious disease.

Infectious and Non-infectious Diseases

Infectious Diseases: The diseases which spread due to infection by micro-organisms are called infectious
diseases.

When a disease causing organism enters our body it causes infection, it multiplies and grows in the body called
host and micro-organisms multiplies in the host body.

For Example: Tuberculosis, tetanus, Common cold, AIDS, etc.

Non-infectious Diseases: The disease which does not spread by contact between infected and healthy person
through air and water, is called non-infectious disease.

For example: Cancer, genetic abnormalities, high blood pressure, etc.

Means of Spreading Infectious Diseases:

S. No. Type of Disease Example

1. Air born Diseases Common cold, influenza, measles, tuberculosis.

2. Water born diseases Cholera, typhoid, hepatitis.

3. Sexual Diseases AIDS, Syphilis.

4. Animal born Disease Rabbis.

Antibiotics
These are the chemicals (medicine, drugs) that block biochemical pathways important for bacteria. They are
used for diseases caused by bacteria.

Antibiotics do not work against viral infections as the viruses do not have their own biochemical mechanisms but
depend upon that of the host.
Principles of treatment
1. To reduce the effects of the diseases

By taking medicines to bring down the effects of the disease like fever, pain, etc. and by taking complete rest to
conserve the body’s energy.

2. To kill the cause of the disease

By taking suitable antibiotics and drugs which kills the disease causing microbes.

Principles of Prevention
1. General method:

They involve (a) Preventing exposure against microbes (b) By boosting the immune system

(a) Preventing exposure against microbes can be done in following ways:

For air-born microbes we can prevent exposure by avoiding overcrowded places. For water-borne microbes we
can prevent exposure by not using contaminated water.

For vector-borne infections we can prevent exposure by providing clean environment.

(b) By boosting the immune system:

Our immune system plays an important role in fighting against the microbes that enter our body. strengthening
the immune system can help in preventing many diseases.

So, proper nourishment or healthy diet that includes all the necessary nutrients as well as vitamins and minerals
is necessary for better functioning of our immune system.

2. Specific method
It involves the prevention method directed against a particular disease.

It is done by immunisation which is the process of introducing a weakened pathogen inside the body of the host
to make his/her immune system to produce antibodies against that particular disease so that the next time even
if the disease will strike the host’s body with full vigor, the body will be able to protect itself with the help of these
antibodies.

Try the following questions:

Q1. What is called vector. Give one example.
Q2. What is Vaccination? Give the details, how it works in human body.
Q3. State any two conditions essential for good health.
Q4. Differentiate between communicable and non-communicable diseases. Give one example of each.
Q5. Name the pathogens which can cause acne and sleeping sickness.
Q7. What are the different means by which infectious diseases are spread?
Q8. What do you mean by active and passive immunisation?
Q9. State two principles of treatment of a disease.
Q10. Why making anti-viral medicines is harder than making anti-bacterial medicines?
CBSE Class 9 Science, Natural Resources: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Natural Resources: Chapter Notes, are:
 Lithosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Biosphere
 Atmosphere
 Air
 Carbondioxide, its production and fixation
 Winds
 Role of Atmosphere

Key notes for Chapter - Natural Resources, are:

Introduction:
 The resources available on the earth and the energy from the sun are necessary to meet the basic
requirements of all life forms on the earth.
 The land, the water and the air are the resources on the Earth. All of these three things are required for the
existence of life forms.

Earth is divided into four spheres that interact to help life sustain on this planet:

1. Lithosphere
 It us the outermost part of the Earth that includes crust and the uppermost mnantle.
 It is the most rigid part of the Earth's layers.
2. Hydrosphere
 It includes the entire water part of the earth.
 It is constituted of the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air.
 It makes up about three fourths of the earth's surface.
3. Atmosphere
 The air covering of earth is-called atmosphere.
 It is constuted of various gases, vapours, dust particles, etc.
4. Biosphere
 It is formed of the whole life-supporting zone of the Earth where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and the
lithosphere interact and make life possible on this one planet.

Biosphere is further divided into two components:

(i) Biotic components : The living things constitute the biotic components of the Biosphere.

(ii) Abiotic components : The non-living things air, water and soil form the abiotic components of the Biosphere.

The Breath of Life: Air

 Air is a mixture of many gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
 Oxygen gas present in air is essential to living organisms for respiration. That is why air is called breath of
life.
 Air being a bad conductor of heat helps to maintain the moderate temperature on earth.
Carbondioxide Gas:
It constitutes 0.04% of the air. It helps maintain temperature on earth by acting as greenhouse gas.

