Leo Strauss - ''The Spirit of Sparta, or The Taste of Xenophon'' (1939)

THE SPIRIT OF SPARTA OR
THE TASTE OF XENOPHON

BY LEO STRAUSS
I have not forgotten Xenophon,
but he will find his place Xenophonnon exciditmihi,sed
interphilosophosreddendusest.
among the philosophers.
- Quintilian
-- Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, Book X, 1.75
A^enophon's treatiseConstitutionof the Lacedemonians ap-

pearsto be devotedto praiseof the Spartanconstitution, or,which
amountsto the same thing,1of the Spartanmode of life.A super-
ficialreadinggivesthe impressionthathis admirationof Spartais
unreserved.One is thereforeall the more surprisedto findhim
declaringquite abruptly,towardthe end of the treatise,thatcon-
temporarySparta suffersfromverygrave defects.Yet in all but
the fourteenthof the fifteenchaptershe praises contemporary
Spartaabout as much as the Spartaof old, and he seemsto speak
quite indiscriminately of what the Spartan legislatorLycurgus
had enacted in the remotepast and of what the Spartanswere
actuallydoing in his time. That is to say the treatiseas a whole
hides the censure, inserted toward the end, of contemporary
Sparta.In orderto hide thatcensurestill more Xenophon uses a
strangedevice: he does not put it rightat the end, which would
be its properplace2but whereit would strikethe eyes,but sand-
wichesit in somewherein the last sectionof the treatise.
But why does he hide his censure of contemporary Sparta so
ineptly?Could he not have concealedit much more effectively by
is
simplyomittingit? This of course true; but the mere omission
would have had a greatdisadvantage:nobodycould thensee that
Xenophonwas not blind to the seriousdefectsof the Spartaof his
time; and any sensiblereader who had those defectsbeforehim
would have consideredthe authora biased fool or partisanor a
1C/. Aristotle,Politics,1295b 1.
2 Cf. the "epilogue"of Xenophon'sCyropaedia.
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XENOPHON
XENOPHON ON ON SPARTA
SPARTA 503
503
weakling corrupted
weakling corrupted by gifts,
by gifts, and he
and he would
would not have taken
not have taken atat all
all
seriously
seriously the
the author's
author's praise of
praise Lycurgus'legislation.
of Lycurgus' legislation. Xenophon
Xenophon
was
was therefore
therefore compelled to
compelled pronounce
to pronounce his
his censure
censure of
of contemporary
contemporary
Spartain
Sparta in order
ordernotnot to to compromise
compromise his
his praise
praise of of the old Sparta.
the old Sparta.
Now
Now if ifhe
he had put that
had put censureat
that censure at the endof
the end ofthe
the treatise he would
treatise he would
have spoiledthe
have spoiled the total effect
total effect of aa work
of work which
which is is devoted
devotednot not toto
blaming,
blaming, but
but to
to praising.1
praising. 1
This fails,
This fails,however,
however, to to dispose
disposeof of the objectionthat
the objection that the
the way
way inin
whichXenophon
which half
Xenophon half hides hides hishiscensure
censureof ofcontemporary
contemporary Spartais
Sparta is
veryclumsy,
very clumsy, and
and that,
that, considering his
considering greatliterarygifts,any
his great literary gifts, any
hypothesis
hypothesis is preferable to
is preferable to the assumption
the assumption that
that he he used
used aa literary
literary
deviceawkwardly.
device awkwardly. To
To that
that objection,
objection, which
which is
is sound
sound as
as far
far as it
as it
is based
is based onon observation
observation of Xenophon's
of talents, we
exceptionaltalents,
Xenophon'sexceptional we
answerthat
answer ifin
that if in aa given
given case
case he
he apparently
apparently happens
happens to
to do
do a
a bad
bad
job
job as
as a
a writer,
writer, or
or as
as a
a thinker,
thinker, he
he actually
actually does
does it deliberately
it deliberately and
and
forvery
for goodreasons.
very good reasons. As As farfarasas the alludesto
objectionalludes
the objection certain
to certain
devicesof
devices of higher criticism,
higher criticism, we reply that
we reply that methods
methods of of that
that kind
kind
shouldnot
should not be appliedbefore
be applied before the author'sintentions
the author's intentions havehave been
been
truly
truly understood.
understood. This
This is
is to
to say
say first
first that,by hiding
that, by hiding his
his censure
censure
ofcontemporary
of contemporary Spartaclumsily,
Sparta clumsily, Xenophongives
Xenophon givesus us to understand
to understand
that he
that he hides
hides certain much
certainmuch more important views
more important views of his in
of his an
in an
extremely
extremely able
able manner;
manner; and
and second,
second, that
that the
the duty
duty of
of the
the inter-
inter-
preter is
preter is not
not to attempt
to attempt to be wiser
to be wiser than Xenophon, but
than Xenophon, but to exert
to exert
all his
all his powers
powers of ofunderstanding
understanding and and imagination
imagination in
in order
order to
to make
make
someprogress
some toward wisdom
progress toward wisdom by takingXenophon
by taking Xenophon as as his guide.
his guide.
II
The first
The first chapterof
chapter ofthe
the treatise appearsto
treatise appears to be devotedto
be devoted to praise of
praise of
Lycurgus'
Lycurgus' laws
laws concerning
concerning procreation
procreation of
of children.
children. Xenophon
Xenophon
points outtwo
points out two important differences
important differences between
between the way in
the way in which
which the
the
otherGreeks
other Greeksbring
bring upup their futuremothers
their future mothers andand Lycurgus'
Lycurgus' pro-
pro-
visions; but
visions; but whereas
whereas he explainsthe
he explains secondof
the second of these differences
these differences
with
with perfect
perfect clarity, he
clarity, only
he only touches
touches upon
upon the
the first.
first. All
All he saysre-
he says re-
gardingit
garding it is:
is: "The othersfeed
"The others feedthe girlswho
the girls are destined
who are destinedto bear
to bear
11See
See G. Prinz, De
G. Prinz, De Xenophontis
Xenophontis Cyri institutione
Cyriinstitutione (Göttingen19
(Gottingen 1911)
11 ) . p. 74.
p. 74.

504
504 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
children, and
children, and whowho are supposed to
are supposed be well
to be educated, on
well educated, on both
both the
the
most
most moderate
moderate quantityquantity of vegetable food
of vegetable food which
which is is practicable,
practicable,
and
and onon thethe smallest quantity of
smallest quantity meat which
of meat which is possible; as
is possible; as regards
regards
wine,they
wine, they either
either keep
keep the
the girls
girls from
from it
it altogether
altogether or
or let
let them
them con-
con-
sume
sume it only if
it only if it
it is diluted with
is diluted water."l He
with water/'1 He omits,
omits, then,
then, any any men-
men-
tion of what
tion of Lycurgus had
what Lycurgus had enacted concerning the
enacted concerning the food and
food and drink drink
of girls; or
of girls; rather he
or rather he does
does not
not tell
tell us by an
us by statement, but
explicit statement,
an explicit but
gives us
gives us all
all the
the information necessary between
information necessary between the lines, i.e.
the lines, by the
i.e. by the
way
way in
in which
which he
he arranges
arranges the
the whole
whole argument.
argument. For
For the
the statement
statement
quoted belongs
quoted belongs to
to aa context
context which
which is
is destined to
destined to set forth the
set forth the dif-
dif-
ferences between, and
ferences between, opposition of,
and opposition of, the practices of
the practices other Greek
of other Greek
cities and the
cities and practices established
the practices established by Lycurgus;2 it
by Lycurgus;2 is, therefore,
it is, therefore,
simply an
simply introduction to
an introduction to aa much
much more important statement,
more important statement, sup- sup-
pressedby Xenophon,
pressed by Xenophon, that
that the
the eating
eating and
and drinking
drinking habits
habits of
of Spar-
Spar-
tan girls were
tan girls different from
were different from and opposed to
and opposed those of
to those of other
other Greek
Greek
girls. Thus
girls. Xenophon gives
Thus Xenophon gives us us to understand that
to understand Lycurgus al-
that Lycurgus al-
lowed the
lowed Spartangirls
the Spartan ample food
girls ample food and undiluted wine.
and undiluted wine. Allowing
Allowing
them ample food
them ample appears to
food appears measure most conducive to
be aa measure
to be most conducive to the
the
of
procreation strongoffspring, purpose
procreation of strong offspring, the
the purpose of
of his
his legislation
legislation
which
which Xenophon
Xenophon is discussingin
is discussing in the context under
the context consideration.
under consideration.
Why then
Why then doesdoes hehe not
not state explicitlywhat
stateexplicitly Lycurgus had
what Lycurgus had enacted
enacted
with regard to
withregard to the food of
the food of girls?
girls?TheThe riddle
riddle is is solved
solved by by the fact
the fact
that "ample food" is closely
that "ample food" is closely connected
connected in
in Xenophon's argument
Xenophon's argument
with "undilutedwine."
with "undiluted wine." For For although
although there
there is good reason
is good reason for forgiv-
giv-
young women
ing young
ing women ample ample food, allowing them
food, allowing them undiluted
undiluted Greek Greek
wine
wine maymay be be dangerous.
dangerous.We know from
We know fromeasily accessiblesources
easily accessible sources
thatSpartan
that Spartangirls girlsand womenwere
and women famousfor
werefamous theirlaxity
fortheir laxityof man-
of man-
ners in general,
ners in general, and
and especially
especially in
in matters
matters of
of sex;3
sex;3 and
and we
we know
know the
the
connectionbetween
close connection
close between Venus Venus and and Bacchus. Because of
Bacchus. Because of the fa-
the fa-
mous licentiousnessof
mous licentiousness of Spartan
Spartan women
women Xenophon saysnothingof
Xenophon says nothing of
thequantity
the quantityand and quality
qualityof foodand
offood and drink whichSpartan
drinkwhich Spartangirls con-
girlscon-
11 Constitution
Constitutionot the Lacedemonians,
of the Lacedemonians, I, 3.
11.
22 I,
1, 11-4-
3-4. Ct- and 10.
2, 55
Cf. I, 2,and 10.
8 Plato,
B Plato, Laws, 637 Cc 1-2
Laws, 637 {cf.ee 1-11)
1-2 (ct. 1-3) and it. Ct.
780 dd 99 If.
and 780 also Republic,
c;. also a-D, 549
54» a-b,
Kepuouc, 548 c-e
549 c-e
and 550
and 550 d
d 12;
12; Aristotle,
Aristotle, Politics,
Politics, 1269
126g b
b 9-12
9-12 and
and 1270
1270 a
a 7-9;
7-9; Euripides,
Euripides, Andromache,
Andromache,
w. 595-601.
vv. 595-601.

XENOPHON
SPARTA 505
505
sumed,aa wise
sumed, omission
wise omission in aa treatise
in devotedto
treatise devoted to the
the praise
praise ofofSparta.
Sparta.
But would
But would itit not
not have been wiser
have been stillif
wiser still if he had not
he had evenmen-
not even men-
tioned
tioned the opposedpractices
the opposed practices of of other Greekcities?
otherGreek cities? IfIf we are not
we are not
to assumethat
to assume that hehe was foolwho
was aa fool who waswas unable
unable to to realize an obvious
realize an obvious
implication
implication of his
of ownstatements,
his own statements, or that
or that hehe was worse writer
was aa worse writer
than the most
than the most hurried
hurried reporter couldpossibly
reporter could possibly be,be, wewe must
must believe
believe
that
that he did it
he did faintindication
as aa faint
it as indication ofthe
of of
laxity Spartan
the laxity of Spartan women.
women.
This conclusion
This conclusion is confirmed
is confirmed by
by the
the whole
whole argument
argument ofthe
of the first
first
chapter
chapter and,indeed,
and, indeed, of
of the
the whole
whole treatise.
treatise. Immediately
Immediately after
after allud-
allud-
ing
ing to
to the
the diet
diet of
of the
the SpartangirlsXenophonmentions
Spartan girls Xenophon mentions their
their physi-
physi-
cal exercises.
cal exercises. In that
In that context
context he he pointedly
pointedly speaksspeaksof of the Spartan
the Spartan
"females."1
"females."l Byusing
By using that
that expression
expression he
he refers,
refers, I
I assume,
assume, to
to the fact
the fact
that Spartanwomen
that Spartan women were leftto
were left to their animalnatures
their animal natures much
much moremore
than
than were Spartanmen,
were Spartan men, because
because they
they were
were much
much less
less disciplined.
disciplined.
Only
Only education2
education could
2 could have
have made
made Spartan
Spartan women
women continent
continent and
and
thus
thus have actedas
have acted an antidote
as an antidoteagainst"ample
against "ample food
food and
and undiluted
undiluted
wine/' Yet in
wine." Yet the whole
in the whole treatise
treatise Xenophon
Xenophon does doesnot sayaa single
not say single
explicitword
explicit about education,
word about education,other otherthan physical,of
than physical, of Spartan
Spartan
women,s whereas
women,3 whereas he emphasizes
he emphasizes the fact
the fact that education
Spartaneducation
that Spartan
made
made the Spartanmen
theSpartan continent,
men continent, andthe
and the related
related fact thatas
fact that as aa con-
con-
1 does this
He does
1 He this by firstof
speaking first
by speaking of "the
"the male
male and female tribe"
and female tribe" andand by by then con-
then con-
"the men"
trasting"the
trasting men" with "the females"
with "the females" (I, 4).
2
2 Ct. Ill, 2.
Cf. III, 2.
8 Notice
S Notice thethe mention
mention of of education
education of of girls other than
girls other Spartan in
than Spartan in I, 3. 3. Xenophon
Xenophon
seems to
seems to speak
speak ofof the education of
the education of Spartan
Spartan girls in the
girls in second chapter,
the second chapter, which
which isis
devoted to
devoted education of
the education
to the of children. There he
children. There uses only
he uses only once once the
the unambiguous
unambiguous
word "sons"-at the
word "sons"-at the beginning
beginning of of the chapter, where
the chapter, where hehe isis not
not yet speaking of
yet speaking of Spar-
Spar-
tan education but
tan education of education
but of education as as practiced
practiced in other Greek
in other Greek cities.
cities. He
He immediately
immediately
afterwardsreplaces
afterwards "sons" by
replaces "sons" by the ambiguous word
the ambiguous "children," and
word "children," and uses
uses itit through-
through-
out the chapter.
out the chapter. InIn II, 5,5, he speaks of
he speaks of the frugal food
extremelyfrugal
the extremely food ofof Spartan "male"
Spartan "male"
this remark
children; this
children; shows again
remark shows that the
again that the food of Spartan
food of Spartan "female" children was
"female" children was
not
not frugal.
frugal. InIn II, II,
11, (I am following
(I am following thethe readings
readings ofof the
the mss)
MSS) he informsus
he informs that if
us that if
no older man
no older man were available to
were available supervise the
to supervise children the
the children smartestof
the smartest of the "males"
the "males"
had
had to take command;
to take command; this that Spartan
implies that
this implies Spartan boys and girls
boys and girls had
had their
their physical
physical
exercises together.
exercises (The bad
together. (The consequences of
bad consequences of the Spartan type
the Spartan type of coeducation for
of coeducation for
the
the chastity
chastityof of women
women were were emphasized
emphasized by loc. cit.)
Euripides, loco
by Euripides, This conclusion
cit.) This conclusion is is not
not
contradictedbut
contradicted rather confirmed
but rather confirmedby 4, where
by I, 4, where Xenophon
Xenophon speaks speaks of of rival contests
rival contests
among women
among women as as distinguished
distinguishedfrom fromcontests
contestsamong men; for
among men; for rival contestsof
rival contests of adults
adults
are one
are one thing, and physical
thing, and exercises of
physical exercises of children
children are another. Compare
are another. Compare J. J. S.
S,
Watson's
Watson's translation
translation of of Xenophon's
Xenophon's Minor Works (London
Minor Works (London 1891) ISgI) p. 206, note
p. 206, note 3.3.

506
506 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
sequence of
sequence legislation "it
Lycurgus' legislation
of Lycurgus' "it has become manifest
has become manifest that that the
the
male tribe is
male tribe stronger than
is stronger those of
than those female nature
of female even as
nature even as regards
regards
modesty."1 Xenophon says
modesty."l Xenophon nothing of
says nothing of the women's moral
the women's moral educa-educa-
tion
tion or of their
or of their sense
sense of shame for
of shame the same
for the reason that
same reason that he he says
says
nothing of
nothing of their
their diet.
diet.
For
For it was not
it was modesty of
not modesty women, but
of women, modesty of
only modesty
but only of men
men
which was fostered
which was fostered by by Lycurgus' legislation. This
Lycurgus' legislation. This is brought out
is brought out byby
Xenophon at
Xenophon at the beginning of
the beginning of his account of
his account of the Spartan marriage
the Spartan marriage
laws,
laws, the
the third
third and
and last
last topic
topic of
of the
the first
first chapter.
chapter. There
There he
he explains
explains
Lycurgus' provisions for
Lycurgus' provisions training the
for training Spartans in
the Spartans continence with
in continence with
regardto sexual
regard to sexual intercourse.
intercourse. The
The husband
husband was
was commanded
commanded to
to be
be
ashamed if
ashamed he were
if he seen when
were seen entering or
when entering leaving his
or leaving wife's room.
his wife's room .
Obedience to
. Obedience to that
that command
command had, had, andand was intended to
was intended have, aa two-
to have, two-
fold
fold effect: increased the
it increased
effect: it feeling of
the feeling shame, and
of shame, and atat the same time
the same time
it
it increased increase in
The increase
desire. The
increased desire. desire was
in desire was common
common to to husband
husband
and wife,whereas
and wife, whereas the
the increase
increase in
in bashfulness
bashfulness was
was in
in the
the husband
husband
The other
only.2The
only.2 marriage laws
other marriage gave the
laws gave the husband
husband aa surprisingly
surprisingly
large freedom to
large freedom indulge in
to indulge adultery himself
in adultery himself and to permit his
and to permit his wife
wife
to indulge.
to indulge. As
As a
a matter
matter of
of fact
fact that
that freedom
freedom appears
appears to
to have
have been
been
practically
practically limitless;
limitless; for
for after
after having
having explained
explained two
two laws laws of of the
the
kind which
kind which by by themselves
themselves were
were liberal
liberal enough,Xenophon
enough, Xenophon adds
adds that
that
Lycurgus
Lycurgus "made
"made many
many concessions
concessions of
of thatsort."
that Although he
sort."Although lets
he lets
us only
us guessat
onlyguess effectwhich
the effect
at the these concessions
whichthese concessions were bound to were bound to
have on
have thechastity
on the chastityof of women,
women,who who furthermore
furthermore werenot
were not subject
subject
to any
to restrictions,
dietaryrestrictions,
anydietary he clearly
he statesthat
clearlystates womenhad
thewomen
thatthe had rea-
rea-
sonsof
sons theirown
of their own to to be satisfiedwith
be satisfied withthese "forthe
laws: "for
theselaws: women
the women
[in
[in Sparta] desireto
Sparta]desire to control
controltwo households."3
twohouseholds."3
We concludethen
We conclude thatthe
then that firstchapter
the first chapterof Constitutionof
the Constitution
of the of
theLacedemonians,
the Lacedemonians,apparently
apparently in
in praise
praise of
of the
the Spartan
Spartan legislation
legislation
concerning
concerningprocreation
procreationof ofchildren,
children,is actuallyaa disguised
is actually disguisedsatire satireon on
Spartan women.Now
Spartanwomen. Now Xenophon
Xenophon makes makesno no distinction
distinctionother otherthanthan
11II,
II, 14 and III,
14and III, 4. The irony
4. The thesecond
ofthe
ironyof statement
secondstatement is still
is moreclear
stillmore com-
one com-
ifone
clearif
pares
paressuchsuchpassages
passagesas as Plato,
Plato,Laws, 802 ee 8-10,
Laws,802 and Aristotle,
8-10,and Aristotle, Politics, 1260aa 22
Politics,1260 ff.
22 If.'
and 1277
and 1277 b
b 20
20 ff.
If. Cf.Xenophon,Agesilaus,
Ct. Xenophon, Agesilaus, 6,
6, 7.
7.
Ct. I, 5.
22C/.I,5.
88I,
1, 6-9. Withregard
6-9.With regardto to Spartan gynaecocracy,
Spartangynaecocracy, see Aristotle,
see Aristotle, roitttcs,
Politics, 1209bd 24-M·
126g 24-34.

