13

FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Sociological

Psychological

Anthropological

Philosophical

Historical
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Student’s Guide
FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Course Description
The course Foundations of Education or OU 703 aims to give you adequate understanding of fundamental,
psychological, anthropological, sociological data and principles as they apply to education. This also deals with the philosophy,
history, development of education theory and practice as they relate to the national goals and ideals of education. This
combines the Foundations I and Foundations II offered in the undergraduate courses.

COURSE OBJECTIVES AND CONTENTS

A. Psychological Foundations
1. Discuss the different principles and theories of growth and development and their implications to
educational practice.
2. Explain the learning process from different theoretical perspectives.
3. Explain the different models of teaching and the roles of the teacher under each.

B. Sociological Foundations
4. Describe how stratification in society began.
5. Relate the function of the family to nation building.
6. Explain the role of the school, church and other social institutions in socialization and societal change.

C. Anthropological Foundations
1. Show a comprehensive view of the beginning of the Filipinos as people.
2. Appreciate one’s cultural heritage and participate actively in preserving, conserving, and transmitting it to
the next generation.
3. Discuss the importance of language in the development and transmission of culture.

D. Historical Foundations
1. Discuss the historical development of education from ancient to modern times.
2. Appreciate the aims and contributions of the different periods
3. Discuss the implementation of the different movements as they influenced the shaping of Philippine
education

E. Philosophical Foundations
1. Familiarize with the different philosophical outlooks that have influenced educational theory and practice
2. Gain ideas from philosophy that may develop insights that may develop insights into the solution of
educational problems; and
3. Appreciate the aspirations of the Filipinos especially in education.

F. Legal Foundations
1. Discuss the historical influence on Philippine education.
2. Explain the legal bases of Philippine education
3. Trace the organizational set up of the Philippine education.

Discussion Questions (To be posted on the discussion boards)

Module I Psychological Foundations of Education

1. What is learning? Why it is important to a teacher to have a clear understanding of the learning process?
2. What are the three distinct types of learning? What does each type of learning involve?
3. What is learning theory? Why it is important for you as a would-be teacher to understand the different learning
theories?
4. How does each of the different theories of learning view the learning process? What is, for you, the significance of
each theory to teaching?

Reaction Paper # 1
From among the theories of development, what theory do you think best fit the Filipino learners of today?

Module II Sociological Foundation of Educations

1. What are the major concerns that society has to cope with?
2. What are the determinants of social status? What is social mobility? Social stratification?
3. Why are groups important? What are their roles in the society?
4. Describe the relationship between the family and the school and the community. Differentiate divine, social and
cultural values.

Reaction Paper # 2
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What are the prevailing social problems that you think should be addressed of? What measures to be done to at least if not
totally eradicate help to prevent these problems.

Module III Anthropological Foundations of Education

1. What makes man different from other forms of animals?
2. What is culture? How culture and society are related?
3. Discuss the importance of language and writing to humans.
4. What are the Filipinos values? What is valuing?

Reaction Paper # 3
Do you think there is a need to re-examine the Filipino values? Why or why not?

Module IV Historical Foundations of Education

1. Trace the historical foundations of Philippine Educational System. What are the aims, types and content of each era?
2. What are the movements in education? What were the contributions of the different religious orders and what
educational practices today that were gleaned from these.

Reaction Paper # 4
Do you believe that government should control education?

Module V Philosophical Foundations of Education

1. What is philosophy? Discuss the educational implications of the different philosophical theories.
2. What are the contributions of the different philosophies to the shaping of Philippine education?

Reaction Paper # 5
Given the different philosophies of education, what do you think has the greatest impact on Philippine Education?

Module VI Legal Bases of Education

1. Discuss the different educational theories, aims, curriculum and the content.
2. Why is education a function of the state?
3. Explain the acts constitute the legal bases of education in the Philippines. What are the legal rights of the students?

INTRODUCTION

Education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is not only a preparation for life but it is life itself.
This is so because throughout man’s life, he learns many things, may it be formally or informally. The components in the
educative process are the learner, the teaching-learning process, the teacher and the policy maker. The most important of
these is the learner who occupies the center stage in the educational system.

Foundation is a base upon which any structure or system stands. A strong foundation makes the structure or a
system firmly established and strong enough to be able to serve its purpose.

This course Foundations of Education covers the six foundations of education: psychological, sociological,
anthropological, historical, philosophical and legal bases. This tackles the Foundations 1 and 11 offered in the undergraduate
courses separately.

Psychology is the study of human behavior, of how person acts and reacts under different situations, consciously or
unconsciously, mentally, physiologically, physically, overtly, or covertly. It is the study of man’s reactions to life’s simulation.

Sociology deals with study of human beings living in groups, of how people act and interact under different social
situations, and how they relate themselves to one social situation, and how they relate themselves to one another. Terms that
indicate group actions are used here such as cooperate, team work, sociable, conflict, etc.

Anthropology is the study of civilizations and cultures of people: their origins, customs, traditions, beliefs, mores,
folkways, and practices. This also includes languages, forms of writings, tools and weapons, buildings and other physical
structures.

History is the study of past events that makes us understand the present situation, and to enable us to predict future
events.

Philosophy is a systematized truth or principles that serve as guide for conduct or thinking. Philosophy is a fixed idea
or principle arrived at after a very rigid scrutiny or study of the state of things, situations, or events.
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Legality refers to the conformity to the laws passed by the State to establish and guide the conduct of an educational
system. The Constitution is the most important legal document that establishes and guides in understanding the educational
system of any country. It contains the philosophy of education of any country.

Module
1
The Psychological Foundations of Education

It is said that education depends on psychology because the kind and amount of education that the learner acquires
is conditioned by the psychological traits such as general mental abilities, aptitudes, temperaments, interests, effort making
capacity, physical condition etc, hence the principles of education are basically based on psychology.

The Learner
Teaching and learning are psychological processes. The teacher is in a better position to select and use methods and
techniques that will promote effective learning. There are three components of the educative process which have been the
concern of both psychologists and teachers. These are the learner, the learning process, and the learning situation. This
module discusses the principles of growth and development, the learners’ stages of development and the different theories of
development.

Understanding Growth and Development

The terms growth and development have been continually used in most readings in psychology. Many times, these
terms are used interchangeably; although in certain respects both terms, though parallel, imply different definitions.

Growth essentially refers to quantitative changes in an individual as he progresses in chronological age. It may refer to
increases in size, height, or weight.

Development, on the other hand, refers to the progressive series of change of an orderly and coherent type leading to the
individual’s maturation. This definition implies that for development to be progressive, there is a direction in the manner in
which changes occur. Development is also coherent, essentially because the sequence of changes that occur are related to
each other and do not occur haphazardly or abruptly.

From these definitions, one can see that although both growth and development imply contrasting types of changes
in the individual, both are, nonetheless, related and complementary processes.

The Importance of Studying the Stages of Development

In many instances, people meet children of varying ages and wonder why each of them displays different
characteristics. The focus of the study of development precisely points to these observations. A teacher, who expects to meet
the needs of his /her learners, must be aware of the various developmental differences among his/her learners.

The knowledge of the pattern of human development will certainly help a teacher to know what to expect of children,
and at what approximate ages certain patterns of behavior may appear or are expected to appear. Planning for instruction
should also be based on certain developmental principles, which to a great extent determine what types of learning and
amount of learning are appropriate for different age groups. In other cases, knowledge of developmental patterns will allow
teachers to identify learners with developmental lags or delays so as to provide guidance and intervention as early as
possible. Thus, teachers must learn to recognize the significance of this knowledge to their teaching success, as well as to the
learning process.

Factors in Growth and Development

Two general factors influence human development:

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1)maturation or natural growth resulting from heredity; and

2)environmental influences in and through which the growing takes place.

These two factors are so thoroughly interrelated that it is impossible to isolate their specific influences.

Every individual is born with definite potentialities of development passed on to him by his parents through heredity.
These heredity potentialities for many kinds of behavior patterns continue to develop for months or even years. This process
by which heredity exerts its influence long after birth is called maturation. Studies have shown that a number of physiological
structures are essentially mature and ready to function at birth or even earlier. Others, however, such as certain nervous,
muscular and glandular structures are not ready to function until after months or even years later. Certain types of behavior
which are made possible by these structures cannot be developed unless these structures are sufficiently mature. No amount
of instruction and practice, for example can make a six-month old child walk or talk because the neural and muscular
structures involved are not yet ready for such activities.

Although an individual inherits trait potentialities from his parents, the direction that these characteristics follow
during the process of growth and development depends upon the individual’s environment. Behavior traits develop only after
interaction with environmental influences.

Modes of behavior at a given time in the life of an individual are not determined by heredity or environment working
alone. Instead, they are the product of the interaction between his inherited tendencies and potentialities and those
environmental influences by which he is stimulated. For example, while the ability to vocalize and the capacity for learning to
make intelligible sounds are inherited, the language a child speaks is the result of the language he is exposed to during the
growth process. A child is not born with skills, emotional controls, or attitudes. It is only when his inherited adaptable nervous
muscular systems are given the proper stimulation at a time when they are maturationally ready that such traits are learned
and developed. It is at this point where education plays an important role in the development of an individual.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

From numerous studies conducted on growth and development, developmental psychologists have established some
basic principles of developmental change that occur over the life cycle. These basic principles are outlined below and
explained in succeeding paragraphs.

1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.

The first basic principle relates to the orderly sequence of developmental change. The developmental process, guided
by the interaction of maturation and learning, follows a predictable pattern. It is a continuous process that proceeds according
to a definite direction and uniform pattern throughout the life cycle.

Although physical growth attains its maturational level and stops as a process, developmental change continues as
long as life continues. As individual continuously adapts to changing physical and mental abilities, age increases. Such
developmental changes which occur throughout the life cycle follow a sequential pattern which is predictable. The stages
which an individual goes through from birth to death are always of the same order from infancy to old age. They have never
occurred in reverse.

This predictable sequence is also observable in the phylogenetic skills – those skills which are universally of the
human race. Thus, regardless of the culture, all babies proceed from supported sitting to unsupported sitting to creeping,
crawling and, finally walking. Similarly, babies produce unrecognizable sounds to babbling before producing understandable
speech.

The two predictable directions during the pre-natal and infancy periods illustrate the uniform pattern of physical
development. These directions are cephalocaudal and proximodistal. In the cephalocaudal trend, development proceeds in the
head-to-foot direction in the body. Changes in motor performance and function, for instance, take place first in the head region
and last in the foot region. In the proximodistal trend, parts of the body nearest to the center are the earliest to develop.
Infants, for instance, are able to use to their arms before they acquire hand skills while their finger skills follow the
development of hand skills.

2. The rate of development is unique to each individual

The second basic principle relates to the rate of development changes as unique to each individual. Although
developmental changes follow a predictable pattern, the rate at which changes may occur may be different from one
individual to another. Such differences in rate of change are determined by the interaction of heredity and environmental
factors. As an example, some children will change faster than others in almost all areas of development while some will be
much slower than others. Or, some children will have faster rates of development in the physical and social aspects while at
the same time be slower in the mental aspect of development.

This second principle stresses the fact that it is futile to try accelerate an individual’s development if he is not ready
to develop or experience a change. This means; for instance, that any new ability will emerge only if the essential physical or
mental foundations are already existing. Training can produce results only if the individual has reached the level of maturation
necessary for an activity. Such readiness for an activity is determined by his rate of development.

3. Development involves change.

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This principle implies that the human being is always evolving based on theories by developmental psychologists. As
stated earlier, children undergo physical, emotional, and mental changes.

4. Early development is more critical than later development.

The studies of Freud, Erikson, and Piaget on early patterns of behavior led to the conclusion that early development is
very important. It is at this stage of development where individuals develop the foundations for social relatedness, emotional
well-being, and personal adjustments. It has been widely accepted that the first two years of life, often called the “formative
years”, greatly dictate the course of an individual’s growth and development. This principle is also the rationale behind early
childhood education.

5. Development is the product of maturation and learning.

As discussed previously, development is an outcome of both maturation and environmental influences. Although
people are genetically endowed with certain characteristics, learning allows individuals to develop these innate potentialities.
Through exercise and effort, people can act on their environments and develop their competencies. In most cases, individuals
learn through imitation and observation of other role models.

6. There are individual differences in development.

Although children follow a predictable pattern of development, a step-by-step progression, all children do not reach
these developmental stages all at the same time or all at the same age. These differences in development are often ascribed
to both genetic and environmental influences, where each individual is either born or exposed to varying factors.

For instance, physical development depends largely on inherited characteristics; such that children will grow in height
differently form each other. Similarly, intellectual growth is contingent upon one’s educational exposure or family environment.

7. There are social expectations for every developmental period which are often referred to as developmental tasks.

This principle clearly states that at any point in the individual’s development, each one is expected to fulfill certain
social expectations. As will be seen in a later discussion, these social expectations vary from one stage to the next.

THE LEARNER’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

There are eight stages of development usually ascribed to the life span of human beings. These stages which are
based on chronological age are listed below. Corresponding to each stage are characteristics often achieved by individuals
within each specified age group.

Since school learners who are the main concern of teachers in the elementary and secondary schools are in stage
2,3,4, and 5, the discussion in this section will only focus on the significant changes during these stages. Mention will also be
made of the social expectations for each stage.

These social expectations which Robert Havighurst, a well-known developmental psychologist, labeled as
“developmental tasks”, are skills and patterns of behavior every cultural group expects its member to master or acquire at
various ages during the life span. These tasks are physical, cultural, and psychological in nature.

Infancy and Early Childhood

The period which covers from birth to six years is generally referred to as the pre-school years. It is characterized as
the time when neuromuscular functions basic to development of motor skills are developed. It is the time when a child is
extremely dependent upon adults and seeks their affection and care. Inquisitiveness is characteristic of this stage. After his
spoken language skills are developed, he begins to ask endless questions about everything. His tendency to imitate the
actions of his elders is reflected in his play activities.

The developmental tasks during these early years are based mostly on the successive maturation of various parts of
the body and on the family environment. Success or failure in the performance of these tasks will affect considerably the
performance of other tasks in the succeeding periods of development.
The principal tasks of infancy and early childhood are: (1) learning to walk; (2) learning to take solid foods; (3)
learning to talk; (4) learning to control the elimination of body waste; (5) learning sex differences and sexual modesty: (6)
achieving physiological stability; (7) learning to relate emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people; and (8) learning to
distinguish between right and wrong and developing a conscience (Hurlock, 1982:10)
Although individuals differ in the rate at which they learn tasks, children are expected to learn these tasks fairly well
by the time they begin formal schooling. After the basic motor skills have been fairly well developed, the degree of success
with which they accomplish these early tasks will depend to a large extent on experiences they have with such tasks. It is at
this point where nursery and kindergarten education can be very valuable in helping the child succeed fail in these tasks.
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Developmental Stage Characteristics

1. Pre-Natal Age when heredity endowments and sex are fixed

(Conception to Birth) and all body features, both external and internal,
are developed.

2. Infancy Foundation age when basic behavior patterns are

(Birth to 2 years) organized and many ontogenic maturational skills
emerge.

3. Early Childhood Pre-gang exploratory, and questioning, when

(2 to 6 years) language and elementary reasoning are acquired
and initial socialization is experienced.

4. Late Childhood Gang and creativity age when self help skills, social
( 6 to 12 years) skills, school skills, and play skills are developed.

5. Adolescence Transition age from childhood to adulthood when

(puberty to 18 years) sex maturation and rapid physical development
occur resulting to changes in ways of feeling,
thinking and acting.

6. Early Adulthood Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new

(18 to 40 years) roles such as spouse, parent, and bread winner.

7. Middle Age Transition age when adjustments to initial physical

(40 years to retirement) and mental decline are experienced.

8. Old Age Retirement age when increasingly rapid physical

(Retirement to Death) and mental decline are experienced.

Late Childhood

This period covers from 6 to 12 years which are the elementary school years. It is a period when a child begins to
develop a feeling of independence. His attitude towards adults is different from those of his early years. At this stage,
association with one’s age-mates becomes uppermost in a child’s life. It is a period of strong individual friendships and group
relations. As adolescence approaches, a change of attitude between the sexes occurs.

During this period, the child attains good physical development an motor control. He can learn to do a great many
things and to develop the fundamental skills needed in later life.

The principal developmental tasks of late childhood are: (1) learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games; (2)
building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism; (3) learning to get along with age-mates; (4) learning an
appropriate sex role; (5) developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating concepts necessary for everyday
living; and (7) developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions (Hurlock, 1982:10).

Since the late childhood period covers the elementary school years, guiding and helping a child to achieve mastery of
these tasks becomes a major concern of the school. Although the family and community environment continue to provide
experiences to the child in learning these tasks, the school gradually assumes a large share in this responsibility during this
period.

Adolescence

This period covers from 12 to 18 years. These are generally the high school years. These years are often referred to
as the transition years. It is a transition from childhood dependence upon others to assumption of adult activities and
responsibilities. This transition is not and cannot be sudden. Adult status can be achieved-only through carefully guided
preparation for adult responsibilities.

The adolescent stage is characterized by significant physiological changes that bring about changes in the
adolescent’s ways of feeling, thinking and acting. Physically, he goes through a spur of growth and development of certain
parts of the body which becomes a concern for him at the early stages. During this period he achieves mental maturity within
his potential limits. He may be intellectually curious and may be interested in learning many things. However, his learning
interests may not be in accord with his learning potentialities.

Emotionally and socially, the adolescent wants independence; yet he has a strong desire for security. He wants to feel
secure in the affection and regard of persons of his own age and of adults. This is a period of strong personal attachment
which starts with sudden infatuation and goes to controlled attachment to members of the opposite sex.
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The developmental tasks for this period are: (1) accepting one’s physique and accepting a masculine or feminine role;
(2) forming new relations with age-mates of both sexes; (3) developing emotional independence from parents and other
adults; (4) achieving assurance of economic independence; (5) selecting and preparing for an occupation; (6) developing
intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence; (7) desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior; (8)
preparing for marriage and family life; and (9) building conscious values in harmony with an adequate scientific world picture
(Hurlock, 1982:10)

Teaching adolescents is not easy. An adolescent spends less and less time at home. And more and more outside the
home. In most cases he spends his time in school and in school-related activities. Although to the adolescent school may seem
to be a burden, he finds it a source of friendship and a place for sharing social activities. In view of this, the school has
significant role in guiding the adolescent learner in achieving mastery of the developmental tasks. If the adolescent achieves
success in these tasks through the school, in cooperation with the home and the community, then he will proceed through this
period to adulthood with relatively little difficulty.

Early Adulthood

This period covers from 18 to 35 years. By this time, definite habits of behavior control have become more of less
fixed. An adult has developed certain attitudes and opinions towards people and things that are more or less satisfactory to
him. This period is often one of marriage, raising a family, initial full-time employment in a career, and forming new
associations. Such characteristic developments in early adulthood are rooted in the psychological needs of an individual for
love, companionship, security, and achievement.

The developmental tasks during the early adulthood period are those which are considered necessary for happy and
successful participation as an adult member of society. These tasks are: (1) selecting a mate; (2) learning to live with a
marriage partner; (3) starting a family; (4) rearing children; (5) managing a home; (6)getting started in an occupation; (7)
taking on civic responsibility; and (8) finding a congenial social group. (Hurlock, 1982;10).

A number of adults go back to school because they feel certain inadequacies in their previous education to achieve
these developmental tasks. As a result, there has been an increasing interest in college education. An adult who goes to
school usually does so because he wants to. He has a definite educational aim in view and he wants to achieve this aim as
quickly and as completely as possible. Hence, he expects the content of learning materials and teaching techniques to be
clear, definite, and suited to his needs. Schools involved in the education of the adult will have to provide such education that
will satisfy his needs.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

In the study of human development and behavior, developmental psychologists have come up with a variety of
theories. These theories which have served as tools in teaching their ideas and concepts have helped them in understanding
the organization and course of human development.
To gain further insight into the behavioral changes at various stages of development, four theories of development
which have influenced contemporary concepts about the nature of individual development are presented in this section. These
are Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory, Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, Jean Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development and Laurence Kohlberg’s Theory of moral development.