Production of Carbon dioxide

It is produced in the atmosphere by following activities:

 During respiration process by organisms where breakdown of glucose takes place in presence of oxygen.
 During combustion of fuels.

Carbon Dioxide Fixation

 Green plants convert carbon dioxide into glucose by photosynthesis
 Many marine animals use carbonates dissolved in sea-water to make their shells.
The Movement of Air: Winds
 Moving air is called wind.
 Winds are caused due to uneven heating of atmosphere.
 Air moves from high pressure area 1o a low pressure area.
 During day time, the air above the land gets heated faster and starts rising. So air from above the sea
comes to the low pressure region over land. So, wind blows from sea to land.
 During the night, the direction of wind is from land to sea as the earth cools faster than sea, creating a low
pressure region above land.
Role of Atmosphere in Climate Control
 It acts as a protective blanket for organisms existing on earth.
 As air in the atmosphere is bad conductor of heat, it helps to maintain the erth’s temperature by preventing
the sudden increase in temperature during day and also during the night, it slows down the escape of heat
into the outer space.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Name two natural resources available on the earth.

Q2. Define biosphere. Name its components.

Q3. Name the three processes in which oxygen is used.

Q4. Why is the atmosphere referred as a protective blanket?

Q5. Write the three ways by which CO2 is returned back into atmosphere ?

Q6. What causes winds ?

CBSE Class 9 Science, Natural Resources: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Natural Resources: Chapter Notes, are:
 Rain
 Water and its Pollution
 Soil. Formation and Erosion
 Biogeochemical Cycles
 Green House Effect
 Ozonoe Layer and its Depletion
Key notes for Chapter - Natural Resources, are:
Rain

Rain is formed by evaporation and condensation of water through water cycle in.

Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by the release of the gases like SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) released
from the emission of vehicles and combustion of fuels. These gases dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid and
sulphuric acid.

Water

Water is renewable resource.

It is essential for all physiological activities of plants and animals.

Water is mainly present in two forms:

(i) Surface water

(ii) Ground water.

Water Pollution

An undesirable change in the physical, biological or chemical properties of water (due to addition for foreign
organic, inorganic substances) that adversely affects the aquatic life, and makes water less fit or unfit for use, is
called water pollution.

The main causes of water pollution are as follows:

(i) Addition of harmful substances like fertilisers and pesticides to water

(ii) Removal of desirable substances like oxygen from water
(iii) Change in water temperature

Soil

It is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust, which supports terrestrial plants, animals and microorganisms.

It is formed from the weathering of rocks by physical, chemical and biological activities by the action of wind,
water and sun.
It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and living organisms

Humus : The decayed living organisms present in soil is called humus.

Humus makes the soil porous and allows water and air to penetrate deep underground making the soil more
fertile.

Soil pollution :

Removal of useful components from the soil and addition of other substances, which adversely affect the fertility
of the soil and kill micro-organisms living in it is called soil pollution.

Fertilizers and pesticides destroy the soil structure.

Mosses or Bryophytes are indicator of soil pollution.

Soil Erosion

Removal of topmost layer of soil by wind, water or other activities is called soil erosion.

Causes of soil erosion

Main factors responsible for the soil erosion are:

 Over grazing of land.
 Removal of top soil by wind (storms) and water (floods).
 Deforestation
 Leaving land uncultivated for long time.
Effects of Soil Erosion:
 Loss of fertility due to loss of topmost fertile soil which results in desertification.
 Landslides in hilly areas.
 Clogging of water drains and water reservoirs by the washed off soil.
Prevention of Soil Erosion:

Soil can be prevented from getting eroded by implementing the following methods:
 Intensive cropping.
 Terrace farming.
 Aforestation
 Making strong embankments along the river banks.
Chipko Movement
 It was a movement started to conserve forests.
 The movement was led by Shri. Sunder Lal Bahuguna in Garhwal Himalayas.
Biogeochemical cycles

A constant interaction between biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere makes a system and these flow
of components form a cycle called biogeochemical cycle.
Some prominent cycles in nature are described below:

1. Water cycle

The whole process in which water evaporates and falls on

the land as rain and later flows back into the sea via rivers
is known as the water-cycle.