XENOPHON
SPARTA 507
507
verbal between
verbal between the
the actual
actual behavior
behavior ofof Spartan
Spartanwomen,
women, present or
present or
past,
past, and
and the
the behavior
behavior decreed
decreed by Lycurgus'legislation.
by Lycurgus' legislation. We
We must,
must,
therefore, say
therefore, say that
that the
the satire
satire on
on Spartan
Spartan women
women is
is also
also a
a satire
satire on
on
Sparta in
Sparta general
in general and
and on
on Lycurgus1
Lycurgus' legislation.
legislation.
n
II
To showthe
To show excellenceof
the excellence of Spartan education,Xenophon
Spartaneducation, contrasts
Xenophon contrasts
the
the public educationof
public education of Sparta,
Sparta, which
which leads
leads to
to virtue,
virtue, with
with private
private
educationas
education as practiced
practiced in in other
otherGreek
Greekcities,
cities,which
which leads
leads to effem-
to effem-
inacy.
inacy. Here
Here he
he uses
uses the
the same
same device
device which
which he
he used
used before in
before dis-
in dis-
cussing
cussing the
the Spartan
Spartan laws
laws on
on procreation
procreation of
of children:
children: he
he indicates
indicates
two
two major differences
major differences between,
between, say, say,Athenian practiceand
Athenian practice and Spartan
Spartan
practice,
practice, and
and although he
although clearlyexplains
he clearly explains the
the second
second difference,
difference, he
he
saysnothing
says nothing about salientfeature
about aa salient featureof of the firstand
the first and more important
more important
difference. Concerning this
difference.Concerning this he says
he says that
that education was
Spartan education
Spartan was
public, while
public, educationin
while education in other
otherGreek citieswas
Greek cities private. Yet
was private. Yet he
he
mentions
mentions also also that
that the otherGreeks
the other Greeks"send"send their childrenas
their children as soon as
soon as
they
they understand
understand what
what is
is spoken
spoken .
. .
. .
. immediately
immediately to
to teachers
teachers to
to
learn letters,
learn letters,andand music,
music, andand the exercisesof
the exercises of the palaestra."! And
the palaestra/*1 And
he says
he says no
no word
word in
in either
either the
the immediate
immediate context
context or
or any
any other
other pas-
pas-
of the
sage of
sage the treatise about what
treatise about Lycurgushad
what Lycurgus enactedor
had enacted or what
what the
the
Spartans
Spartans were
were actuallydoing regarding
actually doing regarding education
education in
in "letters
"letters and
and
music." This omission
music." This omissionis as little
is as little aa matter
matter of chanceas
of chance as was
was the
the pre-
pre-
cedingand
ceding and almost
almostexactly correspondingomission
exactly corresponding omissionof of the Spartan
the Spartan
dietary
dietary laws
laws for
for girls:Xenophon
girls: Xenophon informs
informs us
us between
between the
the lines
lines that
that
in Spartathere
in Sparta there waswas no educationworth
no education worth mentioning
mentioning in in letters
lettersand
and
music.2
music. 2
What
What was was in itsstead?
in its stead?Physical education,of
Physical education, of course.
course.Yet Spartan
Yet Spartan
education had
education some specific
had some specific features
features which
which Xenophon is
Xenophon is very
very
anxious for
anxious for us
us to realize. He
to realize. emphasizesthe
He emphasizes the fact
fact that chil-
Spartanchil-
that Spartan
dren wereinstructed stealing
dren were instructed in
in stealing as
as well
well as
as in
in robbingand deceiv-
robbing and deceiv-
ill, i. Ct.
1 II, 1. Cf. Apologia 16.
Socratis, 16.
Apologia Socratis,
22The
The mention
mention of "teachers"of
of "teachers" of children otherthan
childrenother Spartanin
than Spartan III, 11 serves
in III, servesthe
the
same purpose,
same purpose, as appears from
as appears from aa comparison of that
comparisonof paragraph with
that paragraph the rest
with the of
rest of
the chapter.
the chapter.

508
508 SOCIAL
SOCIAL RESEARCH RESEARCH
ing; and
ing; and he he defends especially the
defends especially the Spartan practice of
Spartan practice of punishing
punishing
severely
severely the
the children
children who
who were
were caught
caught when
when attemptingto
attempting to steal,
steal,
by the
by following remark:
the following remark: "Some"Some one one might
might say, then, if
why, then,
say, why, if he
he
[Lycurgus]judged stealing
[Lycurgus] judged stealing to
to be
be good,
good, did
did he
he inflict
inflict manystripes
many stripes
on him
on him who
who was caught? Because,
was caught? answer, in
Because, II answer, in all
all other things, too,
other things, too,
whichmen teach,theypunish
which men teach, they punish him
him who
who does
does not
not execute
execute the
the in-
in-
struction Accordingly, the
properly. Accordingly,
struction properly. the Spartans punish those
Spartans punish those whowho are are
caught because of
caught because of their badly."l His
stealing badly."1
their stealing praise of
His praise of the
the Spartan
Spartan
education in
education "stealing well"
in "stealing well" is is in contradiction of
obvious contradiction
in obvious of his
his
censure of
censure of that practice in
that practice in the Cyropaedia, and
the Cyropaedia, and of of aa reference
reference to to itit
in
in the Anabasis which
the Anabasis which is, is, II believe, recognized as
generally recognized
believe, generally as ironic.2
ironic. 2
A consideration of
A consideration of these parallels led
these parallels led aa recent editor of
recent editor the Consti-
of the Consti-
tutionof theLacedemoniansto
tution of the Lacedemonians to doubt
doubt the
the sincerity of
sincerity Xenophon's
of Xenophon's
praise
praise of
of this
this type
type of
of education.3
education. s The
The doubt
doubt is
is fully justified, but
fully justified, but
insincerity is
insincerity is too vague aa term
too vague term forfor what
what is is more precisely to
more precisely to be be
called irony. Or
called irony. Or was Xenophon, who
was Xenophon, who not
not only ironically of
spoke ironically
only spoke of
the education in
Spartaneducation
the Spartan stealingin
in stealing the Anabasis
in the A nabasis but but who who was,
was,
a
a pupil of
afterall, pupil Socrates,incapable irony?
after all, of Socrates, incapable of
of irony? Can
Can it
it not
not be
be seen
seen
that his
that his justification
justification of of the
the Spartan custom of
Spartancustom punishing those
of punishing who
those .who
badly" is
"stealbadly"
"steal is based
based onon the ironicpremise
the ironic that is
"stealingis good,"
premise that "stealing good,"
an
an art comparable to
art comparable grammar
to grammar or
or music
music or
or perhaps
perhaps even
even to
to eco-
eco-
nomics? Another
nomics? Another feature characteristic
featurecharacteristic of Spartan
of education and
Spartan education and
of Spartan
of Spartan life
life in
in general
general was
was arbitrary
arbitrary commands,
commands, with
with severe
severe
punishment,especiallyheavywhippings,for
punishment, especially heavy whippings, one caught
for one caught disobey-
disobey-
ing thecommands.4
ing the commands. 4
Xenophon'spraise
Xenophon's praise of
of that
that method
method of
of education
education
is contradictedby
is contradicted by what
what he says
he elsewhereabout
sayselsewhere about the superiority
the superiority of
of
educationby
education bypersuasion and
persuasionand speech over education
speechover education by bycompulsion.
compulsion.5 5
We conclude
We concludethen thatthe
thenthat the argument
argumentof the second
of the secondchapter
chapterof of the
the
Constitution
Constitution theLacedemonians
ofthe
of Lacedemonians is is designed
designedto to let us
let us glimpse
glimpsethe the
1111,6-9'
II, 6-9.
22 Cyropaedia,
Cyropaedia, I, 6,
I, 6,!P-32. Anabasis,IV,
31-32.Anabasis, IV, 6,
6, 14-15.
14-15.
33F.
F. Ollier, La rtfpublique
Oilier,La republiquedes Lacédemoniens
desLacedemoniens (Lyon 1934)p.
(Lyon1934) xxxiii.
p. xxxiii.
4411,2
II, 2 and 8-10.Ct.
and 8-10. 6; VI,
IV, 6;
Cf.IV, 2; IX,
VI, 2; IX, 5; X, 4-7.
5; X, 4-7.
55Memorabilia,
Memorabilia,I, I, 2, 10. Riera,
2, 10. Hiero,9,9, 2. uè re
2. De re equestri,
equestri,II, 0. Cyrapaedia,
11, 6. Liyropaeaia, I, 2, 2-3.
1, 2, 2-3.
Oeconomicus,
Oeconomicus, 14,7. The
14,7. lastmentioned
twolast
The two mentioned aredirect
passagesare
passages directparallels toRespublica
parallelsto Respublica
Lacedaemoniorum,
Lacedaemoniorum, X, 4'7.
X, 4-7.

XENOPHON ON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
SPARTA 509
509
fact that in
fact that instruction in
Sparta instruction
in Sparta letters and
in letters music was
and music replaced by
was replaced by
instruction in
instruction stealing and
in stealing by severe
and by severe whipping.1
whipping. 1
This conclusion is
This conclusion open to
is open to anan objection which at
objection which at first
first glance
glance
seems irrefutable.
seems irrefutable. The The mostmost obvious parallel to
obvious parallel Xenophon's de-
to Xenophon's de-
scription of
scription Spartan
of Spartan education
education is
is his
his description
description of
of Persian
Persian educa-
educa-
tion near the
tion near beginning of
the beginning of the Cyropaedia. A
the Cyropaedia. comparison of
A comparison of the
the
two shows that
descriptions shows
two descriptions that he considered Persian
he considered education defi-
Persian education defi-
nitely superior to
nitely superior Spartan, not
to Spartan, not to that he
say that
to say considered the
he considered the former
former
to
to be
be absolutely
absolutely perfect. Now
perfect. Now in his in description of Persian educa-
his description of Persian educa-
tion
tion he again mentions
he again mentions the education in
the education which was
letters which
in letters was the
the
custom of
custom other than
people other
of people than the Persians, and
the Persians, and fails to mention
fails to mention any any
Persian education of
Persian education that kind.
of that kind. We We seem therefore to
seem therefore to be forced to
be forced to
conclude that
conclude Xenophon thus
that Xenophon thus hints
hints at the barbaric
at the character of
barbaric character of
education as
Persian education
Persian as well. Although II do
well. Although do not think that
not think that this is not
this is not
borne out
borne out by the whole
by the Cyropaedia, and
whole Cyropaedia, and byby what many educated
what many educated
Greeks have
Greeks thought of
have thought of Persian
Persian education, I limit
education, I limit myself myself here
here toto
pointing
pointing out
out one
one important
important difference
difference between
between Persian
Persian and
and Spar-
Spar-
tan educationas
tan education as described
described by by Xenophon.
Xenophon. If If the
the Persians
Persians lacked
lacked
schools of
schools of music
music and lettersthey
and letters certainly had
they certainly schoolsof
had schools ofjustice,
justice,
an educational
an educational institution
institution ofhigh
of standing
high standing which was
which totally absent
was totally absent
fromSparta.2
from Sparta. 2 In
In these
these schools,
schools, the
the Persian
Persian boys
boys were
were taught to
taught give
to give
and take
and accountof
take account of their
theirdoings,
doings, which
which naturally
naturally developedthe
developed the
power
power ofof speech.
speech.It It developed
developedin in Cyrus,
Cyrus,forforinstance,
instance, not onlyaa
notonly
charmingtalkativeness,3
charming talkativeness,s but
but likewise
likewise a
a remarkable
remarkable abilityto
ability to
haranguehis
harangue hissoldiers
soldiersas as well
well asas anan almost
almostSocratic habitof
Socratichabit ofdiscov-
discov-
the
ering profitable
ering the profitable truth,
truth, and
and of
of guiding
guiding men
men byhavingdialogues
by having dialogues
with themin
withthem bothjest
in both andearnest.
jest and earnest. Butwas
But wasXenophon
Xenophonnot notaa soldier
soldier
whoas
who attached
suchattached
as such importance
importance todeeds
to rather than words?
deedsrather than words? How- How-
1xIt is important
It is important to noticethat
to notice thatXenophon devotesonly
Xenophondevotes one chapter
onlyone to the
chapterto the account
account
of Spartan
of Spartan education
education (see
(see the
the emphatic
emphatic conclusion
conclusion of
of the
the second
second chapter).
chapter). This
This
meansthat
means thatLycurgus' regulationsfor
Lycurgus'regulations adolescentsand
foradolescents and young whichare
men,which
youngmen, are dis·
dis-
cussedin
cussed in the thirdand
the third and fourth
fourthchapters, cannotpossibly
chapters,cannot possiblybebe brought under the
broughtunder the
"education"-at least
heading"education"-at
heading not by
least not by aa man
man who knowswhat
who knows what education
educationreally is.
reallyis.
reasonthat
The reason
The thatXenophon
Xenophoncould couldspeak
speakofof Spartan "education"of
Spartan"education" ofboys, is indicated
boys,is indicated
below (p.
below note4).
511,note
(p. 511, 4).
22Ct. II, 11 If.
Cf.II, withCyropaedia,
ff.with Cyropaedia, I, 6.
2, 6.
I, I,
88 Cyropaedia,
Cyropaedia, I, 4,
I, 4, 3.
3.

510
510 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
everthis
ever may be,
this may it is
be, it is precisely
precisely with regard to
with regard military matters
to military matters thatthat
he stressesthe
he stresses decisive importance
the decisive importanceof of speech
speech for for commanding
commanding
human
human beings, as distinguished fromspeechless animals.1 1 Now
beings, as distinguishedfrom speechlessanimals. Now
Spartan
Spartan children
children and
and adolescents
adolescents were
were not
not trained
trained in
in speech
speech but
but in
in
utter
utter taciturnity:
taciturnity : Lycurgus commandedthe
Lycurgus commanded the adolescents
adolescents "to "to walk
walk
in
along silence/'
along in silence," and
and "you would hear no more sound of
"you would hear no more sound of a
a voice
voice
from them
from them thanthan from statues/'2Thus
stone statues."2
from stone Thus the Persianshad
the Persians had no no
education in
education lettersand
in letters and music,
music, but did have
but did educationin
have education in speech;
speech;
while both
while lettersand
both letters and speech
speech were
were in
ignored Sparta.
ignored in Sparta.
Our contentionhas
Our contention has been
been that Xenophon, by
that Xenophon, by mentioning
mentioning educa- educa-
tion in letters
tion in lettersandand music
music in in speaking
speaking of
of other
other Greeks
Greeks and
and not
not men-
men-
tioning it
tioning in speaking
it in speakingof ofthe
the Spartans, wants us
Spartans,wants us to givesome
to give some thought
thought
to theabsenceoflettersand musicfromSparta.We mightnot have
to the absence of letters and music from Sparta. We might not have
noticed the
noticed hintif
the hint if we had not
we had seen before
not seen before the the similar device used
similardevice used
in discussingthe
in discussing the upbringing
upbringing of futuremothers
of future mothers in in Sparta
Spartaand and else-
else-
where.
where. ThatThat was, however, much
was, however, much more obvious.He
more obvious. He gave
gave two
two com-
com-
plete
plete sentences
sentences exclusively
exclusively to
to an
an account
account of
of the
the diet
diet of
of otherGreek
other Greek
girls,thuscompelling
girls, thus compelling us
us to
to expect a
expect corresponding
a corresponding statement
statement deal-
deal-
ing exclusively,or
ing exclusively, at least
or at chiefly,
least chiefly, with
with the Spartans,and
the Spartans, and the
the total
total
disappointment
disappointment of our
of expectationled
our expectation led us to realize
us to realize that something
that something
is wrong with
is wrong with hishis whole discourse. But
whole discourse. concerning
But concerning education
education in
in
letters music, he
and music,
letters and merely mentions
he merely mentions the topic in
the topic in aa single sentence
single sentence
which seemsto
which seems declare,
to declare, not
not that
that education
education in
in letters
letters and
and music
music was
was
found in
be found
to be
to in other cities,but
Greek cities,
other Greek but that education in
that education in other
other
Greek citieswas
Greekcities was private
private and at least
and at least partly entrusted
partly entrusted to slaves. And
to slaves. And
that sentencefinds
that sentence its natural
finds its supplement
natural supplement in
in a
a later
later one
one which
which
showsthat
shows educationin
that education Spartawas
in Sparta was public
public and and entrusted
entrustedto citizens
to citizens
of high
of standing.3
high standing. Therefore
3 Therefore the
the curiosity
curiosity raised
raised by
by the
the first
first sen-
sen-
tence
tence is almostcompletely
is almost and we
satisfied,and
completelysatisfied, we areare not compelled to
not compelled to
remain vigilant to
remain vigilant the same
to the extentas
same extent as we
we werewere in in the case of
the case of his
his
account of
account of the girlsor
the girls women. The
or women. difference
The difference in the
in the use
use of of the
the
same device is
samedevice is hardly surprising
hardly surprising once
once one
one has
has seen
seen that
that music
music and
and
11 Memorabilia, III,
Memorabilia, III, !!. 11. De
3, 11. De re 8, 13.
equestri,8,
re equestri, I!!.
2
2 III, 4'5. Ct.
III. 4-5. above p.
Cf. above 507, note
p. 507, 1.
note 1.
I II. 1-2.
»II, I -a.