Summary of Categories for Developmental Tasks

INFANCY TO
STAGES OF EARLY LATE ADOLESCENCE EARLY
DEVELOPMENT CHILDHOOD CHILDHOOD ADULTHOOD
Learning to walk Learning Physical Accepting changes Maintaining
Learning to talk skills necessary for in one’s physique physical health
Physical skills Learning to take games and using the body and well-being.
solid foods effectively.
Learning to control
Elimination of body
wastes
Getting ready to Developing Preparing for an Getting started in
read fundamental skills economic career an occupation
Intellectual in reading, writing, with knowledge
Skills and calculating. gained from
Developing academic
concepts exposure
necessary for daily
living
Learning sex Learning to get Achieving new and Learning to live
differences and along with age- mature social with a marriage
sexual modesty mates Beginning relations with partner or
to develop agemates of both independently
Social Skills appropriate sexes achieving a selecting a mate
masculine or masculine or taking an civic
feminine social feminine social responsibility
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roles developing role desiring, finding a congenial

attitudes toward accepting, and social group
social groups and achieving socially
institutions responsible
behavior
Learning to Building a Achieving Starting a family
distinguish right wholesome emotional rearing children
and wrong and attitude toward independence managing a home
Emotional Skills beginning to oneself as a from parents and
develop a growing individual other adults
conscience developing a preparing for
conscience, a marriage and
sense of morality, family life
and a scale of acquiring a set of
various achieving values and an
personal ethical system as a
independence. guide to behavior
depending on
ideology.

Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis. He was born into a middle-class
Jewish family in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pribor in the Czech Republic) on May 6, 1856.

Freud believed that people are born with biological drives that must be redirected so as to live in society. He
proposed that personality is formed in childhood, as children deals with unconscious conflicts between these inborn urges and
the requirements of civilized life. This conflict occur in an unvarying sequence of five maturationally based stages of
psychosexual development, in which sexual or sensual pleasure shifts from one body zone to another- from the mouth to
the anus and then to the genitals. At each stage, the behavior that is the chief source of gratification (or frustration) changes-
from feeding to elimination and eventually to sexual activity.

Freud considered the first three stages - those of the first few years of life- crucial. He suggested that if children
receive too little or too much gratification in any of these stages, they at the risk of fixation – an arrest in development that
can show up in adult personality. For example, babies whose needs are not met during the oral stage, when feeing is the main
source of sensual pleasure, may grow up to become nail bitters or smokers or to develop “bitingly” critical personalities. A
person who, as a toddler, had too-strict toilet training may be fixated at the anal stage, when the chief source of pleasure was
moving the bowels. Such a person may have a “constipated” personality: obsessively clean and neat or rigidly tied to
schedules or routines. The person may be defiantly messy.

According to Freud, a key event in psychosexual development occurs in the phallic stage of early childhood. Boys
develop sexual attachment to their mothers and girls to their fathers, and they have aggressive urges toward the same-sex
parent, whom they regard as a rival. Children eventually resolve their anxiety over these feelings by identifying with the same
sex-parent and move into the latency stage of middle childhood, a period of sexual calm. They become socialized, develop
skills, and learn about themselves and society. The genital stage, the final one, lasts through adulthood. The sexual urges
repressed during latency now resurface to flow in socially approved channels, which Freud defined as heterosexual relations
with persons outside the family of origin. Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage, channeled into mature adult
sexuality.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months) to other accounts (0 to 2 years)

Baby’s chief source of pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities (sucking and feeding).

Anal Stage (12-18 months to 3 years) to other accounts (2-4 years)

Child derives sensual gratification from withholding and expelling feces.
Zone of gratification is anal region, and toilet training is important activity.

Phallic Stage (3-6 years) to other accounts (4-6 years)

Child becomes attached to parent of the other sex (boys-Oedipus Complex;
girls- Electra Complex;) and later identifies with same-sex parent. Superego develops.
Zone of gratification shifts to genital region.
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Latency Stage (6 years to puberty) to other accounts (6-12 years)

Time of relative calm between more turbulent stages.

Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood) to some accounts (12 years and up)

Freud proposed three hypothetical parts of the personality: the id the ego, and the superego. Newborns are governed
by the id, which operates under the pleasure principle – the drive to seek immediate satisfaction of its needs and desires.
When gratification is delayed, as it is when infants have to wait to be fed, they begin to see themselves as separate from the
outside world. The ego, which represents the reason, develops gradually during the first year or so of life and operates under
the reality principle. The ego’s aim is to find realistic way to gratify the id. The superego develops during early childhood. It
includes the conscience and incorporates socially approved “shoulds” and “should nots” into the child’s own value system . If
its standards are not met, a child may feel guilty and anxious. The ego acts as a mediator between the impulses of the id and
the demands of the superego.

Freud himself was impresses by the instinctual aspect of man’s development and particularly with his sexual drives.
His theory of personality development consequently was organized around vicissitudes in the development of sexual instinct.
While this view has proved too restrictive to many scientists for its lack of emphasis on the socio-cultural determinants of
behavior and development, Freud did call attention to the fact that psychological development begins at birth passes through
predictable stages, and is molded for good or ill by the emotional climate surrounding significant development milestones.
The child’s success in coping with the various developmental milestones largely dictates how adequate he will be in meeting
life stresses as an adult.

Critique / Reaction:
This dynamic approach places special emphases on the continuity of personal development, beginning with early
infancy, and on emotional reactions to the multitude of forces and challenges which all persons must encounter. Freud’s
original formulations are still highly useful but have been modified considerably by subsequent theoreticians such as Sullivan,
Adler, Jung, Horney, Erikson, and others.

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

"Human personality in principle develops according to steps predetermined in the growing person's readiness to be
driven toward, to be aware of and to interact with a widening social radius"

Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), American psychoanalyst who made major contributions to the field of psychology with
his work on child development and on the identity crisis.

Born in Frankfurt, Germany, Erikson was an artist and teacher in the late 1920s when he met the Austrian
psychoanalyst Anna Freud. With her encouragement he began studying at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, where he
specialized in child psychoanalysis. In 1933 he migrated to the United States, where he became interested in the influence of
culture and society on child development.

After emigrating to the U. S. in 1933, Erikson taught at Harvard (1933–36; 1960–70) and engaged in a variety of
clinical work, widening the scope of psychoanalytic theory to take greater account of social, cultural, and other environmental
factors. In his most influential work, Childhood and Society (1950), he divided the human life cycle into eight psychosocial
stages of development. His psychohistorical studies, Young Man Luther (1958) and Gandhi's Truth (1969; Pulitzer Prize,
National Book Award), explore the convergence of personal development and social history. His later works dealt with ethical
concerns in the modern world.

Babies are born with some basic capabilities and distinct temperaments. But they go through dramatic changes on
the way to adulthood, and while growing old. According to psychologist Erik H. Erikson, each individual passes through eight
developmental stages (Erikson calls them "psychosocial stages"). Each stage is characterized by a different psychological
"crisis", which must be resolved by the individual before the individual can move on to the next stage. If the person copes with
a particular crisis in a maladaptive manner, the outcome will be more struggles with that issue later in life. To Erikson, the
sequences of the stages are set by nature. It is within the set limits that nurture works its ways.

Erikson's Eight Stages of Human Development

Stage 1: Infancy -- Age 0 to 1 to other accounts birth to 12-18 months

Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue: Hope
Description: In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore must be able to
blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those.
Positive outcome: If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants not only will develop a secure
attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in general as well.
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Negative outcome: If not, infant will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even towards
themselves.

Stage 2: Toddler -- Age 1 to 2 to other accounts 12-18 months to 3 years

Crisis: Autonomy (Independence) vs. Doubt (or Shame)
Virtue: Will
Description: Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-confidence begin
to develop at this stage.
Positive outcome: If parents encourage their child's use of initiative and reassure her when she makes mistakes, the child will
develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and independence.
Negative outcome: If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child's acts of independence, she may begin to feel
ashamed of her behavior, or have too much doubt of her abilities.

Stage 3: Early Childhood -- Age 2 to 6 to other accounts 3 to 6 years

Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt
Virtue: Purpose
Description: Children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become more and more
engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must learn to achieve a balance between
eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies.
Positive outcome: If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept without guilt, that
certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel shame when using their imagination and engaging in
make-believe role plays.
Negative outcome: If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be independent.

Stage 4: Elementary and Middle School Years -- Age 6 to 12 to other accounts 6 years to puberty
Crisis: Competence (aka. "Industry") vs. Inferiority
Virtue: Skill
Description: School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a
worker and a potential provider. And they do all these while making the transition from the world of home into the
world of peers.
Positive outcome: If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they will
develop a sense of competence.
Negative outcome: If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.

Stage 5: Adolescence -- Age 12 to 18 to other accounts puberty to young adulthood

Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Virtue: Fidelity
Description: This is the time when we ask the question "Who am I?" To successfully answer this question, Erikson suggests, the
adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts. Did we develop the basic sense of trust? Do
we have a strong sense of independence, competence, and feel in control of our lives? Adolescents who have
successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the "Identity Crisis", which is considered by Erikson as the single
most significant conflict a person must face.
Positive outcome: If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, he will come out of this stage with a strong identity, and
ready to plan for the future.
Negative outcome: If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices, especially about
vocation, sexual orientation, and his role in life in general.

Stage 6: Young Adulthood -- Age 19 to 40

Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Virtue: Love
Description: In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. No matter how successful you are with your work,
said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy. An individual who has not
developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation.
Positive outcome: Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense of
identity.
Negative outcome: If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and unable to depend on anybody in the world.

Stage 7: Middle Adulthood -- Age 40 to 65

Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Virtue: Care
Description: By "generativity" Erikson refers to the adult's ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through
parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as much as children need adults, and that this
stage reflects the need to create a living legacy.
Positive outcome: People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next generation in other ways.
Negative outcome: If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience stagnation
later in life.

Stage 8: Late Adulthood -- Age 65 to death

Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair
Virtue: Wisdom
Description: Old age is a time for reflecting upon one's own life and its role in the big scheme of things, and seeing it filled with
pleasure and satisfaction or disappointments and failures.
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Positive outcome: If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within himself and with others,
he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the healthy adult
will not fear death.
Negative outcome: If not, the individual will despair and fear death.

Critique / Reaction:
Erikson modified and extended Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the developing
personality. He was a pioneer in a life-span perspective. Whereas Freud maintained that early childhood experiences
permanently shape personality, Erikson contended that ego development is lifelong.

In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through the life span. Each stage consists of a
“crisis” in personality – a major psychosocial theme that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue to some
degree throughout the rest of life. These issues, which emerge according to a maturational timetable, must be satisfactorily
resolved for healthy ego development.

Each stage requires the balancing of a positive tendency and a corresponding negative one. Although the positive
quality should predominate, some degree of the negative is needed as well. The critical theme of infancy, for example, is trust
versus mistrust. People need to trust the world and the people in it, but they also need to learn some mistrust to protect
themselves from danger. The successful outcome of each stage is the development of a particular “ virtue”, or strength- in this
case, the “virtue” of hope.

Erikson’s theory has held up better than Freud’s, especially in its emphasis on the importance of social and cultural
influences and on development beyond adolescence. However, some of Erikson’s concepts (like Freud’s) do not lend
themselves to rigorous testing.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel (Switzerland) on August 9, 1896. He died in Geneva on September 16, 1980. He
was the oldest child of Arthur Piaget, professor of medieval literature at the University, and of Rebecca Jackson. At age 11,
while he was a pupil at Neuchâtel Latin high school, he wrote a short notice on an albino sparrow. This short paper is generally
considered as the start of a brilliant scientific career made of over sixty books and several hundred articles.

His interest for mollusks was developed during his late adolescence to the point that he became a well-known
malacologist by finishing school. He published many papers in the field that remained of interest for him all along his life.

After high school graduation, he studied natural sciences at the University of Neuchâtel where he obtained a Ph.D.
During this period, he published two philosophical essays which he considered as "adolescence work" but were important for
the general orientation of his thinking.

After a semester spent at the University of Zürich where he developed an interest for psychoanalysis, he left
Switzerland for France. He spent one year working at the Ecole de la rue de la Grange-aux-Belles a boys' institution created by
Alfred Binet and then directed by De Simon who had developed with Binet a test for the measurement of intelligence. There,
he standardized Burt's test of intelligence and did his first experimental studies of the growing mind.

In 1921, he became director of studies at the J.-J. Rousseau Institute in Geneva at the request of Sir Ed. Claparède
and P. Bovet.

In 1923, he and Valentine Châtenay were married. The couple had three children, Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent
whose intellectual development from infancy to language was studied by Piaget.

Successively or simultaneously, Piaget occupied several chairs: psychology, sociology and history of science at
Neuchâtel from 1925 to 1929; history of scientific thinking at Geneva from 1929 to 1939; the International Bureau of
Education from 1929 to 1967; psychology and sociology at Lausanne from 1938 to 1951; sociology at Geneva from 1939 to
1952, then genetic and experimental psychology from 1940 to 1971. He was, reportedly, the only Swiss to be invited at the
Sorbonne from 1952 to 1963. In 1955, he created and directed until his death the International Center for Genetic
Epistemology.

His researches in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology had one unique goal: how does knowledge
grow? His answer is that the growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures superseding
one another by a process of inclusion of lower less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to
adulthood. Therefore, children's logic and modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults.

Piaget's oeuvre is known all over the world and is still an inspiration in fields like psychology, sociology, education,
epistemology, economics and law as witnessed in the annual catalogues of the Jean Piaget Archives. He was awarded
numerous prizes and honorary degrees all over the world.
 13

How we as human beings develop cognitively has been thoroughly researched. Theorists have suggested that
children are incapable of understanding the world until they reach a particular stage of cognitive development. Cognitive
development is the process whereby a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience.
Theories of cognitive development seek to explain the quantitative and qualitative intellectual abilities that occur during
development.
Piaget believed that cognitive development begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the environment. By rooting for a
nipple, feeling a pebble, or exploring the boundaries of a room, young children develop a more accurate picture of their
surroundings and greater competence in dealing with them.
Piaget described cognitive development as occurring in four different stages which differ not only in the quantity of
information acquired at each, but also in the quality of knowledge and understanding at that stage. Piaget suggested that
movement from one stage to the next occurred when the child reached an appropriate level of maturation and was exposed to
relevant types of experiences. Without experience, children were assumed incapable of reaching their highest cognitive ability.
Cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated processes: organization, adaptation, and equilibration.
Organization is the tendency to create increasingly complex cognitive structure systems of knowledge or ways of
thinking that incorporate more and more accurate images of reality. These structures, called, schemes or schemas, are
organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation. Schemas can be characterized by: 1.
mobility of schemas – that it can applied to a variety of objects even objects never encountered before; 2. sensorimotor
schemas – involve overt actions; 3. cognitive schemas – include the number system, concept of space, or the laws of logic. As
children acquire more information, their schemes become more and more complex. An infant has a simple scheme for
sucking, but soon develops varied schemes for how to suck at the breast, a bottle or a thumb. At first schemes for looking and
grasping operate independently. Later, infants integrate these separate schemes into a single scheme that allows them to
look at an object while holding it.
Adaptation is Piaget’s term for how children handle new information in light of what they already know. Adaptation
involves two steps: assimilation, taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures, and
accommodation, changing one’s cognitive structures to include the new information. Assimilation is classified into four types:
1. reproductive assimilation – where the schema tends to be repeated over and over again, coming to function stably and
smoothly in the process, which is achieve through exercise; 2. generalizing assimilation – where schemas accommodate to the
range of specific stimulus objects that occur in the child’s particular environment; recognitory assimilation – the fitting of a
schema to the demands of the objects and acknowledging the familiarity of the object and the fact that one has fitted; and
mutual coordination and assimilation of schemas – two schemes are interacting with each other and assimilating each other.
Equilibration – a constant striving for a stable balance, or equilibrium – dictates the shift from assimilation to
accommodation. When children cannot handle new experiences within their existing cognitive structures, and thus experience
disequilibrium, they organize new mental patterns that integrate the new experience, thus restoring more comfortable state of
equilibrium. A breast or bottle fed baby who begins to suck on the spout of a “sippy cup” is showing assimilation- using an old
scheme to deal with a new situation. When the infant discovers that sipping from a cup requires different tongue and mouth
movements from those used to suck on a breast or bottle, she accommodates by modifying the old scheme. She has adapted
her original sucking scheme to deal with a new experience: the cup. Thus, assimilation and accommodation work together to
produce equilibrium and cognitive growth.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are known as the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational,
and formal operational stages.
The sensorimotor stage in a child is from birth to approximately two years. During this stage, a child has relatively
little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or symbols. An infant has no awareness of objects
or people that are not immediately present at a given moment. Piaget called this a lack of object permanence. Object
permanence is the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight. In infants, when a person
 13

hides, the infant has no knowledge that they are just out of sight. According to Piaget, this person or object that has
disappeared is gone forever to the infant.

Object Permanence
This is Piaget’s term for the child’s realization that an object or person continues to exist when out of sight. According
to him, object permanence develops gradually during the sensorimotor stage. At first, infants have no such concept. By the
third substage, from about 4 to 8 months, they will look for something they have dropped, but if they cannot see it, they act as
if it no longer exists. In the fourth substage, about 8 to 12 months, they will look for an object in a place where they first found
it after seeing it hidden, even if they later saw it being moved to another place. Piaget called this the A, not B error. In the
fifth substage, 12 to 18 months, they no longer make this error; they will search for an object in the last place they saw it
hidden. However, they will not search for it in a place where they did not see it hidden. By the sixth substage, 18 to 24
months, object permanence is fully achieved; toddlers will look for an object even if they did not see it hidden.

The
Sub-stages Ages Description
Use of reflexes Birth to 1 Infants exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control
month
over them. They do not coordinate information from their senses.
They do not grasp an object they are looking at.
Primary circular 1 to 4
reactions months
Infants repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
(thumb sucking). Activities focus on infant’s body rather that the
effects of the behavior on the environment. Infants make a first
acquired adaptation; that is they suck different objects. They
begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp objects.

Secondary circular 4 to 8 Infants become more interested in the environment; they repeat
reactions months actions that bring interesting results (such as shaking a rattle)
and prolong interesting experiences. Actions are intentional but
not initially goal-directed.

Coordination of 8 to 12 Behavior is more deliberate and purposeful (intentional) as infants

secondary months coordinate previously learned schemes (such as looking at and
schemes grasping a rattle) and use previously learned behaviors to attain
their goals (such as crawling across the room to get desired toy).
They can anticipate events.

Tertiary circular 12 to 18 Toddlers show curiosity and experimentation; they purposely vary
reactions months their actions to see results (for example, by shaking different
rattles to hear their sounds). They actively explore their world to
determine what is novel about an object, event, or situation.
They try out new activities and use trial and error in solving
problems.

Mental 18 to 24 Since toddlers cam mentally represents events, they are no longer
combinations months confined to trial and error to solve problems. Symbolic thought
allows toddlers to begin to think about events and anticipate
their consequences without always resorting to action. Toddlers
begin to demonstrate insight. They can use symbols, such as
gestures and words, and can pretend.
preoperational stage is from the age of two to seven years. The most important development at this time is language.
Children develop an internal representation of the world that allows them to describe people, events, and feelings. Children at
this time use symbols, they can pretend when driving their toy car across the couch that the couch is actually a bridge.
Although the thinking of the child is more advanced than when it was in the sensorimotor stage, it is still qualitatively inferior
to that of an adult. Children in the preoperational stage are characterized by what Piaget called egocentric thoughts. The world
at this stage is viewed entirely from the child’s own perspective. Thus a child’s explanation to an adult can be uninformative.