Main steps involved in water cyles are:

a. Evaporation: Water on earth changes to vapour due to

sun’s heat and rises above.

b. Transpiration: Plants absorb water through the roots and then give off excess water in the form of vapor through
pores in their leaves.

c. Respiration: It is a process in living organisms involving the production of energy, with the intake of oxygen
and the release of carbon dioxide along with water vapour.

d. Precipitation: It is the process of condensation of water vapour in atmosphere into liduid which fall down in the
form of rain, snow, sleet or hail.

e. Percolation and Absorption: Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground to reach the underground water,
some on leand gets absorbed by the plants, crops and trees to grow and the rest downhill as runoff to reach the
seas to complete the whole water cycle.

2. Nitrogen cycle

The sequence in which nitrogen passes from the

atmosphere to the soil and organisms, and then
is eventually released back into the atmosphere,
is called nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen cycle involves following processes:

a. Nitrogen Fixation

It is a processes by which atmospheric nitrogen

is converted into the form which can be easily absorbed the organisms on earth.

Nitrogen Fixation is carried out by following ways:

 By lightning: When lightning occurs, the hightemperature and pressure convert nitrogen and water into
nitrates and nitrites which get dissolved in water and are readily used by aquatic plants and animals.
 By bacteria- Molecular nitrogen is converted into nitrates and nitrites by free living bacteria or the bacteria
like Rhizobium present in the root nodules of legumes. Some bacteria convert the nitrogen gas (N2) to
ammonia (NH3) which plants can use.

b. Nitrification: It is the process by which ammonia is converted into nitrites and nitrates.
c. Ammonification: It is the process by which soil bacteria decompose dead organic matter and release ammonia
into soil.

d. Denitrification: It is the process by which nitrates are converted into atmospheric nitrogen back to complete the
cycle.

3. Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon

moves from the atmosphere into the Earth and
its organisms and then back again.

Carbon cycle involves the following processes:

a. Photosynthesis : In this process plants form

their food by absorbing the atmospheric carbon
in the form of carbondioxide gas and release
oxygen gas.

Respiration: In this process plants and animals

respire resulting in breakdown of glucose stored in the plants and animals to release CO2, water and energy.

Decomposition: In this process dead plants and animals get decomposed to release carbon into the environment.

Combustion: Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide gas into the environment as by product.

Movement of carbon from the atmosphere to the oceans: The oceans, and other water bodies, soak up about a
quarter of the carbon dioxide to form carbonates.

Thus, the amount of carbon –dioxide, so formed, is almost equal to the amount of carbon dioxide consumed &
hence, its concentration in air remains same.

4. Oxygen cycle

The cyclic process by which oxygen element is circulated

continuously through the living and non-living components of the
biosphere constitutes oxygen cycle.

Oxygen cycle involves the following processes:

a. Respiration: All living organisms take in simple sugars (glucose)

and oxygen and release carbon dioxide, water and energy.

b. Combustion: During the processes of combustion (or burning), oxygen reacts with carbon to form carbon
dioxide gas.

c. Photosybthesis: Carbondioxide gas from atmosphere is absorbed by green plants in the presence of sunlight
to form carbohydrates and oxygen. Thus, oxygen is liberated in atmosphere.
Green House Effect

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide and Chlorofuorocarbans present in
atmosphere prevents the escape of heat falling on Earth’s surface rather than absorbing it. This keeps the Earth
warm and the phenomenon is known greenhouse effect.

Ozone layer :

Three molecules of oxygen combine to form ozone which forms a layer in stratosphere.

It acts as a protective shield as it prevents harmful ultraviolet radiations to reach the earth.

Compounds like CFCs (Chloro fluorocarbons) reacts with ozone releasing molecular oxygen resulting in
breakdown of ozone, which is termed as ozone depletion.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Water is known as ‘A Wonder Liquid’. Explain.

Q2. Why is the nitrogen cycle supposed to be an ideal cycle in the biosphere?

Q3. State various steps and processes involved in the nitrogen cycle in nature.

Q4. What are CFCs and how are they harmful?

Q5. Mention three ways by which atmosphere regulates the average temperature on earth?

Q6. List three human activities responsible for the pollution of water bodies?

Q7. Name the various organisms involved in nitrogen cycle.

Q8. What does the presence of smog in an area indicate ?

Q9. Explain the following terms:

(i) Nitrogen fixation, (ii) Nitrification, (iii) Denitrification.