XENOPHON
SPARTA 511
511
letters, and
letters, speech,are
and speech, are much
much more directly
more directly connectedwith
connected with the
the
hidden
hidden truthtruth than
than is continence,
is continence, which
which is
is only
only a
a rather
rather remote,
remote,
ifindispensable,
if indispensable, means
means for
for the
the true
true end
end of
of human
human life.
life.
Xenophon concludes
Xenophon concludes his accountof
his account ofSpartan educationby
Spartaneducation by praise
praise
of the
of continence
the continence of the
of Spartansin
the Spartans in love between men
love between men and and boys.
boys.
He
He points
points outout that "somepeople"
that "some people" will will not believe his
not believe his laudatory
laudatory
statements,
statements, and
and he
he gives
gives us
us to
to understand
understand whythey
why they are
are bound
bound to be
to be
exaggerated.
exaggerated. All
All that
that he about the
saysabout
he says actual Spartan
the actual Spartanpractice
practice
amountsto
amounts this, that
to this, that in Sparta
in Sparta lovers
lovers refrain
refrain from
from sexual
sexual inter-
inter-
coursewith
course boys no
with boys lessthan
no less parents refrain
than parents fromintercourse
refrain from intercourse with with
their children,
their children, or brothers
or brothers withwith brothers
brothers and and sisters.
sisters.1 1 Now incest
Now incest
cannotpossibly
cannot possibly be avoidedin
be avoided in aa city
city where
where adultery
adultery is
is as
as common
common
as it
as it is
is in according
Spartaaccording
in Sparta to
to Xenophon's description,
Xenophon's description, i.e.
i.e. where
where
it
it is
is very difficult,
very difficult, if
if not
not impossible,
impossible, to
to know
know exactly
exactly who
who one's
one's
nearest
nearest relatives are.2
relatives are. 2 Xenophon alludes
Xenophonalludes to tothe obscurity
the obscurity ofSpartan
of Spartan
family
family relations
relations by tracing the
by tracing lax marriage
the lax marriage lawslaws back
back to to the desire
the desire
of the
of Spartans
the Spartans "to
"to add
add brothers
brothers to
to their
their children,"
children," and
and occa-
by occa-
by
sionallystating
sionally stating that "these[other
that "these [othermen]men] are are the
thefathers
fathers ofthe
of chil-
the chil-
drenwhom
dren whom he he himself [the
himself [the individual
individual Spartan]
Spartan] rules."3
rules."3 Moreover,
Moreover,
he concludeshis
he concludes description
his description of
of how
how Spartanyouths
Spartan youths behave
behave at the
at the
commonmeals
common meals byby the
the remark,
remark, "And "And of of the
the beloved
beloved boys boys hehe
[Lycurgus]
[Lycurgus] took carein
took care in the
the manner described."4
manner described:'· Above
Above all, he al-
all, he al-
most explicitly
most explicitly retracts his
retracts his praise
praise of ofSpartan
Spartanbashfulness
bashfulness in in matters
matters
of love
of between men
love between men andand boys
boys by declaring
by declaring that
that when
when observing
observing
theSpartan
the Spartan youths
youths going
going to
to the
the public
public mess
mess rooms
rooms "you
"you would
would be-
be-
lievethem
lieve them to be more
to be more bashful
bashful than than thethe very virgins in
very virgins the bridal
in the bridal
chambers."5
chambers."5
II, 13.
1111,13.
2 Cf. Aristotle,
2 Ct. Aristotle, Politics, 1262 aa 32
Politics, 1262 ff.
32 If.
33 I, and VI, 2.
I, 99 and Compare Hellenica, III,
2. Compare III, 3, 1-2, with
3, 1-2, Agesilaus, 1,
with Agesilaus, 1, 5.
5.
4
4 III, (according to
III, 55 (according to the
the reading
reading of of the
the mss). It is
MSS). It is hardly
hardly unintentional
unintentional that
that
Xenophon uses
Xenophon uses in
in this context four
this context four words
words which allude in
which allude in one
one way
way oror another
another to
to
matters
matters of love. Nor
of love. ought we
Nor ought we to overlook his
to overlook his playing
playing onon the
the relations
relations between
between
Spartan education (pa
Spartan education (paideia) and love
ideia) and love of
of boys
boys (paidikoi
(paidikoi erotes) in II,
erotes) in II, 12'14.
12-14.
6 III, 5
II III, (according to
5 (according to the
the reading
reading ofof the
the mss). The editors
MSS). The editors reject the mss
reject the readings
MSS readings
in this
in this as
as well
well as in aa number
as in number of of similar
similar cases
cases in favor either
in favor either of
of variants
variants supplied
supplied
by the indirect
by the indirect tradition
tradition or or of
of conjectural
conjectural readings, for no
readings, fot other reason
no other reason than
than that
that
they
they do do not
not take
take into considerationthe
into consideration Aristophanean inclinations
the Aristophanean inclinations ofof Xenophon.
Xenophon.

512
512 SOCIAL
SOCIAL RESEARCHRESEARCH
m
III
The
The two
two most striking features
most striking features soso far discussed of
far discussed Spartan legisla-
of Spartan legisla-
tion
tion or
or of Spartan life
of Spartan life as
as described
described by Xenophon are
by Xenophon are thethe lax
lax mar-
mar-
riage laws
riage laws andand the principle underlying
the principle underlying Spartan education that
Spartan education that
is
"stealing good."
"stealing is good." He
He justifies
justifies these
these two
two sets
sets of
of rules
rules by showing
by showing
the good influence
the good influence which exercised on
they exercised
which they Spartan virtue:
on Spartan virtue: the the lax
lax
marriage
marriage laws
laws were
were conducive to
conducive to the
the procreation strong
procreation of
of strong and
and
healthyoffspring,
healthy offspring, and
and the
the instruction
instruction in
in stealing was
stealing conducive to
was conducive to
military efficiency. We
military efficiency.1 1 We have therefore to
have therefore to take
take up up the question of
the question of
the place which
the place assigned to
Xenophon assigned
which Xenophon to physical excellence and
physical excellence and
efficiency within
military efficiency
military within thethe framework
framework of human excellence
of human excellence or or
virtue.
virtue.
states his
clearly states
Xenophon clearly
Xenophon standard for
his standard judging the
for judging quality of
the quality of
human
human abilities
abilities andand habits:
habits: the superiority of
the superiority of the
the soul
soul over the
over the
body.2
body.2 Therefore,
Therefore, the
the manythings
many things which
which he
he says in
says praise of
in praise of the
the
physical excellence of
physical excellence of the
the Spartans cannot be
Spartans cannot more than
be more than aa meremere
introduction
introduction to to the much more
the much importantpraise
more important praise of
of the
the excellence
excellence
of their
of Hence we
souls. Hence
their souls. we shall have to
shall have consider,rather
to consider, rather more more care-
care-
fullythanusual,
fully than usual, the
the meaning
meaning of
of his
his emphatic
emphatic statement
statem.ent that
that Lycur-
Lycur-
all
gus "compelled [theSpartans] practice
gus "compelled all [the Spartans] to
to practice all
all virtues
virtues publicly."3
publicly."3
We
We naturally expectto
naturally expect to meet
meet in in his descriptionthe
his description the whole choir
whole choir
of the
of the virtues, but we
virtues, but are disappointed
we are disappointedjust just as
as we
we were
were before.
before. Al-
Al-
Lycurguswas
thoughLycurgus
though "verywise
was "very wise inin the extreme[extremes
the extreme [extremes],"4 nei-
],"4 nei-
therwisdom
ther wisdom nor
nor education
education in
in wisdom
wisdom is
is mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the whole
whole
treatise. There is
treatise.There is no wordof
no word of justice
justice or or schools
schoolsof of justice although
justice although
punishment,
punishment, and severe
and severepunishment,
punishment, is mentioned
is mentioned on almostevery
on almost every
page,
page, and
and although
although the
the procedureconcerning
procedure concerning lawsuits
lawsuits is
is briefly
briefly
11I,
1,5-10 and II,
5-10and II,7.
7.
2X,
2X, 1I. illustrates
Xenophonillustrates
3. Xenophon the Spartan
the of "soul"
conceptionof
Spartanconception in such
"soul" in such passages as
passagesas
VII, 1I-4
VII, and X,
34 and X, 2-1I. VIII, 11 (MSS)_
Cf.VIII,
2-3.Ct. (mss).
*X,4.
aX,4·
•4 I,
1,2. The expression
2. The expression usedby
used byXenophon
Xenophonis is ambiguous:
ambiguous:it it may meanthat
maymean thatLycurgus
Lycurgus
was exceedingly
was exceedingly wise, thenit
but then
wise,but is redundant;
it is redundant;or it may
or it maymeanmean that
thathe was very
he was very
wisewith
wise withregard
regardtoto the
theextremes,
extremes, and thenit
and then is not
it is notredundant
redundant but mostappropriate:
butmost appropriate:
Xenophonleaves
Xenophon it undetermined
leaves it undetermined whetherthe
whether the extremes
extremeswithwith regard
regard to which
to which
Lycurgus
Lycurgus was
was very
very wise
wise were
were good
good or
or bad.
bad. Arts
Arts are
are mentioned,
mentioned, as
as far
far as
as Sparta
Sparta is
is
concerned,
concerned, almostexclusively
almost exclusively in connection
in connectionwithwithwarwar (I,
(I, 5; 1; XI,
VII, 1;
3; VII, 2; XIII,
XI, 2; XIII, 55
and 7).
and 7).

XENOPHON
SPARTA 513
513
indicated.1
indicated. 1 TheThe other Greekcities
otherGreek citiespunished anyonewho
punished anyone who diddid an an
injusticein
injustice anything
in anything to another,
to another, but Lycurgus
but Lycurgus "inflicted
"inflicted no lesser
no lesser
penalties
penalties on on him
him who appearedto
who appeared neglect to
to neglect to be excellent.For
be excellent. For he he
believed, as
believed, seems,
as it
it seems, that
that from
from those
those who
who kidnap
kidnap some
some people,or
people, or
rob something,
rob something, orsteal,
or steal,the damagedones
the damaged onesonly suffer
onlysuffer injustice, but
injustice, but
that the bad
by the
that by andunmanly
bad and unmanly ones oneswhole
whole cities are
citiesare betrayed. So
betrayed. So that that
he seemsto
he seems to meme to
to have fittingly
have fittingly inflicted
inflicted on
on the
the latter
latter the heaviest
the heaviest
penalties." Xenophon then
penalties." Xenophon omitssomething:
againomits
then again something: he doesnot
he does not tell
tell
us what
us Lycurgus
what Lycurgus had
had believed
believed or
or enacted
enacted concerning
concerning injustice.
injustice. Or
Or
rather
rather he expectsus
he expects us to
to remember
remember his earlierfinding
his earlier finding thatLycurgus
that Lycurgus
"believedstealing
"believed stealing to
to be
be good."2Considering
good."2 Considering the
the facts
facts that
that wisdom
wisdom
was
was not met with
not met with inin Sparta,
Sparta,and and that
thatSocrates
Socrates did not
did separatewis-
not separate wis-
domand
dom and moderation,3
moderation,3 we arenot
we are surprised
not surprised to observethat
to observe that Xeno-
Xeno-
phon
phon fails
fails to
to ascribe
ascribe moderation
moderation to
to the
the Spartansexcept the
Spartans except in
in the
ambiguous
ambiguous sentence
sentence that
that inin Sparta
Sparta"the"themale tribe is
male tribe stronger
is stronger than
than
those
those ofoffemale
female nature evenas
nature even as regards
regards being moderate."4
being moderate."4 If,then,
If, then,
wisdom
wisdom and and justice and moderation
justice and moderation are are virtues alien to
virtues alien to the Spar-
the Spar-
tans, we
tans, we must qualifyXenophon's
must qualify statement
Xenophon's statement that Lycurgus
that Lycurgus "com-
"com-
pelled all [the
pelled all [theSpartans]
Spartans] to
to practice
practice allall virtues publicly" with
virtues publicly" with thethe
limitation
limitation that
that he compelledthem
he compelled them to to practice
practice allall virtues with the
virtues with the
exception
exception of
of wisdom,
wisdom, justice
justice and
and moderation.
moderation. As
As a
a matter
matter of
of fact,
fact,
that limitation,
that limitation, impliedin
implied "publicly,"
in "publicly," is
is made
made by Xenophon him-
by Xenophon him-
selfwhen
self when he repeats his
he repeats emphatic
his emphatic statement
statement later
later on
on in
in a
a somewhat
somewhat
modified form:
modified form: Lycurgus "imposedeven
Lycurgus "imposed evenanan irresistible necessity to
irresistible necessity to
practicethewholepolitical
practice the whole political virtue."5
virtue."1i An
An irresistible
irresistible necessity
necessity to
to
wisdom, for
practice wisdom,
practice for instance,
instance, cancan hardly
hardly be imagined.One
be imagined. One may may
sumup
sum Xenophon's view
up Xenophon's view of Spartanvirtue
ofSpartan virtue by sayingthat
by saying that there
there is is
11XIII, 11. Injustice
XIII, II. is mentioned
Injusticeis also in
mentioned also in VII,
VII, 5 and XIV,
5 and 6.
XIV, 6.
22X, 5-6and
X, 5-6 II, 7-9-
and II, 7-9.
88 Memorabilia,
Memorabilia, III, III, 9,
9, 4.
4.
*
4. III,
III, 4.
4. Xenophon
Xenophon states, it is
states,it true, that
is true, at the
that at commonmeals
the common of the
meals of "in
Spartans"in
the Spartans
the least degree
the least degree insolence the opposite
(i.e. the
insolence (i.e. opposite ofof moderation)
moderation) .. .. .. occurs"
occurs" (V, 6).
(V, 6)_
But one
But one immediately
immediately seeshow
sees how reserved
reserved this
this praise is when
praise is one remembers
when one remembers that even
that even
at the
at doorsof
the doors of the
the Persian
Persian kings "one might
kings "one observemuch
might observe much moderation" (Anabasis,
moderation" (Anabasis,
I»
I, 9, 3)« With
9» !I). With regard
regard to to sophronizein
sophronizein asas used
used in XIII, 5,
in XIII, 5, compare Cyropaedia,III,
compareCyropaedia, III,
1, 16 II.
I , 16 ff.
66X, 7. For
X, 7. For the
the meaning
meaning of of "political
"politicalvirtue," Plato, Phaedo,
comparePlato,
virtue," compare Phaedo, 82 82 aa 10-b
lo-b 8,
8,
and Republic,
and 4!1o cc !I-5,
Republic, 430 and Aristotle,
3-5,and Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea, 1116
Ethica Nicomachea, a 15
Ill6 a ff.
15 II.

514
514 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
no greater difference
no greater difference between
between the virtue of
the virtue Sparta and
of Sparta and the virtue of
the virtue of
other cities as
other cities cities than
as cities than that
that between
between the virtue of
the virtue of "practicing"
"practicing"
laymen and
laymen and of of negligent laymen. For
negligent laymen. For if
if virtue
virtue is wisdom, and
is wisdom, and since
since
wisdom
wisdom is found in
is found only aa very
in only very few individuals, the
few individuals, difference be-
the difference be-
tween
tween the the so-called virtue of
so-called virtue of all citizens and
all citizens and true
true virtue must be
virtue must be
even greater than
even greater than the difference between
the difference between the the skill of aa quack
skill of quack andand
the
the skill
skill ofof aa physician.1
physician.1
The conclusion which
The conclusion which we have reached
we have reached thus thus far might be
far might be criti-
criti-
cized
cized as being based
as being based on on an argument from
an argument from silence. Although this
silence. Although this
objection is
objection is not valid, for
quite valid,
not quite for itit mistakes
mistakes speechspeech interspersed
interspersed
withsilence forsilence pure
with silence for silence pure and
and simple,
simple, and
and althoughthe
although the prin-
prin-
ciple that
ciple arguments from
that arguments silence are
from silence are not permissible must
not permissible must undergo
undergo
important modifications
important modifications before before it it can
can be applied to
be applied to the writings of
the writings of
Xenophon,
Xenophon, it
it will
will be
be wise
wise to
to limit
limit our
our further
further discussion
discussion of
of Xeno-
Xeno-
phon's descriptions
phon's descriptions of Spartanvirtue
of Spartan virtue as strictly as
as strictly possible to
as possible to his
his
explicit
explicit statements.
statements. We
We shall
shall then
then say
say that
that the
the individual
individual virtues
virtues
which he
which explicitly
he explicitly mentions
mentions with
with regardto
regard to the Spartansare,
the Spartans are, not
not
wisdomand moderationand justice,
wisdom and moderation and justice, but
but continence
continence and
and bashful-
bashful-
ness
ness andand obedience.2
obedience. 2
There
There is is aa certain affinity between
certain affinity continence(enkrateia)
between continence (enkrateid)and and
moderation
moderation (sophrosyne), an
(sophrosynê), affinity
an affinity which
which permits
permits identification
identification
themfor
of them
of almostevery
foralmost everypracticalpurpose,
practical purpose, and
and the use
the of the
use of the two
two
termsin manycases synonymously.
terms in many cases synonymously. Yet
Yet the
the two
two qualities
qualities are
are far
far
frombeing
from identical.3
being identica1. Moderation,which
3 Moderation, which cannotcannot be be separated
separated
from wisdom,
from wisdom, is is of
of greater dignitythan
greaterdignity continence,which
than continence, which is is
merelythe
merely "basement"of
the "basement" virtue.4
of virtue. Continenceis
4 Continence is concerned
concernedwith with
the pleasures
the pleasuresof of the
the body
body as well as
as well with the
as with the pleasures deriving
pleasuresderiving
fromproperty.
from property.5 Not
II Not to
to repeat
repeat what
what we
we quoted
quoted before
before in
in discussing
discussing
Xenophon's
Xenophon's remarks
remarks about
about marriage
marriage laws
laws and
and education,6
education,6 we shall
we shall
1i Ct.
Cf.x, withMemorabilia,
X, 44 with Memorabilia,III,III, 9,
9, 5.
5.
22 Cf. II,
Cf. II, with2.
14 with
14 2.
88 Cyropaedia,
Cyropaedia, 2, 88
I, 2,
I, and VIII,
and VIII, I,
1, !l0-!l2;
30-32;Agesilaus, 10, 2;
Agesilaus,10, 2; Apologia Socratis,19.
ApologiaSocratis, It
19. It
maybe
may remarked
be remarked in passing
in thatXenophon's
passingthat Xenophon'sviewviewof
of the relationof
therelation of the twoquali-
the two quali-
ties differs
tiesdiffers Aristotle's
fromAristotle's
from not only
not onlyin detailsbut
in details in fundamentals.
but in fundamentals.
•4Memorabilia,
Memorabilia, I, 5,
I, and III,
5, 44 and III, 9, 4.
9, 4·
5Memorabilia,
II Memorabilia, I, 5,
I, 6.
5, 6.
86See in particular
See in particularI,I, 5.
5.

XENOPHON ON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
SPARTA 515
515
merely
merely pointout
point thateven
out that eventhe theSpartan
Spartanmen mendo do not
notseem
seemto have
to have
beensubject
been to
subject very
to very severe
severe regulations
regulations concerning the
concerning quantity
the quantity of
of
foodand
food anddrink
drinkwhich
whichthey couldconsume.
theycould consume. Concerning
Concerning drinking
drinking in
in
particular,
particular, Lycurgus
Lycurgus "gavepermission
"gave permission thateveryone
that everyone should
should drink
drink
whenhe
when he was
wasthirsty,
thirsty, believing
believing that
that the
the drinkwould
drink wouldthusthusbe most
be most
innoxious
innoxious as well
as wellas as most
mostpleasant."
pleasant."ThatThatis is to
to say, Lycurgus
say,Lycurgus made
made
thirst,
thirst, or the
or thethroat
throatand and thethestomach,
stomach, the
the measure
measure of
of potation.1
potation. 1
Muchmore
Much moresignificant
significant werehis
were his laws
lawsconcerning
concerning property.
property. Xeno-
Xeno-
phon
phon tells
tells us
us that
that Lycurgus
Lycurgus prohibited
prohibited thefree
the free from
from havingany-
having any-
thing
thing to
to do
do with
with acquisitiveoccupations any
acquisitive occupations of
of any kind,
kind, and
and that
that he
he
commanded
commanded themto
them devotethemselves
to devote themselves entirely
entirely to those
to activities
those activities
which securefreedom
which secure freedom to cities.He
to cities. explains,
He explains, moreover,
moreover, how the
how the
whole set-up of
whole set-up of the
the Spartan community
Spartancommunity prevented the
prevented Spartans
the Spartans
from
from being
being eager to
eager acquire
to acquire wealth.
wealth. Finally, he
Finally, emphasizes
he emphasizes the
the
fact
fact that
that the
the heavy weight of
heavy weight of the Spartanmoney
the Spartan money made secrecy
made secrecy in
in
acquiringwealthutterlyimpossible.In the presentcase, the
acquiring wealth utterly impossible. In the present case, the
method
method whichwhich he choosesfor
he chooses letting us
for letting see the
us see the truth
truth is is that
that ofof
proving too
proving too much.
much. For whereas he
For whereas he states
states to begin with
to begin with that
that acqui-
acqui-
sition
sition ofof wealth
wealth as as such
such is is forbidden
forbidden in Sparta, somewhat
in Sparta, somewhat laterlater onon
he
he states
states that acquisition of
that acquisition of wealth
wealth by unjust means
by unjust means is is prevented
prevented
by
by the
the heavyweight
heavy weight of
of the
the Spartanmoney,
Spartan money, which
which could
could be
be con-
con-
cealed only with
cealed only with great difficulty. The
great difficulty. naturally arises
question naturally
The question arises as
as to
to
whether
whether the Spartans could
the Spartans could not procure for
not procure for themselves
themselves gold gold or or
silver, which
silver, which is is more easily hidden.
more easily hidden. The The answer
answer must must be be inin the
the
affirmative, else
affirmative, else it it would
would not not have
have been necessary to
been necessary to institute
institute
searches
searches for gold and
for gold and silver.2 Furthermore, whereas
silver.2 Furthermore, whereas his his original
original
statement implies that
statement implies that the set-up of
the set-up Spartan life
of Spartan life ruled
ruled out any in-
out any in-
terest in
terest wealth, we
in wealth, we soonsoon learn
learn from
from himhim that punitive measures
that punitive measures
were required to
were required prevent the
to prevent Spartans from
the Spartans money.3 In
acquiring money.3
from acquiring In
addition,
addition, he
he draws
draws our
our attention
attention to
to the
the fact
fact that,althoughwealth
that, although wealth
cannot be
cannot be earnestly
earnestly sought
sought by by the wealth, and
Spartans, wealth,
the Spartans, and the
the differ-
differ-
ence between rich
ence between rich and poorand citizens, does
poor citizens, exist in
does exist in the
the ideal
ideal Sparta.4
Sparta. 4
i1 V, 3·4. Cf.
V. 3-4. II. 11 end.
Ct. II, end.
22 VII, 22 and
and 5-6.
5-6.
88 VII, 3-6. See
VII. 3-6. See F. Habben. De
F. Habben, De Xenophontis libello ....
Xenophontis libello . . (Münster
(Munster 1909) p. 27.
1909) p. 27.
4V, 3: VI,
• V, 3; 5: X,
VI. 5; XIII. 11.
7: XIII,
X. 7; 11.