Three-year-olds will generally hide their face when they are in trouble--even though they are in plain view, three-year-
olds believe that their inability to see others also results in others’ inability to see them. A child in the preoperational stage
also lacks the principle of conservation. This is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical
appearance of objects. Children who have not passed this stage do not know that the amount, volume or length of an object
does not change length when the shape of the configuration is changed. If you put two identical pieces of clay in front of a
child, one rolled up in the shape of a ball, the other rolled into a snake, a child at this stage may say the snake piece is bigger
because it is rolled out. Piaget declared that this is not mastered until the next stage of development.

Cognitive Advances during

Preoperational Stage
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Advance Significance
Use of symbols Children do not need to be in the sensorimotor contact with an
object, person, or event in order to think about it.
Children can imagine that objects or people have properties other
than those they actually have.
Understanding of identities Children are aware that superficial alterations do not change the
nature of things.
Understanding of cause and Children realize that events have causes.
effect
Ability to classify Children organize objects, people, and events into meaningful
categories.
Understanding of number Children can count and deal with quantities.
Empathy Children become more able to imagine how others might feel.
Theory of mind Children become more aware of mental activity and the
functioning of the mind.

Limitation Description
Centration: inability to decenter Children focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect
others.

Irreversibility Children fail to understand that some operations or actions

can be reversed, restoring the original situation.

Focus on states rather than transformations Children fail to understand the significance of
transformation between states
Transductive reasoning Children do not use inductive or deductive; instead they
jump form one particular to another and see cause
where non exists.
Egocentrism Children assume every one else thinks, perceives, and feels
as they do.
Animism Children attribute life to objects not alive.
Inability to distinguish appearance from reality Children confuse what is real with outward appearance.

Limitations of Preoperational Thought (according to Piaget)

Cognitive Advances During Concrete Operational

Stage
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Advance Description

Space and Children at this stage have a clearer idea of how far it is from one place to another and how long it will
causality take to get there, and they can more easily remember the route and the landmarks along the way.
The abilities to use maps and models and to communicate spatial information improve with age
Although 6 year olds can search for and find hidden objects, they usually do not give clear directions for
finding the same objects- perhaps because they lack the proper vocabulary or do not realize what
information the other person needs.
Categorization The ability to categorize helps children think logically. Categorization now includes such a sophisticated
abilities as seriation (ability to order items along a dimension), transitive inference (understanding of the
relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a third object), and class
inclusion (understanding of the relationship between a whole and its parts.

Inductive and According to Piaget, children in the stage of concrete operations use inductive reasoning- a type of logical
Deductive reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion
Reasoning about that class.
Deductive reasoning- type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a
conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. Piaget’s belief that this type of reasoning
does not develop until adolescence was opposed by new researchers for they have found that second
graders (but not kindergartners) were able to correctly answer deductive problems which sought not to
call upon their knowledge of the real world.
Conservation In solving various types of conservation problems, children in the stage of concrete operations can work
out the answers in their heads; they do not have to measure or weight objects. At this stage children
understand the principle of identity, reversibility, and can decenter. Typically, children can solve
problems involving conservation of substance at 7-8 years old, and conservation of weight at 9-10 years
old; in conservation of volume, on the other hand correct answer are rare before age 12.
Horizontal decalage –a term given by Piaget to the inability of the child at this stage to transfer learning about one type of
conservation to other types, which causes a child to master different types of conservation tasks at
different stages

The concrete operational stage lasts from the age of seven to twelve years of age. The beginning of this stage is
marked by the mastery of the principal of conservation. Children develop the ability to think in a more logical manner and they
begin to overcome some of the egocentric characteristics of the preoperational period. One of the major ideas learned in this
stage is the idea of reversibility. This is the idea that some changes can be undone by reversing an earlier action. An example
is the ball of clay that is rolled out into a snake piece of clay. Children at this stage understand that you can regain the ball of
clay formation by rolling the piece of clay the other way. Children can even conceptualize the stage in their heads without
having to see the action performed. Children in the concrete operational stage have a better understanding of time and space.
Children at this stage have limits to their abstract thinking, according to Piaget.

The formal operational stage begins in most people at age twelve and continues into adulthood. This stage
produces a new kind of thinking that is abstract, formal, and logical. Thinking is no longer tied to events that can be observed.
A child at this stage can think hypothetically and use logic to solve problems. It is thought that not all individuals reach this
level of thinking. Most studies show only forty to sixty percent of American college students and adults fully achieve it. In
developing countries where the technology is not as advanced as the United States, almost no one reaches the formal
operational stage.

Contemporary theorists suggest that a better description of how children develop cognitively can be provided by
approaches that do not employ concrete fixed stages. Research also has proven that children are not always consistent in their
performance of tasks at each stage. Furthermore, developmental psychologists imply that cognitive development proceeds in
a continuous fashion; they propose that such development is primarily quantitative, rather than qualitative.

Most developmental theorists have agreed that Piaget has provided us with an accurate account of age-related
changes in cognitive development. Piaget’s suggestion, that cognitive performance cannot be attained unless cognitive
readiness is brought about by maturation and environmental stimuli, has been instrumental in determining the structure of
educational curricula.

Cognitive Advances during Formal Operational Stage

Advance
Description
According to Piaget it is a young person’s ability to conceive
Combinatorial thinking possibilities and organize situations and problems.

Hypothetic thinking, or Ability, believed by Piaget to accompany the stage of

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, or formal operations, to develop, consider, and test
Hypothetical deductive reasoning hypotheses.
 13

Assumptions that are involved in this theory:

1. Development is an unfolding of the growth process or maturation. A child’s development is essentially the
accumulation of the learning acquired from experiences within the environment.
2. Development is brought about by experiences with the environment.
3. Development is the result of explicit and implicit teaching of the child by other people.
4. Development is brought about by the process of equilibration where the child’s beliefs become organized into a
system.

Analyzing Piaget’s Theory in the Primary Classroom

Preoperational
1. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.
2. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.
3. Do not expect the students to be consistently; to see the world from someone else’s point of view.
4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the
same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented.
5. Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills like
reading comprehension.
6. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language.
7.
Concrete Operational
1. Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated material.
2. Give students the opportunity to manipulate and test objects.
3. Make sure presentations and readings are brief and are well organized.
4. Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas.
5. Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels.
6. Present problems that require logical and analytical thinking.

Critique / Reaction:

Piaget’s observations have yielded much information and some surprising insights. Who, for example, would have
thought that most children younger than 7 do not realize that a ball of clay that has been rolled into a “worm” or “snake”
before their eyes still contains the same amount of clay? Or that an infant might think that a person who has moved out of
sight may no longer exist? Piaget has shown us that children’s minds are not miniature adult minds. Knowing how children
think makes it easier for parents and teachers to understand them and teach them.
Yet Piaget seems to have seriously underestimated the abilities of infants and young children. Some contemporary
psychologists question his distinct stages, pointing instead to evidence that cognitive development is more gradual and
continuous (Flavel, 1992 as cited by Papalia, et.al. 2004). Research beginning in the 1960s has challenged Piaget’s idea that
thinking develops in a single, universal progression of stages leading to formal thought. Instead children’s cognitive processes
seem closely tied to specific content (what they are thinking about), as well as to the context of a problem and the kinds of
information and thought a culture considers important (Case and Okamoto, 1996 as cited by Papalia, et.al. 2004). Finally,
research on adults suggests that Piaget’s focus on formal logic as the climax of cognitive development is too narrow. It does
not account for the emergence of such mature abilities as practical problem solving, wisdom, and the capacity to deal with
ambiguous situations and competing truths.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg spent many years researching how an individual develop his or her own moral codes. First,
Kohlberg was born into wealth on October 25, 1927 in Bronxville, New York. Even though he was wealthy, he chose to become
a sailor; and after World War II, he helped to smuggle Jews through the British blockade of Palestine.
In 1973 Kohlberg developed a tropical disease, and while hospitalized in 1987, was reported missing on January 17.
His body was later recovered from a marsh; however, the exact date of his death remains unknown. Rumor is that he
committed suicide.
 13

Kohlberg's classification can be outlined in the following manner: For his

LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION doctoral research

Kohlberg studied
Pre-conventional 1 Obedience and Punishment
differences in
2 Individualism, Instrumentalism, and
children's
Exchange
reasoning about
Conventional 3 "Good boy/girl" moral dilemmas.
He hypothesized
4 Law and Order
that moral
Post-conventional 5 Social Contract
difficulties
6 Principled Conscience motivated their
development
through a fixed sequence of increasingly flexible kinds of moral reasoning. He also helped to clarify the general cognitive-
developmental view of age-related changes. Thereafter, Kohlberg became a leader in moral education.
Kohlberg was a psychologist who applied the developmental approach of Jean Piaget, who he studied under, to the
analysis of changes in moral reasoning. Kohlberg was a professor at Harvard University and did most of his research in the said
institution.

Kohlberg believed and was able to demonstrate through studies that people progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e.,
in their bases for ethical behavior) through a series of stages. He believed that there were six identifiable stages which could
be more generally classified into three levels.

The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level. In the first stage of this level,
people behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or
teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment. The second stage of this level is
characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one's own best interests.
The second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the name "conventional." The first stage
of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. The second stage
is one oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty.
The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the majority of adults. Its first stage (stage
5) is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The last stage (stage 6) is based on
respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience. While Kohlberg always believed in the existence of
Stage 6 and had some nominees for it, he could never get enough subjects to define it, much less observe their longitudinal
movement to it.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one stage at a time. That is, they could
not "jump" stages. They could not, for example, move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage without
passing through the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to a comprehension of a moral rationale one stage above their
own. Thus, according to Kohlberg, it was important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion which would help them
to see the reasonableness of a "higher stage" morality and encourage their development in that direction. The last comment
refers to Kohlberg's moral discussion approach. He saw this as one of the ways in which moral development can be promoted
through formal education. Note that Kohlberg believed, as did Piaget, that most moral development occurs through social
interaction. The discussion approach is based on the insight that individuals develop as a result of cognitive conflicts at their
current stage
I Preconventional Level
At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong, but he interprets the
labels in terms of either the physical or hedonistic consequences of action (punishment, reward, exchange of favors) or the
physical power of those who enunciate the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following three stages:
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Stage 0: Egocentric judgment. The child makes judgments of good on the basis of what he likes and wants or what helps him,
and bad on the basis of what he does not like or what hurts him. He has no concept of rules or of obligations to
obey or conform independent of his wish.
Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation. The physical consequences of action determine its goodness or badness
regardless of the human meaning or value of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning
deference to power are values in their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by
punishment and authority (the latter is stage 4).
Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation. Right action consists of what instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and
occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in terms such as those of the market place. Elements
of fairness, reciprocity, and equal sharing are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way.
Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours", not loyalty, gratitude, or justice.

II Conventional Level
At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family, group, or nation as valuable
in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences. The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal
expectations and social order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order and identifying
with the persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the following two stages:
Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or "good boy-nice girl" orientation. Good behavior is what pleases or helps others and
is approved by them. There is much conformity to stereotypical images of what is majority or "natural" behavior.
Behavior is frequently judged by intention -- "he means well" becomes important for the first time. One earns
approval by being "nice".
Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of the
social order. Right behavior consists in doing one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given
social order for its own sake.

III Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level

The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity and application apart from
the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart from the individual's own identification with the group. The level
has the two following stages:
Stage 5: The social contract legalistic orientation (generally with utilitarian overtones). Right action tends to be defined in
terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole
society. There is a clear awareness of the relativism of personal values and opinions and a corresponding emphasis
upon procedural rules for reaching consensus. Aside from what is constitutionally and democratically agreed upon,
right action is a matter of personal values and opinions. The result is an emphasis upon the "legal point of view",
but with an additional emphasis upon the possibility of changing the law in terms of rational considerations of
social utility (rather than freezing it in terms of stage 4 "law and order"). Outside the legal realm, free agreement,
and contract, is the binding element of obligation. The "official" morality of the American government and
Constitution is at this stage.
Stage 6: The universal ethical-principle orientation. Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen
ethical principles that appeal to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These principles are
abstract and ethical (the Golden Rule, the categorical imperative); they are not concrete moral rules like the Ten
Commandments. At heart, these are universal principles of justice, of the reciprocity and equality of the human
rights, and of respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons.

Kohlberg used a method called clinical interview in his study of how children develop moral reasoning. The problem
asked was this.
In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought
might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $2000 for a small dose of the drug.
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The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but could only get together about $1000,
which was half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay
later. But the druggist said, “No I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So, Heinz got desperate and
considered breaking into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz steal the radium?

The table below shows how people in each stage of Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning usually respond to Heinz dilemma.

Levels Stages of Typical Answers to Heinz Dilemma

Reasoning
Stage 1: Pro: “He should steal the drug. It isn’t really bad to take it. It isn’t
Orientation toward as it he hadn’t asked to pay for it first. The drug he’d take is
punishment and worth only $200; he’s not really taking a $2,000 drug.”
obedience Con: “He shouldn’t steal the drug. It’s a big crime. He didn’t get
permission; he used force and broke and entered. He did a
Level I: lot of damage and stole a very expensive drug.”
Preconventional
morality
(ages 4 to 10)
Stage 2: Pro: “ It’s all right to steal the drug, because his wife
Instrumental
needs it and he wants her to live. It isn’t that he wants to steal,
purpose and
exchange/ but that’s what he has to do to save her.”
instrumental
Con: “He shouldn’t steal it. The druggist isn’t wrong or bad; he just
relativist
wants to make a profit. That’s what you’re in business for –
orientation
to make money.”

Stage 3: Pro: He should steal the drug. He is only doing something that is
Interpersonal natural for a good husband to do. You can’t blame him for
concordance or doing something out of love for his wife. You’d blame him if
"good boy-nice he didn’t love his wife enough to save her.”
girl" Con: “He shouldn’t steal. If his wife dies, he can’t be blamed. It
isn’t because he’s heartless or that he doesn’t love her
Level II: enough to do everything that he legally can. The druggist is
Conventional the selfish or heartless one.”
morality Stage 4: Social Pro: “You should steal it. If you did nothing you’d be letting
(ages 10 to 13 or concern and
beyond) conscience / your wife die. It’s your responsibility if she dies. You have to
"law and order"
orientation take it with the idea of paying the druggist.”

Con: “It is a natural thing for Heinz to want to save his wife, but
it‘s still always wrong to steal. He knows he’s taking a
valuable drug from the man who made it.”
Stage 5: Social Pro: “The law wasn’t set up for these circumstances. Taking the
contract legalistic drug in this situation isn’t really right, but it’s justified.”
orientation Con: “You can’t completely blame someone for stealing, but
Level III: Post extreme circumstances don’t really justify taking the law
conventional into your own hands. You can’ t have people stealing
morality (early whenever they are desperate. The end may be good, but
adolescence, or the ends don’t justify the means.”
not until young Stage 6: Universal Pro: “This is a situation that forces him to choose between stealing
adulthood, or ethical-principle and letting his wife die. In a situation where the choice
never) orientation must be made, it is morally right to steal. He has to act in
terms in the principle of preserving and respecting life.”
Con: “Heinz is faced with the decision of whether to consider the
other people who need the drug just as badly as his wife.
Heinz ought to act not according to his feelings for his wife,
but considering the value of all the lives involved.”

Critique / Reaction:
Results of modern researches supported some aspects of Kohlberg’s theory but have left others in question.
Researchers today discovered that children could reason flexibly about legal issues earlier than Kohlberg proposed. Even
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children as young as 6 weighed the perceived justice of a law, its social purpose, and its potential infringement on individual
freedoms and rights in evaluating whether the law was “good” or “bad” and whether or not it should be obeyed.
Furthermore, research has generally noted the lack of a clear relationship between moral reasoning and moral
behavior. People at post conventional levels of reasoning do not necessarily act more morally than those at lower levels.
Perhaps one problem was the remoteness from young people’s experience of such dilemmas as the “Heinz” situation.
Critics claimed that cognitive approach to moral development gives insufficient attention to the importance of
emotion. Moral activity, they say, is motivated not only by abstract considerations of justice, but such emotions as empathy,
guilt, and distress and the internalization of prosocial norms.
Some theorists today seek to synthesize Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental approach with the role of emotion and
the insights of socialization theory. Kohlberg himself did recognize that non-cognitive factors such as emotional development
and life experience affect moral judgments. One reason the ages attached to Kohlberg’s levels are so variable is that people
have achieved a high level of cognitive development do not always reach a comparably high level of moral development. A
certain level of cognitive development is necessary but not sufficient for a comparable level of moral development. The others
processes besides cognition must be at work.

THE LEARNING PROCESS

The Nature of Learning

There are almost as many definitions of learning of learning as there are authorities on the subject. However such

definitions may be summarized into one more direct and comprehensive definition as the following:

Learning is the acquisition, through maturation and experience, of new and more knowledge, skills, and attitudes that

will enable the learner to make better and more adequate reactions, responses, and adjustments to new situations and

conditions.

Types of Learning

The types, kinds, or outcomes of learning are the following:

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1. Cognitive learning. This is the acquisition of knowledge, facts and information, principles, ideas, concepts,

understanding, reasoning, etc. There are two types of cognitive learning these are:

a) Associative learning

This is establishing the relationship between words or ideas and their meanings, between words or ideas and

the things they refer to, between principles and the situations and conditions they are applied to, etc. This

involves an accurate understanding of the relationships of things /or situations. Facts and materials learned

are systematically organized and integrated with previous learning experiences by establishing meaningful

relationships between the two. For instance, in a learning session, a green mango is associated with the

green color, sour taste, an oblong shape and texture characteristics of the fruit. So when the learner sees

one in the future he knows it is a green mango. This is especially true in mathematics. A new lesson, to be

fully understood, must be linked to a previous lesson.

b. Problem-solving learning

Problem-solving is the process of overcoming difficulties that hinder the attainment of a goal by using

knowledge and skills gained from associative learning and other types of learning. In this type of learning,

reflective, analytical, and constructive thinking are very much needed. This type of learning is used in all

subjects. When the problem has several aspects to be tackled, the class may be divided into several groups,

each group tackling one aspect of the problem.

Generally, cognitive learning is verbal and ideational learning.

2. Attitudinal or affective learning.

This type of learning is the formation of good and acceptable attitudes, judgments, appreciation, and values. It is the

acquisition or development of sound moral and spiritual values such as honesty, integrity, punctuality, piety, etc.

There are two types of appreciative learning. These are:

a). Aesthetic learning

The appreciation of what is good and abhorrence of what is bad. Appreciation of the good includes noble traits of

people, good music and other expressions of art.

b). Intellectual learning

This may be developed by reading good and classical literary pieces, the Bible (for Christians) and the Koran (for

Muslims), and other similar activities.

3. Psychomotor learning. The involves the use of the muscles in bodily movement. The reflexes are especially important

because the activities are usually responsive to certain stimuli. There are two types of psychomotor learning and

these are:

a) Bodily movement coordination

The harmonious functioning of the different parts of the body in order to attain the desired performance of

the activity. This is true in dancing, physical education, sports and games such as running, volleyball,

basketball, tennis, and the like. Precision and accuracy result to muscular coordination.
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b. Manipulative dexterity

The skillful of the hands and feet. precision and accuracy are necessary in both basic and complicated

activities such as writing, typing, stenotyping, handling and operating gadgets and machines such as

carpentry tools, laboratory equipment, car and the like.

THE TEST OF LEARNING

When has a person learned? The following are the criteria or test of learning.

1. Greater speed. One who has learned how to write, writes faster than one who has not.

2. Greater precision and accuracy. One who has learned a dance can execute the steps with greater precision and

accuracy than one who has not.

3. Reduced effort. One who has already learned to write exerts effort in writing than one who is just learning how to

write.

4. Less expense, hence more savings. One who has learned how to type does not need to hire a typist to type. He cuts

down on expenses.

5. Greater knowledge, information, and ideas. One who has gone to school to learn has greater knowledge, information,

and ideas of the things around him than one who has not.

6. Greater understanding. One who has studied has a better understanding of the things communicated to him than one

who has not.