Q10. List any three human activities which would lead to an increase in the carbon dioxide content of
air.
CBSE Class 9 Science, Improvement in Food Resources: Chapter notes (Part-I)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Improvement in Food Resources: Chapter
Notes, are:
 Sources of Food
 Food Revolutions in India
 Crop Seasons in India
 Improvement in Crop Yield
 Manure & Fertilizers AND Irrigation

Key notes for Chapter- Improvement in Food Resources, are:

Introduction
All living organisms essentially require the food to stay alive.

Food provides energy to perform various life activities and is required for growth, development and body repair.

Sources of Food:
1. Food from agriculture: Cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, nuts, oilseeds, condiments and spices

2. Food from animal husbandry: Dairly products like milk, curd, butter; meat, egg, fish and other sea products.

Food Revolutions in India

With the increase in population, there needed a sufficient increase in food production, so as to meet the food
related demands of growing population. This led to the rise of the following food revolutions in India:

1. Green Revolution: Introduced to increase the food grain production.

2. White Revolution: Introduced to increase production of milk.

3. Blue Revolution: Introduced to enhance fish production.

4. Yellow Revolution: Introduced to increase oil production.

Crop Season
Different crops require different climatic conditions like temperature, moisture and photoperiods to grow well
and complete their life cycle.
Two main corp seasons are:
1. Kharif Season:
 Summer season from the month of June to October, i.e., during rainy season.
 Crops grown in this season require more water.
 Examples of Kharif season crops are: Paddy, soyabean, pigeon pea, maize, black gram, green gram and
rice are kharif season crops.

2. Rabi Season:
 Winter season from the month of November toApril.
 Crops grown in this season require less water.
 Examples of Rabi season crops are: Wheat, gram, peas, mustard and linseed are rabi season crops.
Improvement in Crop Yield
Main approaches implemented to enhance the crop yield are as following:

1. Crop variety improvement

2. Crop production management

3. Nutrient management

1. Crop Variety Improvement

This involves the introduction of improved varities to obtain better food qualities.

It is mainly done to achieve the following targets:

 Higher yield of crops by adopting technologies like cross-breeding and hybridization.
 Improved quality of products.
 Biotic resistance like diseases and insects.
 Abiotic resistance like drought, salinity, heat, cold, etc.
 Decreased maturity duration as short duration crops require less costing and more rounds of crop.
 Wider Adaptability so that the crops growing in different environmental conditions, will help in setting high
production.
 Desired agronomic traits like height, branching, leaves, etc, will result in an increased production.
2. Crop Production Improvement
It involves different practices carried out by farmer to achieve higher standards of crop production.
Main practices involved here are stated below:
(i) Nutrient Management
(ii) Irrigation
(iii) Cropping Patterns
(i) Nutrient Management
Like other organisms, plants also require some elements for their growth. These elements are called Nutrients.

There are sixteen nutrients which are essential for plants. These nutrients are divided into following two
categories:
 Macronutrients: The essential elements, which are utilized by plants relatively in large quantities, are called
macronutrients.
 Micronutrients: The essential elements, which are used by plants in small quantities, are called
micronutrients.

These nutrients are supplied to plants by air, water and soil.

Sources Nutrients

Air Carbon. oxygen,

Water Hydrogen, oxygen

Soil 1. Macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur.

2. Micronutrients: iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chlorine
Manure & Fertilizer
To meet the requirement of plant nutrients and essential organic matter in the soil, manures and fertilizers are
added to the soil.

Manure
 It is a kind of natural fertilizer formed from decomposition of animal excreta and plant waste.
 It mainly contains organic matter and some nutrients in small amount.
 It helps in improving the soil structure by increasing the water holding capacity soil.

Types of manures:

Based on the kind of biological waste material used, the manures are classified as:

(i) Farmyard manure (FYM): It is the decomposed mixture of cattle excreta (dung) and urine along with litter
and leftover organic matter such as roughage or fodder. The waste materials are collected daily from the cattle
shed and stored in a pit for decomposition by the microorganisms (bacteria and fungi etc.). FYM contains
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.

(ii) Compost: It is a mixture of decomposed organic matter derived from garbage, sewage, vegetable waste etc.
the mixture is decomposed in pits and the process is known as composting.

(iii) Vermicompost: The degradation of organic waste through the consumption by the earthworms is called
vermicomposting. Earthworms used in vermicomposting are Dichogaster bolani and Drawida willisi.