516
516 SOCIAL
Was
Was SpartanSpartan wealth, then, due
wealth, then, exclusively to
due exclusively windfalls? Was
to windfalls? Was the the
belief
belief of of the legislator that
the legislator "stealing is
that "stealing good" and
is good" his failure
and his failure to to pun-
pun-
ish those who
ish those kidnap or
who kidnap or rob
rob or steal, of
or steal, of no account in
no account in this
this respect?
respect?
Particularly
Particularly interesting is
interesting Xenophon's
is Xenophon's remark
remark that
that the
the Spartansde-
Spartans de-
sire
sire "to "to addadd such
such brothers
brothers to to their children who
their children participate in
who participate in
descent
descent and power, but
and power, but have
have no no claim
claim to to the
the property." That
property." That desire desire
certainlyimplies
certainly implies some
some serious
serious interest
interest in
in wealth.1
wealth.! And
And what what bebe-
comes of
comes the noble
of the poverty of
noble poverty of the Spartans and
the Spartans and their frugality if
their frugality if the
the
king
king must
must be
be given
given "so
"so much
much choice
choice land
land in
in manysubject
many subject cities
cities that
that
he will
he will be neither in
be neither in want
want of moderate means
of moderate means nor outstanding as
nor outstanding as re-
re-
gards
gards wealth"?2
wealth"?2 Finally,
Finally, we
we ought
ought not
not overlook
overlook any longer
any longer that
that
Xenophon
Xenophon states
states quite openly
quite openly what
what he
he thinks
thinks of
of the
the continence in
continence in
money matters
money matters of the ideal
of the Spartans of
ideal Spartans of the past; for
the past; for he
he says
says "in"in
former
former times, times, II know,
know, they were afraid
they were afraid ofof being seen in
being seen in the
the posses-
posses-
sion
sion of of gold."3
gold."3
This quotation forms
This quotation transition from
natural transition
forms aa natural Spartan con-
from Spartan con-
tinence to
tinence to the Spartansense
the Spartan sense of of shame, quality which
shame, aa quality which Xenophon
Xenophon
stressesmore than any otherof
stresses more than any other of their
their peacetime
peacetime virtues.4
virtues. Sense of
4 Sense of
shame or
shame bashfulness, too,
or bashfulness, too, has somethingin
has something commonwith
in common that true
with that true
virtue called
virtue moderation, which
called moderation, which he does not
he does attributeto
not attribute to the Spar-
the Spar-
tans.And
tans. And yet yet itit is still more
is still inferiorto
more inferior to moderation
moderationthan than is con-
is con-
tinence.
tinence. It It was
was nono less person than
less aa person Cyrus,the
than Cyrus, founderof
the founder the
of the
Persian empire,
Persian empire, who
who according to
according Xenophon distinguishedbe-
to Xenophon distinguished be-
tween moderationand
tweenmoderation senseof
and sense of shame
shamein in approximately
approximatelythis thisway:way:
theshamed
the shamedavoid shamefulthings
avoid shameful thingsin in the
thelight
lightofof day, whereas
day,whereas the the
moderateavoid
moderate themeven
avoid them even in in secret.1I Sense of
secret.5Sense of shame, then,is
shame,then, is cer-
cer-
tainlynot
tainly not aa genuine virtue:it
genuinevirtue: it is concernedsimply
is concerned with
simplywith externalexternal
goodness,
goodness, or
or with
with the
the of
appearance goodness.Now
appearance of goodness. Now it it isis easy
easy to to
see thatLycurgus
see that Lycurguswas interestedin
was interested visiblegoodness
in visible only.It
goodnessonly. is for
It is for
thisreason
this reason that
that he
he inflicted
inflicted so
so manypenalties
many penalties on
on him
him who
who was
was seen
seen
or caught
or caught when
when actingimproperly;prescribed
acting improperly; prescribeddecent behaviorfor
decentbehavior for
11 I,
1,9.9. Ct. Habben, op.
Cf. Habben, cit.,p.
op. cit., 15.
p. 15.
22 XV,
XV, 3.
3.
88XIV,
XIV, 3.
3. This remarkis
This remark is foreshadowed
foreshadowedby the abrupt
by the abrupt transition VII to
fromVII
transitionfrom VIII.
to VIII.
~*I,
I, 5; II, 2,
5; II, and 14;
10,and
2, 10, III,
14;III, and 5;
44 and V,5.
5; V, 5.
I5Cyropaedia,
Cyropaedia, VIII, I,1,31.
VIII, 31.

XENOPHON
SPARTA 517
517
adolescentswalking
adolescents walking on on the
the roads;
roads; and draggedthe
and dragged Spartansout
the Spartans out of
of
their private houses intothe mess rooms.1 1 Accordingly, what
their private houses into the public
public mess rooms. Accordingly, what
he brought to
he brought to light was not
light was not the
the Spartans,
Spartans, but
but the public mess
the public mess
rooms;
rooms; for
for his
his view
view that
that by creating
by creating that
that institution
institution he
he would
would
render the
impossible transgression
render impossible the transgression ofhis
of lawswas
his laws merely aa belief.2
was merely belief.2
By educatingthe
By educating Spartansin
the Spartans in bashfulness only,while
bashfulness only, while withholding
withholding
fromthem
from them true education- educationin
true education-education in letters
lettersand and speech, educa-
speech,educa-
tion in wisdom
tion in wisdom and and moderation
moderation and and justice
justice-inin other
otherwords,
words, by by
frightening
frightening them
them into
into submissiveness
submissiveness with
with the
the menace
menace of
of severe
severe
and dishonoring
and punishments, he
dishonoringpunishments, compelledthem
he compelled them to to do forbidden
do forbidden
things in
things in utter secrecy.He
utter secrecy. He even educated his
even educated citizensfrom
his citizens from their
their
very
very childhood
childhood in
in the
the art
art of
of concealment
concealment byteaching
by teaching them
them to
to avoid
avoid
being caught.The
being caught. The onlyonly relief found by
relief found by the Spartanswas
the Spartans was spying
spying
on each
on each other.8
other.8The The famous Spartan
famous Spartan sense
sense of
of shame
shame is
is then
then simply
simply
hypocrisy,
hypocrisy, and
and the
the so-called
so-called decline
decline of
of the
the Spartans'
Spartans' virtue
virtue was
was
merelya declineof theirdissimulation:the presentSpartans
merely a decline of their dissimulation: the present Spartans were
were
distinguishedfrom
distinguished from their
their forefathers
forefathers merely
merely by by the fact that
the fact that they
they
visibly and openly
visibly and disobeyedLycurgus'
openlydisobeyed laws.4Now
Lycurgus' laws. 4 since sense
Now since sense ofof
shameis
shame concernedwith
is concerned with visible goodness
visible goodness or
or with
with public goodness
public goodness
only,it
only, it is, in aa sense,
is, in sense,identical
identical withwith virtue
virtue practiced
practiced in in public,
public, or or
with political virtue.5
with political virtue.f; ToTo reduce
reduce the fallacyunderlying Spartan
the fallacy underlying the
the Spartan
ideal to its
ideal to principle we
its principle we need
need merely
merely repeat
repeat Xenophon's
Xenophon's emphatic emphatic
statementthat
statement Lycurguscompelled
that Lycurgus compelledall all the Spartansto
the Spartans to practice
practice allall
virtues publicly: that
virtues publicly: is,he
that is, did not
he did (and
not (and he
he could
could not) compel
not) compel them
them
to
to practice virtue in
practicevirtue in private.6
private.6
The third
The third andand last of the
last of peacetime virtues
Spartanpeacetime
the Spartan virtues is is obedience.
obedience.
Obedience
Obedience is submissionto
is submission to the
the laws and to
laws and to the
the rulers.
rulers. ItsIts value,
value,
therefore,
therefore, depends
depends on
on the
the wisdom
wisdom of
of the
the laws
laws or
or of
of the
the rulers
rulers in
in
obedienceto
question:obedience
question: thefoolish
to the foolishoror unjust enactmentsof
unjust enactments ofaa tyrant
tyrant
1 I,
1 1, 5:
5; 10 f.
II, 10 and 13;
f. and 4: VII, 66 (see
III, 4;
13; III, (see XIV, 3);
3); X, 5. Cf. these
5. Ct. passages with
these passages 8.
with II, 8.
ZV, 2.
2V,2.
88 "He
"He who designs to
who designs to get something[i.
get something e. especially
[1. e. especially the noble things,
the 'noble or the
things: or the honors
honors
of the
of city],must
the city], must employ
employ spies." Cf. II, 7
spies." Ct. 7 with
with IV, 4.
4.
* Ct.
4 Cf. XIV, 3 and 7.
3 and 7.
55 Ct.
Cf. Memorabilia.
Memorabilia, Ill, 7, 5k with
III, 7, Cyropaedia, VIII,
with Cyropaedia, *i.
1, 31.
VIII, I,
66 Notice
Notice the connection between
the connection between "private (II, 2)
pedagogues" (II,
"private pedagogues" and "letters
2) and "letters and
and
music"
music" (II, (II, 1). Cf. Plato,
I). Ct. Plato, Laws, 666e.
Laws, 666e.

518
518 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
or aa mob
or mob or or of
of any individual or
other individual
any other group is
or group certainly no
is certainly no virtue.
virtue.
Now
Now we seen what
have seen
we have Xenophon thinks
what Xenophon thinks of of the dignity of
the dignity of Lycur-
Lycur-
gus' laws
gus' which, while
laws which, containing many
while containing many concessions
concessions concerning
concerning
adultery,
adultery, do
do not
not contain
contain the
the slightestprovision
slightest provision for
for genuine edu-
genuine edu-
cation.1 moreover, that
Seeing, moreover,
cation. Seeing,
1 the root
that the root of of the Spartans' obedience
the Spartans' obedience
is the same as the
is the same as the root
root of
of their
their sense
sense of
of shame,
shame, i.
i. e.
e. fear
fear of severe
of severe
whipping,2 we
whipping,2 should be
we should permitted to
be permitted go on
to go on toto another
another topic but for
topic but for
one
one fact:
fact: Xenophon's Socrates is
Xenophon's Socrates is known
known to to have
have taught that
taught that justice
justice
identical with
is identical
is obedience to
with obedience to the laws, to
the laws, laws, and
any laws,
to any and toto have
have
praised in
praised in the same context
the same educating the
Lycurgus' educating
context Lycurgus' Spartans in
the Spartans in
such
such obedience.3
obedience. 3
To understand the
To understand meaning of
the meaning of this passage in
this passage the Memorabilia
in the Memorabilia
we must
we must briefly character of the work of which it
the character
consider the
briefly consider of the work of which it forms
forms
so outstanding aa part.
so outstanding intention of
The intention
part. The the Memorabilia
of the Memorabilia is is to
to show
show
what
what Socrates did and
Socrates did and what
what hehe said, not what
said, not what he thought. More
he thought. More
precisely,
precisely, the
the intention
intention of
of that
that work
work is
is not
not to
to show
show explicitlywhat
explicitly what
1 on the reasonableness, or or lack
lack of reasonableness of
of reasonableness
Xenophon's judgment on
1 Xenophon's judgment the reasonableness, of Lycurgus'
Lycurgus'
legislation is
legislation indicated first
is indicated by his
first by allusions to
his allusions to the
the arbitrary character of
arbitrarycharacter the noble
of the noble
things (kala) recognized
things (kala) recognized as
as such
such by
by the
the Spartans
Spartans (II,
(II, 9
9 and
and 10;
10; IV, 4;
4; VI,
VI, 2).
2). It is
It is
shown most
shown most clearly by his
clearly by use, in
his use, in speaking
speaking of of Lycurgus,
Lycurgus, of word nomizein
the word
of the nomizein in in
its two
its two meanings:
meanings: "enacting"
"enacting" and and "believing"
"believing" (see especially II, 4
(see especially 4 and
and I, I, 6 f.). For
6 f.). For
what
what Lycurgus "believed" is
Lycurgus "believed" distinguishedwith
is distinguished some care
with some what he
from what
care from "saw" and
he "saw" and
what "observed": in
what he "observed": in some cases, what
some cases, what he "believed" and
he "believed" "enacted" is
and "enacted" is opposed
opposed
to what
to what he "saw" and "observed,"
he "saw" "observed," i. e. opposed
i. e. opposed to the nature
to the nature of of things,
things, or or more
more
precisely
precisely to to human nature (see
human nature (see in in particular
particular I, 55 and and 7). As aa consequence,
7). As consequence, his his
legislation is
is
legislation opposed opposed to
to the
the views
views of
of the
the other
other Greeks,
Greeks, or
or of
of most
most men,
men, or
or even
eve,}
of all
of all men
men (see
(see especially
especially I, 7, and III,
13, and
7, II, I!J, III, 4). For the
4). For which are
laws which
the laws acknowl-
are acknowl-
edged
edged by by all
all men
men are
are the
the unwritten
unwritten or
or natural
natural laws
laws (Memorabilia,
(Memorabilia, IV,
IV, 4,
4, 19 If.).
19 ff.)-
Since he
Since he opposes
opposes the views of
the views of all men or
all men or of all Greeks,
of all Greeks, Lycurgus deserves to
Lycurgus deserves to be
be
"wondered at"
"wondered at" (ct.
(cf. I,
I, 2
2 with
with 1).
1). Another
Another way
way of
of expressing
expressing the
the same
same judgment
judgment is
is to
to
say
say thatthat Lycurgus'
Lycurgus' lawslaws are are "very old," and
"very old," and yet new" to
"very new"
yet "very the other
to the Greek
other Greek
cities (X,
cities for the
8); for
(X, 8); the laws
laws of of the other Greeks
the other Greeks are less old
are less and therefore
old and thereforeless barbaric
less barbaric
(c/.
(cf. Thucydides,
Thucydides, I, 6, 6, 6).
6). Xenophon's statementthat
Xenophon's statement that thethe Spartan
Spartan lawslaws are
are opposed
opposed
to the
to the laws
laws ofof most
most or or all
all men
men readsreads like
like anan adaptation
adaptation of of aa similar statementby
similar statement by
Herodotus about
Herodotus about thethe Egyptian
Egyptianlaws laws (II, The relation
35). The
(II, !J5). between Sparta
relation between Sparta andand Egypt
Egypt
is aa major
is theme of
major theme Plato's Laws,
of Plato's Laws, and and it it is discussed by
is discussed Plato in
by Plato in the
the same
same spirit
spirit
in which
in which Xenophon
Xenophon pointspoints out out the oldness of
the oldness of Lycurgus'
Lycurgus' laws. laws. See also Herodotus,
See also Herodotus,
VI, 50,
VI, Isocrates, Busiris,
60, and Isocrates, Busiris, 17. 17.
22 II, and 10.
II, 22 and 10. (Not
(Not to mention the
to mention the fact that the
fact that the Greek word in
Greek word in question-peitho-
question- peitho-
is ambiguous.)
is ambiguous.) Ct. also the
Cf. also the scarcely identificationof
disguised identification
scarcelydisguised of obedience
obedience with with fearfear
in VIII, !J.
in 3.
88Memorabilia,
Memorabilia, IV, IV, 4,
4, 15. Cf. Cyropaedia,
15. Ct. Cyropaedia, III, !J, 8, among
3, 8, among many other passages.
many other passages.

XENOPHON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
ON SPARTA 519
519
his private views
his private views were.
were. In the main
In the main it openlystates
it openly states his public views,
his public views,
i.i. e.
e. the opinions
the opinions which
which he
he uttered
uttered in
in public
public and
and in
in private
private conver-
conver-
sationwith
sation people who
with people who were merely members
were merely members of of the
the public. Their
public. Their
not seriousnature
quite serious
not quite nature is is indicated
indicatedbetween
between the lines,i.
the lines, i. e.
e. by occa-
by occa-
sional remarks
sional remarks which which are are inin flagrant
flagrant contradiction
contradiction to
to his
his public
public
views
views and and which,
which, therefore,
therefore, are are apt
apt to
to be deletedby
be deleted by modern editors,
modern editors,
as well
as as by
well as by the well known
the well known and and soso to speak famous
to speak deficiencies
famous deficiencies
of the
of the plan
plan of of both
both the whole work
the whole work andand aa number
number of individual
of individual
chapters.1It
chapters. 1 It is,
is, therefore, impossible to
therefore, impossible find what
to find what Xenophon's
Xenophon's
Socratesreally
Socrates really thought
thought by by merely
merely looking
looking up up or or even
even by by reading
reading
oftenan
often an individual
individualchapterchapteror or the
the whole
whole work;
work; in in order
orderto discover
to discover
Xenophon's
Xenophon's and
and Socrates'
Socrates' private
private views
views one
one must
must do
do some
some private
private
thinking,
thinking, and and especially
especiallyone one must
must in each case
in each deduct from
case deduct from Soc-Soc-
rates' statements
rates' statements that deliberatedistortion
that deliberate distortionof of the
the truth
truth which
which was
was
caused by
caused by hishis compliance
compliance with, and adaptation
with, and adaptation to, to, the specific
the specific
imbecilityof
imbecility of the
the interlocutor
interlocutor to to whom
whom he happened to
he happened to talk. Or,
talk. Or,
to express
to express the
the same
same thing
thing somewhat
somewhat differently,
differently, we
we cannot
cannot take
take at
at
face
face value
value anyany individual statementof
individual statement of Xenophon's Socrateswhich
Xenophon's Socrates which
is contradictedby
is contradicted by the
the principle governing plan
principle governing the
the plan of
of the
the whole
whole
work.
work. That That plan
plan is is based
based on on the assumptionthat
the assumption "speech" is
that "speech" is su-
su-
periorto "deed."2On theotherhand,thespeechin whichSocrates
perior to "deed."2 On the other hand, the speech in which Socrates
"proves"that
"proves" that justice
justice is is identical
identical with obedience to
with obedience to the
the laws
laws of of the
the
startsfrom
citystarts
city from the suggestedby
assumption,suggested
the assumption, Socratesand
by Socrates and adopted
adopted
without considerationby
without consideration by his interlocutor,
his interlocutor, that
that "deed"
"deed" is more
is more
relevant than
relevant Moreover,the
"speech."3Moreover,
than "speech."3 argumentwhich
the argument which the inter-
the inter-
locutor advancesagainst
locutoradvances against Socrates'
Socrates' assertion
assertion thatjusticeis identical
that justice is identical
with obedienceto
with obedience the laws
to the laws misses
misses the
the point, is shown
as is
point, as shownby by aa parallel
parallel
argumentation
argumentation used
used by by aa more intelligentor
more intelligent or aa franker
frankerman man whichwhich
11 With
With regard to the
regard to the plan
plan ofofthe
the Memorabilia, compareEmma
Memorabilia, compare Emma Edelstein,
Edelstein, Xenophon-
Xenophon-
tischesund
tisches und Platonisches
Platonisches Bild
Bild des
des Sokrates (Berlin1935)
Sokrates (Berlin 1935)pp. 78-137.
pp. 78-137.
2 The positive
2 The positive part
part ofof the
the Memorabilia
Memorabilia (I, 3 to
(I, 3 to the consistsof
end) consists
the end) of 37 chapters
37 chapters
of which
of which only the first
onlythe or, perhaps,
first or, the first
perhaps, the first three are devoted
three are devotedto "deed," whereas
to "deed," whereas
almostall
almost all the rest is
the rest devotedto
is devoted "speech."Ct.
to "speech." also III,
Cf.also 3, I1I1 with
III, 3, with Plato, 450
Gorgias,450
Plato, Gorgias,
c-d.For
cod. For the
the meaning
meaning of of the "deed-speech"antithesis,
the"deed-speech" antithesis, which
which is an ironical
is an expression
ironical expression
of the
of antithesis
the antithesis between
between practical or political
practical or lifeand
political1ife and theoretical life,compare
theoretical1ife, comparePlato,
Plato,
Apology,
Apology, 32 32 aa 4-5
4-5with Crito,52
with Crito, 52 dd 5.
5.
a8Memorabilia, IV, 4,
Memorabilia, IV, 10. Ct.
4, 10. also the
Cf.also the beginning
beginning of of that chapter.
that chapter.