7. Greater facility of communication. One who has gone to school has learned the mechanics of the language and so he

has a greater facility in communicating his ideas than one who has not.

8. More logical reasoning. One who has learned how to reason out can make more logical reasoning than one who has

not.

9. Greater innovativeness and creativity. An educated person has more innovative and creative ideas than one who is

not.

10. Greater chance of employment. One who has acquired skills has more chances of employment than the one who has

not.

OTHER KINDS OF LEARNING

Learning may be classified into (1) direct learning and (2) indirect learning.

Learning to ride a bicycle is direct learning.

Reading books, newspapers, magazines, and other publications, listening to the radio, and viewing movies and television

shows to gain information is indirect learning.

Burnham classifies learning as (1) congenital (2) temporary and (3) permanent.

Reflex action such as the sudden withdrawal of the foot as it steps on a live charcoal is congenital learning.

Forgetting portions of a poem or lines in a play is an example of temporary learning. Knowledge used in a lifetime

such as basic mathematical operation, language, values, etc. is permanent learning.

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Other kinds of learning are (1) sensory learning such as Braille reading used by the blind, (2) motor learning as in typing and

writing, (3) verbal learning such as solving a mathematical problem or memorizing a principle, (4) ideational learning such as

writing a story or novel, and (5) attitudinal learning as in learning values.

BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING

CONNECTIOVISM THEORY

"Colors fade, temples crumble, empires fall, but wise words endure"

Edward Lee Thorndike [thôrn´dIk] was an American educator and psychologist born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts.
He was a graduate from Wesleyan University (1895) and Harvard (1896) and received his Ph.D. in 1898 from Columbia.
Appointed instructor in genetic psychology at Teachers College, Columbia, in 1899, he served there until 1940 (as professor
from 1904 and as director of the division of psychology of the Institute of Educational Research from 1922). His great
contributions to educational psychology were largely in the methods he devised to test and measure children's intelligence
and their ability to learn. By using trial-and-error experiments with animals, Thorndike formulated his so-called law of effect—
the more satisfying the result of a particular action, the better that action is learned—and applied it to the development of
special teaching techniques for use in the classroom. Besides from construction of various intelligence and aptitude tests, he is
primarily known for his repudiation of the belief that such primarily intellectual subjects as languages and mathematics
discipline the mind. Because of his opposition to that belief, he greatly encouraged the inclusion of various informational
subjects, such as the physical and social sciences, in elementary and secondary school curricula.
He conducted studies in animal psychology and the psychology of learning, and compiled dictionaries for children
(1935) and for young adults (1941). The great number of his writings includes Educational Psychology (1903), Mental and
Social Measurements (1904), Animal Intelligence (1911), A Teacher's Word Book (1921), Your City (1939), and Human Nature
and the Social Order (1940).

Overview of the Theory:

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the
result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or
weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which
certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that
learning could be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws: law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a
1.

rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, 2.
law of readiness - a series of
responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and law of exercise -
3.

connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect
was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) would decrease in
strength.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and
new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of
"belongingness" was introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go
together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was "polarity" which specifies that connections occur more easily
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in the direction in which they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect" idea,
i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.
In addition to the three major laws of learning, Thorndike formulated five secondary characteristics for the purpose of
amplifying the basic laws. These secondary characteristics were designated by the terms multiple response, mind-set, partial
activity, analogy, and associative shifting. By multiple response was meant that in a situation where some elements are new,
the learner will respond in one way, and if such response does not prove satisfactory, he will try one response after another
until the appropriate response is attained, that is trial and error learning. This response being satisfying, will be selected and
“stamped in.” Mind-set or attitude meant that learning is guided by the attitude (mind-set) of the individual dependent upon
previous experiences and dispositions. This attitude determines how the learner will react, and what will be satisfying and
annoying to him. Partial activity or prepotency of elements this means that we learn to react only to significant aspects or
elements of a problem and ignore irrelevant aspects in learning. Analogy indicated that a person may learn in new situations
by the resemblance it may have to prior experience. This is also called the law of transfer or the theory of identical elements.
Associative shifting seems to be related to the conditioned reflex and is close to the stimulus substitution theory. When stimuli
occur together frequently, the response elicited by each will tend to become attached to the others as well. When responses
occur frequently together, the stimulus for each tends to suggest the others as well.

Scope/Application:
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike was especially
interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading
(Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).

Example:
The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever
inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door (R).
This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise
specifies that the connection was established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) and was
rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness).

Principles:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness).

3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.

4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

"Science demands from a man all his life. If you had two lives that would not be enough for you. Be passionate in your work
and in your searching."

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov [Evän´ pEtrô´vich päv´luf] was born on September 14, 1849 at Ryazan, Russia, where his
father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a village priest. He was educated first at the church school in Ryazan and then at the
theological seminary there.
Inspired by the progressive ideas which D. I. Pisarev, the most eminent of the Russian literary critics of the 1860's and
I. M. Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, were spreading, Pavlov abandoned his religious career and decided to devote
his life to science. In 1870 he enrolled in the physics and mathematics faculty to take the course in natural science.
Pavlov became passionately absorbed with physiology, which in fact was to remain of such fundamental importance
to him throughout his life. It was during this first course that he produced, in collaboration with another student, Afanasyev, his
first learned treatise, a work on the physiology of the pancreatic nerves. This work was widely acclaimed and he was awarded
a gold medal for it.
In 1875 Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record and received the degree of Candidate of Natural
Sciences. However, impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology, he decided to continue his studies and proceeded to
the Academy of Medical Surgery to take the third course there. He completed this in 1879 and was again awarded a gold
medal. After a competitive examination, Pavlov won a fellowship at the Academy, and this together with his position as
Director of the Physiological Laboratory at the clinic of the famous Russian clinician, S. P. Botkin, enabled him to continue his
research work. In 1883 he presented his doctor's thesis on the subject of (The centrifugal nerves of the heart). In this work he
developed his idea of nervism, using as example the intensifying nerve of the heart which he had discovered, and furthermore
laid down the basic principles on the trophic function of the nervous system. In this as well as in other works, resulting mainly
from his research in the laboratory at the Botkin clinic, Pavlov showed that there existed a basic pattern in the reflex regulation
of the activity of the circulatory organs.
In 1890 Pavlov was invited to organize and direct the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Experimental
Medicine. Under his direction, which continued over a period of 45 years to the end of his life, this Institute became one of the
most important centers of physiological research.
In 1890 Pavlov was appointed Professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy and five years later he was
appointed to the then vacant Chair of Physiology, which he held ‘till 1925.
It was at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in the years 1891-1900 that Pavlov did the bulk of his research on the
physiology of digestion. It was here that he developed the surgical method of the (chronic) experiment with extensive use of
fistulas, which enabled the functions of various organs to be observed continuously under relatively normal conditions. This
discovery opened a new era in the development of physiology, for until then the principal method used had been that of
(acute) vivisection, and the function of an organism had only been arrived at by a process of analysis. This meant that
research into the functioning of any organ necessitated disruption of the normal interrelation between the organ and its
environment. Such a method was inadequate as a means of determining how the functions of an organ were regulated or of
discovering the laws governing the organism as a whole under normal conditions - problems which had hampered the
development of all medical science. With his method of research, Pavlov opened the way for new advances in theoretical and
practical medicine. With extreme clarity he showed that the nervous system played the dominant part in regulating the
digestive process, and this discovery is in fact the basis of modern physiology of digestion. Pavlov made known the results of
his research in this field, which is of great importance in practical medicine, in lectures which he delivered in 1895 and
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published under the title Lektsii o rabote glavnykh pishchevaritelnyteh zhelez (Lectures on the function of the principal
digestive glands) (1897).
Pavlov’s research into the physiology of digestion led him logically to create a science of conditioned reflexes. In his
study of the reflex regulation of the activity of the digestive glands, Pavlov paid special attention to the phenomenon of
(psychic secretion), which is caused by food stimuli at a distance from the animal. By employing the method - developed by
his colleague D. D. Glinskii in 1895 - of establishing fistulas in the ducts of the salivary glands, Pavlov was able to carry out
experiments on the nature of these glands. A series of these experiments caused Pavlov to reject the subjective interpretation
of (psychic) salivary secretion and, on the basis of Sechenov's hypothesis that psychic activity was of a reflex nature, to
conclude that even here a reflex - though not a permanent but a temporary or conditioned one – was involved.
This discovery of the function of conditioned reflexes made it possible to study all psychic activity objectively, instead
of resorting to subjective methods as had hitherto been necessary; it was now possible to investigate by experimental means
the most complex interrelations between an organism and its external environment.
In 1903, at the 14th International Medical Congress in Madrid, Pavlov read a paper on (The Experimental Psychology
and Psychopathology of Animals). In this paper the definition of conditioned and other reflexes was given and it was shown
that a conditioned reflex should be regarded as an elementary psychological phenomenon, which at the same time is a
physiological one. It followed from this that the conditioned reflex was a clue to the mechanism of the most highly developed
forms of reaction in animals and humans to their environment and it made an objective study of their psychic activity possible.
Subsequently, in a systematic program of research, Pavlov transformed Sechenov's theoretical attempt to discover
the reflex mechanisms of psychic activity into an experimentally proven theory of conditioned reflexes.
As guiding principles of materialistic teaching on the laws governing the activity of living organisms, Pavlov deduced
three principles for the theory of reflexes: the principle of determinism, the principle of analysis and synthesis, and the
principle of structure.
The development of these principles by Pavlov and his school helped greatly towards the building-up of a scientific
theory of medicine and towards the discovery of laws governing the functioning of the organism as a whole.
Experiments carried out by Pavlov and his pupils showed that conditioned reflexes originate in the cerebral cortex,
which acts as the (prime distributor and organizer of all activity of the organism) and which is responsible for the very delicate
equilibrium of an animal with its environment. In 1905 it was established that any external agent could, by coinciding in time
with an ordinary reflex, become the conditioned signal for the formation of a new conditioned reflex. In connection with the
discovery of this general postulate Pavlov proceeded to investigate (artificial conditioned reflexes). Research in Pavlov's
laboratories over a number of years revealed for the first time the basic laws governing the functioning of the cortex of the
great hemispheres. Many physiologists were drawn to the problem of developing Pavlov's basic laws governing the activity of
the cerebrum. As a result of all this research there emerged an integrated Pavlovian theory on higher nervous activity.
Even in the early stages of his research Pavlov received world acclaim and recognition. In 1901 he was elected a
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in 1904 he was awarded a Nobel Prize, and in 1907 he was
elected Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences; in 1912 he was given an honorary doctorate at Cambridge
University and in the following years honorary membership of various scientific societies abroad. Finally, upon the
recommendation of the Medical Academy of Paris, he was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor (1915).
After the October Revolution, a special government decree, signed by Lenin on January 24, 1921, noted (the
outstanding scientific services of Academician I.P.Pavlov, which are of enormous significance to the working class of the whole
world).
The Communist Party and the Soviet Government saw to it that Pavlov and his collaborators were given unlimited
scope for scientific research. The Soviet Union became a prominent center for the study of physiology, and the fact that the
15th International Physiological Congress of August 9-17, 1935, was held in Leningrad and Moscow clearly shows that it was
acknowledged as such.
Pavlov directed all his indefatigable energy towards scientific reforms. He devoted much effort to transforming the
physiological institutions headed by him into world centers of scientific knowledge, and it is generally acknowledged that he
succeeded in this endeavor.
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Pavlov nurtured a great school of physiologists, which produced many distinguished pupils. He left the richest
scientific legacy - a brilliant group of pupils, who would continue developing the ideas of their master, and a host of followers
all over the world.
In 1881, Pavlov married Seraphima (Sara) Vasilievna Karchevskaya, a teacher, the daughter of a doctor in the Black
Sea fleet. She first had a miscarriage, said to be due to her having to run after her very fast-walking husband. Subsequently
they had a son, Wirchik, who died very suddenly as a child; three sons, Vladimir, Victor and Vsevolod, one of whom was a well-
known physicist and professor of physics at Leningrad in 1925, and a daughter, Vera.
Dr. Pavlov died in Leningrad on February 27, 1936.

Overview of the Theory:

In classical conditioning (first demonstrated in 1927 by the Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov) the critical
association occurs when one environmental event predicts the occurrence of another. From his early work on the physiology of
digestion, Pavlov knew that dogs (his usual experimental subjects) would salivate not just on taking food into the mouth, but in
response to a range of other events—for instance, at the approach of the laboratory attendant who supplied the food. The
ability of such events to evoke this reflex depended, Pavlov suspected, on the animal's having experienced them prior to
feeding.
To demonstrate this in the laboratory, he set up a training procedure in which he could control exactly which events a
dog experienced. From time to time a small portion of food was dispensed automatically and each presentation was preceded
by a neutral event, such as the sounding of a buzzer. Salivation occurred in response to the food itself from the outset; but
also, after a few pairings of the sound of a buzzer’s sound and food, the animal came to salivate when the buzzer is sounded.
The buzzer’s sound was described as a conditional (or conditioned) stimulus, as its ability to evoke salivation was conditional
on its having been paired with food. Salivation to the sound of the buzzer was referred to as a conditioned reflex. This
terminology led to the whole procedure being described as conditioning.
To further illustrate the basic phenomenon Pavlov’s studied, it is represented in this way.

As shown in the diagram, a buzzer is sounded and after a brief interval, meat is presented to the dog. The dog
responds to the food in the usual manner: it salivates, chews, and swallows. The arrow 1 signifies that the food elicits a
response that is automatic, that is unconditioned. The dotted arrow a represents the fact that the sound of the buzzer is
present when the meat, the unconditioned stimulus, is presented. While the unconditioned response is taking place, the dog
associated the buzzer with the meat and its reaction to the meat. After repeated pairings of the CS (the buzzer) with the UCS
(the meat), the dog salivates at the sound of the buzzer alone. The buzzer now elicits a response formerly elicited by the
meat. A conditioned response, which was a part of the original unconditioned response, is now established.
An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus which is adequate at the outset of training to produce the response in
question. The response to such a stimulus is called unconditioned response. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sight or taste of food
was an unconditioned stimulus for the unconditioned response of salivating.
A conditioned stimulus is one which is initially inadequate to evoke the response in question but will do so if paired
with the unconditioned stimulus. The learned process is called conditioned response. In Pavlov’s experiment, the buzzer was
the conditioned stimulus for the conditioned response of salivating.
Classical conditioning involves the association of an unconditioned and a conditioned stimulus in such a way that the
conditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response. There is the formation or strengthening of an association between a
conditioned stimulus in a controlled relationship with an unconditioned stimulus that originally elicits that response. Classical
conditioning has revealed facts concerning conditions of acquisition, extinction, generalization and discrimination. Once a
conditioned response is established to a stimulus of a certain kind, the response will also occur to stimuli which are similar to
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the original stimulus. This is stimulus generalization. No learning occurs unless there is generalization. No two stimuli or
stimulus situations are exactly alike. They must be treated as if they were exactly alike in order to elicit the same response.
Discrimination refers to eliciting different responses to two different stimuli. A dog, trained to withdraw a paw from an
electric grid at the sound of a tone, will learn in time that he need not move his paw at the sound of a tone very slightly
different in pitch. The dog will learn this discrimination if one tone is consistently reinforced while another is not.
Responses that are no longer reinforced tend to disappear from the organism’s repertoire of behavior. This is called
extinction. Pavlov’s dog will not salivate at all times at the sound of a buzzer. If the buzzer is presented time after time without
being paired with meat, extinction will occur.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the return of a conditioned response, following experimental extinction, after periods
of no reinforcements. If the buzzer is sounded many times without presenting any food, the dog will reach a situation wherein
it will ignore the buzzer. Although there will be times when the dog would salivate again at the sound of the buzzer. Studies
have shown that once a conditioned response is established, it never completely disappears from the behavioral repertoire of
an organism. After periods of rest or disuse, a conditioned response often reappears. If there is no reinforcement, it will
extinguish again.
Pavlov interpreted classical conditioning as a formation of a connection between (in our example) the part of the
brain that was activated by the sounding of the buzzer and the part of the brain that responded to food. The formation of a
new link between these two brain “centers” allowed presenting the buzzer to activate the food center and thus elicit
responses appropriate to the occurrence of food itself. Associative interpretations have also been offered for operant
conditioning. In this case the link is likely to be between the center that controls the response and the food center. Exactly how
the strengthening of this link leads to an increased rate of response is currently the subject of intensive investigation.
Conditioning procedures are effective with humans as well as with other animals, and they have been applied in the
treatment of mental disorders. The procedure known as behavior modification or behavior therapy uses classical conditioning
techniques to modify what therapists regard as unwanted and inappropriate emotional responses shown by people suffering
from types of neurosis. It is also suggested that some neuroses have their origin in conditioning—for example, phobias (strong
irrational fears) might arise because of a chance pairing of an innocuous event with an unpleasant experience, making that
event a conditional stimulus capable of evoking a fear response. But it is also thought that the normal learning processes that
help shape our personalities and control the patterns of our everyday behavior depend greatly on association formation. In
order to understand these processes it is necessary to have a complete account of associative mechanisms.

OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born March 20, 1904, in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna. His father was a
lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife. His upbringing was old-fashioned and hard-working.
Burrhus was an active, out-going boy who loved the outdoors and building things, and actually enjoyed school. His
life was not without its tragedies, however. In particular, his brother died at the age of 16 of a cerebral aneurysm.
Burrhus received his BA in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York. He didn’t fit in very well, not enjoying
the fraternity parties or the football games. He wrote for school paper, including articles critical of the school, the faculty, and
even Phi Beta Kappa! To top it off, he was an atheist -- in a school that required daily chapel attendance.
He wanted to be a writer and did try, sending off poetry and short stories. When he graduated, he built a study in his
parents’ attic to concentrate, but it just wasn’t working for him.
Ultimately, he resigned himself to writing newspaper articles on labor problems, and lived for a while in Greenwich
Village in New York City as a “bohemian.” After some traveling, he decided to go back to school, this time at Harvard. He got
his masters in psychology in 1930 and his doctorate in 1931, and stayed there to do research until 1936.
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Also in that year, he moved to Minneapolis to teach at the University of Minnesota. There he met and soon married
Yvonne Blue. They had two daughters, the second of which became famous as the first infant to be raised in one of Skinner’s
inventions, the air crib. Although it was nothing more than a combination crib and playpen with glass sides and air
conditioning, it looked too much like keeping a baby in an aquarium to catch on.
In 1945, he became the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was invited to
come to Harvard, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was a very active man, doing research and guiding hundreds
of doctoral candidates as well as writing many books. While not successful as a writer of fiction and poetry, he became one of
our best psychology writers, including the book Walden II, which is a fictional account of a community run by his behaviorist
principles.
August 18, 1990, B. F. Skinner died of leukemia after becoming perhaps the most celebrated psychologist since
Sigmund Freud.

Baby Terrell lies peacefully in his crib. When he happens to smile, his mother goes over to the crib and play with him.
Later his father does the same thing. As this sequence is repeated, Terrell learns that his behavior (smiling) can produce
a desirable consequence (loving attention from a parent); and so he keeps smiling to attract his parents’ attention. An
originally accidental behavior (smiling) has become a conditioned response.

This kind of learning is what we call operant conditioning because the individual learns from the consequences of
“operating” on the environment. Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior, such as
Terrell’s smiling.