(iv) Green manure: It is prepared by cultivating fast growing green manure crops like Sunhemp, Horse gram,
Guar, Cow pea before sowing of seeds. The fast growing crop is then ploughed back under the soil. Green
manure enriches the soil with nitrogen, phosphorous as well as organic matter and provides protection against
erosion and leaching.

Fertilizers
 Fertilizers are chemicals manufactured in factories and are highly rich in nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium.
 They provide large amount of nutrients and thus ensure better growth of plants.
 Excessive use of fertilizers for a long period of time can damage soil fertility.
Irrigation
The process of supplying water to crop plants through human efforts by means of canal, wells, reservoirs, tube-
wells etc., is known as irrigation.

Most agriculture in India is dependent on timely monsoons and sufficient rainfall spread through most of the
growing season. However, the extra water required by crops is met through irrigation.

Sources of Irrigation

Some most commonly used sources of irrigation are the following:

(i) Wells: These are of two types: Dug wells where water is collected from from water bearing strata through
bullock-operated devices or by pumps and Tube wells where water is collected from underground through diesel
or electricity run pumps.
(ii) Canal system: water from the main river or reservoir is carried by canal into the field which is divided into
branch canals having further distributaries to irrigate fields.

(iii) River lift system: In this system, water is directly drawn from the river for supplementing irrigation. It is used
where insufficient flow from canals occur

(iv) Rainwater harvesting: Rainwater is collected and recycled into ground by digging canals.

(v) Watershed management: Small check dams are built up in watershed areas to increase percolation of water
into ground, reduce flow of rainwater to prevent soil erosion.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Define the Kharif crop and give two examples

Q2. What are the desirable agronomic characteristics for crop improvement?

Q3. List examples of Macro-nutrients for plants?

Q4. Differentiate between compost and vermicompost?

Q5. Name the programmes executed in India to increase food production

CBSE Class 9 Science, Improvement in Food Resources: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Improvement in Food Resources: Chapter
Notes (Part –II), are:
 Crop Patterns
 Crop Protection Management
 Weeds and Methods to Control it
 Pests and Methods to Control it
 Storage of Grains
 Animal Husbandry
 Breeds of Cow

Key notes for Chapter- Improvement in Food Resources, are:

Crop Patterns
Different patterns are followed to obtain maximum production from a crop field. They are:
1. Mixed Cropping 2. Inter Cropping 3. Crop Rotation

1. Mixed Cropping: It is the practice of cultivating two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land.

Most common examples of crops grown together are:

Wheat and Mustard

Groundnut and Sunflower
Wheat and Gram
Barley and Chick pea

Advantages of Mixed Cropping:

 It minimizes the risk of crop failure.
 It facilitates the optimum utilization of soil.
 Minimizes the damage caused by pests.
 Varieties of produce can be harvested at the same time

2. Inter cropping: It is the practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time in a
definite pattern like few rows of one followed by few rows of other.

Advantages of Intercropping:
 It helps to maintain the soil fertility.
 It makes better use of resources.
 Each crop can be harvested, threshed and marketed separately.
 Application of pesticides and fertilizers is more convenient due to well defined patterns of crops.

Criteria of Selection of crops for Mixed cropping and Intercropping:

Two or more crops chosen for mixed cropping as well as intercropping should be such that they have different
nutrient requirements so that maximum utilisation of the soil nutrients takes place. Also, their water needs, rooting
patterns, etc., must be different.
3. Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is policy of growing different crops one after another on the same filed.
If same crop is grown again and again on the same field, same nutrients are extracted from soil again and again
causing those nutrients to get depleted. So different crops should be planted to maintain the supply of all
essential nutrients in soil.

Advantages of crop rotation:

 Fertility of soil is maintained for longer period.
 The chemical nature of soil is not altered.
 It helps in weed and pest control.
 It reduces the use of chemical fertilizers.
Crop Protection Management
When the crop is in the field, it needs protection against weeds, insect pests and other diseases.

Weed : Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated field. For example, Xanthium (Gokhroo), Amaranthus
(Chaulai), etc.

How weeds are harmful to main crop?

 They compete for food, space, light and essential nutrients therby reduce the growth of the main crop.
 They promote the attack by crop pests and diseases by acting as alternate host to insects and
microorganisms.
 During harvesting, weeds get mixed up with crop to lower down its quality.