520
520 SOCIAL
occurs in
occurs in thethe same work, and
same work,1 1 and therefore
therefore Socrates' refutation of
Socrates' refutation of the
the
interlocutor's denial
interlocutor's denial is is aa mere argumentatio ad
mere argumentatio ad hominem.
hominem. Besides,Besides,
the talk
the opens with
talk opens with aa statement
statement by Socrates which
by Socrates refutes in
which refutes in ad-
ad-
vance his
vance his later thesis, i.
later thesis, that it
e. that
i. e. it is extremely difficult
is extremely difficult to to find
find aa
teacher of
teacher of the things; for
just things;
the just for if just were
if just were the same as
the same legal, every
as legal, every
legal expert, nay,
legal expert, nay, every member of
every member of the
the popular assembly would
popular assembly would be be
aa teacher
teacher of justice. And
of justice. finally, after
And finally, after having "proved" his
having "proved" his point,
point,
Socrates suddenly turns
Socrates suddenly from the
turns from laws of
the laws of the city to
the city the unwritten
to the unwritten.
(or natural)laws,
(or natural) laws, and
and he
he thus,
thus, and
and only thus,
only thus, indicates
indicates the
the crucial
crucial
question, the
question, question of
the question of the divergence and
possible divergence
the possible opposition of
and opposition of
the laws
the laws ofof the and the
city and
the city the natural
natural laws.
laws. We
We conclude,
conclude, then, that
then, that
neither Xenophon nor
neither Xenophon nor Socrates seriously the
accepted seriously
Socrates accepted view that
the view that
justice is
justice is identical
identical with obedience to
with obedience to the laws of
the laws of the
the city,
city, regardless
regardless
of
of the justice of
the justice of the
the laws. Therefore, the
laws. Therefore, insertion of
the insertion praise of
of praise of
legislation into
Lycurgus' legislation
Lycurgus' into the the "dialectic" proof of
"dialectic" proof of that view, far
that view, far
fromrefutingour interpretation
from refuting our interpretation of
of the
the Constitution
Constitution of
of the
the Lacede-
Lacede-
monians, actually is
monians, actually is aa strong argument in
strong argument favor of
in favor of it.2
it. 2
Then what
Then what remains
remains of Spartanvirtue?
of Spartan Manliness, of
virtue? Manliness, course. It
of course. It
should be
should be mentioned, however, that
mentioned, however, that the ordinary term
the ordinary designating
term designating
that virtue
that virtue occurs
occurs only once in
only once the whole
in the whole treatise,
treatise, andand then then inin aa
passage where
passage where its
its meaning exceedinglyambiguous.3True, aa
meaning is
is exceedingly ambiguous. s True,
synonymous
synonymous termdoes
term occur once
does occur once in in aa passage
passagewherewhereits its meaning
meaning
is entirely
is clear,4and
entirelyclear,4 and in in all
all the
the passages whereXenophon
passageswhere Xenophon speaks speaks
of the
of the Spartans'
Spartans' virtue,
virtue, or
or kalokagathia,
ka.lokagathia, he
he is,
is, of
of course,
course, thinking
thinking
mainly
mainly if
if not
not exclusively
exclusively of
of their
their manliness.5
manliness. Thus
II Thus we
we are con-
are con-
frontedwith
fronted withthe the question
question of
of how
how Xenophon judged
Xenophon judged of
of manliness
manliness
11 Memorabilia, I, 2,
Memorabilia, I, 2, 41
41 ff.
If.
22 It is hardly
It is hardly necessary
necessarytoto say that Xenophon,
say that Socratis, 15,
Apologia Socratis,
Xenophon, Apologia 15, cannot be ad-
cannot be ad-
duced as an argument
duced argument to the contrary.
to the contrary.For bases an
whoever bases
For whoever an objection
objection onon that
that
passage commits the
passage commits the mistake warned against
mistake warned against by by Socrates himself in
Socrates. himself in that
that very
very
context of
context of believing
believing without consideration the
without consideration the Delphian
Delphian godgod (or his priestess,
(or his priestess,oror
the men
the men who who heard him or
heard him or her say .. .. .),
her say .)» if not the
if not still more
the still more serious mistake
serious mistake
(indicated
(indicated by by the "not even
words "not
the words even this")
this") of believing aa statement
of believing statementof of the
the Delphian
Delphian
god
god which
which implies
implies an
an impossibility.
impossibility. Ct.
Cf. the
the parallel
parallel of
of a
a similar
similar meaning
meaning in Plato's
in Plato's
Apology, 2oe-2ia.
Apology,20e-21a.
33IX,
IX, 55 (according to the
(according to the good
good MSS). "Unmanly people"
mss)."Unmanly people are mentioned in
are mentioned in X, 6.
X, 6.
404 IV, 2.
IV, II.
1\5Compare. however, IX, 11 with the beginning
with the of the treatise.
the treatise.
Compare, however,IX, beginningof

XENOPHON
SPARTA 521
521
taken alone,aa manliness
taken alone, manliness not accompanied
not accompanied by wisdom, moderation
by wisdom, moderation
or justice.
or justice. It is in
It is in his eulogy
his eulogy of
of the
the SpartankingAgesilaus,the
Spartan king Agesilaus, the
work
work ofofhis
his which
which is is in
in every respect nearest
everyrespect akinto
nearest akin to the Constitu-
the Constitu-
tionof
tion of the
the Lacedemonians,
Lacedemonians, that
that he
he indicates
indicates his
his view
view that
that manli-
manli-
ness
ness taken alone is
taken alone is hardly distinguishable
hardly distinguishable frommadness.1
from madness.1 Now
Now
manliness
manliness is primarily the
is primarily the virtue
virtue ofof war,2 and thus
war,2 and thus the answerto
the answer to
the question
the question of
of the
the dignity
dignity of
of manliness
manliness as
as compared
compared with
with that
that
ofthe
of othervirtues
the other implies
virtues implies the
the answer
answer to
to the
the questionof
question ofthe dig-
the dig-
nity
nity of
of war
war as
as such
such as
as compared
compared with
with that
that of
of peace
peace as
as such.
such.
IV
IV
We have
We startedfrom
have started fromthethe tacit assumption
tacit assumption that
that the literary
the literary tech-
tech-
nique
nique ofofthose
those non-rhetorical Greekprose
non-rhetorical Greek prose writers before Aristotle
writers before Aristotle
whose writings have
whose writings comedown
have come downto to us
us isis essentially
essentially different
different from
from
the
the technique
technique of of the largemajority
the large majority of of later writers: the
later writers: the former,
former,
being
being teachers
teachers of
of moderation,
moderation, teach
teach the
the truth
truth according
according to
to the
the rule
rule
ofmoderation,
of moderation, i. i. e.
e. they
they teach the truth
teach the exclusively
truth exclusively between the
between the
lines. Accordingly, we
lines.Accordingly, we have
have refrained
refrained from fromconsidering
considering the con-
the con-
jecture
jecture which
which is
is an
an outcome
outcome of
of higher
higher criticism -
criticism-that that Xenophon
Xenophon
composedthe
composed censureof
the censure of contemporary
contemporary Spartawhich
Sparta which he he inserted
inserted
toward the
toward end of
the end of the
the treatise afterthe
treatise after composition
the composition of
of the
the other
other
fourteen
fourteen chapters.
chapters. This conjecture
This conjecture is
is based
based onon the observation
the observation of
of
thecontradictions
the contradictions between
between that
that censure
censure and
and the
the bulk
bulk of
of the
the treatise.
treatise.
But
But these contradictions
these contradictions are
are not
not the oneswhich
onlyones
the only which occuroccurin in the
the
treatise. The conjecture
treatise. The conjecture in question
in questionis is based,
based, moreover,
moreover, on onobserva-
observa-
tion
tion of themost
of the irregular
most irregular way
way in
in which
which the
the censure
censure of
of contem-
contem-
porary Spartais
porary Sparta inserted. But
is inserted. irregularities
But irregularities occurwithin
occur every
within every
chapter
chapter and
and within
within many
many individual
individual sentences
sentences of
of the
the treatise;
treatise; and
and
the difficulties
the difficulties offered
offered by these
by cannotbe
these cannot calledless
be called less than
than that
that pre-
pre-
sentedby
sented the most
by the striking
most striking -
irregularityprovided
irregularity-provided one
one does
does not
not
understand
understand by by aa great difficulty
greatdifficulty one which
one which is is very easilynoticed
very easily noticed by by
eventhemostsuperficial
even the most superficial reader.
reader. Considering the
Considering fact,for is aa
the fact, for it
it is
11 Agesilaus, 12 and ,.
2, 12
Agesilaus. 2. 7.
a2 Notice
Notice tne
the mention ot "noble
mention of "nooie qeatn at tne
death" at the beginning or IX.
beginning of ix, tne
the chapter de-
cnapter de-
voted
voted toto manliness.
manliness. Ct. Aristotle,Ethica
Cf. Aristotle. Ethica Nicomachea,
Nicomachea, 1115 a lIl-lIlI'
IllS a 38-33.

522
522 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
fact,that
fact, that the
the use of irregularities
use of irregularities of composition
of compositionas as well as of
well as of con-
con-
tradictions
tradictions is characteristic
is characteristic ofthe
of thetechnique employedby
technique employed by that
that small
small
group of
group of writers
writers to to which Xenophon
which Xenophon belongs,
belongs, we
we may take for
may take for
granted(as
granted (as we
we are
are entitled
entitled to
to do
do in
in the
the absence
absence of
of any
any external
external
evidenceto
evidence to the contrary)
the contrary) that
that Xenophon
Xenophon conceived
conceived all
all chapters of
chapters of
the
the treatise
treatise inin one coherentmovement
one coherent movement of ofhis
his mind.1
mind. 1
He sandwichesin
He sandwiches in his censureof
his censure of contemporary
contemporary Sparta exactlyin
Spartaexactly in
the middle
the middle of the last
of the last section. That section
section. That sectionis givento
is given to the Spartan
the Spartan
kingdom
kingdom and
and consists
consists of
of two
two chapters:
chapters: the
the first
first (Chapter 13)
(Chapter 13) is
is
devoted to
devoted to the
the power
power andand honor which the
honor which Spartan king
the Spartan enjoys
king enjoys
when he is with the army,and
when he is with the army, and the
the second
second (Chapter 15) treats
(Chapter 15) of
treats of
the honors which
the honors which he enjoysat
he enjoys at home.2
home. 2 ByBy slipping between these
slippingbetween these
The most
1!The strikingdifficulty
most striking difficulty which
which the treatiseoffers
the treatise offersis that in
is that in thethe bulk
bulk of of it
it
Xenophon
Xenophon seems seemsto speak quite
to speak indiscriminately
quite indiscriminately of what
of Lycurgus had
what Lycurgus enactedin
had enacted in
the
the past and of
past and of what
what the Spartanswere
the Spartans were actually doing in
actuallydoing in his own time,
his own time, whereas
whereas
in
in his censureof
his censure of contemporary
contemporary Sparta he
Sparta drawsaa sharp
he draws sharp line of demarcation
line of demarcation bebe·
tween the
tween the perfect Spartaof
perfect Sparta of the
the past and the
past and defectiveSparta
the defective Sparta of of the present. Yet
the present. Yet
he statesat
he states at the very beginning
the very beginning of of the
the treatise that he
treatisethat he is is going
going to discussaa phe-
to discuss phe·
nomenon belonging to
nomenon belonging the past:
to the "Afterhaving
past: "After having once perceived that
once perceived Sparta,one
that Sparta, one
of the
of the most
most thinly
thinly populated cities,had
populated cities, come into
had come sight
into sight as
as the
the most
most powerfulas
powerful as
well
well as the most
as the celebratedcity
most celebrated cityin Greece,II fell
in Greece, fell toto wondering
wondering how how in the world
in the world
thishad
this happened. But
had happened. afterII had
But after consideredthe
had considered institutions
the institutions of the
of Spartiates,
the Spartiates, II
no longer wondered"
no longer wondered" (I, This introduction
1). This
(I, 1). introduction is almost
is almostexactly parallel to
exactlyparallel to that of
that of
the Memorabilia:
the Memorabilia: "I "I often
oftenfell
fell toto wondering
wondering by by what speechesin
what speeches in thethe world
world thethe
accusersof
accusers Socrateshad
of Socrates convincedthe
had convinced the Athenians
Athenians thatthat he deserveddeath
he deserved death at at the
the
hands
hands of of the city."In
the city." In the case of
the case of Sparta
Spartaas as well
well as as in
in that
that of of Socrates,
Socrates,Xenophon
Xenophon
refers to
refers to aa definite eventin
definiteevent in the past which
the past set him
which set thinkingabout
him thinking about its its causes;
causes; inin
neither
neither case does he
case does he refer
refer to phenomenon which
to aa phenomenon which stillstill existed.
existed.The event to
The event to
which he
which he refers
refers atat the
the beginning
beginning of of the Constitution
the Constitution the Lacedemonians
of the
0/ Lacedemonians is is very
very
probably the
probably the victory
victory ofof the Spartansin
the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war.
the Peloponnesian war. InIn accordance
accordancewith with
the beginning
the beginning quoted quoted he speaksin
he speaks in the firstchapter
the first chaptermostly
mostly of of what Lycurgus had
what Lycurgus had
enactedin
enacted thepast,
in the and only
past, and onlytoward
toward the the end does he
end does he go overto
go over to the present. In
the present. II
In II
and III
and the past
III the still outweighs
past still outweighsthe present.In
the present. IV·X, the
In IV-X, the passages devoted to
passages devoted to
the
the past almostequal
are almost
past are equal inin number
number to to those devotedto
thosedevoted to the present. In
the present. In XI and XII,
XI and XII,
the
the present outweighsthe
present outweighs the past, and in
past, and in XIII,
XIII, i. e. in
i. e. in the immediately
chapterimmediately
the chapter pre-
pre-
cedingthe
ceding censureof
contemporary Sparta,Xenophon
Sparta, Xenophon praises contemporary
praises contemporary Sparta
Sparta
almostexclusively:
almost exclusively:so so openly
openlydoes does he contradicthimself,
he contradict himself, and and so so carefully
carefullydid did hehe
prepare that
prepare flagrant
that flagrant contradiction.
contradiction. Needless
Needless to to add,
add, thethe subtle distinctions
subtledistinctions between
between
enactments"
"Lycurgus'enactments"
"Lycurgus' and "the
and "the Spartans' actual practice"
Spartans'actual practice" shouldshould be considered
be considered
carefully.
carefully. It
It is
is certainly
certainly not
not a
a matter
matter of
of chance
chance that
that in
in the
the chapters
chapters devoted
devoted to
to
military matters the
military matters actual practice
the actual practice ofof the Spartansis
the Spartans so much
is so much in in the foreground,
the foreground,
whereas
whereas in in the devotedto
chapterdevoted
the chapter continenceconcerning
to continence concerningmoney, money, for for example,
example,
Xenophon prefers
Xenophon prefers to speak of
to speak of Lycurgus' enactments.
Lycurgus' enactments.
XIII, 11 and
2»XIII, and XV, XV, 8.8.

XENOPHON
SPARTA 523
523
two
two aa chapter
chapterwhichwhich is devotedto
is devoted to the censureof
contemporary
Sparta,
Sparta, and
and in
in which
which not
not even
even the
the word
word "king"occurs,Xenophon
"king" occurs, Xenophon
seemsto
seems deprivehis
to deprive his whole
whole treatise
treatise of ofthe greatvirtue
the great virtue of ofaa lucid
lucid and and
unambiguous
unambiguous order.
order. Or
Or did he prefer ambiguous
did he prefer an
an ambiguous order?
order?
In
In building
building up up his treatise, the
his treatise, authorof
the author ofthe Cyropaedia
the Cyropaedia and the
and the
Hiero
Hiero andand the
the Agesilaus naturally was
Agesilaus naturally guidedby
was guided by his
his high opinion
high opinion
of the
of institution
the institution of monarchy,
of monarchy, or or ofof the
the question of
question monarchy.
of monarchy.
Accordingly
Accordingly he
he was
was compelled to
compelled present Spartan
to present the
the Spartankingdom
kingdom as as
thepeakofSpartaninstitutions. "the
the peak of Spartan institutions. Now
Now "the vale
vale best
best discovers
discovers the
the
hill." Therefore
hill." Therefore he had
he had to put the
to put accountof
the account of Spartan
Spartanmonarchy
monarchy
at the
at endof
the end ofhishis praise
praise of ofthe constitution,
Spartanconstitution,
the Spartan and he
and he hadhad to to
arrange
arrange the
the several
several topics
topics of
of his
his treatise
treatise in
in such
such a
a way
way that
that their
their
sequencerepresented
sequence represented an
an ascent
ascent in
in a
a straight
straight line
line from
from the
the lowest
lowest
topic
topic to
to the
the highest,
highest, which
which is
is monarchy.1
monarchy.! He
He did
did this
this bychoosing
by choosing
as his
as his first topic the
first topic lawsconcerning
the laws concerning procreation
procreation of
of children;
children; for
for
these lawsare
these laws are concerned
concerned with
with that sideof
that side ofman's
man's nature
nature which
which he he
has
has in commonwith
in common with the animals.From
the animals. From procreation
procreation of ofchildren
children (I),
(I),
Xenophon
Xenophon gradually
gradually ascends
ascends by
by way
way of
of education
education (II),
(II), adolescents
adolescents
adultmen
(III), adult
(III), men (IV), continence
(IV), continence as regards
as regards pleasures
pleasures of of the
the bodybody
continence
(V-VI),continence
(V-VI), as regards wealth
as regards wealth (VI-VII), obedience(VIII),
(VI-VII),obedience (VIII),
manliness
manliness (IX),(IX), the
the whole political virtue
whole political virtue (X),(X), war (XI-XIII), to
war (XI-XIII), to
the
the heroic
heroic kingdom
kingdom of ofSparta
Sparta(XIII(XIII and
and XV).
XV). This
This planimplies
plan implies the
the
view that
view that the
the way peace to
frompeace
way from to war
war is an ascent:
is an ascent:for forwarwar is is the last
the last
topic
topic before
before kingdom,
kingdom, which
which is
is the
the highest; it
highest; implies
it implies the
the view
view
that peace is
that peace is but
but the preparation for
the preparation for war andthe
war and the means
means to it.2
to it. 2 Now
Now
it is
it exactlythis
is exactly this lucid and
lucid and unambiguous
unambiguous plan which
plan which Xenophon Xenophon
completely
completely spoilsbyinserting
spoils by inserting the
the fourteenth
fourteenth chapter, the
chapter, censure
the censure
ofcontemporary
of contemporary Sparta,for
Sparta, for inin so
so doing
doinghe destroys
he destroys the coherence
the coherence
ofthe
of the section devotedto
sectiondevoted to monarchy
monarchy (XIII (XIII and
and XV).
XV). And
And what
what he he
thus spoilsis
thus spoils isnot merely the
not merely the lucidity
lucidity of ofhis plan, but,
his plan, which is
but, which is much
much
more important, the
more important, solemnity
the solemnity of
of his
his praise
praise of
of the
the kingdomof
kingdom of
Sparta.At
Sparta. At the sametime,
the same however, he
time, however, givesus
he gives us toto understand
understand that that
1 Note
1 Note the
the solemn and poetic
solemnand of the
endingof
poetic ending the treatise.
treatise.
2 goes without
It goes
2 It sayingthat
without saying that aa plan implyingthat
plan implying that view is most
view is appropriateto
most appropriate to aa
praise of
praise Sparta.
of Sparta.

