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This fails,
This fails,however,
however, to to dispose
disposeof of the objectionthat
the objection that the
the way
way inin
whichXenophon
which half
Xenophon half hides hides hishiscensure
censureof ofcontemporary
contemporary Spartais
Sparta is
veryclumsy,
very clumsy, and
and that,
that, considering his
considering greatliterarygifts,any
his great literary gifts, any
hypothesis
hypothesis is preferable to
is preferable to the assumption
the assumption that
that he he used
used aa literary
literary
deviceawkwardly.
device awkwardly. To
To that
that objection,
objection, which
which is
is sound
sound as
as far
far as it
as it
is based
is based onon observation
observation of Xenophon's
of talents, we
exceptionaltalents,
Xenophon'sexceptional we
answerthat
answer ifin
that if in aa given
given case
case he
he apparently
apparently happens
happens to
to do
do a
a bad
bad
job
job as
as a
a writer,
writer, or
or as
as a
a thinker,
thinker, he
he actually
actually does
does it deliberately
it deliberately and
and
forvery
for goodreasons.
very good reasons. As As farfarasas the alludesto
objectionalludes
the objection certain
to certain
devicesof
devices of higher criticism,
higher criticism, we reply that
we reply that methods
methods of of that
that kind
kind
shouldnot
should not be appliedbefore
be applied before the author'sintentions
the author's intentions havehave been
been
truly
truly understood.
understood. This
This is
is to
to say
say first
first that,by hiding
that, by hiding his
his censure
censure
ofcontemporary
of contemporary Spartaclumsily,
Sparta clumsily, Xenophongives
Xenophon givesus us to understand
to understand
that he
that he hides
hides certain much
certainmuch more important views
more important views of his in
of his an
in an
extremely
extremely able
able manner;
manner; and
and second,
second, that
that the
the duty
duty of
of the
the inter-
inter-
preter is
preter is not
not to attempt
to attempt to be wiser
to be wiser than Xenophon, but
than Xenophon, but to exert
to exert
all his
all his powers
powers of ofunderstanding
understanding and and imagination
imagination in
in order
order to
to make
make
someprogress
some toward wisdom
progress toward wisdom by takingXenophon
by taking Xenophon as as his guide.
his guide.
II
The first
The first chapterof
chapter ofthe
the treatise appearsto
treatise appears to be devotedto
be devoted to praise of
praise of
Lycurgus'
Lycurgus' laws
laws concerning
concerning procreation
procreation of
of children.
children. Xenophon
Xenophon
points outtwo
points out two important differences
important differences between
between the way in
the way in which
which the
the
otherGreeks
other Greeksbring
bring upup their futuremothers
their future mothers andand Lycurgus'
Lycurgus' pro-
pro-
visions; but
visions; but whereas
whereas he explainsthe
he explains secondof
the second of these differences
these differences
with
with perfect
perfect clarity, he
clarity, only
he only touches
touches upon
upon the
the first.
first. All
All he saysre-
he says re-
gardingit
garding it is:
is: "The othersfeed
"The others feedthe girlswho
the girls are destined
who are destinedto bear
to bear
11See
See G. Prinz, De
G. Prinz, De Xenophontis
Xenophontis Cyri institutione
Cyriinstitutione (Göttingen19
(Gottingen 1911)
11 ) . p. 74.
p. 74.
n
II
To showthe
To show excellenceof
the excellence of Spartan education,Xenophon
Spartaneducation, contrasts
Xenophon contrasts
the
the public educationof
public education of Sparta,
Sparta, which
which leads
leads to
to virtue,
virtue, with
with private
private
educationas
education as practiced
practiced in in other
otherGreek
Greekcities,
cities,which
which leads
leads to effem-
to effem-
inacy.
inacy. Here
Here he
he uses
uses the
the same
same device
device which
which he
he used
used before in
before dis-
in dis-
cussing
cussing the
the Spartan
Spartan laws
laws on
on procreation
procreation of
of children:
children: he
he indicates
indicates
two
two major differences
major differences between,
between, say, say,Athenian practiceand
Athenian practice and Spartan
Spartan
practice,
practice, and
and although he
although clearlyexplains
he clearly explains the
the second
second difference,
difference, he
he
saysnothing
says nothing about salientfeature
about aa salient featureof of the firstand
the first and more important
more important
difference. Concerning this
difference.Concerning this he says
he says that
that education was
Spartan education
Spartan was
public, while
public, educationin
while education in other
otherGreek citieswas
Greek cities private. Yet
was private. Yet he
he
mentions
mentions also also that
that the otherGreeks
the other Greeks"send"send their childrenas
their children as soon as
soon as
they
they understand
understand what
what is
is spoken
spoken .
. .
. .