Skinner, who formulated the principles of operant conditioning, worked primarily with rats and pigeons (one of his
experiments with rats is illustrated at the end of the discussion of behavior modification), but Skinner maintained that the
same principles apply to human beings. He found that an organism will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced and
will suppress a response that has been punished. Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior that increases the likelihood
that the behavior will be repeated; in Terrell’s case, his parents’ attention reinforces his smiling. Punishment is a
consequence of behavior that decreases the likelihood of repetition. If Terrell’s parents frowned when he smiled, he would be
less likely to smile again. Whether a consequence is reinforcing or punishing depends on the person. What is reinforcing for
one person may be punishing for another. For example, a child who likes being alone, being sent to his or her room could be
reinforcing rather than punishing. Skinner proposed that in terms of effect, punishment is not the opposite of reinforcement.
For Skinner, punishment leads to 3 undesirable effects: (1) Punished responses only disappear temporarily; (2) Emotional
predisposition such as guilt or shame may be conditioned through the use of punishment; and (3) Any behavior that reduces
the aversive stimulation accompanying the punishment will be reinforced.
Reinforcement could either be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement consists of giving a reward, such as food,
gold stars, a bonus, or praise- or playing with a baby. Negative reinforcement consists of taking away something the individual
does not like (known as an aversive event), such as loud raspy noise. Negative reinforcement is sometimes confused with
punishment. However, they are different. Punishment suppresses a behavior by bringing on an aversive event (such as
spanking a child or giving an electric shock to an animal), or by withdrawing a positive event (such as watching television.
Negative reinforcement encourages repetition of a behavior by removing an aversive event. When the toddler in the process
of toilet training tells his parents he has soiled his diaper, the removal of the smelly, sticky diaper may encourage the child to
signal again the next time he has an “accident”.
Reinforcement is most effective when it immediately follows a behavior. If a response is no longer reinforced, it will
eventually be extinguished (extinct), that is, return to its original (baseline) level. If, after a while, no one plays with Terrell
when he smiles, he may not stop smiling but will smile far less than if his smiles still brought reinforcement.
Primary and secondary reinforcers are two types of reinforcement. There are some reinforcements that are innately
reinforcing and are essential for the survival of the species. They are powerful in increasing the chance that a particular
behavior will occur. These are called primary reinforcers.
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In primary reinforcers, the increase in response rate occurs without training. Given the state of deprivation, primary
reinforcers will alter the probability of responding. Sleep is reinforcing for a sleep-deprived person. Food and water also belong
to this category.
Secondary reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers influence behavior through training. These reinforcers are not
innately reinforcing. This type of reinforcement is done specifically by developing associations with a primary reinforcer. Their
power to reinforce behavior is acquired. Money, grades, stars, and tokens are all secondary reinforcers.
Primary and secondary reinforcers may have the same effectiveness depending on how they are used or managed in
the conditioning process. Both types of reinforcers are most effective when they immediately follow the responses they are
intended to increase.
Other reinforcers, however, have a more general influence on behavior. Generalized reinforcers can function under
more than one set of circumstances through association with more than one primary reinforcer (e.g.,Money is toke associated
with food , drink and shelter.). Attention, approval, congratulations, and peer approval are other types of generalized
reinforcers.
Behavior modification, or behavior therapy, is the use of conditioning to gradually change behavior (just like the rat in
the maze as illustrated below). It can cut down on the frequency of a child’s temper tantrums and increase acceptable
substitute behaviors. It is effective among children with special needs, such as autism, and among persons with eating
disorders.

The contribution of Skinner’s theory to learning involves the

Skinner's Theory of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner as
an alternative to Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Skinner
learned through experimentation that behavior can be
conditioned by using both positive and negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement conditions the
mouse to find the end of the maze in this illustration. The
mouse is rewarded with food when it reaches the first turn
in the maze (A). Once the first kind of behavior becomes
ingrained, the mouse is not rewarded until it makes the
second turn (B). After many times through the maze, the
mouse must reach the end of the maze to receive its
reward (C). Skinner’s research on operant conditioning
led him to conclude that simply rewarding small acts can
condition complex forms of behavior.
acquisition of complex behavior through the process of
shaping.
Shaping behavior is the acquisition of complex behaviors – such as playing tennis and solving problems. The
procedure of first reinforcing responses that only resemble the desired response is referred to as reinforcing successive
approximations. This calls for reinforcing behavior like kicking the ball when the child is just learning how to play soccer.
The importance of shaping is that it can generate complex behaviors that do not occur naturally through shaping by a
series of contingencies in a program. Each stage of the program evokes a response and also serves to prepare the organism to
respond at some later point. Shaping is different from behavior modifications that occur with puzzles, and mazes for it does
not entail trial and error at random points in the learning process.

Critique / Reaction:
The technology for experimental analysis of complex human behavior is incomplete. Some students respond well in

highly structured situations in which objectives and the steps to be taken are clearly specified. While others are reinforced by

the opportunity to explore on their own and to relate ideas without external directives. The procedures for identifying these

and other differences in the variety of potential reinforcements has not yet been developed. Simple learning behaviors may be
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measured by frequency of response but complex learning behaviors conducive to response frequency as a measure of

response probability? Skinner also seemed reluctant to acknowledge the central role that human thought plays in learning. He

failed to allow for the existence of free will, individuality, emotionalism, or idiosyncratic behavior.

Though those are some points which he had not managed to tackle or perhaps had missed still Skinner’s theory gave
its contributions to education. One of those include the identification of learner characteristics such as readiness and
motivation. Programmed learning materials, if properly designed and administered, can provide for individual differences in
the classroom. Skinner’s technology was important for developing a positive classroom climate, by pointing out what students
are doing right and not focusing on what they are doing wrong the teacher can improve the classroom atmosphere and
instruct more efficiently.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura was born on December 4, 1925, in Mundare, a hamlet in northern Alberta, Canada, about 50 miles
east of Edmonton. He was the youngest child and only boy among six children in a family of Eastern European descent. His
parents had each emigrated to Canada when they were adolescents—his father from Krakow, Poland, and his mother from
Ukraine. They had no formal education but placed a high value on educational attainment. For example, his father taught
himself to read three languages: Polish, Russian, and German.
Bandura received his M.A. degree in 1951 and his Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology from the University of Iowa in
1952 under the direction of Arthur Benton (but his genealogy goes back to William James!!). In 1953, Bandura joined the
faculty at Stanford University, where he has remained to pursue his career. Bandura found Stanford much to his liking—
distinguished colleagues, gifted students, considerable freedom to go wherever one's curiosity might lead, and a university
ethos that approached scholarship not as a matter of publish or perish but with amazement that the quest for knowledge
could require coercion. When Bandura arrived on campus the renowned psychologist Robert Sears, then department chair,
was exploring the familial antecedents of social behavior and identificatory learning. Influenced by Sears' work, Bandura
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began field studies of social learning and aggression in collaboration with Richard Walters, his first doctoral student. They were
fascinated with the unconventional challenge of explaining antisocial aggression in boys who came from intact homes in
advantaged residential areas rather than simply demonstrating that multiple adverse conditions tend to spawn behavioral
problems. This research, which underscored the paramount role of modeling in human behavior, led to a program of laboratory
research into the determinants and mechanisms of observational learning.
In August of 1999, Bandura received the Thorndike Award for Distinguished Contributions of Psychology to Education
from the American Psychological Association. In 2001, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for
the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. More honorary degrees and awards are on the way, however. In April of 2004, he
received an honorary degree from the University of Athens. In October, he received one from the University of Catama. In May
2004 he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Western Psychological Association as well as the coveted James
McKeen Cattell Award from the American Psychological Society. In August of 2004, Professor Bandura received the Outstanding
Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Award from the American Psychological Association during the APA Conference in Hawaii.
He also delivered an invited address in Berlin at a conference held in honor of Paul Baltes, on the ocassion of Dr. Baltes'
retirement as Director of the Max Planck Institute in Berlin. The talk centered on selective moral disengagement in the
perpetration of inhumanities.

Overview of the Theory

This theory embodies several basic assumptions: (1) It is assumed that infants posses innate or inborn reflexes. (2)
Humans have a symbolizing capacity to process / transform experiences into internal models that can guide future actions. (3)
Forethought influences our present actions by anticipation of consequences and events. (4) The capacity of vicarious learning
is present in humans; thus individuals can learn by observation and not by trial and error. (5) Humans have the capability for
reflective self-consciousness. This involves thinking of thoughts and attributing meaning to their experiences.
The social learning theory also attempts to explain socialization and how people acquire norms and thoughts.
The basic principle embodied in this theory is the reciprocal relationship between behavior and the conditions that
control it.
In one of Bandura’s classical experiment, children were exposed to models in films. In one film, the model is
rewarded; in another, the model is punished; and in the third, nothing is done with the model. The result showed that children
first choose to imitate the model who was rewarded, the no-consequence model was next, and the model who was punished
was the last choice. Bandura’s view stresses two important things- modeling and imitation. Imitation involves copying the
behavior of the model one is exposed to.
In observational learning, the consequence of a particular response is conveyed through physical demonstration,
words, or pictures. The exposure to a model may produce different effects; namely: (a) Observational learning effect – where
an individual recombines previously learned behavioral patterns to produce novel responses; (b) Inhibitory effects - where the
model’s behavior either strengthens or weakens the inhibition of responses already available to the observer; and (c) Social
facilitation effect – where the model’s behavior leads toward acting out a response already available to the observer.
The Social Learning and Imitation theory suggested that people obtain competencies and new modes of behavior
through response consequences. (Miller & Dollard, 1941: pp.26-42)
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Albert Bandura believed aggression reinforced by family members was the most prominent source of behavior
modeling. He reports that children use the same aggressive tactics that their parents illustrate when dealing with others
(Bandura, 1976: p.206). While studying at Iowa, Bandura became strongly interested in aggression in children (Bandura,
1977). In order to control aggression, Bandura stated that the problem should be diagnosed and treated during one’s
childhood. "We should not be subjecting people to treatments and then, some years later, trying to figure out what effects
they have. We should test treatments before we embark on widespread applications (Evans,1989: p3.)." Children learn to act
aggressive when they model their behavior after violent acts of adults, especially family members. For example, the boy who
witness his father repeatedly strike his mother will more than likely become an abusive parent and husband (Siegel, 1992: p.
170)

Albert Bandura is most famous for the Bobo doll experiment. Albert Bandura believed that aggression must explain
three aspects: First, how aggressive patterns of behavior are developed; second, what provokes people to behave
aggressively, and third, what determines whether they are going to continue to resort to an aggressive behavior pattern on
future occasions (Evans, 1989: p.22). In this experiment, he had children witness a model aggressively attacking a plastic
clown called the Bobo doll. There children would watch a video where a model would aggressively hit a doll and " ‘...the model
pummels it on the head with a mallet, hurls it down, sits on it and punches it on the nose repeatedly, kick it across the room,
flings it in the air, and bombards it with balls...’(Bandura, 1973: p.72). After the video, the children were placed in a room with
attractive toys, but they could not touch them. The process of retention had occurred. Therefore, the children became angry
and frustrated. Then the children were led to another room where there were identical toys used in the Bobo video. The
motivation phase was in occurrence. Bandura and many other researchers founded that 88% of the children imitated the
aggressive behavior. Eight months later, 40% of the same children reproduce the violent behavior observed in the Bobo doll
experiment.
Observational learning is also known as imitation or modeling. In this process, learning occurs when individuals
observes and imitate others’ behavior. There are four component processes influenced by the observer’s behavior following
exposure to models. These components include: attention; retention; motor reproduction or motoric reproduction; and
motivation or reinforcement (Bandura, 1977: pp.24-28).
Attention is the first component of observational learning that includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective
valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual
set, past reinforcement). Individuals cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to the significant
features of the modeled behavior. For example, children must attend to what the aggressor is doing and saying in order to
reproduce the model’s behavior (Allen & Santrock,1993: p.139) In the Bobo doll experiment, the children witnessed the Bobo
doll being verbally and/or physically abused by live models and filmed models.
Retention is the next component that includes including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal,
and motor rehearsal. In order to reproduce the modeled behavior, the individuals must code the information into long-term
memory. Therefore, the information will be retrieve. For example, a simple verbal description of what the model performed
would be known as retention (Allen & Santrock, 1993: p139). Memory is an important cognitive process that helps the
observer code and retrieve information. In the Bobo doll experiment, the children imitated the aggression they witnessed in
the video. They aggressively hit the Bobo doll because it was coded and store in their memory.
Motor reproduction is another process in observational learning in which physical capabilities, self-observation of
reproduction, and accuracy of feedback are included. The observer must be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. The
observer must learn and posses the physical capabilities of the modeled behavior. An example of motor reproduction would be
to be able to learn how to ski or ride a bike. Once a behavior is learned through attention and retention, the observer must
posses the physically capabilities to produce the aggressive act. The children had the physically capabilities of hitting and
pummeling the doll to the ground.
The final process in observational learning is motivation or reinforcements including external, vicarious and self-
reinforcement. In this process, the observer expects to receive positive reinforcements for the modeled behavior. In the Bobo
doll experiment, the children witnessed the adults being rewarded for their aggression. Therefore, they performed the same
act to achieve the rewards. For example, most children witnessed violence on television being rewarded by the media.
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Historically, bank robbers were heroes. Many people were highly upset about the death of Bonnie and Clyde. When individuals,
especially children witness this type of media, they attend, code, retrieve, posses the motor capabilities and perform the
modeled behavior because of the positive reinforcement determined by the media (Bootzin, Bowers, Crocker, 1991: 201-202).
The Bobo doll experiment helped Bandura to theorized that “As children continue to age, the experience still effected their
personality, turning them into violent adults.”
Environmental experiences is a second influence of the social learning of violence in children. Albert Bandura
reported that individuals that live in high crime rates areas are more likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime
areas (Bandura, 1976: p.207). This assumption is similar to Shaw and McKay’s theory of social disorganization. They believed
that a neighborhood surrounded by culture conflict, decay and insufficient social organizations was a major cause of
criminality (Bartollas, 1990: pp.145).
Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behavior modeling. Today, films and television shows illustrate
violence graphically. Violence is often expressed as an acceptable behavior, especially for heroes who have never been
punished. Since aggression is a prominent feature of many shows, children who have a high degree of exposure to the media
may exhibit a relatively high incidence of hostility themselves in imitation of the aggression they have witnessed (Berkowitz,
1962: pp. 247). For example, David Phillips reported homicide rates increase tremendously after a heavy weight championship
fight (Cloward & Ohlin, 1960). There have been a number of deaths linked to violence on television. For example, John
Hinckley attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagen after he watched the movie "Taxi Driver" fifteen times. In the
movie "Born Innocent," a girl was raped with a bottle by four other girls. In 1974, a similar incident happened to a California’s
girl. The girls who raped her testified in court that they had witness the same scene in "Born Innocent." In addition, Ronald
Zamora brutally killed an elderly woman and pleaded the insanity defense. His attorney argued that Zamora’s was addicted to
the violence on television. As a result, he could not differentiate between reality and fantasy. However, Zamora was founded
guilty because the jury did not believe his defense (Siegel, 1992: p.172).

Scope/Application:
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and
psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical
foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has
focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).

Example:
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials
suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of
attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the
behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.

Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior
symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better
retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

Criticisms:
The social learning theory advocates that individuals, especially children, imitate or copy modeled behavior from
personally observing others, the environment, and the mass media. Biological theorists argue that the social learning theory
completely ignores individuals biological state. Also, they state that the social learning theory rejects the differences of
individuals due to genetic, brain, and learning differences (Jeffery, 1985: p.238). For example, if a person witnessed a hanging
or a violent murder, he or she might respond in many different ways. "Biological theorists believed that the responses would
be normal and come from the autonomic nervous system. In the autonomic nervous system, the heart rate, increase blood
pressure, nausea, and fainting would be normal symptoms of the responses that individuals might expressed in this particular
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situation. Therefore, the symptoms and behavior are not learned, but partially inherited. In addition, the social learning theory
rejects the classical and operant conditioning processes. The biological preparedness of the individual to learn as well as the
role of the brain in processing information from the social environment, are critical to learning theory, but they are ignored by
the social learning theory. Social reinforcement is conditioned reinforcement based on the relationship of the conditioned
stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus" (Jeffery, 1985: p.239).
In the Bobo doll experiment, critics have argued that the children were manipulated into responded to the aggressive
movie. The children were teased and became frustrated because they could not touch the toys. Many critics believed the
experiment conducted was unethical and morally wrong because the children were trained to be aggressive. "How many more
of the experiments finding a link between violence on television and aggressive behavior have ethical problems? It is not
surprising that the children had long-term implications because of the methods imposed in this experiment"(Worthman and
Loftus, p.45)
There have been many debates over whether or not violence on television causes aggressive behavior in children.
Many studies have indicated that television does not lead to aggressive behavior. For instances, psychologists have found that
some cartoons are very violent and cause children to illustrate aggressive behavior. However, the general public believes that
children view cartoons such as Elmer Fudd shooting the rabbit as funny and humorous. It is the parents’ responsibility to
inform their children that the cartoons are not real.
Feshbach and R.D. Singer believed that television actually decreases the amount of aggression in children (Feshbach:
1971). They conducted a study within a six-week study on juvenile boys who regularly watched television violence compared
to juvenile boys who were exposed to non-violent shows. After the six-week period, Feshback and R.D. Singer found out that
the juvenile boys that viewed the non-violent shows were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior than the juvenile boys
that witnessed the violent shows. "The study show that the violence on television allows the viewer to relate with the
characters involved in the violent act (Feshback & Singer, 1971: p.247). In doing so, the viewer is able to release all aggressive
thoughts and feelings through relation, causing them to be less aggressive than they would have been without watching the
violent television. This theory that viewing violence on television leads to a decrease in aggression is called the Catharsis
effect (Gerbner,G., Gross,L., Melody,W.H., pg.40).
Cooke believed that individuals tend to support the theory that television violence causes aggression because the
public needs to justify the aggression they see in others. He also believed television was a form of education and positive role
models. "If violence in television causes people to be more aggressive, than shouldn’t the good-hearted qualities in television
cause its audience to be kinder to others (Cooke,1993, p.L19)? Therefore, television can serve as deterrence if individuals
focus on the positive qualities. Despite these criticisms, Albert Bandura’ s Social Learning Theory has maintained an important
place in the study of aggression and criminal behavior. In order to control aggression, he believed family members and the
mass media should provide positive role models for their children and the general public (Bandura, 1976).