524
524 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
the end of
the end of the
the thirteenth chapteris
thirteenth chapter is the actual end
the actual end ofof the praiseof
the praise of
Lycurgus'legislation:
Lycurgus' legislation: he
he thus
thus dismisses
dismisses especially
especially the
the solemn
solemn end
end
of the
of the treatise
treatise as as something
something which
which is
is merelypoetic
merely poetic andand unserious.
unserious.
As
As aa consequence
consequencehe compelsus
he compels us toto reconsider
reconsider the the plan of the
plan of first
the first
thirteen chapterstaken
thirteen chapters alone. These
taken alone. These are are clearly divided into
clearlydivided into twotwo
main sections:the
main sections: first(I-X)
the first dealing with
(I-X) dealing institutions related
with institutions related to to
peace
peace and
and war
war alike,
alike, the
the second
second (XI-XIII)
(XI-XIII) with
with institutions
institutions related
related
to war
to exclusively.1
war exclusively.l The
The insertion
insertion of the
of fourteenth
the fourteenth chapterruins,
chapter ruins,
then,theplan based
then, the plan based on
on the
the view
view that
that the
the way
way from
from procreationof
procreation of
childrento
children to the heroickingdom
the heroic kingdom is is an
an ascent;
ascent; but but farfar from
from ruining,
ruining,
it
it rather enhancesthe
rather enhances plan based
the plan based on on thethe view
view thatthat the distinction
the distinction
between
between peace peace andand war
war is is of
of paramount
paramount importanceimportance for for the
the judg-
judg-
ment
ment of ofany constitution.
anyconstitution. By insertinghis
By inserting censureof
his censure contemporary
of contemporary
Sparta
Sparta in
in the
the "wrong"place, Xenophon suggests
"wrong" place, Xenophon suggests that
that the
the praise
praise of of
monarchy, which
Spartan monarchy,
Spartan which is is in
in the
the foreground,
foreground, must must be be recon-
recon-
sideredin the lightof the distinction,
sidered in the light of the distinction, which
which is
is rather
rather in
in the back-
the back-
ground,between
ground, between peace and war,
peace and and of
war, and of all
all that
that is is implied
implied in in that
that
distinction;he
distinction; gives us
he gives us toto understand
understand that that thethe belief
belief underlying
underlying
the
the first plan, that
firstplan, that war
war isis superior to
superior peace,
to peace, must
must be
be subjectedto
subjected to
reflection.2
reflection. 2
result to
The result
The to which
which the examinationof'
the examination of that
that belief
belief leads
leads is is in-
in-
dicatedin
dicated in all
all that
that Xenophon
Xenophon says saysandand leaves
leavesunsaid about Spartan
unsaid about Spartan
virtue.It is indicated besides
virtue. It is indicated besides in
in his
his emphaticpraise of
emphatic praise of thethe fact
fact
that Lycurgus'legislation
that Lycurgus' fosteredamong
legislation fostered among the citizensof
the citizens of Sparta
Sparta
the spiritof
the spirit of dissension
dissensionand and rivalry
rivalry as as well
well as as spying
spyingon on each other.3
each other. 3
For, accordingto
For, according to the
the view
view ofof the classicalthinkers,
the classical thinkers,one one cannot
cannotas- as-
sert that war
sertthat againstother
war against citiesis
other cities is the
the aimaim of of the
the life
life of
of the city
the city
without
without being drivento
being driven assertthat
to assert that warwar of individual against
of individual againstin- in-
1*XI, i. Ct.
XI, I. XII, 1i and
Cf.XII, XIII, 1i..
and XIII,
2 "firstplan"
The "first
2 The plan" is more visible
is more than the
visible than "secondplan"
the "second plan" ifif one
one disregards
disregards the
the
fourteenth
fourteenth chapter.For
chapter. For the impressive
the impressive endingof
ending of the
the treatise is warranted
treatise is warranted byby the
the
"firstplan"
"first only,and
plan" only, and the
the most impressivethings
most impressive are the
things are the most
most visible
visible ones. The
ones. The
"secondplan"
"second plan" is obscurednot
is obscured onlyby
not only thatimpressive
by that impressive ending,but
ending, by the
but by the fifteenth
fifteenth
chapteras
chapter as aa whole, forthat
whole, for thatchapter
chapterdeals again with
deals again with matters
matters ofof peace
peace rather than
rather than
of war,
of and the
war, and the 5ection devotedto
sectiondevoted to matters of peace
matters of had been
peace had concludedat
been concluded at the end
the end
of the
of tenthchapter.
the tenth chapter.
8 IV.
sIV.

XENOPHON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
ON SPARTA 525
525
dividual is
dividual is the aim of
theaim thelife
of the lifeof
of the individual.1Moreover,
the individual.1 Xeno-
Moreover,Xeno-
phon
phon concludes
concludes the
the first
first section
section of
of the
the treatise -
treatise-the the section
section which
which
is devoted
is devotedto to institutions
institutions relatedto
related to peace and war
peace and war alike-in-
alike in suchsuch
aa way
way that
that that
that passageappearsto be the end of the whole account
passage appears to be the end of the whole account
ofSpartan
of Spartanlegislation;he
legislation; he thus
thusindicates
indicatesthatthatinstitutions
institutions relatedto
related to
war exclusively
war exclusivelydo do not
not deserve
deservevery serious attention.
very serious attention.2Accord-
2 Accord-
ingly,
ingly, he
he excuses
excuses himself
himself for
for the
the prolixity
prolixity of
of his
his very
very brief
brief account
account
of Spartan
of Spartancamp-life.3
camp-life. And,
3 And,
finally,by devoting last
finally, by devoting the
the last chapter
chapterof of
the treatise
the treatiseto to matters
mattersofof peace
peace rather
rather than
than to
to matters
matters of
of war,
war, he
he
shows,if
shows, if in
in aa distortion
distortionmost
mostappropriate
appropriate to
to his
his subject,
subject, that
that the
the
end ought
end oughtto be peace,
to be and not
peace, and not war.4
war.4
v
v
The title
The title indicates
indicates that
that the of the
subject of
the subject treatise is
the treatise is the constitu-
the constitu-
tion
tion of
of the Lacedemonians,and
the Lacedemonians, and the apparent plan
the apparent all but
plan all com-
but com-
pels
pels us
us to
to assume
assume that
that that
that constitution
constitution is
is monarchic.5By spoiling
monarchic. 1I By spoiling
his plan, however,
his plan, Xenophon shows
however, Xenophon shows that
that that assumption is
that assumption is
wrong.6
wrong. If
6 If we
we exclude
exclude therefore
therefore all
all he says about
he says about the Spartan
the Spartan
kings,
kings, we
we find
find that
that his
his treatment
treatment of
of the
the constitution
constitution proper is
proper is
1 Ct. Plato,
1 Cf. Plato, Laws, 626c·611od, and
Laws, 6260-63001, and Aristotle,
Aristotle, Politics,
Politics, 1324a
11124a 5-i325a
5-11125a 15. 15.
2 X, 8.
2X, (Cf. also
8. (C/. also XI, 1). The
XI, 1). The Spartan military institutions
Spartan military institutions may may notnot deserve
deserve discus-
discus-
sion
sion for yet another
for yet another reason. "Xenophon vante
reason. "Xénophon beau coup dans
vante beaucoup dans cet ouvrage les
cet ouvrage les forma-
forma-
tions
tions de de l'armée spartiate; mais
l'armee spartiate; mais lui-même, pendant la
lui-m~me, pendant la retraite des Dix
retraite des Mille, avait
Dix Mille, avait
fait
fait adopter
adopter par tous les
par tous corps des
les corps des formations atheniennes, et,
formations athéniennes, lorsqu'il décrira
et, lorsqu'il decrira la la
bataille de
bataille Thymbree, c'est
de Thymbrée, c'est des formations et
des formations et de
de la tactique athéniennes
la tactique atheniennes qu'il qu'il dotera
dotera
l'armée
l'armee de Cyrus." Ollier,
de Cyrus." OIlier, op.op. cit. p. xxxiii.
cit. p. xxxiii. The judgment on
The judgment on Spartan military or-
Spartan military or-
ganization, which
ganization, which is implied in
is implied in the
the discrepancies pointed out
discrepancies pointed out byby M. OIlier, is
M. Oilier, is clearly
clearly
indicated in
indicated in XI,
XI, 7.,. Other shortcomings of
Other shortcomings of the
the Spartan
Spartan armyarmy are are indicated
indicated in in XII,
XII,
2'4, as
2-4, as can
can bebe seen
seen from
from aa comparison
comparison of of that passage with
that passage Cyropaedia, IV,
with Cyropaedia, IV, 2, 2, 1-8,
1-8,
and Agesilaus, 2,
and Agesilaus, 2, 24.
24.
88 XII,
XII, 7.
,.
*For Xenophon's view
'For Xenophon's view of peace and
of peace war, see
and war, especially Memorabilia,
see especially Memorabilia, II, II, 6, 21 f.
6, 21 f. De
De
vectigalibus, 5;
vectigalibus, Hiero, 2,
5; Hiero, 2, 7; Oeconomicus, 1,
,; Oeconomicus, 211; and
I, 23; Cyropaedia, VIII,
and Cyropaedia, VIII, 4, ct.
,-8. Cf.
4, 7-8.
also Symposium, 1,
also Symposium, I, 1010 with Respublica Lacedaemoniorum,
with Respublica Lacedaemoniorum, XI, XI, 3. 11.
5e Cf. XV, 1.
Ct. XV, 1.
6e Xenophon
Xenophon shows shows thatthat the power of
the power of the
the Spartan kings is
Spartan kings is limited
limited to to the
the functions
functions
of priests and
of priests and ofof leaders
leaders of of the army: whereas
the army: whereas the king has
the king "power and
has "power and honor"
honor" in in
time
time of war, he
of war, he enjoys
enjoys onlyonly "honors"
"honors" in time of
in time of peace XIII, 1
(ct. XIII,
peace (cf. 1 and
and 10 10 f.f. with
with
XV,
XV, 8). 8). The
The Spartan
Spartan king king is is thus
thus induced
induced by by the very constitution
the very constitution to prefer war
to prefer war
to
to peace.
peace. (Cf. Thucydides, VIII,
(C/. Thucydides, VIII, 5, 11, and
5, 3, and Isocrates,
Isocrates, Nicocles,
Nicocles, 24.)24.) By letting us
By letting us see
see
this, Xenophon indicates
this, Xenophon indicates his judgment of
his judgment of the
the wisdom
wisdom of of that
that provision.
provision.

526
526 SOCIAL
scanty: not
very scanty:
very not aa single chapter of
single chapter of the
the Constitution
Constitution of the Lace-
of the Lace-
demonians
demonians is explicitly devoted
is explicitly devoted to to that topic. Thus
that topic. Thus the the title
title seems
seems
to
to be inadequate. Now
be inadequate. inadequate titles
Now inadequate appear to
titles appear have had
to have had aa
peculiar
peculiar attraction
attraction for
for Xenophon:
Xenophon: the
the titles
titles of
of the
the Anabasis
Anabasis and
and
of
of the
the Education
Education of of Cyrus are no
Cyrus are inadequate than
less inadequate
no 'less than that
that ofof the
the
Constitution
Constitution of of the
the Lacedemonians.
Lacedemonians. Now Now the the title
title of the Educa-
of the Educa-
tion
tion of Cyrus was
of Cyrus chosen in
certainly chosen
was certainly in order
order to to draw
draw ourour attention
attention
away from
away Cyrus' brilliant
from Cyrus' brilliant achievements
achievements toward toward his modest edu-
his modest edu-
cation; or,
cation; or, more
more precisely,
precisely, in
in order
order to
to induce
induce us
us to
to pay
pay the
the great-
great-
est attention to
est attention his rather
to his obscure education.1
rather obscure education. 1 In In aa similar
similar way,way,
the title Constitution
the title Constitution of of the
the Lacedemonians
Lacedemonians was chosen to
was chosen to induce
induce
us
us to
to observe
observe thethe somewhat
somewhat obscure constitution of
obscure constitution of Sparta.
Sparta.
Xenophon conceals the
Xenophon conceals the true
true nature
nature of that constitution
of that constitution by by not
not
even mentioning the
even mentioning apparently very
the apparently very powerful
powerful "Little "Little Assembly,"
Assembly,"
of
of which
which he speaks elsewhere.2
he speaks elsewhere.2 He He also hides rather
also hides carefully the
rather carefully the
fact that
fact Sparta
that Sparta had
had not
not one
one but
but two
two kings.3Moreover, speaks
kings. s Moreover, he
he speaks
most clearlyof
most clearly of the government Sparta in
the government of
of Sparta in aa chapter
chapterwhich which is is
explicitlydevoted,
explicitly devoted, not
not to
to Spartan government,
Spartan government, but
but to
to a
a certain
certain
Spartan
Spartan virtue.
virtue. Yet
Yet the
the virtue
virtue in question
in question is obedience; and
is obedience; since
and since
he does not
he does not even
even mention
mention the kings when
the kings when speakingspeaking of of Spartan
Spartan
obedience,but
obedience, emphasize the
does emphasize
but does power of
the power of the ephors in
the ephors in that
that
context,he
context, he leaves
leaves no doubt that
seriousdoubt
no serious that the actual rulers
the actual rulers of of Sparta
Sparta
were
were the ephors.
the ephors. The
The ephors, he
ephors, says,
he says, rule
rule like
like tyrants.4 ty-
tyrants. But
4 But ty-
rants
rants do not rule
do not rule in accordancewith
in accordance laws.5Are
with laws. 1I Are the ephors then
the ephors then
11A fullaccount,
A full GhengisKhan's
entitledGhengis
account,entitled Education,of
Khan's Education, the whole
of the lifeand
whole life workof
and work of
that conquerorand
that conqueror and empire·builder
empire-builder would afford
would affordaa tolerably adequate parallel
tolerably adequate parallel to to
Xenophon
Xenophon's 's Education
Educationot of Cyrus.
Cyrus.
22Hellenica, III, 3,
Hellenica, III, 8.
3, 8.
3In
S In the thirteenth
whole thirteenth
the whole chapter,no
chapter, no single mentionof
singlemention of the two kings
the two occurs.At
kings occurs. At
the beginning
the beginning of
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth chapter,Xenophonspeaksagain exclusively
chapter, Xenophon speaks again exclusively of
of "the
"the
king."In
king." In XV,
XV, 33 hehe leaves
leavesit it undetermined
undetermined whetherSparta
whether was ruled
Spartawas ruledby one or
by one or two
two
kings,
kings, thus
thus preparing
preparing us
us for
for the
the disclosure,
disclosure, in
in the
the followingparagraph,
following paragraph, that
that the
the
Spartan kingdomwas
Spartankingdom was no no monarchy.
monarchy. But after
But thisparagraph
afterthis paragraphhe does not
he does not mention
mention
the secondking
thesecond kingagain.
again.
44VIII,
VIII, 4. Plato,Laws,
Cf.Plato,
4. Ct. Laws,712712 dd 4'1), and Aristotle,
4-5,and Aristotle, Politics, 1270bb 14'15.
Politics,1270 14-15.The tact
The fact
"constitution"
that "constitution"
that is as
is as such irreconcilable
such irreconcilable with "tyranny"
with "tyranny" shows that the
showsthat the very
very
titleof
title of the treatiseis
the treatise is ironic;
ironic;ct.
cf.Hellenica, VI, 3,
Hellenica, VI, 8.
3, 8.
55Memorabilia,
Memorabilia, IV, 6,
IV, 12.
6, 12.

XENOPHON ON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
SPARTA 527
527
notsubject
not subjectto to the
thelaws
lawsof of the
thecity, i.e. to
city,i.e. to the lawsof
thelaws of LycurguS?l
Lycurgus?1
Or was
Or wasLycurgus
Lycurgus himself
himself not
not a
a lawgiver,
lawgiver, subject
subject to
to none
none but the
but the
Delphiangod?
Delphian god?Of Of one
one thing
thingXenophon
Xenophonappearsappearsto to bebe convinced:
convinced:
thefact
the factthat
thatLycurgus
Lycurgus did
did "not
"not even
even attempt"
attempt" to
to establish
establish the
the
orderof
Spartanorder
Spartan of life untilhe
lifeuntil he had made"like-minded"
had made "like-minded" the most
themost
powerful
powerful menin
men in the
thecity. Whereashe
city.Whereas he makes
makesit it perfectly
perfectly clear that
clearthat
thesepowerful
these powerful men
men accompaniedLycurgus
accompanied Lycurgus when
when he
he went
went to
to
Delphi
Delphi to toask
askthe godfor
the god forconfirmation
confirmation ofthe
of thelaws "whichhe
laws"which him-
he him-
selfhad
self he
given," saysmerely
had given," he says merely that
that they "helped in
they"helped establishing
in establishing
the
the power
power of of the office
the office of the
of ephors."2
the ephors."2 It is
It is perhaps
perhaps not not out
out of of
to
place question
place to question the
the identity the
identity of
of the man
man or men withwhom
or men with whom
the most
the powerfulSpartiates
most powerful Spartiates collaborated
collaborated in establishing
in establishing the
the
power
power of ofthe ephors.Did
the ephors. Did they collaborate
they collaborate simplywith
simply with each
each other?
other?
In otherwords,
In other words, how how farfar can Lycurgus be
can Lycurgus distinguished from
be distinguished from thethe
most
most powerful Spartiates
powerful Spartiates or fromthe
or from ephors?"Lycurgus
the ephors? "Lycurgusis is said
said
to
to have livedin
have lived in the days
the days of
of the
the descendants
descendants of
of Heracles."3
Heracles."3 But
But all
all
Spartankings
Spartan were, or
kings were, claimedto
or claimed be, descendants
to be, descendants of of Heracles.
Heracles. Is Is
Lycurgus
Lycurgus then
then a
a man
man who
who never
never dies?4
dies?4 Howeversuperstitious
However superstitious we
we
maysupposeXenophon
may suppose Xenophon to
to have
have been,
been, he
he certainly
certainly did
did not
not believe
believe
that
that such
such aa man
man doesdoes oror could exist in
could exist in rerum
rerum natura.
natura. We are then
We are then
led
led to
to the
the conclusion
conclusion that, according to
that, according to Xenophon,
Xenophon, LycurgusLycurgus did did
not exist at
not exist all, or
at all, or that "Lycurgus" was
that "Lycurgus" was aa mere
mere namename covering
covering
something
something much
much less
less solemn
solemn than
than an
an almost
almost divine
divine lawgiverbe-
lawgiver be-
longing to
longing to aa remote
remote and and venerable past. This
venerable past. This conclusion
conclusion is is borne
borne
out
out byby the following statement
the following regarding the
statement regarding the time
time andand place
place
proper for
proper for pitching camp: "the
pitching camp: Lycurgus with
"the Lycurgus regard to
with regard to this
this isis
the
the king."5 "Lycurgus" is,
king."5 "Lycurgus" then, aa name
is, then, name designating authority or
designating authority or
the
the men
men in authority. The
in authority. The statement
statement quoted implies besides
quoted implies besides that
that
the
the Lycurgus concerning the
Lycurgus concerning the most important affairs
most important affairs ofof the
the city
city (in
(in
11 Cf.
Ct. Aristotle,
Aristotle, Politics, 1270 b
Politics, 1270 b 30.
30.
22 VIII, 1, «
VIII, 1, and K.
3 and 5.
88 This
This sentence
sentence is ambiguous: it
is ambiguous: it also
also alludes
alludes to
to the
the extinction
extinction ofof the
the true
true race of
of
Heracles
Heracles in in the
the remote Ct. below,
past. Cf.
remote past. pp. 532-3.
below, pp. 532-3.
, X, 8.
4X, 8. Cf. Agesilaus, 1,
Ct. Agesilaus, 2. In
1, 2. In accordance
accordance with
with this, Xenophon uses
this, Xenophon uses the past and the
the past the
present indiscriminately in
present indiscriminately speaking of
in speaking of the
the Spartan
Spartan legislation.
legislation.
56 XIII,
XIII, 10 (according to
10 (according to the
the good MSS). A
good mss). parallel to
A parallel to this
this use
use of
of a proper
proper name for
for
designatingaa function
designating function isis supplied
supplied by Cyropaedia, I, 4,
by Cyropaedia, 4, 66 (Sakas).
(Sakas).