. immediately
immediately to
to teachers
teachers to
to
learn letters,
learn letters,andand music,
music, andand the exercisesof
the exercises of the palaestra."! And
the palaestra/*1 And
he says
he says no
no word
word in
in either
either the
the immediate
immediate context
context or
or any
any other
other pas-
pas-
of the
sage of
sage the treatise about what
treatise about Lycurgushad
what Lycurgus enactedor
had enacted or what
what the
the
Spartans
Spartans were
were actuallydoing regarding
actually doing regarding education
education in
in "letters
"letters and
and
music." This omission
music." This omissionis as little
is as little aa matter
matter of chanceas
of chance as was
was the
the pre-
pre-
cedingand
ceding and almost
almostexactly correspondingomission
exactly corresponding omissionof of the Spartan
the Spartan
dietary
dietary laws
laws for
for girls:Xenophon
girls: Xenophon informs
informs us
us between
between the
the lines
lines that
that
in Spartathere
in Sparta there waswas no educationworth
no education worth mentioning
mentioning in in letters
lettersand
and
music.2
music. 2
What
What was was in itsstead?
in its stead?Physical education,of
Physical education, of course.
course.Yet Spartan
Yet Spartan
education had
education some specific
had some specific features
features which
which Xenophon is
Xenophon is very
very
anxious for
anxious for us
us to realize. He
to realize. emphasizesthe
He emphasizes the fact
fact that chil-
Spartanchil-
that Spartan
dren wereinstructed stealing
dren were instructed in
in stealing as
as well
well as
as in
in robbingand deceiv-
robbing and deceiv-
ill, i. Ct.
1 II, 1. Cf. Apologia 16.
Socratis, 16.
Apologia Socratis,
22The
The mention
mention of "teachers"of
of "teachers" of children otherthan
childrenother Spartanin
than Spartan III, 11 serves
in III, servesthe
the
same purpose,
same purpose, as appears from
as appears from aa comparison of that
comparisonof paragraph with
that paragraph the rest
with the of
rest of
the chapter.
the chapter.
We conclude
We concludethen thatthe
thenthat the argument
argumentof the second
of the secondchapter
chapterof of the
the
Constitution
Constitution theLacedemonians
ofthe
of Lacedemonians is is designed
designedto to let us
let us glimpse
glimpsethe the
1111,6-9'
II, 6-9.
22 Cyropaedia,
Cyropaedia, I, 6,
I, 6,!P-32. Anabasis,IV,
31-32.Anabasis, IV, 6,
6, 14-15.
14-15.
33F.
F. Ollier, La rtfpublique
Oilier,La republiquedes Lacédemoniens
desLacedemoniens (Lyon 1934)p.
(Lyon1934) xxxiii.
p. xxxiii.
4411,2
II, 2 and 8-10.Ct.
and 8-10. 6; VI,
IV, 6;
Cf.IV, 2; IX,
VI, 2; IX, 5; X, 4-7.
5; X, 4-7.
55Memorabilia,
Memorabilia,I, I, 2, 10. Riera,
2, 10. Hiero,9,9, 2. uè re
2. De re equestri,
equestri,II, 0. Cyrapaedia,
11, 6. Liyropaeaia, I, 2, 2-3.
1, 2, 2-3.
Oeconomicus,
Oeconomicus, 14,7. The
14,7. lastmentioned
twolast
The two mentioned aredirect
passagesare
passages directparallels toRespublica
parallelsto Respublica
Lacedaemoniorum,
Lacedaemoniorum, X, 4'7.
X, 4-7.
11 Memorabilia, III,
Memorabilia, III, !!. 11. De
3, 11. De re 8, 13.
equestri,8,
re equestri, I!!.
2
2 III, 4'5. Ct.
III. 4-5. above p.
Cf. above 507, note
p. 507, 1.
note 1.
I II. 1-2.
»II, I -a.
The
The two
two most striking features
most striking features soso far discussed of
far discussed Spartan legisla-
of Spartan legisla-
tion
tion or
or of Spartan life
of Spartan life as
as described
described by Xenophon are
by Xenophon are thethe lax
lax mar-
mar-
riage laws
riage laws andand the principle underlying
the principle underlying Spartan education that
Spartan education that
is
"stealing good."
"stealing is good." He
He justifies
justifies these
these two
two sets
sets of
of rules
rules by showing
by showing
the good influence
the good influence which exercised on
they exercised
which they Spartan virtue:
on Spartan virtue: the the lax
lax
marriage
marriage laws
laws were
were conducive to
conducive to the
the procreation strong
procreation of
of strong and
and
healthyoffspring,
healthy offspring, and
and the
the instruction
instruction in
in stealing was
stealing conducive to
was conducive to
military efficiency. We
military efficiency.1 1 We have therefore to
have therefore to take
take up up the question of
the question of
the place which
the place assigned to
Xenophon assigned
which Xenophon to physical excellence and
physical excellence and
efficiency within
military efficiency
military within thethe framework
framework of human excellence
of human excellence or or
virtue.
virtue.
states his
clearly states
Xenophon clearly
Xenophon standard for
his standard judging the
for judging quality of
the quality of
human
human abilities
abilities andand habits:
habits: the superiority of
the superiority of the
the soul
soul over the
over the
body.2
body.2 Therefore,
Therefore, the
the manythings
many things which
which he
he says in
says praise of
in praise of the
the
physical excellence of
physical excellence of the
the Spartans cannot be
Spartans cannot more than
be more than aa meremere
introduction
introduction to to the much more
the much importantpraise
more important praise of
of the
the excellence
excellence
of their
of Hence we
souls. Hence
their souls. we shall have to
shall have consider,rather
to consider, rather more more care-
care-
fullythanusual,
fully than usual, the
the meaning
meaning of
of his
his emphatic
emphatic statement
statem.ent that
that Lycur-
Lycur-
all
gus "compelled [theSpartans] practice
gus "compelled all [the Spartans] to
to practice all
all virtues
virtues publicly."3
publicly."3
We
We naturally expectto
naturally expect to meet
meet in in his descriptionthe
his description the whole choir
whole choir
of the
of the virtues, but we
virtues, but are disappointed
we are disappointedjust just as
as we
we were
were before.