Methods of weed control:

Weeds can be controlled by following ways:

 Manual removal of weeds.
 Adopting cultural methods like proper bed preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping and crop
rotation.
 Using weedicides like 2,4- D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid), MCPA (2-methyl, 4-chlorophenoxy acetic
acid), Atrazine and Butachlor.

Insect pests: Insects which destroy or damage crop plants are called insect pests.

They affect overall health of the crop and reduce yield.

They attack the plants in following three ways:

 They cut the root, stem and leaves.
 They suck the cell sap from various parts of the plants.
 They bore into the stem and fruits.

Methods of insect pests control:

Using pesticides: The chemical used to eliminate pests are called pesticides. They include insecticides (for
killing the insects), weeedicides (for killing the weeds), rodenticides (for killing rats), and fungicides (for killing
the fungi).
Using natural insecticides: Like neem, nicotine, pyrethrum, etc.

Storage of Grains
In order to make the seasonal foods available throughout the year, they are stored in safe storage.
During storage, they may get destroyed and wasted by following factors:

1. Biotic factors: The include living organisms like insects, birds, mites, bacteria, fungi.
2. Abiotic factors: They include non-living environmental like moisture contents, humidity of air, improper
temperature etc.

Preventive measures to be used while storage of food grains are given below:
 Drying: The harvested food grains should be dried properly before storage.
 Cleaning and maintenance of hygiene before storage: The food grains should be properly cleaned and
then filled in absolutely dry and clean gunny bags before keeping in godowns, warehouses or stores.
 Regular check on godowns: Godown, warehouses and stores should be properly cleaned, dried and
repaired.
 Fumigation: Those pesticides which can destroy insects by forming toxic fumes are called fumigants and
process of their use is called fumigation.

Fumigants may be solid, liquid or gaseous.

For example, aluminium phosphate (solid fumigant), Ethylene dichloride-carbon tetrachloride (EDCT) (liquid
fumigant), Methyl bromide (gaseous fumigant) are some commonly used fumigants.

Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of domestic animals in an efficient manner to obtain food and
other useful products from them.

Cattle farming: It is the raising of cattle for yield of milk by females and draught labour for agriculture work.
Milch Animals: These includes milk producing animals(female cattle).
Draught Animals: These are the animals which do not produce milk and are used for agricultural work.
Lactation Period: Female cattle give milk after birth of calf (baby). The time duration for which she gives milk is
called lactation period.

Breeds of Cow
1. Indegenous breeds: They are local or desi breeds. For example: Red Sindhi and Sahiwal (high lactation
yield).
2. Exotic breeds: They are the foreign breeds. For example: Jersey and Brown Swiss (Disease resistant
species).
3. Hybrid breeds: They are the offsprings of cross between indigenous and exotic breeds to get desirable
character.

Some successful cross-breeds are:

(i) Karan Swiss: Cross-breed of Brown Swiss and Sahiwal.

(ii) Karan Fries: Cross-breed of Holstein-Friesian and Sahiwal.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Distinguish between weeds, insects pests, Q2. Define the term hybridization and photoperiod.

Q3. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect crop production?

Q4. Write two examples of pesticides and fumigants each.

CBSE Class 9 Science, Improvement in Food Resources: Chapter notes (Part-II)

Main topics covered in this part of CBSE Class 9 Science, Improvement in Food Resources: Chapter
Notes (Part –II), are:
 Crop Patterns
 Crop Protection Management
 Weeds and Methods to Control it
 Pests and Methods to Control it
 Storage of Grains
 Animal Husbandry
 Breeds of Cow

Key notes for Chapter- Improvement in Food Resources, are:

Crop Patterns
Different patterns are followed to obtain maximum production from a crop field. They are:
1. Mixed Cropping 2. Inter Cropping 3. Crop Rotation

1. Mixed Cropping: It is the practice of cultivating two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land.

Most common examples of crops grown together are:

Wheat and Mustard

Groundnut and Sunflower
Wheat and Gram
Barley and Chick pea

Advantages of Mixed Cropping:

 It minimizes the risk of crop failure.
 It facilitates the optimum utilization of soil.
 Minimizes the damage caused by pests.
 Varieties of produce can be harvested at the same time

2. Inter cropping: It is the practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time in a
definite pattern like few rows of one followed by few rows of other.

Advantages of Intercropping:
 It helps to maintain the soil fertility.
 It makes better use of resources.
 Each crop can be harvested, threshed and marketed separately.
 Application of pesticides and fertilizers is more convenient due to well defined patterns of crops.