528
528 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
other words
other words the
the actual
actual rulers
rulers subject
subject to to nothing
nothingbutbut Delphian
Delphian
confirmation
confirmation of their
of theirmeasures,
measures, or
or the
the tyrannic
tyrannic rulers
rulers of
of Sparta)
Sparta)
is the
is -
the ephors-if
ephors if not not those
those most
most powerful
powerfulSpartiates
Spartiates who
who are
are
able to sway
able to sway the
the ephors.
ephors. It
It is
is left
left to
to our
our discretion
discretion to
to decide
decide
whetherthe
whether the most
mostpowerful men in
powerfulmen in Sparta are different
Sparta are different from,or
from, or
identical with,
identical with, those
those most wealthySpartiateswhose existenceis
most wealthy Spartiates whose existence is
alluded to
alluded to by
by Xenophon
Xenophon on
on more
more than
than one
one occasion.
occasion.
VI
VI
The Constitution
The Constitutionof the Lacedemonians,
of the Lacedemonia.ns, far far from
frombeing
being an an en-
en-
comiumof
comium of Sparta, is
Sparta, actually
is actually a
a most
most trenchant, if
trenchant, disguised,
if disguised, satire
satire
on that
on city
that city and
and its
its spirit. To
spirit. justify
To justify this
this contentionfully
contention fullywewe have
have
to indicate
to indicate the
the reasons
reasons which
which induced Xenophon firstto satirize
induced Xenophon first to satirize
Sparta,
Sparta, and
and then
then to
to conceal
conceal the
the satire.
satire.
He
He himself indicatesthe
clearlyindicates
himself clearly the reason
reason for for his writing aa satire
his writing satire
on Sparta.
on Sparta. At
At the
the end
end of
of the
the tenth
tenth chapter,
chapter, which
which reads
reads as
as if it
if it
were
were the end of
the end of the
the whole treatise and
whole treatise and which
which is is in fact the
in fact the esoteric
esoteric
end,
end, he
he tells
tells us
us that
that "all
"all praise"
praise" the
the Spartan
Spartan institutions.
institutions. And
And the
the
beginning of
beginning of the treatise is
the treatise is the
the words
words "But I."1 Praising
"But 1."1 Praising andand ad-
ad-
miringSpartawas a fashionin his time.Fashionsof thatkind are
miring Sparta was a fashion in his time. Fashions of that kind are
bound to
bound to be more or
be more or less
less unreasonable
unreasonable and therefore an
and therefore an induce-
induce-
ment
ment to to aa discerning
discerning man, man, who judges the
who judges the unreasonable
unreasonable to to bebe
ridiculous, to
ridiculous, satirize them.
to satirize Xenophon was
them. Xenophon was such
such aa man.
man. To To thethe
"all"
"all" who praise the
who praise institutions, he
Spartan institutions,
the Spartan he answers
answers by by aa treatise
treatise
which opens with
which opens with the words, "But
the words, "But II . .... . fell
fell wondering
wondering [and] [and] II
investigated these
investigated these institutions."
institutions."
One
One ofof the
the most
most famous
famous admirers
admirers of Sparta was
of Sparta who was
Critias, who
was Critias, was
aa poet and an
poet and enemy of
an enemy of Socrates
Socrates and and an oligarch. Critias
an oligarch. Critias was
was the
the
author of
author of two works, one
two works, in prose but
one in prose but oneone in verse, both
in verse, both entitled
entitled
Constitution
Constitution of of the
the Lacedemonians.
Lacedemonians. These These were were used
used byby Xeno-
Xeno-
phon and
phon and maymay bebe said
said toto have been the
have been model of
the model of his
his treatise
treatise onon
11 Compare also emphatic transition
Compare also the
the emphatic transition from
from "all
"all of us" to
of us" to "I"
"I" in VIII, 1.
in VIII, Xenophon
1. Xenophon
uses
uses in all other
in all other cases
cases the
the first singular; and
person singular;
first person and whereas
whereas elsewhere
elsewhere he says "I
he says "I
shall explain," "I
shall explain," believe," "I
"I believe," "I wonder," etc., he
wonder," etc., he constantly speaks of
constantly speaks what "I
of what "I know"
know"
in
in the chapter devoted
the chapter devoted toto the outspoken censure
the outspoken censure ofof contemporary
contemporary Sparta. Ct. Plato,
Sparta. Cf. Plato,
Republic, 544 cc 2-3,
Republic, 2-3, and 7th Letter,
and 7th 324 cc 2-3.
Letter, 324 2-3.

XENOPHON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
ON SPARTA 529
529
theSpartan
the constitution.1
Spartanconstitution. As in
1 As in all
all cases
casesof of the
thekind, matters
whatmatters
kind,what
is not
is notso muchthe
so much theagreements
agreements as
as the
the differences
differences between
between the
the imita-
imita-
tion and
tion and the
the model. Critias, who
model. Critias, who praises
praisesthe the Spartans,
Spartans,does does notnot
hesitateto
hesitate to attribute
attributeto to them
themthe thevirtue
virtueof of moderation;
moderation;Xenophon,
Xenophon,
who investigated
who investigated their
their mode
mode of
of life,
life, and
and who
who knewknew better
betterwhatwhat
moderationis,
moderation is, answers
answers him
him by silence,
by silence, i.
i. e.
e. by being silent on
by being silent on
Spartan
Spartan moderation.
moderation. The
The hasty
hasty Critias
Critias does
does not
not hesitate
hesitate to
to assert
assert
that the Spartan
that the Spartanmode mode of life produces
of life producesmen men fit fitfor
forboth
both thought
thought
and toil;2
and toil;2the slow Xenophon
the slow Xenophon answersanswershim him by speech interspersed
by speech interspersed
with silence,i.
with silence, i. e.
e. by
by emphasizing
emphasizingrepeatedly
repeatedly how
how much
much the the Spar-
Spar-
tans
tans toiled and by
toiled and by being silenton
being silent on their
theirthinking.
thinking.3 s We
We shall
shall then
then
saythat
say that the
the relation
relation of of Xenophon's
Xenophon's treatise treatise to to the
the two
two writings
writings of of
Critias is
Critiasis fundamentally
fundamentally that that of of the speech of
long speech
the long of Protagoras
Protagoras in in
Plato's work
Plato's work of of that
that name
name to to actual speeches,
actual speeches, now
now forgotten,of
forgotten, of
that
that personality.
personality.
But
But whywhy does
does Xenophon
Xenophon conceal conceal his his satire
satire on Sparta, or
on Sparta, or onon
Athenian
Athenian laconism,
lacon ism, so so carefully,
carefully, whereas
whereas it is aa matter
it is matter of of common
common
knowledge
knowledge that
that Plato's
Plato's Protagoras
Protagoras is
is a
a comedy?
comedy? The
The Constitution
Constitution
of the
of the Lacedemonians
Lacedemonians is is sometimes
sometimes censured censured for for its
its exceeding
exceeding
scarcity of factual
scarcity of factual information
information on Sparta. But
on Sparta. But briefness
briefness of of expres-
expres-
sion, brachylogy, was
sion, brachylogy, was one
one of of the
the most
most famous
famous characteristics
characteristics of of the
the
Spartans. Considering that
Spartans. Considering that briefness
briefness of expression is
of expression is one
one of of the
the
most ordinary devices
most ordinary devices for for not disclosing the
not disclosing truth, we
the truth, may assume
we may assume
that
that the
the famous brachylogy of
famous brachylogy of the Spartans had
the Spartans something to
had something to do
do
with
with their
their desire
desire to to conceal
conceal the shortcomings of
the shortcomings of their
their mode
mode of of
life. Such aa desire
life. Such desire maymay be be called
called bashfulness.
bashfulness. By expressing him-
By expressing him-
self
self most briefly when
most briefly discussing the
when discussing vices, and
Spartan vices,
the Spartan and by by thus
thus
writing aa disguised
writing disguised satire
satire onon Sparta,
Sparta, Xenophon
Xenophon adapts adapts himself
himself
to
to the peculiar character
the peculiar character of of his subject and
his subject and thus
thus achieves
achieves aa feat
feat inin
11 Cf.
Ct. Habben,
Habben, op. op. cit., 52 ff.
p. 52
cit., p. If. Notice
Notice also
also the
the poetic ending of
poetic ending of the
the treatise.
treatise.
22 Fr.
Fr. 66 (Diels).
(Diels).
38 See
See II,
II, 5; III, 7; IV,
III. 7; IV. 7;7; X, 7; and
X, 7; especially V,
and especially V. 8. (In V, 4,
8. (In 4, which corresponds to
which corresponds to
Critias, fr.
Critias, 6, 1.
fro 6, 1. 10 If., he
10 ff., replaces nûs
he replaces nUs by gnomai. Cf.
by gnômai. Symposium, 2,
Ct. Symposium, 26.) It may
2, 26.) may be
remarked
remarked in passing that
in passing that the
the difference between. and
dilference between, opposition of,
and opposition of, "toil" and
"thought," which
"thought," escaped Critias'
which escaped Critias' notice,
notice, explains
explains why Xenophon so
why Xenophon so likes
likes the
the word
word
rhadiurgia; the
rhadiurgia; the life
life of contemplation is
of contemplation definitely not
is definitely not aa life
life of
of toil.
toil. Cf. III. 22 and IX,
Ct. Ill, IX,
11 with Symposium, 4,
with Symposium, 4. 13.
1!l.

530
530 SOCIAL
the art
the art of which is
writing which
of writing surpassed only
is surpassed only by by Plato's
Plato's Laws.
Laws. For For
whereas Xenophon and
whereas Xenophon and Plato
Plato inin their
their other works, as
other works, as well
well as as He-
He-
rodotus and
rodotus Thucydides and
and Thucydides perhaps other
and perhaps other writers
writers before
before them,
them,
teach the truth
teach the according to
truth according to the rule of
the rule moderation, the
of moderation, the Constitu-
Constitu-
tion of the
tion of the Lacedemonians
Lacedemonians as well as
as well as the
the Laws
Laws deviate
deviate somewhat
somewhat
from
from this
this established principle by
established principle teaching the
by teaching the truth according to
truth according to
the rule of
the rule bashfulness: both
of bashfulness: both works
works are most bashful
are most bashful speeches
speeches
about the mostbashful
about the most bashful of
of men.1
men. 1
A
A censure
censure of moreover, was
Sparta, moreover,
of Sparta, was liable
liable toto bebe misunderstood
misunderstood
readers as
uncritical readers
by uncritical
by praise of
as aa praise Athens; for
of Athens; for atat the time when
the time when
Xenophon
Xenophon wrote
wrote the
the uncritical
uncritical reader
reader scarcely
scarcely saw
saw an
an alternative
alternative
to the choice
to the between the
choice between Spartan and
the Spartan and thethe Athenian spirit. And
Athenian spirit. And
Xenophon
Xenophon did
did not
not wish
wish to
to praise
praise Athens.
Athens. First
First of
of all,
all, he
he had
had rea-
rea-
sons of his
sons of his own forbade him
which forbade
own which him to praise that
to praise city and
that city and that
that
constitutionwhich
constitution which had
had condemned
condemned Socrates
Socrates to
to death.
death. And, be-
And, be-
sides, his
sides, taste did
his taste did not allow him
not allow him to to praise Athens: he
praise Athens: was an
he was an
Athenian and
Athenian and forfor an Athenian to
an Athenian to praise Athens was
praise Athens was anan easy
easything,
thing,
and the
and the noble
noble things
things are difficult.2
are difficult.2 By writing
By writing his
his censure
censure of
of Sparta
Sparta
in such
in such aa way that the
way that superficial
the superficial and
and uncritical
uncritical reader
reader could
could not
not
help taking
help taking it
it as
as praise of
praise Sparta,Xenophon certainlyprevented
of Sparta, Xenophon certainly prevented
the
the uncritical
uncritical admirer
admirer of of Athens
Athens fromfrom being confirmedin
being confirmed in his
his
prejudices.
prejudices.
Finally,
Finally, if if one satirizessomething
one satirizes somethingone considersthe
one considers the thing
thing in in
questionridiculous.
question ridiculous. One One considers
considersridiculous
ridiculous those thoseshortcomings
shortcomings
of other
of otherpeople
people which
which do
do not
not hurt
hurt one.
one. Educated
Educated consider
people consider
people
ridiculous
ridiculous onlyonlythose shortcomings
those shortcomings whichbetray
which betraylacklack ofof education.
education.
But being
But being educated
educated and
and therefore
therefore desiring
desiring not
not to
to offend
offend others,
others,
hide their
theyhide
they theirlaughter
laughteras as well as they
well as theycan can from
fromthe uneducated.
the uneducated.
That is
That is to
to say,
say, an
an educated
educated man
man will
will utter
utter his
his ridicule
ridicule of the
of the
lack of
lack of education,
education,or barbarismof
or barbarism of aa given
givenman man or or city
cityoror nation,
nation,
only in
only the
in the absence
absence of
of the
the uneducated.
uneducated. In
In other
other words,a good
words, a good
satireon
satire barbarismof
the barbarism
on the of aa given
given man
man or
or city
city or
or nation
nation will
will be
be
11Note
Noteespecially the extremely
especiallythe extremely bashfulmanner
bashful mannerin whichXenophon
in which of the
speaksof
Xenophonspeaks the
subjectsof
subjects the Spartans
of the Spartansinin XII,
XII, 2-4 and VII,
2-4 and VII, 2. as compared
2, as with Cyropaedia.
comparedwith Cyropaedia,
2, I1 If.
IV, 2,
IV. ff.
22Ct. foraa similar
Cf.for of conscience,
case of
similarcase conscience, Plato,Menexenus,
Plato, Menexenus,235 d.
235 d.

XENOPHON
XENOPHON ON ON SPARTA SPARTA 531
531
inaccessible
inaccessible to
to the superficial
the superficial reader.
reader. This This at leastwas
at least was Xenophon's
Xenophon's
view
view asas he indicatedin
he indicated in that chapter
that chapter of
of his
his Education
Education of Cyrus
of Cyrus
which teaches us
which teaches us how educatedpeople
how educated people jest: jest: they
they jest about the
jest about the
uneducated
uneducated in in the absenceof
the absence ofthe latter. At
the latter. At the beginning of
the beginning of that
that
chapter,
chapter, he describes
he describes suchjesting
such conversation
jesting conversation as "most
as "mostgraceful
graceful
speecheswhichincite what good/'1
speeches which incite to
to what is
is good."l The
The Constitution
Constitution of the
of the
Lacedemonians
Lacedemonians is is aa speech
speech of ofthat
that kind:
kind: by being aa most
by being ablydis-
most ably dis-
satireon
guisedsatire
guised on Spartan
Spartanlack lack of education,it
of education, is aa most
it is graceful
most graceful
recommendation
recommendation of ofeducation.
education.
The treatise
The treatise of of Xenophon
Xenophon is, then, aa remarkable
is, then, remarkable documentdocumentof of
Attic
Attic taste:
taste: it represents aa higher
it represents higher type type of ofcomic
comicspeech
speech than
than does
does
classical comedy. just
classical comedy. Yet,
Yet, just as
as there
there is
is no
no jest
jest without
without underlying
underlying
seriousness,
seriousness, thereis no good tastewhichis not something
there is no good taste which is not something more
more
than
than taste.
taste. TheThe true nameof
true name of that taste which
that taste permeates Xeno-
which permeates Xeno-
phon's writings
phon's writings is, is,not education,
not education, but
but philosophy.
philosophy.
Philosophic
Philosophic life
life was
was considered
considered by
by the
the classicalthinkers
classical thinkers as fun-
as fun-
damentally
damentally different
different frompolitical
from political life.life. And
And as faras
as far as political life
political life
raised
raised aa universal claim,
universal claim, i.
i. e.
e. as
as far
far as
as the
the city
city left
left no
no room
room for
for aa
private life
private life which
which was more than
was more economic,philosophic
than economic, philosophiclife, life,
which
which of of necessity
necessity is is private,
private, of of necessity
necessity became opposed to
became opposed to po-
po-
liticallife.
litical The incarnation
life. The incarnation of the
of the political spirit
political spirit was
was Sparta:
Sparta:
Spartaand
Sparta and philosophy
philosophy are areincompatible.
incompatible.2 Thus Sparta
2 Thus
Spartabecame,
became, on on
the one hand,
the one hand, the
the natural
natural starting
starting point any
point for
for any ruthless
ruthless idealiza-
idealiza-
tion
tion ofof political life,or
political life, or for
for anyany true
true utopia;
utopia; and, and, on on the other
the other
hand,
hand, it
it became
became the
the natural
natural subject any
subject of
of any ruthless
ruthless attack
attack on
on
political
political life,
life, or
or of
of any philosophic
any philosophic satire.
satire. By satirizing
By satirizing Sparta,
Sparta,
the philosophers then
the philosophers then diddid notnot so so much
much mean Sparta,the
mean Sparta, actual
the actual
Sparta
Sparta of
of the
the present
present or
or of
of the
the past,
past, as
as the
the spirit of
spirit Sparta, the
of Sparta, or
or the
conviction
conviction that
that man
man belongs,
belongs, or or ought
oughtto to belong, entirely
belong, entirely to
to the
the
city.
city. For
For it
it would
would be
be an
an overstatement
overstatement to
to say
say that
that philosophy
philosophy was
was
compatible
compatible with
with Athens: Socrateswas
Athens: Socrates executedfor
was executed for not
not believing
believing
in
in the
the gods of
gods Athens,
of Athens, in
in the
the gods
gods of
of the
the city.Byconsidering
city. By considering and
and
11 Cyropaedia,
Cyropaedia, II, 2.
2.
2
2 It is aa joke of Socrates
Socrates to of "Spartan philosophy"; see Plato,
It is joke of speak of
to speak "Spartan [and
[and Cretan]
Cretan] philosophy"; Plato,
Protagoras, 342
Protagoras, a-b.
342 a·b.