before. Al-
Al-
Lycurguswas
thoughLycurgus
though "verywise
was "very wise inin the extreme[extremes
the extreme [extremes],"4 nei-
],"4 nei-
therwisdom
ther wisdom nor
nor education
education in
in wisdom
wisdom is
is mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the whole
whole
treatise. There is
treatise.There is no wordof
no word of justice
justice or or schools
schoolsof of justice although
justice although
punishment,
punishment, and severe
and severepunishment,
punishment, is mentioned
is mentioned on almostevery
on almost every
page,
page, and
and although
although the
the procedureconcerning
procedure concerning lawsuits
lawsuits is
is briefly
briefly
11I,
1,5-10 and II,
5-10and II,7.
7.
2X,
2X, 1I. illustrates
Xenophonillustrates
3. Xenophon the Spartan
the of "soul"
conceptionof
Spartanconception in such
"soul" in such passages as
passagesas
VII, 1I-4
VII, and X,
34 and X, 2-1I. VIII, 11 (MSS)_
Cf.VIII,
2-3.Ct. (mss).
*X,4.
aX,4·
•4 I,
1,2. The expression
2. The expression usedby
used byXenophon
Xenophonis is ambiguous:
ambiguous:it it may meanthat
maymean thatLycurgus
Lycurgus
was exceedingly
was exceedingly wise, thenit
but then
wise,but is redundant;
it is redundant;or it may
or it maymeanmean that
thathe was very
he was very
wisewith
wise withregard
regardtoto the
theextremes,
extremes, and thenit
and then is not
it is notredundant
redundant but mostappropriate:
butmost appropriate:
Xenophonleaves
Xenophon it undetermined
leaves it undetermined whetherthe
whether the extremes
extremeswithwith regard
regard to which
to which
Lycurgus
Lycurgus was
was very
very wise
wise were
were good
good or
or bad.
bad. Arts
Arts are
are mentioned,
mentioned, as
as far
far as
as Sparta
Sparta is
is
concerned,
concerned, almostexclusively
almost exclusively in connection
in connectionwithwithwarwar (I,
(I, 5; 1; XI,
VII, 1;
3; VII, 2; XIII,
XI, 2; XIII, 55
and 7).
and 7).
Muchmore
Much moresignificant
significant werehis
were his laws
lawsconcerning
concerning property.
property. Xeno-
Xeno-
phon
phon tells
tells us
us that
that Lycurgus
Lycurgus prohibited
prohibited thefree
the free from
from havingany-
having any-
thing
thing to
to do
do with
with acquisitiveoccupations any
acquisitive occupations of
of any kind,
kind, and
and that
that he
he
commanded
commanded themto
them devotethemselves
to devote themselves entirely
entirely to those
to activities
those activities
which securefreedom
which secure freedom to cities.He
to cities. explains,
He explains, moreover,
moreover, how the
how the
whole set-up of
whole set-up of the
the Spartan community
Spartancommunity prevented the
prevented Spartans
the Spartans
from
from being
being eager to
eager acquire
to acquire wealth.
wealth. Finally, he
Finally, emphasizes
he emphasizes the
the
fact
fact that
that the
the heavy weight of
heavy weight of the Spartanmoney
the Spartan money made secrecy
made secrecy in
in
acquiringwealthutterlyimpossible.In the presentcase, the
acquiring wealth utterly impossible. In the present case, the
method
method whichwhich he choosesfor
he chooses letting us
for letting see the
us see the truth
truth is is that
that ofof
proving too
proving too much.
much. For whereas he
For whereas he states
states to begin with
to begin with that
that acqui-
acqui-
sition
sition ofof wealth
wealth as as such
such is is forbidden
forbidden in Sparta, somewhat
in Sparta, somewhat laterlater onon
he
he states
states that acquisition of
that acquisition of wealth
wealth by unjust means
by unjust means is is prevented
prevented
by
by the
the heavyweight
heavy weight of
of the
the Spartanmoney,
Spartan money, which
which could
could be
be con-
con-
cealed only with
cealed only with great difficulty. The
great difficulty. naturally arises
question naturally
The question arises as
as to
to
whether
whether the Spartans could
the Spartans could not procure for
not procure for themselves
themselves gold gold or or
silver, which
silver, which is is more easily hidden.
more easily hidden. The The answer
answer must must be be inin the
the
affirmative, else
affirmative, else it it would
would not not have
have been necessary to
been necessary to institute
institute
searches
searches for gold and
for gold and silver.2 Furthermore, whereas
silver.2 Furthermore, whereas his his original
original
statement implies that
statement implies that the set-up of
the set-up Spartan life
of Spartan life ruled
ruled out any in-
out any in-
terest in
terest wealth, we
in wealth, we soonsoon learn
learn from
from himhim that punitive measures
that punitive measures
were required to
were required prevent the
to prevent Spartans from
the Spartans money.3 In
acquiring money.3
from acquiring In
addition,
addition, he
he draws
draws our
our attention
attention to
to the
the fact
fact that,althoughwealth
that, although wealth
cannot be
cannot be earnestly
earnestly sought
sought by by the wealth, and
Spartans, wealth,
the Spartans, and the
the differ-
differ-
ence between rich
ence between rich and poorand citizens, does
poor citizens, exist in
does exist in the
the ideal
ideal Sparta.4
Sparta. 4
i1 V, 3·4. Cf.