Criteria of Selection of crops for Mixed cropping and Intercropping:

Two or more crops chosen for mixed cropping as well as intercropping should be such that they have different
nutrient requirements so that maximum utilisation of the soil nutrients takes place. Also, their water needs, rooting
patterns, etc., must be different.
3. Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is policy of growing different crops one after another on the same filed.
If same crop is grown again and again on the same field, same nutrients are extracted from soil again and again
causing those nutrients to get depleted. So different crops should be planted to maintain the supply of all
essential nutrients in soil.

Advantages of crop rotation:

 Fertility of soil is maintained for longer period.
 The chemical nature of soil is not altered.
 It helps in weed and pest control.
 It reduces the use of chemical fertilizers.
Crop Protection Management
When the crop is in the field, it needs protection against weeds, insect pests and other diseases.

Weed : Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated field. For example, Xanthium (Gokhroo), Amaranthus
(Chaulai), etc.

How weeds are harmful to main crop?

 They compete for food, space, light and essential nutrients therby reduce the growth of the main crop.
 They promote the attack by crop pests and diseases by acting as alternate host to insects and
microorganisms.
 During harvesting, weeds get mixed up with crop to lower down its quality.

Methods of weed control:

Weeds can be controlled by following ways:

 Manual removal of weeds.
 Adopting cultural methods like proper bed preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping and crop
rotation.
 Using weedicides like 2,4- D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid), MCPA (2-methyl, 4-chlorophenoxy acetic
acid), Atrazine and Butachlor.

Insect pests: Insects which destroy or damage crop plants are called insect pests.

They affect overall health of the crop and reduce yield.

They attack the plants in following three ways:

 They cut the root, stem and leaves.
 They suck the cell sap from various parts of the plants.
 They bore into the stem and fruits.

Methods of insect pests control:

Using pesticides: The chemical used to eliminate pests are called pesticides. They include insecticides (for
killing the insects), weeedicides (for killing the weeds), rodenticides (for killing rats), and fungicides (for killing
the fungi).
Using natural insecticides: Like neem, nicotine, pyrethrum, etc.

Storage of Grains
In order to make the seasonal foods available throughout the year, they are stored in safe storage.
During storage, they may get destroyed and wasted by following factors:

1. Biotic factors: The include living organisms like insects, birds, mites, bacteria, fungi.
2. Abiotic factors: They include non-living environmental like moisture contents, humidity of air, improper
temperature etc.

Preventive measures to be used while storage of food grains are given below:
 Drying: The harvested food grains should be dried properly before storage.
 Cleaning and maintenance of hygiene before storage: The food grains should be properly cleaned and
then filled in absolutely dry and clean gunny bags before keeping in godowns, warehouses or stores.
 Regular check on godowns: Godown, warehouses and stores should be properly cleaned, dried and
repaired.
 Fumigation: Those pesticides which can destroy insects by forming toxic fumes are called fumigants and
process of their use is called fumigation.

Fumigants may be solid, liquid or gaseous.

For example, aluminium phosphate (solid fumigant), Ethylene dichloride-carbon tetrachloride (EDCT) (liquid
fumigant), Methyl bromide (gaseous fumigant) are some commonly used fumigants.

Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of domestic animals in an efficient manner to obtain food and
other useful products from them.

Cattle farming: It is the raising of cattle for yield of milk by females and draught labour for agriculture work.
Milch Animals: These includes milk producing animals(female cattle).
Draught Animals: These are the animals which do not produce milk and are used for agricultural work.
Lactation Period: Female cattle give milk after birth of calf (baby). The time duration for which she gives milk is
called lactation period.

Breeds of Cow
1. Indegenous breeds: They are local or desi breeds. For example: Red Sindhi and Sahiwal (high lactation
yield).
2. Exotic breeds: They are the foreign breeds. For example: Jersey and Brown Swiss (Disease resistant
species).
3. Hybrid breeds: They are the offsprings of cross between indigenous and exotic breeds to get desirable
character.

Some successful cross-breeds are:

(i) Karan Swiss: Cross-breed of Brown Swiss and Sahiwal.

(ii) Karan Fries: Cross-breed of Holstein-Friesian and Sahiwal.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Distinguish between weeds, insects pests
Q2. Define the term hybridization and photoperiod.
Q3. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect crop production?
Q4. Write two examples of pesticides and fumigants each.