GESTALTISTS

THEORY CONFIGURATION/ GESTALT THEORY / FIELD THEORY

Max Wertheimer

Max Wertheimer was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia in April 15, 1880, the son of a school teacher. As a student,
young Wertheimer’s interests were far ranging. He studied law for a while, then switched to philosophy, and finally begun to
study psychology. After attending a number of schools and universities, Wertheimer received his Ph.D. degree at Wurtzburg in
1904. For the next six years he continued his work in psychology at Prague, Vienna, and Berlin.
Wertheimer had been schooled in the structuralist psychological tradition, a point of view which held that all
psychological phenomena could be broken down and analyzed into their smallest parts or elements. In 1910, while traveling
by train from Vienna to a Rhineland vacation resort, Wertheimer was suddenly struck by an idea. He began to ponder this
structuralistic viewpoint, and the more he pondered, the more he doubted. Suddenly he decided to forget his planned
vacation and left the train at Frankfurt. He rushed to the nearest toy store and purchased a child’s stroboscope. This was in
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the days before motion pictures, and a stroboscope was a device which, when turned at a constant speed, exposed a series of
still pictures that appeared to move. In his hotel room Wertheimer examined his new purchase. He spun the stroboscope,
fascinated by the apparent movement that the device produced, and in one of the history of psychology’s great examples of
insight, thought, “Aha, Wundt and the structuralists must be wrong.” Here was a psychological perception, apparent
movement, which simply could not be explained or understood by analyzing the individual still pictures. When the elements of
this perception were studied individually, the total phenomenon of perceived movement was lost. The whole must be more
than just the sum of its parts. In order to understand this perception of movement, one had to study all the parts together in
their particular “Gestalt,” a German word which means whole, or totality, or configuration.
Wertheimer went to the University of Frankfurt and began a series of controlled experiments. His first subject was
Wolfgang Kohler, who was later joined by Kurt Koffka. Early in 1912 Wertheimer explained to Kohler and Koffka the results and
meaning of his studies. Gestalt psychology had been born. Both Kohler and Koffka became zealous advocates of this new
school of thought, and both went on to produce many experiments, articles and books in support of it. Both became famous
Gestalt psychologists in their own right.
In 1912 Wertheimer published his own famous article, “Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement.” As a
result of this single, revolutionary article, a tremendous new movement in psychology was under way, and, as a result,
thousands of articles and books were written and are still being written on this important subject.
In 1916 Wertheimer joined the faculty at the University of Berlin, where he worked with another soon-to-be-famous
Gestalt psychologist, Kurt Lewin. In 1933 Wertheimer came to the United States, where he taught at the New School for Social
Research in New York City. He remained at the New School until his death in December 10, 1943.
Wertheimer was a man with a cause, but he was not arrogant or authoritarian. He was a gentle, warm, deep-thinking
man. He had a close personal relationship with Albert Einstein, and he was deeply concerned with the social and ethical
issues of his times.
Wertheimer was also interested in education and the techniques of good teaching. He pointed out the importance of
Gestalt principles as they apply to learning in the classroom. He criticized the use of repetition and rote memorization,
explaining that such procedures lead only to blind, nonproductive learning on the part of the students. He insisted that the
educators should teach for understanding, and this is made possible when the teacher arranges the material so that the
student can see the “whole” or the Gestalt, and not just a series of seemingly unrelated parts. In his book Productive
Thinking, Wertheimer stressed the importance of Gestalt theory in the practical problem of educating children.
Whereas Watson and Guthrie were concerned with overt responses, stresses always what the student did,
Wertheimer placed his emphasis on the child’s process of mental organization, stressing instead what the student understood.
Wolgang Kohler

Kohler was a German- American psychologist born in Revel, Estonia in January 21, 1887. He grew up in Germany and
was educated at the universities of Tubingen, Bonn, and Berlin. After he obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in
1909 he went to the University of Frankfurt and associated himself with Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka in the investigation of
apparent movement that led to the founding of the Gestalt school of psychology.
Kohler spent a few years during World War I in the island of Tenerife of the coast of Africa. There he became the
director of a research station on ape behavior and performed Gestalt psychology’s most famous animal studies. In one of his
experiments he arranged an ape’s cage so that there were bananas hanging from the top and a couple of boxes on the floor.
In order to reach the bananas the ape had to stock one box on top of another and then climb to the top. The ape’s solution to
the problem appeared to Kohler not to be one of blind trial and error. Instead the ape seemed to size up the solution and then,
almost in a flash, he understood the problem and “saw” the solution. The ape displayed what Kohler called insight, and Kohler
felt that this was more typical of learning, especially human learning. Kohler’s explanation was that the ape was able to see
the problem as a unified whole. In the box-stacking problem, the ape did not see the boxes and bananas as separate
elements but came to realize that they belonged together as a part of a total gestalt.
Insight has been called “a-ha” phenomenon. Kohler made much of the concept of insight, perhaps too much. He felt
that insight learning did not depend on past experience, that it was not just a special case of transfer.
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In 1921 Kohler returned to Germany to accept an appointment at the University of Berlin. In 1934 he came to the
United States to deliver the William James Lectures at Harvard. He decided to stay in America and accepted an appointment
at Swarthmore where he remained until his retirement. In June 11, 1967 Kohler died in Enfield, New Hampshire.

“Picture of One of Kohler’s Experiments with the Ape”

Kurt Koffka

Kurt Koffka was a German psychologist who was born in Berlin in March 18, 1886. He earned his Ph.D. from the
University of Berlin in 1908, and then went to the University of Frankfurt where he met the other Gestalt founders in 1910.
Along with Kohler he served as a subject in experiments on perception conducted by Wertheimer. Their findings led Koffka,
Wertheimer, and Kohler to stress the holistic approach the psychological phenomena cannot be interpreted as combinations of
elements: parts derive their meaning from the whole, and people perceive complex entities rather than their elements.
Koffka conducted a great amount of experimental work, but he is perhaps best known for his systematic application
of Gestalt principles to a wide range of questions. One of his major works, “The Growth of the Mind (1921),” applied the
Gestalt viewpoint to child psychology and argued that infants initially experience organized wholes in the barely differentiated
world about them.
During the First World War, Koffka worked with neurological patients at Giessen. After the war, he came to the United
States as a visiting professor at Smith College in Northampton Massachusetts, where he reamained until his death in
November 22, 1941. Koffka’s most important work is the “Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935),” a difficult and scholarly
book which he attempted to summarize and organize Gestalt psychology as a system.

Overview of the Theory:

The Gestalt theory of learning stresses wholes, that is, the whole field or the situation in its entire setting and the
whole person of the learner. Learning is a process involving both the whole being of the child and the total situation. It is
usually defined as the organization and reorganization of behavior which arises from the dynamic interaction of a maturing
organism and its environment, involving the activities of differentiation and integration, that is, the recognition of significant
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relationships and similarities and likewise of significant differences between and among experiences and the understanding of
the situation or problem in all its relations. Learning involves a process of forming proper gestalts. The original German term
gestalt is very difficult to translate satisfactorily. The terms whole, pattern, form are used ordinarily to connote the idea
implied in gestalt. The term signifies that actually there is no particular stimulus or object to which a response may be directly
attached, but that each situation or object has its own setting and thereby possesses certain relationships within a meaningful
whole. The individual reacts to this meaningful whole, for a stimulus when removed from its setting may become something
quite different from what it was in that setting. Consequently, the individuals do not react merely to the stimulus itself but
rather to the stimulus in relation to its background and setting. Thus the situation or object in relation to its setting, “a figure
embodied in a ground,” is considered to be the gestalt or pattern of configuration.
The Gestaltists were mainly concerned with perception that’s why they developed different perceptual principles. All
these principles were consistent with one overriding principle, that is the Law of Pragnantz. This law said that we tend to see
things in their most simple, harmonious, and concise form. We respond to the world so as to make it maximally meaningful
under existing conditions. We simplify, organize, then harmonize our experiences. This was the Gestaltists guiding principle
for studying perception, learning, and memory.

Gestalt Laws/ Principles of Perception

1. Law of Continuity – this law states the perceptual organization tends to preserve smooth continuities rather than abrupt
changes.
Example: Try to look at the figures below, they tend to perceive the zigzag lines as letters A and V with lines cutting across,
while the remaining triangles on both ends look like upper and lower triangles.

2. Law of Closure – this law states

that incomplete figures tend to
be seen as complete.
Example: The following figures will be perceived better as complete circles and squares.

3. Law of Similarity – this law refers to the

perception of similar objects that tend
to be
related.
Example: In the illustration below, even
though the horizontal and
vertical distances among the letters are
the same, most people perceive rows
rather than columns because the letters
are the same.
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4. Law of Proximity – this law holds that things close together are grouped together in perception.
Example: Lines drawn close together seem to be grouped as in this figure.

One of the most popular experiments done by the Gestaltists

with regards to perception were the experiments regarding the
perceived motion or better known as the “phi-phenomenon.” This
so-called phi- phenomenon might be familiar to all of us for
we are exposed with this phenomenon for quite a number of times. We
might have experience it when we saw our Christmas lights or those
neon lights from the billboards of the advertisements of top establishments or companies, sometimes we even call it running
light not because the light bulb move from one place to another but because the lights flashes in quick succession, allowing us
to perceive a single light moving from the position of the first light to that of the second, third, forth, and so on. The
phenomenon of apparent motion might be familiar, but the Gestaltists sensed the theoretical importance of the pattering
stimuli in producing the effect. According to them our experience depends on the pattern formed by the stimuli and the
organization of experience. What we see is relative to background and to other aspects of the whole. “The whole is different
from the sum of its parts; the whole consists of parts in relationship.” Stroboscopic illusion was used by Wertheimer to
illustrate this principle. The experience of motion produced by a series of still pictures viewed in quick succession is not
present in the pictures individually; instead, it arises from the relation between them. As years passed, a large number of
perceptual phenomena fall into one of the three classes:
a. Perceptual Organization (figure and ground effects and perceptual groupings)

b. Perceptual Constancy (lightness, color, shape, size, and location)

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c. Perceptual Illusion

Which is longer, A or B?

Which is larger a or b?

Key Concepts:
Gestalt – a German word that may be defined as pattern, whole, form, or
configuration.
Gestalt Psychology – a school of thought that was developed in the early 20th
century by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka.
Max Wertheimer – spearhead of the Gestalt theory and the experiments regarding the phi-phenomenon.
Wolfgang Kohler – one of the pioneer of Gestalt psychology who performed Gestalt psychology’s most famous animal
studies.
Kurt Koffka – one of the founder of Gestalt psychology who was best known for his systematic application of the Gestalt
principles to a wide range of questions.
Perception – the realm of experiences which are not merely “imagined,” “represented,” or “thought of.” e.g. desk, candy
flavor, traffic noise, etc.,
Pragnantz – is a German word for essence
Law of Pragnantz – a law which is concerned with perception. This law stated that all possible organizations that could be
perceived through visual stimulus, the one that is most likely to occur is the one that possesses the best, simplest,
and most stable form;(we tend to see things in their most simple, harmonious, and concise form)
Law of Continuity – phenomena tend to be perceived as continuos.
Law of Closure – the tendency of perception to fill in gaps or to complete in perception what is physically incomplete.
Law of Similarity – things that are similar in size, shape, color brightness, etc., will be “perceived as belonging together.”
Law of Proximity – things that are closer together will be perceived as “belonging” together.
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Phi-phenomenon – the experience of motion emerged from the combination of the elemental stimuli.
Stroboscope – a device for exposing a series of related visual stimuli rapidly. Under such conditions the stimuli give rise to
an illusion of continuous movement.
Stroboscopic Illusion – the apparent motion of two stimuli which are presented in close succession. e.g. motion picture
Figure and Ground Effects – the tendency to perceived figures from our experience to have some shape, while the ground
tends to be without form covering the figure behind continuously.
Perceptual Groupings – the tendency to perceived different stimuli as having the same pattern dependent on nearness,
similarity and configuration.
Light Constancy – objects retain their degree of color or brightness regardless of illumination. e.g. White paper remains white
whether viewed in dim light or intense illumination.
Color Constancy – the tendency to see the color of an object as stable.
Shape Constancy – the tendency of the shape of an object to retain their visual shape whether viewed from an angle or head
on e.g. a window is perceived as rectangular although as it opens or shuts, the actual shape changes from
rectangular to trapezoidal.
Size Constancy – it is illustrated in the way we perceive a distant person or object as being of the same or usual size
regardless of distance.
Location Constancy – the tendency to see an object retaining its position in space when we move about.
Perceptual Illusion – an impression from experience which does not correctly represent the objective situation outside the
observer.
Insight Learning – means grasping or understanding of the situation or object or materials in such a way that significant
relations are apparent. It is the form of gestalt or pattern in which the relevant factors fall into place with respect to
the whole. It involve total organization and implies a mental integration by which a situation or problem is
understood in all its relations.

How Learning Takes Place:

Gestalt explains learning in terms of modifications that take place in response to meaningful patterns or
configurations. According to Wertheimer it was useless to study small parts of psychological concepts, like perception or
learning. Studying parts in isolation was unjustified, because changing any single part necessarily changes the whole, or the
gestalt. Similarly, the whole may remain, even when all the parts have changed. For example, if we play a tune in two
different keys, even though the individual notes are different each time, the tune retains the integrity of its gestalt.
Gestaltists was concerned with the way children learn, particularly in school. They were against the use of rote
memorization, especially when it so often seemed to be an end in itself. Above all else, they wanted children to achieve
understanding, to have insight into the nature of the problem.
Wertheimer explained that there are two kinds of solutions to problems, type A and type B. Type A solutions are
those that use originality and insight, whereas type B solutions are those that make use of past associations in a rigid,
inappropriate way. Wertheimer used the example of teaching a child how to find the area of a parallelogram.
The child is first taught how to find the area of a rectangle, not by memorizing the formula but by understanding why
the formula works. The rectangle is divided into smaller squares, and the child sees that the total area is composed of the
number of squares in a row times the number of rows (Fig.1). Wertheimer then cut a parallelogram out of paper and asked the
child to determine its area. Some children persisted in multiplying the length times the height, a type B solution. Other used
type A solutions, like cutting off one of the triangular ends and fitting it against the other end. At this point the child had
created a rectangle and could correctly utilize the previously learned formula (Fig. 2). The children using type A solution had
obviously discovered a real geometric relationship. These learners unmistakably achieved insight upon perceiving the
geometric relationships of the figures, this is how true learning takes place according to the Gestaltists.

Figure 1:
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Figure 2:

Critique /
Reaction:

Gestaltists are less mechanical in their conceptions than either the Behaviorists or the Connectionists they believed that true
learning only comes from insights of the whole configuration. It is because of their strong belief in monasticism (that they
could explain the whole world by just one principle) that sometimes they could not explain some of their observations with
regards to human behavior. However, in the practical order the Gestalt theory of learning has made valuable contributions to
education. The influence of the Gestalt theory seems to be evident in such trends as the offering of orientation or survey
courses in broad areas of knowledge, the presentation of fields of learning in organized pattern such as the integrated
curriculum, the emphasis upon general rather than on highly specialized education, the recognition of the significance of
problem-solving experiences with discovery as the essence of learning, the stress on “ readiness” for learning, level of
aspiration, and emphasis upon the integrated personality.

Bruner’s Theory of Instruction: “Instrumental Conceptualism”

Jerome Seymour Bruner

An American psychologist and educator who has done pioneering work in the filed of cognition. Bruner was born
into a German-Jewish family in New York on October 1, 1915; his father, a watch manufacturer, died when Bruner was only 12.
His family a successful upper-middle class fully expected young Bruner to become a lawyer. Bruner, however, had other ideas.
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He graduated from Duke University in 1937 and immediately entered Duke’s graduate school in psychology. The following
year he transferred to Harvard, where he received his Ph.D. degree in psychology in 1941.

When Bruner first arrived in Harvard his interest focused on the investigation of perception in animals. Harvard had
on recently (1933) created an independent department of psychology, and under its chairman, E. G. Boring, the research
emphasis was aimed at experimentation in animal learning and perception. Bruner studied under the great Harvard
researcher and physiological psychologist Karl S. Lashley. With the outbreak of World War II, Bruner’s interest shifted to social
psychology, and he wrote his doctoral thesis on the techniques of Nazi propagandists. During the war, Bruner entered the
army and worked on psychological warfare in General Eisenhower’s headquarters in SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied
Expeditionary Force). He returned to Harvard in 1945, and in 1947 he published a significance paper on the importance of
needs as they influence perception. In this study he showed that poor children tend to overestimate the size of coins more
than do well-to-do children. From this study he concluded that values and needs strongly affect human perceptions and also
that people make meaning out of their perceptions by making them consistent with their past experiences. People are thus
able to reduce the possibility of mental strain by viewing the world in such a way as to reduce environmental surprises. These
findings lead to what became known as the “new look” in perception theory and also laid the groundwork for an American
school of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology deals with the human being’s ability to obtain knowledge and develop
intellectually. Although the field of cognitive psychology has been important in Europe, America under the heavy influence of
the behavioristic tradition had turned a deaf ear to anything as subjective and “unscientific” as the study of thinking. Bruner
changed all that. By 1960 he had helped found Harvard University’s Center for Cognitive Studies, and although he didn’t
invent cognitive psychology, he certainly went a long way toward making it systematic and consistent with the rules of
science.

Always the empiricist, Bruner kept science’s basic rule clearly in mind: Begin by observing the data from which the
conclusions are to be drawn. Once when a group of academic psychologists was debating a possible impact a certain film
might have on children, Bruner was brought in as a consultant. After listening to this group of armchair speculators for a
while, Bruner suddenly interrupted them and said, “I’ve got it! We’ll get a child, show him the film, and then we’ll ask him
what he thought of it.”

This is also Bruner’s approach to the problems of educational psychology. If you want to know how the children go
about the business of learning in the school situation, then study children in the classroom, not rats and pigeons in cages.

In 1960 Bruner published the important work The Process of Education. As Harper’s Magazine said, “To people
starved for reasonable comments on education in intelligible English, Bruner’s writings are above reproach.” In this book
Bruner developed three important points. First, school should strive to teach the general nature, or the “structure,” of a
subject rather than all the details and facts of a subject. Second, any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development. And finally, Bruner stressed the importance of intuition in learning.
Intuition is a problem solving technique whereby a child relies on insight or immediate apprehensions rather than planned
steps of analysis.

Bruner’ work has not gone unnoticed by his colleagues. In 1963 the American Psychological Association awarded him
the Distinguished Scientific Award. In 1965 Bruner was elected president of the American Psychological Association.

When the spring semester at Harvard came to a close, Bruner would leave the summer heat of Cambridge for the
fresh winds of the sea. On his sailboat, Bruner and his wife and children confronted the natural forces of wind and tide. He is
as skilled a navigator as he is psychologist and researcher.

In 1972, more than thirty years after his arrival at Harvard as a graduate student, Bruner left to begin the newly
created duties of Watts Professor of Psychology at Oxford University in England.

Jerome Bruner has made things happen in educational psychology. Says Harper’s, “He is the first person to come
along in years – perhaps the first since John Dewey – who can speak intelligently about education to his fellow scholars as well
as to educators.”
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Currently Bruner seems to be looking beyond cognitive science and is now examining the interplay between the
individual and their society through the exploration of an individual’s narrative. Bruner is interested in the relationship
between culture and mental development, mental processes involved in creating and understanding narrative, nature of
interpretative activity, particularly in legal reasoning. This can be seen in his involvement in research on the various
institutional forms by which culture is passed on and although he protested that he “knew no law”; he was invited by the law
faculty at New York University to help faculty and students analyze and understand legal cognition more profoundly. Studying
question such as “how does the human penchant for categorization affect legal thinking?”

Overview Of The Theory:

Another cognitive theorist, Bruner, came up with his theory which focused on the problem of what people do with
information to achieve generalized insights or understanding. Bruner who was greatly influenced by the Gestaltists endorsed
its principles of organization in developing concepts and insightful meaning. He believed that the primary purpose of
education should be the development of skills among children in such a way that they could be used later in other situations.
He urged the restructuring of school curricula so the children are given the opportunity to master the early basic skills in a
subject in preparation for more advanced learning. Mastering of skills would facilitate the new learning.

Bruner emphasizes four major theories applicable to all areas of teaching and learning . The first states that learning
involves understanding of basic relationships in the structure of a subject. Once a student is able to relate one aspect of
subject to another, he will acquire a direction that would add excitement to his learning process. This comprehension of
relationships will enable the student to retain the material better and even transfer it to new learning situations.

The second theme of Bruner pertains to readiness for learning. He believed that the basic foundations of any
discipline could be taught in a meaningful form even to young children. He did not believe in deferring instruction in certain
subjects until the child was mature for it. According to Bruner, subject matter could be matched with the cognitive level of a
child. Children should not be made to wait for a certain age before he is taught how to read. If the child is ready for it he
should be taught reading.

Bruner’s third theme urges schools to put more emphasis on the development on intuitive thinking. This is the ability
to arrive at reasonable but tentative solutions or generalizations before any actual formal analysis. He maintained that
children could be trained early enough in creative thinking.

The fourth theme of Bruner concerned motivation. He puts the premium on the ability of teachers to motivate
students. According to him, the teacher can motivate students in such a way that the desire to learn can be carried over from
the classroom to the outside world. He believes that intrinsic motivation, that of creating interest in the subject matter itself
so that the student is convinced that it is worth knowing, is better that extrinsic motivation in the form of grades, medals, and
other external goals.

Bruner calls for the practical application of his theories. He suggests that curriculum materials should reflect the
basic principles of a subject and teaching methods should be designed that will bring forth the capabilities of students of
different ages and abilities. This means that the main purpose of teaching is to give the students the significant ideas of the
subject as soon as possible. These essential elements he calls structure of the discipline. The teacher’s job is to help the
student understand the subject so thoroughly that he can relate it to other subjects in meaningful ways. To do this the
material must be reorganized in such a way that logical relationships become apparent to the student. If he understood the
properly, he will find no difficulty in remembering the organized materials.