V. 3-4. II. 11 end.
Ct. II, end.
22 VII, 22 and
and 5-6.
5-6.
88 VII, 3-6. See
VII. 3-6. See F. Habben. De
F. Habben, De Xenophontis libello ....
Xenophontis libello . . (Münster
(Munster 1909) p. 27.
1909) p. 27.
4V, 3: VI,
• V, 3; 5: X,
VI. 5; XIII. 11.
7: XIII,
X. 7; 11.
IV
IV
We have
We startedfrom
have started fromthethe tacit assumption
tacit assumption that
that the literary
the literary tech-
tech-
nique
nique ofofthose
those non-rhetorical Greekprose
non-rhetorical Greek prose writers before Aristotle
writers before Aristotle
whose writings have
whose writings comedown
have come downto to us
us isis essentially
essentially different
different from
from
the
the technique
technique of of the largemajority
the large majority of of later writers: the
later writers: the former,
former,
being
being teachers
teachers of
of moderation,
moderation, teach
teach the
the truth
truth according
according to
to the
the rule
rule
ofmoderation,
of moderation, i. i. e.
e. they
they teach the truth
teach the exclusively
truth exclusively between the
between the
lines. Accordingly, we
lines.Accordingly, we have
have refrained
refrained from fromconsidering
considering the con-
the con-
jecture
jecture which
which is
is an
an outcome
outcome of
of higher
higher criticism -
criticism-that that Xenophon
Xenophon
composedthe
composed censureof
the censure of contemporary
contemporary Spartawhich
Sparta which he he inserted
inserted
toward the
toward end of
the end of the
the treatise afterthe
treatise after composition
the composition of
of the
the other
other
fourteen
fourteen chapters.
chapters. This conjecture
This conjecture is
is based
based onon the observation
the observation of
of
thecontradictions
the contradictions between
between that
that censure
censure and
and the
the bulk
bulk of
of the
the treatise.
treatise.
But
But these contradictions
these contradictions are
are not
not the oneswhich
onlyones
the only which occuroccurin in the
the
treatise. The conjecture
treatise. The conjecture in question
in questionis is based,
based, moreover,
moreover, on onobserva-
observa-
tion
tion of themost
of the irregular
most irregular way
way in
in which
which the
the censure
censure of
of contem-
contem-
porary Spartais
porary Sparta inserted. But
is inserted. irregularities
But irregularities occurwithin
occur every
within every
chapter
chapter and
and within
within many
many individual
individual sentences
sentences of
of the
the treatise;
treatise; and
and
the difficulties
the difficulties offered
offered by these
by cannotbe
these cannot calledless
be called less than
than that
that pre-
pre-
sentedby
sented the most
by the striking
most striking -
irregularityprovided
irregularity-provided one
one does
does not
not
understand
understand by by aa great difficulty
greatdifficulty one which
one which is is very easilynoticed
very easily noticed by by
eventhemostsuperficial
even the most superficial reader.
reader. Considering the
Considering fact,for is aa
the fact, for it
it is
11 Agesilaus, 12 and ,.
2, 12
Agesilaus. 2. 7.
a2 Notice
Notice tne
the mention ot "noble
mention of "nooie qeatn at tne
death" at the beginning or IX.
beginning of ix, tne
the chapter de-
cnapter de-
voted
voted toto manliness.
manliness. Ct. Aristotle,Ethica
Cf. Aristotle. Ethica Nicomachea,
Nicomachea, 1115 a lIl-lIlI'
IllS a 38-33.