532
532 SOCIAL
reconsidering this
reconsidering fact, we
this fact, grasp the
we grasp the ultimate
ultimate reasonreason why why political
political
life and
life philosophic life,
and philosophic even if
life, even compatible for
if compatible for almost
almost all all prac-
prac-
tical purposes, are
tical purposes, incompatible in
are incompatible in the
the last
last analysis: political life,
analysis: political life,
if
if taken seriously, meant
taken seriously, belief in
meant belief in the gods of
the gods of the city, and
the city, and phi-
phi-
losophy is
losophy is the
the denial
denial of of the gods of
the gods of the
the city.
city.
Socrates did
Socrates did notnot believe
believe in in the gods of
the gods of the city, nor
the city, nor diddid his his
pupil Xenophon. But
pupil Xenophon. But bothboth master
master and pupil took
and pupil every imag-
took every imag-
inable
inable care
care to hide from
to hide from the public their
the public unbelief, so
their unbelief, so much
much so so that
that
even
even at at the time, when
present time,
the present nobody believes
when nobody believes any longer in
any longer in the
the
gods of
gods of Greek cities, one
Greek cities, steps on
one steps ground in
slippery ground
on slippery dealing with
in dealing with
Socrates' or
Socrates' Xenophon's belief
or Xenophon's belief or unbelief. Since
or unbelief. Since they they uttered
uttered
their unbelief
their only in
unbelief only manner that
such aa manner
in such that thethe large majority might
large majority might
in
in no circumstances become
no circumstances become aware aware of of it, proofs of
it, proofs of their
their unbelief
unbelief
necessarily are
necessarily are of
of such character that
such aa character they will
that they will not convince the
not convince the
majority of
majority readers. But
of readers. But the only alternative
the only alternative to accepting as
to accepting as valid
valid
such proofs as
such proofs as the nature of
the nature the matter
of the matter allows
allows is higher criticism
is higher criticism
in the
in the nineteenth century style,
nineteenth century style, i.i. e.
e. deleting
deleting important
important passages
passages
of
of Xenophon's making aa large
writings, making
Xenophon's writings, large number
number of of superfluous
superfluous
textual emendationsand
textual emendations assuming that
and assuming Xenophon was
that Xenophon was not
not famil-
famil-
iar with,or
iar with, or not
not able
able to
to live
live up to,
up to, the
the most
most elementary
elementary rules
rules of
of
lucid composition.
lucid composition.
Belief
Belief inin the gods of
the gods of the
the city was apt
citywas apt to to be connectedwith
be connected with the the
belief thataa god
beliefthat god had
had given
given the
the laws
laws of
of the
the city.
city. The
The Spartansfor
Spartans for
instancebelieved
instance believed that that thethe Delphian
Delphian god god had had givengiven themthem theirtheir
laws. Xenophon
laws. Xenophon did
did not
not share
share that
that belief.
belief. He
He held
held the
the view
view that
that
"Lycurgus"had
"Lycurgus" finishedthe
had finished elaborationof
the elaboration of his
his laws
laws before
beforehe went
he went
to Delphi
to Delphi to
to ask
ask Apollo
Apollo for
for confirmation.
confirmation. Accordingly
Accordingly he
he distin-
distin-
guishes
guishes between
between the
the Spartans'
Spartans' obedience
obedience to
to Lycurgus'laws
Lycurgus' laws and and
theirobedience
their obedience to
to the
the god.1
god. 1
Belief in
Belief in the
the gods
gods the of
of the city was bound
citywas bound up with the
up with the belief
beliefin in
the existenceof
the existence of demigods or
demigodsor heroes, and therefore
heroes,and therefore in particular in particular
with the
with belief in
the belief the possibility
in the possibility of
of sexual
sexual intercourse
intercourse between
between
immortalgods
immortal gods and mortal men.
and mortal The
men. The Spartans for instance
Spartansfor instance bebe-
lieved that
lieved their kings
that their kings were descendantsof
were descendants of Heracles,
Heracles, and and thatthat
i Ct.
1 and XIV,
VIII, 55 and
Cf.VIII, withPlato,
XIV, 77 with Plato,Laws, 624 aa 1·6
Laws,624 1-6and
and 684
634 ee 1-2.
1-2.

XENOPHON ON
XENOPHON ON SPARTA
SPARTA 533
533
Heracles was
Heracles was thethe sonsonofofZeus
Zeusand and aa mortal
mortal mother.1
mother. 1 The obvious
The obvious
plan
plan of Xenophon's treatise
ofXenophon's treatise isis based
based on on compliance
compliancewith that be-
with that be-
lief: the treatise
lief: the ascendsfrom
treatise ascends from aa fact
fact which
which is is common
commonto to men
men and and
animals,
animals, to
to the
the Spartankings,
Spartan kings, who
who are
are assumed
assumed by
by the
the laws
laws of
of
Lycurgus to
Lycurgus be not
to be not human beings but
human beings but heroes.
heroes. Xenophon
Xenophon did did notnot
accept
accept that
that assumption,
assumption, for
for he
he clearly
clearly realized
realized that
that belief
belief in
in the
the
divineor
divine or heroic descentof
heroic descent of the Spartankings
the Spartan presupposes belief
kings presupposes belief
in the marital
in the marital fidelity
fidelity of all Spartan
ofall Spartanqueens,
queens,and and he he had
had no no high
high
opinion
opinion of
of the
the chastity of
chastity Spartan
of Spartan women
women in
in general
general and
and of
of Spar-
Spar-
tan in
queens particular.2
tan queens in particular. 2 Accordingly, he
Accordingly, he spoiled
spoiled that
that plan
plan of
of his
his
treatise which
treatise corresponded
which corresponded to
to the
the Spartan
Spartan claim
claim in
in question.
question. But
But
he
he went further:
went further: he clearly
he clearly realized
realized that
that the
the unjustified
unjustified and un-
and un-
justifiable
justifiable claimoftheSpartankingswasmerelyone consequence
claim of the Spartan kings was merely one consequence
amongmanyof
among many ofthe erroneous
theerroneous views which
views which the Spartans
the Spartans and others
and others
held
held ofofthe deity.He
the deity. indicatedthis
He indicated this by speakingat
by speaking at the
the beginning
beginning
of the treatise
ofthe treatise of ofhow people feed
how people feed their and
children, bystating
their children, and by statingat at
the of the
the last sectionthat *'feedsthe and
the beginning
beginning of last section Sparta"feeds
that Sparta the king
king and
those with
those with him,"
him," and and shortly
shortly thereafter,
thereafter, that
that the
the Spartanking,in
Spartan king, in
his
his turn, "offers
turn, "offers sacrifices
sacrifices to
to Zeus
Zeus andand toto those
those with
with him."
him." To To in-in-
dicatehis
dicate his view stillmore
view still clearly,he
more clearly, soon goes
he soon over from
goes over from the the
plurality
plurality of
of the
the gods ("Zeus
gods ("Zeus and
and those
those with
with him")
him") to
to a
a duality
duality
("Zeusand
("Zeus and Athena")
Athena") and and finally
finally to
to the singular("The
the singular ("The god").3
god").3
The Constitution
The Constitution of theLacedemonians
of the Lacedemonians appears appearsto to be
be praise
praise of of
an admirable
an constitution.
admirableconstitution. Since Xenophon
Since Xenophon was was an an adherent
adherentof of
the
aristocracy, point
aristocracy, the point of
of reference
reference with
with regard
regard to
to which
which he judges
he judges
constitutions
constitutions is the
is quality
the quality of
of the
the education
education which
which corresponds
corresponds to
to
the constitution
the constitution in question.
in question.It It is,
is, therefore, noteworthy that
therefore, noteworthy that he he
doesnot
does not mention
mention piety piety atat all
all when
when he of
speaks Spartan
he speaks of Spartan education.
education.
Thus he
Thus lets us
he lets see that
us see piety is
that piety is no essentialpart
no essential part ofof the
the highest
highest
type
type of
of education.
education. Or
Or are
are we
we to
to judge
judge his
his failure
failure to
to mention
mention piety
piety
in the
in sameway
the same way we judged his
we judged failureto
his failure to mention
mention moderation
moderation and and
11 Ct. and 2
Cf. XV, 99 and 2 with
with Agesilaus, and Cynegeticus,
1, 2, and
Agesilaus, 1,2, Cynegeticus,1,9.1, 9.
2 4-9 with
Cf. I, 4-9 Agesilaus, 1,
with Agesilaus, I, 5 and Hellenica, III, and VII,
VII, 1,
2 Ct. 5 and 3, 1-3
III, !I, I-!I and 31.
I, !II.
38 1, and XIII,
I, !I3 and XIII, 1-3.
I-!l. Ct. Apologia Socratis,
Cf. Apologia 24. A
Socratis, 24. censure of
A censure of the
the moral side of
moral side of the
the
Spartan view
Spartan of the
view of gods is
the gods is implied in the
implied in last sentence
the last sentence of of XIII, as appears
3, as
XIII, !I, appears from
from
aa comparison
comparison of of that passage with
that passage 7.
with II, 7.

534
534 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
wisdom?
wisdom? This This would hardly be
would hardly correct;for,
be correct; whereas he
for,whereas does not
he does not
mention
mention moderation
moderation and and wisdom
wisdom at at all
all when praising the
when praising Spar-
the Spar-
tans, he
tans, has many
he has many things
things toto say
say ofof their
their piety,
piety, i.i. e. of their
e. of sacrifices
their sacrifices
and oracles
and and hymns.1
oracles and hymns. 1 He deals most
He deals fullywith
most fully Spartan piety
with Spartan piety
when recounting how
when recounting how they starttheir
they start their military expeditions.He
military expeditions. He
concludesthat
concludes account,
that account, which
which is
is almost
almost completely
completely devoted
devoted to
to the
the
various sacrificesoffered
various sacrifices offeredup up by by thethe kingking at at the
the beginning
beginning of of aa
campaign,by
campaign, saying: "When
by saying: "When you you see see these things,you
these things, you would
would
believe
believe that
that the othersare
the others are bunglers
bunglers in in military matters and
military matters and that
that
the Lacedemoniansalone
the Lacedemonians alone areare truly expertsin
truly experts in warlike
warlike matters/'2
matters."2
Worship
Worship of
of the
the gods,
gods, which
which plays
plays no
no role
role in
in education,is
education, an es-
is an es-
sentialpart
sential part ofof the
the art of war.
art of war. In Xenophon's view
In Xenophon's view of of the dignity
the dignity
of war
of war as as compared
compared with with the dignityof
the dignity of peace
peace and and leisure
leisure andand
education,his
education, his judgment
judgment on on piety is
piety implied.
is implied.
In
In the
the time
time of of Xenophon,
Xenophon, impiety constitutedaa criminal
impietyconstituted criminal ofof-
fence. Thus
fence. Thus philosophy,
philosophy, which which is essentiallyincompatible
is essentially incompatible with
with
acceptance
acceptance of
of the
the gods
gods of
of the
the city,
city, was
was as such subject
as such subject to to persecu-
persecu-
tion.3 Philosophers had
tion. 3 Philosophers thereforeto
had therefore conceal if
to conceal if not
not the the fact
fact that
that
they were
they were philosophers,
philosophers, at at least
leastthe factthat
the fact they were
that they were unbelievers.
unbelievers.
On the
On otherhand,
the other hand, they desiredto
theydesired communicatetheir
to communicate views to
their views to aa
smallnumber
small number of of people
people whowho werewere able able and
and willing
willing to accept
to accept these
these
views;and
views; and since
since they could not
they could possibly talk
not possibly talk to
to the
the larger
larger part
part ofof
that small number
that small number becausebecause the the larger
larger partpart was
was not
not yetyet born,
born, they
they
had no
had choicebut
no choice but to write books
to write books and and publish
publishthem.
them. The The difficulty
difficulty
implied
implied in
in the
the contradiction
contradiction between
between the
the necessarilysecret
necessarily secretchar-
char-
acterof
acter of the philosophic teaching
the philosophic teaching and and thethe necessarily
necessarily public char-
public char-
acterof
acter of publications
publications was was overcome by a
overcomeby literarytechniquewhich
a literary technique which
made
made it possible to
it possible to reveal the truth
reveal the truth to to aa small,
small,if competent,mi-
if competent, mi-
nority, while
nority, hiding it
while hiding from the
it from large majority.
the large majority. That That technique
technique
was
was the outcomeof
the outcome ofaa very simplediscovery.
very simple discovery. If
If a
a man
man tells
tells aa charm-
charm-
ing story,most
ing story, people will
most people enjoy the
will enjoy the story-the-
story the imitated
imitatedcharac-charac-
ters,
ters, the
the imitated
imitated actions
actions or
or events,
events, the
the imitated
imitated landscape, the
landscape, the
1For
1 Xenophon's view
For Xenophon's of piety,
view of see especially
piety,see especiallyMemorabilia,
Memorabilia, IV, 6, 4,
IV, 6, and Agesilaus,
4, and Agesilaus,
1-2.
11, 1'2.
11,
¿2 XIII, 5. Ct.
XIII, 5. also IV,
Cf.also IV, 5.6
5-6and XIII end.
and XIII end.
3Ct.
S Cf.Memorabilia,
Memorabilia, I, 31 with
2, 31
I, 2, with Plato, Apology, 23
Plato, Apology, d
23 d 4-7.
4-7.

XENOPHON
XENOPHON ON ON SPARTASPARTA 535
535
imitated
imitated speeches
speeches ofthe
of characters,
the characters, and even
and eventhe imitation
theimitation itself
itself- -
but onlyaa minority
but only minority of ofreaders
readers will recover from
will recover from the charm,reflect
the charm, reflect
upon the
upon story
the story and discover
and discover the teaching which
the teaching which it it silently
silently conveys.
conveys.
Silentor
Silent or secret
secretteaching
teaching is is then certainly
then certainly possible.
possible. That
That it is an
it is an
actualfact
actual factofof the
the past is shown,
past is shown,above aboveall, by the
all, by storiesand
the stories and his-
his-
tories
tories ofofHerodotus, Thucydides Xenophon,
Herodotus, Thucydides and
and Xenophon, as
as well
well as
as bythe
by the
Socraticwritings
Socratic writings of of Xenophon
Xenophon and and Plato.
Plato. One One may may add add that
that this
this
kind
kind ofofliterature
literature disappeared
disappeared onlyat
only at aa rather
rather recent date:its
recent date: itsdis-
dis-
appearance
appearance was
was simultaneous
simultaneous with
with the
the disappearance persecu-
disappearance of
of persecu-
tion,
tion, just as its
just as itsreappearance
reappearance is issimultaneous
simultaneous with
with thethe reappearance
reappearance
ofpersecution.
of persecution.
It would,
It would, however,
however, betraybetray too low a view
too Iowa view of of the
the philosophic
philosophic
writers
writers of of the
the past
past ifif one assumedthat
one assumed that they concealedtheir
they concealed their
thoughts
thoughts merely
merely for
for fear
fear of
of persecution
persecution or
or of
of violent
violent death.
death. They
They
concealedthe
concealed the truth
truth from
from thethe vulgar also because
vulgar also because they considered
they considered
the vulgar to
the vulgar to bebe unfit
unfit to digestthe
to digest the truth:
truth: thethe large
large majority
majority of of
men, the
men, the philosophers
philosophers of of the
the past thought, would
past thought, would be deprivedof
be deprived of
theverybasisoftheirmorality
the very basis of their morality if theywereto lose theirbeliefs.
if they were to lose their beliefs.
They
They considered
considered it
it then
then not
not onlyaa matter
only matter of offear
fear andand safety,
safety, but
but
alsoaa matter
also matter of ofduty
dutyto to hide
hide the the truth
truth fromfromthe the majority
majority of ofman-
man-
kind.
kind. By By making
making the thediscovered
discovered truth almostas
truth almost as inaccessible
inaccessible it
as it
as
was
was before
before it it had
had been discovered,
been discovered, theyprevented
they prevented-to - to call
call aa vul-
vul-
garthingby vulgar
gar thing by a
a vulgar name
name-the- the cheap
cheap sale
sale of
of the
the formulations
formulations of
of
the
the truth:
truth: nobody shouldknow
nobody should know even eventhe formulations
the formulations of
of the
the truth
truth
who
who hadhad not
not rediscovered
rediscovered the the truth
truth byby hishisown
ownexertions,
exertions, ifaided
if aided
by
by subtle
subtle suggestions
suggestions from
from a
a superior
superior teacher.
teacher. It
It is
is in
in this
this waythat
way that
the classicalauthors
the classical authors became
became the the most
most efficient
efficient teachers
teachers of ofindepend-
independ-
ent thinking.
ent thinking. It It should,
should,however,
however, not
not be
be overlooked
overlooked thatthis
that this
exotericliterature,
exoteric literature, which provides the
which provides the highest
highest typetype of of education,
education,
is
is found
found not only
not only in
in classical
classical times;
times; it
it has
has reappeared all
reappeared in
in all epochs
epochs
in
in which philosophy was
which philosophy understood in
was understood in its fulland
its full and challenging
challenging
meaning,
meaning, in in all
all epochs,
epochs,that is,in
that is, in which
which wisdom
wisdom was was not separated
not separated
frommoderation.
from moderation. Its disappearance
Its disappearance almost
almost coincides
coincides with
with the the
victory
victory of of higher criticism
higher criticism and of
and of systems
systems of philosophy
of philosophy which which
claimedto
claimed to be sincerebut
be sincere but which certainly
which certainly lacked
lacked moderation.
moderation.

536
536 SOCIAL RESEARCH
SOCIAL RESEARCH
cannot study
One cannot
One studyXenophon,
Xenophon. who seems to
who seems to have
have been
been one of
one of
the greatest
the greatest classical
classical admirers
admirers of
of Sparta,
Sparta. without
without being constantly
being constantly
reminded
reminded of of that greatestof
that greatest of all
all modern admirersof
modern admirers of Sparta. Jean
Sparta,Jean
Jacques
Jacques Rousseau.
Rousseau. If
If it
it is
is true,
true. as
as is
is sometimes
sometimes asserted,
asserted. that
that the
the
restitution
restitution of of aa sound
sound approach
approachis is bound
bound up up with
with the elimination
the elimination
of Rousseau's
of influence,then the thesisof the presentarticle
Rousseau's influence. then the thesis of the present articlecan
can
be summedup
be summed up by sayingthat
by saying thatthe
the teaching
teaching of of men like Xenophon
men like Xenophon
is precisely
is precisely the antidotewhich
the antidote which we we need.
need. ItIt goes
goes without
without saying
saying
that it is
that it is not
not the
the intention
intention of of the
the present articleto
present article to refute, or to
refute. or to
prove, such aa far-reaching
prove. such far-reaching thesis. It will,
thesis. It however. not
will. however, not have
have been
been
written
written inin vain
vain if if it
it induces
induces somesome readers
readers to to reconsider
reconsider the the tradi-
tradi-
tional and current
tional and currentview view of of Xenophon,
Xenophon. which,which. while being under-
while being under-
to a
standable and even to certainextentjustifiable,
standable and even a certain extent justifiable. is
is almost
almost an
an
insultto
insult to this
this truly
truly royal soul. For
royal soul. such aa man
For such man was he that
was he that he
he pre-
pre-
ferredto
ferred through the
go through
to go centuriesin
the centuries in the disguise of
the disguise of aa beggar
beggar
rather than
rather than to sell the
to sell the precious secretsof
precious secrets Socrates'quiet
of Socrates' quiet and
and sober
sober
wisdom
wisdom to to aa multitude
multitude which which letlet him escape to
him escape immortality
to immortality only
only
afterhe
after had intoxicated
he had intoxicatedit it by
by his artfulstories
his artful storiesof of the
the swift and
swiftand
actionsof
dazzlingactions
dazzling an Agesilaus
ofan Agesilaus or or aa Cyrus.
Cyrus,or or aa Xenophon.
Xenophon.
YorkCity)
(New York
(New City)


Leo Strauss - ''The Spirit of Sparta, or The Taste of Xenophon'' (1939)

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Leo Strauss - ''The Spirit of Sparta, or The Taste of Xenophon'' (1939)

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THE SPIRIT OF SPARTA OR

THE TASTE OF XENOPHON

A^enophon's treatiseConstitutionof the Lacedemonians ap-

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