Psychologists say that mind can store only about seven independent ideas simultaneously, hence, large masses of
unrelated information become unwieldy for the mind to tackle at any one time. Organizing the material logically, therefore,
facilitates learning and retention. According to Bruner, the process of learning a subject takes place in three integrative steps:
1.
acquisition, 2.
transformation, and 3.
evaluation. Acquisition is the process of obtaining new information that can either
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replace or refine something previously known. Transformation is the manipulation of information to fit new situations.
Evaluation is checking whether or not the learned material has been manipulated appropriately.

Bruner whose position was more consistent with the cognitive-gestaltist would like to call his position a theory of
instruction and not a learning theory. He feels that a learning theory is descriptive; that is, it describes what happens after the
fact. A theory of instruction, on the other hand, is prescriptive; it prescribes in advance how a given subject can best be
taught. If a learning theory tells that children at age six are not yet ready to understand the concept of reversibility, a theory
of instruction would prescribe how best to lead the child toward this concept when he or she is old enough to understand it.

Bruner’s theory has four major principles: motivation, structure, sequence, and reinforcement.

Bruner’s First Principle: MOTIVATION

Bruner’s first principle specifies the conditions that predispose an individual toward learning. What are the critical
variables, especially during the preschool years, that help motivate and enable the child to learn? Implicit in Bruner’s
principles is the belief that almost all children have a built-in “will to learn”. However, Bruner has not discarded the notion of
reinforcement. He believes that reinforcement, or external reward, may be important for initiating certain actions or for
making sure they are repeated. He insists, however, that it is only through intrinsic motivation that the will to learn is
sustained. Bruner is far more concerned with intrinsic motivation than with what he believes to be the more transitory effects
of external motivation.

Perhaps the best example of intrinsic motivation is curiosity. Bruner believes that we come into the world equipped
with a curiosity drive. He feels this drive is biologically relevant, that curiosity is necessary to the survival of the species.
Bruner suggests that young children are often too curious; they are unable to “stick with” any one activity. Their curiosity
leads the to turn from one activity to another in rapid succession, and it must therefore be channeled into a more powerful
intellectual pursuit.

Another motivation we bring into the world with us is the drive to achieve competence. Children become interested
in what they are good at, and it is virtually impossible to motivate them to engage in activities in which they have no degree of
competence.

Finally, Bruner lists reciprocity as a motivation that is built into the species. Reciprocity involves a need to work with
other cooperatively, and Bruner feels that society itself developed as a result of this most basic motivation.

According to Bruner, the intrinsic motivations are rewarding in themselves and are therefore self-sustaining. How can
the teacher take advantage of this in the classroom situation? Bruner’s answer is that teacher must facilitate and regulate
their students’ exploration of alternatives. Since learning and problem solving demand the exploration of alternatives, this at
the very core of the issue and is critical in creating a predisposition to the long-term pursuit of learning.

The exploration of alternatives has three phases: activation, maintenance, and direction.

Activation

In order to activate exploration, in order to get it started, children must experience a certain level of uncertainty. If
the task is too easy, they will be too bored to explore alternatives, and yet if it is too difficult, they will be too confused to
explore alternatives. The teacher must provide students with problems that are just difficult enough for the children’s intrinsic
curiosity, motivation to itself activate exploration.

Maintenance

Once activated, exploration must be maintained. This involves assuring children that exploration is not going to be a
dangerous or painful experience. Children must view exploration under the guiding hand of a teacher as less risky, less
dangerous than exploration on their own. The advantages of exploration must be made greater that the risks.
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Direction

Meaningful exploration must have direction. The direction of exploration is a function of two factors: knowledge of
the goal, and the knowledge that the exploration of alternatives is relevant to the achievement of that goal. Children must
know what the goal is and how close they are to achieving it.

Thus Bruner’s first principle indicates that children have a built-in will to learn. Teachers must manage and enhance
this motivation so that children will see that guided exploration is more meaningful and satisfying than the spontaneous
learning they can achieve on their own. In short, Bruner’s first principle is a justification of formal schooling.

Bruner’s Second Principle: STRUCTURE

Bruner’s second principle states that any given subject area, any body of knowledge, can be organized in some
optimal fashion so that it can be transmitted to and understood by almost any student. If appropriately structured, “any idea
or problem or body of knowledge can be presented in a form simple enough so that any particular learner can understand it in
a recognizable form”. This is not to say that all of the nuances of Einstein’s theory of relativity can be fully mastered by a six-
year-old child. It does mean, however, that if properly structured, Einstein’s general position could be understood by the child,
and that under questioning the child could convey to a physicist a recognizable account of the theory.

According to Bruner, the structure of anybody of knowledge can be characterized in three ways: mode of
presentation, economy, and power.

Mode of Presentation

Mode of presentation refers to the technique, the method, whereby information is communicated. One of the reasons
teachers fail to explain some fundamental point to a seemingly uncomprehending child is that the teacher’s mode of
presentation simply does not fit the child’s level of experience. The child will remain uncomprehending as long as the
message in incomprehensible. Bruner believes that a person has three means of achieving understanding: enactive, iconic,
and symbolic representation.

Enactive Representation
Very young children can understand things best in terms of actions. For example, children can demonstrate their
understanding of the principles of a balance beam by referring to their experiences on a seesaw. If the child on the end is
heavier, you compensate by sliding further back on your own end; if the child is lighter, you push yourself further forward.
Young children also define words in terms of the actions that are associated with them. A chair is to sit on, a spoon is to eat
with, and so on. When children are in the enactive stage of thinking, it is important that the teacher’s messages somehow
make contact with their muscles. Even adults may revert to enactive representation when learning something new, especially
a new motor skill. Teaching an adult to ski is best accomplished wordlessly. A skilled instructor doesn’t just tell students to
“edge into the hill”, but will instead ask them to imitate her own stance.

In short, when young children are in the enactive stage of thinking, the best, the most comprehensible, messages are
wordless ones.

Iconic Representation
Somewhat older children learn to think at a different level, the iconic level. Objectives become conceivable without
action. Children can now draw a picture of a spoon, without acting out the eating process. They may even be able, at this
stage, to draw a diagram of a balance beam, for they now possess an image of it which no longer depends on action. This is a
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significant breakthrough in the development of intellect, for the use of pictures or diagrams allows children at this stage to be
tutored in simpler ways.

Symbolic Representation
At this stage children can translate experience into language. The balance beam can be explained through the use of
words rather than pictures. Symbolic representation allows children to begin logical derivations and to think more compactly.
Bruner says that through symbolic representation “powerful representations of the world of possible experiences are
constructed and used as search models in problem solving”.

With these models should the teacher choose in order to facilitate the learning process? It depends on the learner’s
age and background, and on the subject matter itself. For example, Bruner believes that teaching a problem in law demands
symbolic representation, whereas geography is well suited to iconic. New motor skills are often best communicated by
enactive representation, especially at first. Mathematics can be represented, and often should be, by all three modes.

Economy of Presentation

Economy in communicating a body of knowledge depends n the amount of information the learner must keep in mind
in order to continue learning. The fewer bits of information, the fewer facts the learner must bear in mind, the greater the
economy. The best way to provide economy in teaching is to give the learner concise summaries. For example, Bruner feels
that it is more economical to “summarize the American Civil War as a battle over slavery than as a struggle between the
expanding industrial region and one built upon a class society for control of federal economic power”.

Power of Presentation

Bruner believes that nature is simple; hence, to be powerful, a presentation of some aspect of nature should reflect
nature’s simplicity. Teachers often make difficult what is inherently easy. A powerful presentation is a simple presentation,
one that is easily understood. It allows the learner to see new relationships, to find connections between facts that may at
first seem quite separate. Bruner feels that a powerful presentation is especially important in the field of mathematics.

Bruner’s Third Principle: SEQUENCE

The extent to which student finds it difficult to master a given subject depends largely on the sequence in which the
material is presented. Teaching involves leading the learner through a certain sequence of the various aspects of the subject.
Since Bruner believes that intellectual development is innately sequential, moving from enactive, through iconic, to symbolic
representation, he feels that it is highly probable that this is also the best sequence for any subject to take. Thus the teacher
should begin teaching any new subject with wordless messages, speaking mainly to the learner’s muscular responses. Then
the student should be encouraged to explore the use of diagrams and various pictorial representations. Finally, the message
should be communicated symbolically, through the use of words. This is obviously a very conservative approach. Some
children, because of their age and background, may seem to be able to begin a new area at the symbolic level. But, though
conservative, this sequence is safe. Children who seem ready to handle new material at the symbolic level may suddenly
become lost and confused if they haven’t been given the basic imagery to fall back on.

The sequence in which new material is presented is also important during exploration. Sometimes the child should
be encouraged to explore a wide variety of alternatives, whereas at other times the thorough analysis of a single alternative
should be stressed.

Finally, sequencing is significant aspect of motivation. Bruner feels that it is necessary to specify in any sequence the
amount of tension children must feel so that problem solving will be both activated and maintained. Bruner is not overly
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specific at this point; he simply says that the tension should be such that children are somewhere between boredom and wild
excitement.

Bruner’s Fourth Principle: REINFORCEMENT

Learning requires reinforcement. In order to achieve mastery of a problem, we must receive feedback as to how we
are doing. The timing of the reinforcement is crucial to success in learning. The results must be learned at the very time a
student is evaluating his or her own performance. If the results are known too soon, the learner will become confused and his
or her explorations will be stifled. If it comes too late, the learner may have gone two or three choice-points beyond the point
where it would have been helpful, and may by this time have incorporated false information. The teacher’s role is, thus,
indeed sensitive. If the learner has gone on to incorporate false information, this must now be unlearned in order for the
learner to get back on the right track.

Not only is timing of the reinforcement important, but the reinforcement must also be in a form that the learner will
understand. If the learner is operating in the enactive level, reinforcement at the iconic or symbolic level may be useless. To
be helpful, feedback must be made understandable to the learner.

Finally, Bruner emphasizes that “instruction is a provisional state that has its object to make the learner or problem
solver self-sufficient”. Thus, the learner cannot become so dependent on the teacher’s reinforcement that the teacher must
be perpetually present. Ultimately, the learner must take on a self-corrective function.

DISCOVERY

Though it is possible to memorize a poem, or the multiplication tables, or the state capitals, meaningful learning often
requires actual discovery. The facts and relationships children discover through their own explorations are more usable and
tend to be better retained than material they have merely committed to memory. Teachers can provide the conditions in
which discovery is nourished and will grow. One way they can do this is to guess at answers and let the class know they are
guessing. The students can then analyze the teacher’s answer. This helps prove to them that exploration can be both
rewarding and safe, and it is thus a valuable technique for building lifelong discovery habits in the students.

Bruner is not saying that discovery is the only form of learning. Nor is he saying that students must discover for
themselves the solutions to every problem in a given field. This would be extremely wasteful, if it were even possible, for it
would mean that each generation would have to discover the ideas and technology of their culture. Beginning physics
students, for example, shouldn’t have to discover the technology of radio transmission, as Marconi once did. Students can,
however, through insightful questioning and prompting by the teacher, discover for themselves some of the basics principles
that account for radio transmission. Learning in this way allows the student to reach a level of understanding that far
surpasses the rote memorization of a radio chapter in an electronic book.

Discovery learning has been compared to “reception” learning. In reception learning the student is simply presented
with some material, the content of which is already organized and complete. The student attempts to internalize it in full and
thus to have it available for future use. As Ausubel says, “The essential feature of discovery learning…is that the principal
content of what is to be learned is not given but must be discovered by the learner before he can internalize it; the distinctive
and prior learning task, in other words, is to discover something.”

Bruner stressed the used of discovery because for him it is very important that we encourage young minds to know
more about discovering because of the opportunities the experience avails the students. To Bruner, discovery in its essence, a
matter of rearranging or transforming evidence so to assemble new insights. He sees the following as possible benefits which
can be derived from the experience of learning through discovery: 1.
The increase in intellectual potency; 2.
The sift from
extrinsic to intrinsic rewards; 3.
Learning of the heuristics of discovery; and 4.
The aid to conserving memory.

Teaching for discovery is obviously not easy. The teacher must be bright, flexible, and really know the subject matter.
In order to communicate knowledge, the teacher must have mastery of that knowledge. Finally, the good teacher is a patient
 13

teacher, for discovery teaching cannot be hurried. It is often frustratingly slow, but the goal of real student understanding is
well worth the wait.

KEY CONCEPTS:

Jerome Seymour Bruner – father of cognitive psychology and proponent of structure first and facts second in education.

Cognition – comes from the Latin word cognoscere which means to know.
Cognitive Theories – place emphasis upon the concept that learning is a process of discovering and understanding
relationships, and organizing and finding significance in the sensory experiences aroused by the external situation.

Acquisition – is the process of obtaining new information that can either replace or refine something previously known.

Transformation – is the manipulation of information to fit new situations.

Evaluation – is checking whether or not the learned material has been manipulated appropriately.

Learning Theory – describes what happens after the fact.

Theory of Instruction – prescribes in advance how a given subject can be best taught.

Bruner’s First Principle – specifies the conditions that predispose an individual toward learning.

Motivation – the practical art of applying incentives and arousing interests for the purpose of causing a pupil or student to
perform in a desired way.

Extrinsic Motivation – the application of incentives that are external to a given activity to make work pleasant and to
facilitate performance e.g. praises rewards, etc.,

Intrinsic Motivation – determination of behavior that is resident within an activity and that sustains it as with autonomous
acts and interests (curiosity, drive to achieve competence, and reciprocity).

curiosity – the desire to know or learn about something.

drive to achieve competence – an energy or initiative to process certain skill, knowledge, experience, etc., which is needed
for the individual to excel in his chosen field.

reciprocity – a need to work with others cooperatively.

Bruner’s Second Principle – here it was told that any given subject area if structured appropriately could be understood by
almost any student.

Structure – the manner which the elements or parts of a certain subject or discipline is organized base on the degree of
importance and difficulty.

Mode of presentation – refers to the technique and method whereby information is communicated.
 13

Enactive Representation – the stage where children define words in terms of the actions associated with them.

Iconic Representation – at this level subjects become conceivable without having to be acted out.

Symbolic Representation – at this stage children can translate experience into language.

Economy of Presentation – the shorter the subject could be summarize, the fewer the facts, the greater is the economy.
Power of Presentation – a powerful presentation is a simple presentation, one that is easily understood by the learner.
Bruner’s Third Principle – indicates that teaching should begin with the enactive representation going to iconic and then
symbolic.

Sequence – the order of representation of the elements of a subject.

Bruner’s Fourth Principle – discussed that for the student to be able to gain mastery of the subject, reinforcement should
be given at the right time.

Reinforcement – the strengthening of a response by adding an increment of habit strength.

How Learning Takes Place:

In this theory Bruner indicates that learning is an active social process in which students construct new ideas or
concepts based on current knowledge. The student selects information, originates hypotheses, and makes decision in the
process of integrating experiences into their existing mental constructs. Just like Gestaltists, Bruner also believed that the
student needs to understand the whole structure or patterns of the subject for them to be able to achieve true understanding
of the whole principle of the subject being learned or studied. According to him a thorough understanding of the whole
structure or patterns of what and how they are learning are better than memorizing facts and figures. He stressed further that
once the whole structure of the subject is understood, the students themselves could start to determine what they need to
know via their own discovery. Moreover, he believed that understanding the framework or pattern of a body of knowledge
provides a student with a way to categorize and synthesize their learning. Tuning their knowledge of the entire subject by
uncovering the relevance of new information to the structure within their minds. Bruner claims that discovery approaches that
emphasize structure (interrelationships) of material rather than specific detail are likely to result in the learning of material
meaningfully rather than mechanically (rote memorization). He believes that material so learned will have a high degree of
usefulness (transfer value), it will be more likely to be remembered, and that it will enable the learner to move easily, in spiral
form, from an elementary consideration of the topic to a more advanced study of it later in the curriculum.

Critique/Reaction:

Bruner is a great psychologist who put much emphasis in the use of discovery approach he insisted that it is better to
let the students participate in the knowledge getting process. The author agrees with Bruner when he said that it is useless to
memorize facts and figures without knowing the whole structure or principle of the subject. For the author as one of the
agents of education believed that the teacher’s goal is not to produce little living libraries of information, but rather to help
students to be able to think for themselves and use the knowledge that teacher imparts in discovering new information which
could be useful in having or gaining better understanding of a subject.

Even though the use of discovery approach in teaching could benefit students thus, allowing them to think for
themselves and have a better understanding of the matter at hand the author believed together with other critiques that its
usefulness has its boundaries for it could not be useful in approaching other kinds of learning tasks that could be encountered
in the school setting. For this reason the author is giving her humble advice that teachers should not stick in one method
alone in trying to impart knowledge to their students rather they should be knowledgeable in using variety of approaches
 13

which could be equally beneficial. In making their choices the subject or topic that they are going to tackle should be greatly
consider as well as the learners and availability of materials which could aid instruction.

References

Bustos, Alicia S. and Soccoro C. Espiritu. Psychological, Anthropological, and Sociological, Foundations of Education (Revised
Edition). Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 1986.

Gaerlan, Josefina E., Delia A. Limpingco, Geraldine E. Tria, and Juan C. Brion. General Psychology 4/e. Ken, Inc. 1994.

Galloway, Charles. Psychology for Learning and Teaching. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1976.

Gonzales, Ma. Minerva A. and Company. Teaching Strategies in the Social Sciences for Elementary Grades (Teaching Strategies
II). Katha Publishing Co., Inc. 1989.

Kahayon, Alicia H. and Gaudencio V. Aquino. General Psychology (Third Edition). National Book Store, Inc. 1995.

Kelly, William A. Educational Psychology (Revised Edition). The Bruce Publishing Company . Milwaukee.

Lardizabal, Amparo S. Foundations of Education (Psychological, Sociological, and Anthropological). Rev.ed. Quezon City: Rex
Printing Company, Inc. 2003.

Papalia, Dianne E, Sally Wendkos Olds, and Ruth Duskin Feldman. Human Development (9th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.,. 2004.

Rivera, Filomena V. and Guillerma E. Sembrano. Toward Effective Teaching (Revised Edition). National Bookstore. 1992.

Rossen, Ephraim, Ronald E. Fox, and Ian Gregory. Abnormal Psychology (International Student Edition). Philadelphia: W.B.
Saunders Company

Sprinthall, Richard C. and Norman A. Sprinthall. Educational Psychology A Developmental Approach (Third Edition).
Massachusetts: Addison–Wesley .1981
 13

http://azaz.essortment.com/psychosocialdev_rijk.htm

http://www.psy.pdx.educ/PsciCafe/KeyTheorist/Erikson.htm

http://www.psychology.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.html

http://www.mi.essortment.com/jeanpiagettheo_rnrn.html

http://www.tip.psychology.org/piaget.html

http://www.xenodochy.org/ex/lists/moraldev.html

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/kohlberg.html
http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Thorndike.htm l

http://www.tip.psychology.org/thorn.html

http://www.nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1904/pavlov-bio.html: Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1901-1921,

Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Pavlov.htm

http://www.tip.psychology.org/skinner.html

http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/skinner.html

http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/bandurabio.html

http://www.mhcollegeco/socscienc/comm./bandur-s.mhtml

http://www.mhcollegeco/socscienc/comm/bandur-s.mhtml

www.enabling.org/ia/gestalt/gerhands/werth.html

www.geocities.com/HotSprings/8646/-10k

www.yorku.ca/dept/psych/classics/Koffka/Perception/perception.htm

www.enabling.org/ia/gestalt/gerhards/Koffka.htm

www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch04/bio4.mhtml

www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/kohler.htm

www.law.nyu.edu./faculty/profiles/visiting/brunerj.html

www.curriculum.calstatela.edu/faculty/psparks/theorists/501brune.html

www.law.nyu.edu/faculty/bios/brunerj.html

Module 2
SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

What is social stratification?

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Social stratification always takes place in a society. There can be no social stratification without society. Hence, there is a need
to define society first before explaining the meaning of social stratification.