He sandwichesin
He sandwiches in his censureof
his censure of contemporary
contemporary Sparta exactlyin
Spartaexactly in
the middle
the middle of the last
of the last section. That section
section. That sectionis givento
is given to the Spartan
the Spartan
kingdom
kingdom and
and consists
consists of
of two
two chapters:
chapters: the
the first
first (Chapter 13)
(Chapter 13) is
is
devoted to
devoted to the
the power
power andand honor which the
honor which Spartan king
the Spartan enjoys
king enjoys
when he is with the army,and
when he is with the army, and the
the second
second (Chapter 15) treats
(Chapter 15) of
treats of
the honors which
the honors which he enjoysat
he enjoys at home.2
home. 2 ByBy slipping between these
slippingbetween these
The most
1!The strikingdifficulty
most striking difficulty which
which the treatiseoffers
the treatise offersis that in
is that in thethe bulk
bulk of of it
it
Xenophon
Xenophon seems seemsto speak quite
to speak indiscriminately
quite indiscriminately of what
of Lycurgus had
what Lycurgus enactedin
had enacted in
the
the past and of
past and of what
what the Spartanswere
the Spartans were actually doing in
actuallydoing in his own time,
his own time, whereas
whereas
in
in his censureof
his censure of contemporary
contemporary Sparta he
Sparta drawsaa sharp
he draws sharp line of demarcation
line of demarcation be- be·
tween the
tween the perfect Spartaof
perfect Sparta of the
the past and the
past and defectiveSparta
the defective Sparta of of the present. Yet
the present. Yet
he statesat
he states at the very beginning
the very beginning of of the
the treatise that he
treatisethat he is is going
going to discussaa phe-
to discuss phe·
nomenon belonging to
nomenon belonging the past:
to the "Afterhaving
past: "After having once perceived that
once perceived Sparta,one
that Sparta, one
of the
of the most
most thinly
thinly populated cities,had
populated cities, come into
had come sight
into sight as
as the
the most
most powerfulas
powerful as
well
well as the most
as the celebratedcity
most celebrated cityin Greece,II fell
in Greece, fell toto wondering
wondering how how in the world
in the world
thishad
this happened. But
had happened. afterII had
But after consideredthe
had considered institutions
the institutions of the
of Spartiates,
the Spartiates, II
no longer wondered"
no longer wondered" (I, This introduction
1). This
(I, 1). introduction is almost
is almostexactly parallel to
exactlyparallel to that of
that of
the Memorabilia:
the Memorabilia: "I "I often
oftenfell
fell toto wondering
wondering by by what speechesin
what speeches in thethe world
world thethe
accusersof
accusers Socrateshad
of Socrates convincedthe
had convinced the Athenians
Athenians thatthat he deserveddeath
he deserved death at at the
the
hands
hands of of the city."In
the city." In the case of
the case of Sparta
Spartaas as well
well as as in
in that
that of of Socrates,
Socrates,Xenophon
Xenophon
refers to
refers to aa definite eventin
definiteevent in the past which
the past set him
which set thinkingabout
him thinking about its its causes;
causes; inin
neither
neither case does he
case does he refer
refer to phenomenon which
to aa phenomenon which stillstill existed.
existed.The event to
The event to
which he
which he refers
refers atat the
the beginning
beginning of of the Constitution
the Constitution the Lacedemonians
of the
0/ Lacedemonians is is very
very
probably the
probably the victory
victory ofof the Spartansin
the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war.
the Peloponnesian war. InIn accordance
accordancewith with
the beginning
the beginning quoted quoted he speaksin
he speaks in the firstchapter
the first chaptermostly
mostly of of what Lycurgus had
what Lycurgus had
enactedin
enacted thepast,
in the and only
past, and onlytoward
toward the the end does he
end does he go overto
go over to the present. In
the present. II
In II
and III
and the past
III the still outweighs
past still outweighsthe present.In
the present. IV·X, the
In IV-X, the passages devoted to
passages devoted to
the
the past almostequal
are almost
past are equal inin number
number to to those devotedto
thosedevoted to the present. In
the present. In XI and XII,
XI and XII,
the
the present outweighsthe
present outweighs the past, and in
past, and in XIII,
XIII, i. e. in
i. e. in the immediately
chapterimmediately
the chapter pre-
pre-
cedingthe
ceding censureof
the censure of contemporary
contemporary Sparta,Xenophon
Sparta, Xenophon praises contemporary
praises contemporary Sparta
Sparta
almostexclusively:
almost exclusively:so so openly
openlydoes does he contradicthimself,
he contradict himself, and and so so carefully
carefullydid did hehe
prepare that
prepare flagrant
that flagrant contradiction.
contradiction. Needless
Needless to to add,
add, thethe subtle distinctions
subtledistinctions between
between
enactments"
"Lycurgus'enactments"
"Lycurgus' and "the
and "the Spartans' actual practice"
Spartans'actual practice" shouldshould be considered
be considered
carefully.
carefully. It
It is
is certainly
certainly not
not a
a matter
matter of
of chance
chance that
that in
in the
the chapters
chapters devoted
devoted to
to
military matters the
military matters actual practice
the actual practice ofof the Spartansis
the Spartans so much
is so much in in the foreground,
the foreground,
whereas
whereas in in the devotedto
chapterdevoted
the chapter continenceconcerning
to continence concerningmoney, money, for for example,
example,
Xenophon prefers
Xenophon prefers to speak of
to speak of Lycurgus' enactments.
Lycurgus' enactments.
XIII, 11 and
2»XIII, and XV, XV, 8.8.
result to
The result
The to which
which the examinationof'
the examination of that
that belief
belief leads
leads is is in-
in-
dicatedin
dicated in all
all that
that Xenophon
Xenophon says saysandand leaves
leavesunsaid about Spartan
unsaid about Spartan
virtue.It is indicated besides
virtue. It is indicated besides in
in his
his emphaticpraise of
emphatic praise of thethe fact
fact
that Lycurgus'legislation
that Lycurgus' fosteredamong
legislation fostered among the citizensof
the citizens of Sparta
Sparta
the spiritof
the spirit of dissension
dissensionand and rivalry
rivalry as as well
well as as spying
spyingon on each other.3
each other. 3
For, accordingto
For, according to the
the view
view ofof the classicalthinkers,
the classical thinkers,one one cannot
cannotas- as-
sert that war
sertthat againstother
war against citiesis
other cities is the
the aimaim of of the
the life
life of
of the city
the city
without
without being drivento
being driven assertthat
to assert that warwar of individual against
of individual againstin- in-
1*XI, i. Ct.
XI, I. XII, 1i and
Cf.XII, XIII, 1i..
and XIII,
2 "firstplan"
The "first
2 The plan" is more visible
is more than the
visible than "secondplan"
the "second plan" ifif one
one disregards
disregards the
the
fourteenth
fourteenth chapter.For
chapter. For the impressive
the impressive endingof
ending of the
the treatise is warranted
treatise is warranted byby the
the
"firstplan"
"first only,and
plan" only, and the
the most impressivethings
most impressive are the
things are the most
most visible
visible ones. The
ones. The
"secondplan"
"second plan" is obscurednot
is obscured onlyby
not only thatimpressive
by that impressive ending,but
ending, by the
but by the fifteenth
fifteenth
chapteras
chapter as aa whole, forthat
whole, for thatchapter
chapterdeals again with
deals again with matters
matters ofof peace
peace rather than
rather than
of war,
of and the
war, and the 5ection devotedto
sectiondevoted to matters of peace
matters of had been
peace had concludedat
been concluded at the end
the end
of the
of tenthchapter.
the tenth chapter.
8 IV.
sIV.
v
v
The title
The title indicates
indicates that
that the of the
subject of
the subject treatise is
the treatise is the constitu-
the constitu-
tion
tion of
of the Lacedemonians,and
the Lacedemonians, and the apparent plan
the apparent all but
plan all com-
but com-
pels
pels us
us to
to assume
assume that
that that
that constitution
constitution is
is monarchic.5By spoiling
monarchic. 1I By spoiling
his plan, however,
his plan, Xenophon shows
however, Xenophon shows that
that that assumption is
that assumption is
wrong.6
wrong. If
6 If we
we exclude
exclude therefore
therefore all
all he says about
he says about the Spartan
the Spartan
kings,
kings, we
we find
find that
that his
his treatment
treatment of
of the
the constitution
constitution proper is
proper is
1 Ct. Plato,
1 Cf. Plato, Laws, 626c·611od, and
Laws, 6260-63001, and Aristotle,
Aristotle, Politics,
Politics, 1324a
11124a 5-i325a
5-11125a 15. 15.
2 X, 8.
2X, (Cf. also
8. (C/. also XI, 1). The
XI, 1). The Spartan military institutions
Spartan military institutions may may notnot deserve
deserve discus-
discus-
sion
sion for yet another
for yet another reason. "Xenophon vante
reason. "Xénophon beau coup dans
vante beaucoup dans cet ouvrage les
cet ouvrage les forma-
forma-
tions
tions de de l'armée spartiate; mais
l'armee spartiate; mais lui-même, pendant la
lui-m~me, pendant la retraite des Dix
retraite des Mille, avait
Dix Mille, avait
fait
fait adopter
adopter par tous les
par tous corps des
les corps des formations atheniennes, et,
formations athéniennes, lorsqu'il décrira
et, lorsqu'il decrira la la
bataille de
bataille Thymbree, c'est
de Thymbrée, c'est des formations et
des formations et de
de la tactique athéniennes
la tactique atheniennes qu'il qu'il dotera
dotera
l'armée
l'armee de Cyrus." Ollier,
de Cyrus." OIlier, op.op. cit. p. xxxiii.
cit. p. xxxiii. The judgment on
The judgment on Spartan military or-
Spartan military or-
ganization, which
ganization, which is implied in
is implied in the
the discrepancies pointed out
discrepancies pointed out byby M. OIlier, is
M. Oilier, is clearly
clearly
indicated in
indicated in XI,
XI, 7.,. Other shortcomings of
Other shortcomings of the
the Spartan
Spartan armyarmy are are indicated
indicated in in XII,
XII,
2'4, as
2-4, as can
can bebe seen
seen from
from aa comparison
comparison of of that passage with
that passage Cyropaedia, IV,
with Cyropaedia, IV, 2, 2, 1-8,
1-8,
and Agesilaus, 2,
and Agesilaus, 2, 24.
24.
88 XII,
XII, 7.
,.
*For Xenophon's view
'For Xenophon's view of peace and
of peace war, see
and war, especially Memorabilia,
see especially Memorabilia, II, II, 6, 21 f.
6, 21 f. De
De
vectigalibus, 5;
vectigalibus, Hiero, 2,
5; Hiero, 2, 7; Oeconomicus, 1,
,; Oeconomicus, 211; and
I, 23; Cyropaedia, VIII,
and Cyropaedia, VIII, 4, ct.
,-8. Cf.
4, 7-8.
also Symposium, 1,
also Symposium, I, 1010 with Respublica Lacedaemoniorum,
with Respublica Lacedaemoniorum, XI, XI, 3. 11.
5e Cf. XV, 1.
Ct. XV, 1.
6e Xenophon
Xenophon shows shows thatthat the power of
the power of the
the Spartan kings is
Spartan kings is limited
limited to to the
the functions
functions
of priests and
of priests and ofof leaders
leaders of of the army: whereas
the army: whereas the king has
the king "power and
has "power and honor"
honor" in in
time
time of war, he
of war, he enjoys
enjoys onlyonly "honors"
"honors" in time of
in time of peace XIII, 1
(ct. XIII,
peace (cf. 1 and
and 10 10 f.f. with
with
XV,
XV, 8). 8). The
The Spartan
Spartan king king is is thus
thus induced
induced by by the very constitution
the very constitution to prefer war
to prefer war
to
to peace.
peace. (Cf. Thucydides, VIII,
(C/. Thucydides, VIII, 5, 11, and
5, 3, and Isocrates,
Isocrates, Nicocles,
Nicocles, 24.)24.) By letting us
By letting us see
see
this, Xenophon indicates
this, Xenophon indicates his judgment of
his judgment of the
the wisdom
wisdom of of that
that provision.
provision.
11A fullaccount,
A full GhengisKhan's
entitledGhengis
account,entitled Education,of
Khan's Education, the whole
of the lifeand
whole life workof
and work of
that conquerorand
that conqueror and empire·builder
empire-builder would afford
would affordaa tolerably adequate parallel
tolerably adequate parallel to to
Xenophon
Xenophon's 's Education
Educationot of Cyrus.
Cyrus.
22Hellenica, III, 3,
Hellenica, III, 8.
3, 8.
3In
S In the thirteenth
whole thirteenth
the whole chapter,no
chapter, no single mentionof
singlemention of the two kings
the two occurs.At
kings occurs. At
the beginning
the beginning of
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth chapter,Xenophonspeaksagain exclusively
chapter, Xenophon speaks again exclusively of
of "the
"the
king."In
king." In XV,
XV, 33 hehe leaves
leavesit it undetermined
undetermined whetherSparta
whether was ruled
Spartawas ruledby one or
by one or two
two
kings,
kings, thus
thus preparing
preparing us
us for
for the
the disclosure,
disclosure, in
in the
the followingparagraph,
following paragraph, that
that the
the
Spartan kingdomwas
Spartankingdom was no no monarchy.
monarchy. But after
But thisparagraph
afterthis paragraphhe does not
he does not mention
mention
the secondking
thesecond kingagain.
again.
44VIII,
VIII, 4. Plato,Laws,
Cf.Plato,
4. Ct. Laws,712712 dd 4'1), and Aristotle,
4-5,and Aristotle, Politics, 1270bb 14'15.
Politics,1270 14-15.The tact
The fact
"constitution"
that "constitution"
that is as
is as such irreconcilable
such irreconcilable with "tyranny"
with "tyranny" shows that the
showsthat the very
very
titleof
title of the treatiseis
the treatise is ironic;
ironic;ct.
cf.Hellenica, VI, 3,
Hellenica, VI, 8.
3, 8.
55Memorabilia,
Memorabilia, IV, 6,
IV, 12.
6, 12.
VI
VI
The Constitution
The Constitutionof the Lacedemonians,
of the Lacedemonia.ns, far far from
frombeing
being an an en-
en-
comiumof
comium of Sparta, is
Sparta, actually
is actually a
a most
most trenchant, if
trenchant, disguised,
if disguised, satire
satire
on that
on city
that city and
and its
its spirit. To
spirit. justify
To justify this
this contentionfully
contention fullywewe have
have
to indicate
to indicate the
the reasons
reasons which
which induced Xenophon firstto satirize
induced Xenophon first to satirize
Sparta,
Sparta, and
and then
then to
to conceal
conceal the
the satire.
satire.
He
He himself indicatesthe
clearlyindicates
himself clearly the reason
reason for for his writing aa satire
his writing satire
on Sparta.
on Sparta. At
At the
the end
end of
of the
the tenth
tenth chapter,
chapter, which
which reads
reads as
as if it
if it
were
were the end of
the end of the
the whole treatise and
whole treatise and which
which is is in fact the
in fact the esoteric
esoteric
end,
end, he
he tells
tells us
us that
that "all
"all praise"
praise" the
the Spartan
Spartan institutions.
institutions. And
And the
the
beginning of
beginning of the treatise is
the treatise is the
the words
words "But I."1 Praising
"But 1."1 Praising andand ad-
ad-
miringSpartawas a fashionin his time.Fashionsof thatkind are
miring Sparta was a fashion in his time. Fashions of that kind are
bound to
bound to be more or
be more or less
less unreasonable
unreasonable and therefore an
and therefore an induce-
induce-
ment
ment to to aa discerning
discerning man, man, who judges the
who judges the unreasonable
unreasonable to to bebe
ridiculous, to
ridiculous, satirize them.
to satirize Xenophon was
them. Xenophon was such
such aa man.
man. To To thethe
"all"
"all" who praise the
who praise institutions, he
Spartan institutions,
the Spartan he answers
answers by by aa treatise
treatise
which opens with
which opens with the words, "But
the words, "But II . .... . fell
fell wondering
wondering [and] [and] II
investigated these
investigated these institutions."
institutions."
One
One ofof the
the most
most famous
famous admirers
admirers of Sparta was
of Sparta who was
Critias, who
was Critias, was
aa poet and an
poet and enemy of
an enemy of Socrates
Socrates and and an oligarch. Critias
an oligarch. Critias was
was the
the
author of
author of two works, one
two works, in prose but
one in prose but oneone in verse, both
in verse, both entitled
entitled
Constitution
Constitution of of the
the Lacedemonians.
Lacedemonians. These These were were used
used byby Xeno-
Xeno-
phon and
phon and maymay bebe said
said toto have been the
have been model of
the model of his
his treatise
treatise onon
11 Compare also emphatic transition
Compare also the
the emphatic transition from
from "all
"all of us" to
of us" to "I"
"I" in VIII, 1.
in VIII, Xenophon
1. Xenophon
uses
uses in all other
in all other cases
cases the
the first singular; and
person singular;
first person and whereas
whereas elsewhere
elsewhere he says "I
he says "I
shall explain," "I
shall explain," believe," "I
"I believe," "I wonder," etc., he
wonder," etc., he constantly speaks of
constantly speaks what "I
of what "I know"
know"
in
in the chapter devoted
the chapter devoted toto the outspoken censure
the outspoken censure ofof contemporary
contemporary Sparta. Ct. Plato,
Sparta. Cf. Plato,
Republic, 544 cc 2-3,
Republic, 2-3, and 7th Letter,
and 7th 324 cc 2-3.
Letter, 324 2-3.
A
A censure
censure of moreover, was
Sparta, moreover,
of Sparta, was liable
liable toto bebe misunderstood
misunderstood
readers as
uncritical readers
by uncritical
by praise of
as aa praise Athens; for
of Athens; for atat the time when
the time when
Xenophon
Xenophon wrote
wrote the
the uncritical
uncritical reader
reader scarcely
scarcely saw
saw an
an alternative
alternative
to the choice
to the between the
choice between Spartan and
the Spartan and thethe Athenian spirit. And
Athenian spirit. And
Xenophon
Xenophon did
did not
not wish
wish to
to praise
praise Athens.
Athens. First
First of
of all,
all, he
he had
had rea-
rea-
sons of his
sons of his own forbade him
which forbade
own which him to praise that
to praise city and
that city and that
that
constitutionwhich
constitution which had
had condemned
condemned Socrates
Socrates to
to death.
death. And, be-
And, be-
sides, his
sides, taste did
his taste did not allow him
not allow him to to praise Athens: he
praise Athens: was an
he was an
Athenian and
Athenian and forfor an Athenian to
an Athenian to praise Athens was
praise Athens was anan easy
easything,
thing,
and the
and the noble
noble things
things are difficult.2
are difficult.2 By writing
By writing his
his censure
censure of
of Sparta
Sparta
in such
in such aa way that the
way that superficial
the superficial and
and uncritical
uncritical reader
reader could
could not
not
help taking
help taking it
it as
as praise of
praise Sparta,Xenophon certainlyprevented
of Sparta, Xenophon certainly prevented
the
the uncritical
uncritical admirer
admirer of of Athens
Athens fromfrom being confirmedin
being confirmed in his
his
prejudices.
prejudices.
Finally,
Finally, if if one satirizessomething
one satirizes somethingone considersthe
one considers the thing
thing in in
questionridiculous.
question ridiculous. One One considers
considersridiculous
ridiculous those thoseshortcomings
shortcomings
of other
of otherpeople
people which
which do
do not
not hurt
hurt one.
one. Educated
Educated consider
people consider
people
ridiculous
ridiculous onlyonlythose shortcomings
those shortcomings whichbetray
which betraylacklack ofof education.
education.
But being
But being educated
educated and
and therefore
therefore desiring
desiring not
not to
to offend
offend others,
others,
hide their
theyhide
they theirlaughter
laughteras as well as they
well as theycan can from
fromthe uneducated.
the uneducated.
That is
That is to
to say,
say, an
an educated
educated man
man will
will utter
utter his
his ridicule
ridicule of the
of the
lack of
lack of education,
education,or barbarismof
or barbarism of aa given
givenman man or or city
cityoror nation,
nation,
only in
only the
in the absence
absence of
of the
the uneducated.
uneducated. In
In other
other words,a good
words, a good
satireon
satire barbarismof
the barbarism
on the of aa given
given man
man or
or city
city or
or nation
nation will
will be
be
11Note
Noteespecially the extremely
especiallythe extremely bashfulmanner
bashful mannerin whichXenophon
in which of the
speaksof
Xenophonspeaks the
subjectsof
subjects the Spartans
of the Spartansinin XII,
XII, 2-4 and VII,
2-4 and VII, 2. as compared
2, as with Cyropaedia.
comparedwith Cyropaedia,
2, I1 If.
IV, 2,
IV. ff.
22Ct. foraa similar
Cf.for of conscience,
case of
similarcase conscience, Plato,Menexenus,
Plato, Menexenus,235 d.
235 d.
Belief in
Belief in the
the gods
gods the of
of the city was bound
citywas bound up with the
up with the belief
beliefin in
the existenceof
the existence of demigods or
demigodsor heroes, and therefore
heroes,and therefore in particular in particular
with the
with belief in
the belief the possibility
in the possibility of
of sexual
sexual intercourse
intercourse between
between
immortalgods
immortal gods and mortal men.
and mortal The
men. The Spartans for instance
Spartansfor instance be- be-
lieved that
lieved their kings
that their kings were descendantsof
were descendants of Heracles,
Heracles, and and thatthat
i Ct.
1 and XIV,
VIII, 55 and
Cf.VIII, withPlato,
XIV, 77 with Plato,Laws, 624 aa 1·6
Laws,624 1-6and
and 684
634 ee 1-2.
1-2.