The Meaning of Society

There is several definition of society given the eminent authorities but the definitions all point out at the following as
the characteristics of society:

a.) A society is an organized group of people.

b.) The people occupy a portion of territory;

c.) The people show a district and continuous way of life, with a comprehensive culture;

d.) The people perpetuate their group by sexual reproduction;

e.) The people think of themselves as a district group who common sentiments and loyalties, an esprit de corps; and,

f.) The individual, under certain circumstances, sacrifices himself for the good of the group.

The above-mentioned characteristics may as well constitute a comprehensive definition of society. A group of people
cannot constitute a society unless it has the above-mentioned characteristics.

MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratification is the division of a society into different hierarchical classes of people according to certain criteria.
The scale of division is from the highest to lowest class
In some countries, social stratification is very rigid. Take the scale system of India. The people are classified according
to the following: the Brahmans belong to the highest class, associated with the priesthood; the second class is composed
of the Kshatriyas, the warrior group or class; to the third class belong the Vaisyas or tradesmen; to the fourth class belong
the Sudras, the servant class; and the last are the outcasts or untouchables, the Pariahs. The people are born into and
they die in their own caste. The people of one caste. Do not usually associate the people of another caste. One cannot get
out of his own caste and joint another caste ot easily. However, some efforts are being exerted to lessen the rigidity of the
caste system.
Social stratification in a democratic country like the Philippines is not very rigid. Classification is loose and based
merely on the general perceptions of the people. The classes do not have any district nor clear-cut divisions. The people
are merely divided according the socio-economic criteria which were having any definite limits boundaries. Thus, some
people are considered to belong to the upper class, some to the middle class, and the rest of the lower class but exactly
where the dividing lines are located is not known. People may also be classified as very rich, rich, poor, very poor.

SOCIAL STATUS

Social status is the social class to which one belongs. It is the class into which his socio-economic standing fits.

Social status may be ascribed of achieved. Ascribed status is due to the accident of birth. It is the class into which
one is born. If one is borne into a rich family, then he belongs to the rich class. If one is born into a poor family, then he
belongs to a poor class

Achieved status is earned or acquired by means of a talent and effort-making capacity of an individual or by force of
circumstances. Nora Aunor climbed the social ladder through her singing talent and acting ability coupled with hard work.
Vilma Santos rose from obscurity to prominence through her acting ability and hard work too. Education is probably the
best surest way of improving social status but much effort must be exerted to obtain one. There are also instances when
one climbs the social ladder by force of circumstances. When a poor girl marries a rich boy then she becomes a member
of the rich class. And so with a poor boy who marries a rich girl. There was a man who won first prize in a Sweepstake’s
draw. He invested the money in good business which prospered tremendously. Thus, that man became a member of the
upper class.

DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL STATUS OR CLASS

There are some determinants of social status. Some of which are the following arranged from highest to lowest in
scale.

A. Occupational and Income Scale

1. Owners and high officials of big business enterprises, high government officials; professionals who have gained
notable expertise and prestige; superstars on the show business. Amounts of income are very high.

2. Lower officials of big business enterprises; owners and officials of smaller business; professionals with moderate
success; lower government officials; movie stars with moderate success. Amounts of income are high.

3. Employees performing clerical jobs. Amounts of income and average. Also included here are skilled workers and
small store owners. Incomes are average.
 13

4. Unskilled workers, laborers, tenant farmers, domestic helpers, small vendors. Incomes are below average.

5. Semi-employed, underemployed, or even jobless. Incomes are very low.

B. Education

1. Graduates from post collegiate courses such as graduate in medicines and law.

2. College graduates

3. High school graduates

4. Elementary graduates

5. Primary graduates

6. Below primary schooling

C. Hour Type
1. Excellent houses- palatial, made of concrete and fine lumber, air-conditioned, with garage for one or more
cars, spacious and well-kept yard, landscaped and well-kept lawn, and fully furnished. The yard is well fenced.

2. Very good houses- big but not so palatial, made of concrete and fine lumber, air-conditioned, with garage for
one or more cars, with fairly spacious yard and landscaped lawn, fully furnished. The yard is well fenced.

3. Good houses- fairly big, made of concrete and fine lumber, either air-conditioned or not, with a garage for
one car, with a small yard but well-fenced, with substantial furnishings.

4. Average houses- not so big, semi-concrete, not air-conditioned, no garage, a very small yard or a big yard
but not well-kept or fenced, and scantily furnished.

5. Fair houses- usually small but enough for a family, made of wood and other light materials, with a small yard
and sometimes not fenced, usually unfurnished.

6. Poor houses- usually small, made of light and flammable materials, with very little or no privacy at all no
furnishings.

7. Very poor houses- usually a one-room affair, made of cardboards and other lights and flammable materials,
no yard of its own but very close to other houses of the same kind, easily blown down during typhoons.

D. Dwelling Area

1. Very affluent- these are first class subdivisions with well-paved streets and sanitary, usually residences of very
rich people. Lots are very costly.

2. Affluent- these are also good subdivisions but not as good as the first class subdivisions, the residents are also
rich and the lots are also costly.

3. Fairly affluent- these may or may not be subdivisions but places district by themselves and good enough for the
people to go about their daily chores in peace.

4. Not affluent – these are the dwelling places of the great majority of the common people. Most of the residents
are not well-to-do but not so poor and they can still manage to lead an ordinary life.

5. Poor – most of the people here poor and there is a great need for improvement, but the residents can still
manage to lead a livable life.

6. Very poor – these are places where are people are very poor and can hardly manage to live. These are the slum
areas where the living quarters of the families are so close to each other that there is hardly space to move
about.

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility is the case by which people move from one social class to another. In the Philippines, since there is no
law impeding the changing of one’s social class, there are several opportunities of improving one’s social class. Some of these
opportunities are the following:

1. By effort-making

a.) By obtaining an education

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This is the way improving one’s lot in life, and thus climbs the social ladder. Many poor boys and girls who
have worked during the day and studied at night have been very successful in their professional practice. Some have even
acquired some kind of political power.

b.) By exploiting a talent

These are many boys and girls with special talent. They can raise prominence by exploiting their talents to the fullest.
Nora Aunor, as mentioned before, has risen to the top through her acting proficiently. Flash Elorde exploited to the full his
boxing prowess and he rose from obscurity to fame.

c.) By hard work and resourcefulness

A women started her business career by selling odd things such as soap, children’s bread and candies, thread balls,
etc. from house to house. Then she was able to open a one-meter-wide store in her town. Through the years, she kept on
expanding her business until she became one ot eh big store owners of her town. Later, she was also able to acquire some
passenger jeeps for hire.

2. By force of circumstances

a) By marriage

When a poor girl marries a rich boy, then she also becomes rich. The same is true when a poor boy weds a
rich girl. The boy also becomes rich. There was a Filipina maid who married her millionaire boss and she became a millionaire,
too.

B.) By just being lucky

There was a small store owner in a certain city who won first prize in a Sweepstakes draw. He made wise
investments with his money and now his heirs have good business establishments in the city in the form of movie houses,
hotels, buildings, offices for rent, and real estate. Another lucky man was a janitor. He was a college graduate but of the
difficulty of finding a more respectable job, he accepted a janitor’s job. One day while doing his chore, he came across a big
envelope with a large amount of money inside. He turned over the enveloped with the money of he manager of the
establishment who returned the money to the rightful owner. Because of his honesty, the janitor was given a more respectable
job with greater responsibility but with a much bigger salary plus the reward money that he received from the owner of the
returned money which quite sizeable.

STATUS SYMBOLS

Certain things are considered indicators of the social class to which one belongs. A palatial house means that social
class to which one belongs. A palatial house means that owner is rich and that he belongs to the upper class. A car owner
belongs to the upper class or middle class depending upon the expensiveness of the car. Jewelry is another status symbol. If
one wears very expensive jewelry, it means he or she belongs to the upper class. Even the place where one lives is associated
with social status. One who lives in Forbes Park belongs to the upper class while one who lives in a teachers’ village belongs to
the middle class. One who lives in slum area of course belongs to the lower class. The association or club to whom one
belongs also indicates his social status. A rotation is considered belonging to the upper class. The member of a labor union
belongs to the working class. Any member of the Philippine Association for Graduate Education (PAGE) is a graduate degree
holder.

ROLE
Role is a function or duty that an individual has to perform on account of his position in society. A role may be
obligatory or cultural. An obligatory role is assign to a person because of the nature of his position. For instance, a teacher’s
role is to teach because that is what he is employed for. His position can be taken away from him and he is no longer a
teacher. A driver has to drive. An office clerk to do the clerical work in the office otherwise, he is not a driver. An office clerk
has to do the clerical work in the office otherwise his position as clerk may be taken away from him.

A cultural role is a function or duty assigned to an individual by culture or custom. For instance, it is customary that
keeper. But there are cases where the father becomes jobless. In such cases, the mother becomes the breadwinner and the
father becomes the housekeeper. But the position of the man as a father cannot be taken away from him. And so with the
mother. It is the duty of a brother to help another bother when the latter, he is still a brother to the latter. His position as
brother cannot be taken away from him.

The main difference between the two terms is that in the obligatory role, position and role, position and role or
function are inseparable, one cannot exist without the other whereas in the cultural or customary role, the individual may not
perform his role, the individual may not perform his role or function associated with his position but his position cannot be
taken away from him.

A person may behave differently in different roles. A person may be an aggressive labor leader but he may be a
submissive husband at home. A boy may be submissively obedient at home but a very aggressive leader in school. A person
may also have many roles under one position. A mother, for instance, prepares the meals, batches the children and prepares
them house, washes clothes, goes to market, etc.

EFFECT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN LEARNING

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Social stratification has certain effects upon learning. These are as follows: (Bustos and Espiritu, p. 51)

1. Children belonging to a poor disadvantaged family do not aspire much for higher education. This is due to the belief
of the family that since it cannot afford to send its children to higher institutions of learning, it is enough that the
children are able to read and write. This is the effect of the low socio-economic status of the family.

2. Children coming from lower class families have very little exposure to the influence of mass media such as
newspapers, magazines, books and other learning materials, radio and television. Hence, their learning experiences
are confined within the classroom only. It is believed that because of his situation, students coming from the less
privileged areas like the rural areas have lower ratings in national ratings in national survey tests like the NCEE than
the students coming from the more affluent areas. Students coming from prestigious schools also achieve higher than
those coming from disadvantaged or underprivileged schools.

3. In most cases, the educational attainment of a child matches the socio-economic status of his family. However, in the
Philippines, more and more children coming from lower class families are attaining higher education. This is due to
the desire of the parents to save their children from undergoing the same hardships that the former have
experienced. Since education is an important means of achieving social and occupational mobility, parents utilize
every possible means to institutions learning.

SOCIAL GROUPS

The presence of social groupings in any society is unavoidable. It is the nature of men to live in groups. People often group
themselves in many different occasions and circumstances. There are two principal reasons why men tend to group
themselves. They do so (1) because of gregariousness and (2) because of necessity. Gregariousness is the tendency of men to
be in the company of other men. They simply love to be together and do things together. They love to eat, play, travel, work,
laugh together, etc. Necessity force men to group themselves to do things which one man alone cannot do. For example, in
fighting a common enemy or in building a dam, a bridge, or a house, men have to work in groups, work side by side.

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF GROUPS

There are two general types of groups as far as joining a group is concerned: (1) involuntary groups and (2) voluntary
groups.

1. Involuntary groups. Involuntary groups are those groups into which the members are born. The members have no
other choice but to be members of the group they are born into whether they like it or not. Among the involuntary
groups are the following:

a) Family
The family is the basic unit of society, composed of the father, mother, and children.

b) Neighborhood
This is the immediate vicinity of a family and composed to households which are close together.

c) Barangay or barrio
The barangay is the smallest political unit composed of neighborhoods.

d) Towns or municipality
This is the next larger political unit composed of barangays or barrios.

e) Province
This is larger political entity composed of towns or municipalities.

f) Nation
This is the whole country, the Philippines, whose people, the Filipinos, occupy a portion of territory
called their own, and who are conscious that they are one and under the same government.
There are ethnic groups each of which has a district culture of its own. Examples are the igorots, the ilocanos, the
tagalogs, visayans, etc.

There are also larger international groupings such as the Asian region, Middle East, Pacific region, south American
countries, etc.

2. Voluntary associations or groups. These are called voluntary groups or associations because the individual can
choose the group to which he wants to belong. Of course, the individual is under different kinds of pressures when
making his choice but the final decision is his. Some of the voluntary associations or groups are the following:
 13

a) Play groups

These groups are usually composed of children living in the same neighborhood. A play group is
called a voluntary group because the individual child may or can choose to join or not.
b) Peer groups

These are usually formed by adolescents. They are usually called barkadas are good but some turn
into gangs with anti-social tendencies.
c) Work groups

These groups are formed by persons working in the same place or establishment such as
construction workers, factory workers, office workers, or performing the same type of work such as farmers,
teachers, doctors, etc.
d) Schools groups

Schools are set up for educational purposes and children flocked to them and form groups, school
groups. Other people working in the schools are also members of the school groups.
e) Church groups

People who have the same religious beliefs and practices group themselves together and form a
church.
f) Purposive voluntary associations

These associations are organized for certain purpose/s. they have aims and objectives to attain.
Some of the aims are for recreation, some are for athletics, charity, civics, brotherhood, or purely social.
Some others are for professional growth. Examples are athletic clubs, chess clubs, fraternities, sororities,
professional associations such as the Philippines Association for graduate Education or Philippine Medical
Association, etc.

GENERAL FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

There are certain functions that are inherent in groups. Some of the general functions of groups that make them very
advantageous are the following:

1. Education. Education is acquired not only from a formal school system but from the community as well. The
community as a group is a big school by itself. Any member of the group is a teacher and learner at the same time.
Knowledge, skills, language, values, attributes, habits, practices, etc. are transmitted one person to another by
observation, imitation, participation, or by personal instruction. But of course, education is best acquired from school.
The school is the best dispenser of learning.

2. Protection. This is especially true among tribal groups. People of a tribe usually unite or join together to ward of the
instructions of other tribes or to fight off fierces animals. Even in civilized societies, people of a small community
usually unite to fight off evil intruders. Sometimes, too, conflicts between nations and the combatants usually fight in
groups.

3. Perpetuation of the race. This is the function of the family by sexual reproduction and rearing of the youth, the
perpetuation of the race insured. This is a very important and indispensable function of the family. The family also
provides love, affection, sympathy, and understanding for the children.

4. Social control. The group is a very potent power for social control. Social approval for a good act is generally a strong
motivation for individuals to act properly while a social disapproval for a bad act improperly. A man performs good
acts because he wants to look to the other members of the group and he avoids bad acts because he does not like to
look bad to other people.

5. Ideology. Some people may believes in some kind of governmental structure or administration and they group
together to fight for their ideology. They form a political party and work for the election of their candidates.
Sometimes they use violent means to attain their goal. This is why the country has an insurgency problem.
6. Redness of grievances. Some people may feel that they have been deprived of certain rights and privileges and they
gather together and stage rally or rallies. Students marching down the streets and rallying against the increase in
tuition fees is one example. A labor union staging a strike is another.
7. Charity. There are people who have a soft heart for the disadvantaged and underprivileged. They organized and pool
their resources to be able to help those in distress.

They organized social welfare clubs, orphanages, rehabilitation centers, and the like. They cater to the needs of
extremely distressed people who are victims of catastrophic events such as floods, typhoons, volcanic eruption,
earthquakes and other tragedies.

8. Recreation. People who feel the drudgery of their work or life itself may from recreational clubs, tennis clubs, chess
clubs, travel clubs, swimming clubs, and the like.
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9. Religion. The most important function of the church is the salvation of the soul. But the church also serves as a
means of social control. With the spiritual and mortal values being learning in the church adherents are good
members of society.

10. Expression of talents. Groups and events are often organized to provide channel for the expression of special talents.
Athletics meets like SEA Games and Olympics are very good channel for the exhibition of athletic prowess. Beauty
contest are good opportunities for showing the magic power of the beauty and brain. Public speaking contests,
singing contests, quiz bees, and the like are good channels for the expression of special talents.

11. Professional Enhancement. Those in the professions form association for the purpose of professional enhancement;
otherwise, they remain stagnant in their respective professions the professionals have to gather together once in a
while in form of conferences, seminars workshops, and the like to exchange ideas in a new trends of the profession.
There is at least one association for every profession in the country. Examples are the Philippine Association for
Teacher Education, Philippine Nursing Association, Integrated Bar of the Philippines, Philippine Medical Association,
and many others.

12. Purely social interaction. There are gatherings the only purpose of which is purely social interaction. Birthday parties,
baptismal parties, and wedding anniversaries are of this kind.

KINDS OF VOLUNTARY GROUPS (Further Elaboration)

There are several kinds of voluntary groups. Some of these are the following: (1) peer group (2) idolized group (3) we-
and-they-group and (4) formal voluntary association.
1. Peer group. Peer group has two connotations. One refers to age level peer group and other to the professional peer
group. An age level peer group is composed of a young boys and girls or young men and young women of the same
sex of the same age. A professional peer group is composed of persons of the same professional work. For instance,
teachers belong to the same peer group, lawyers to the same lawyer peer group, congressmen belong to the same
congressmen peer group, etc. hence, a teacher ia a peer of other teachers, a doctor is a peer of other doctors, a
congressmen is a peer of other Congressmen, etc.

The age level peer group has more important implications. The members of an age level peer group are
usually of the same socio-economic status aside from having the same age and the same sex. The peer group is
further subdivided into the play group, gang, and the clique.

a) The play group

The play is the most common peer group. Because of propinquity,

The member children because very intimate with one another and their play is very informal and
spontaneous without adult supervision. Oftentimes, they develop and follow their own rules of play. The
children play very happily because they are not yet aware of the serious problems of life.

b) Gang

Usually, young people start forming their gangs at the teenage period but membership in a gang
may continue until adulthood. The local term for the gang is barkada which is more common among boys
than among the girls. The members recognize a leader and sometimes developed their own subculture by
developing a kind of language somewhat different from the ordinary usage, a mode of behavior of their own,
and passwords which only they understand. They have a meeting place where they plan their activities.

Some gangs are notoriously antisocial. They thrive on conflicts. They hate being advised by adult and by
school authorities and do not tolerate interference from the latter. They love creating trouble, fighting, bullying,
loafing, gambling, drinking liquor, and other antisocial activities. They often have a target to inflict harm upon – a
policeman, an individual, a store, a family, or an enemy, many gang members end up in jail or death inflicted by the
police, an individual, or by an enemy.

c) The clique

The clique is a small peer within a bigger peer group. A few

members of group may have the same feeling or attitude towards a
certain issue, a common sentiment, a common sympathy and understanding, a common grievance. They
come together to form a group but not separating from their original group. Because of the strong
attachment among the clique members due to the strength of a common belief or feeling, they may defy the
norms of their families or school or society in general. Because if this, cliques are usually considered
undesirable. Cliques are not confined to the young. They also exist among teachers, among the members of
congress, and among members of other big groups.
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2. Idolized group. In some other sources, this is called reference group. This is simply a group. This is simply a group.
This is simply a group of professionals whom an individual idolizes. For instance, if an individual admires lawyers, he
tries to observe how lawyers behave in the courtroom and in social circles. He tries to conform to the behavior,
attitude and values of lawyers and aspires to be one. He now works toward that end, to be a member of the lawyer’s
group. Idolized groups are important because they exert they strong influence upon an individual in the information of
his habits, values, conduct, and in the pursuit of his life aspiration, or ambition.

3. The we-group and the they-group. These are groups mainly characterized by belonging to a group and not belonging
to the group.

a) The we-group
This is termed by some sources as in-group. This is a group where one feels he belonging to this group have
a feeling of solidarity or oneness, camaraderie, sympathetic attitude, protectiveness, and loyalty toward the
other members. One may even accept responsibility for the other members. A slur orb harm on one he also
considered done to the other members. They know each other usually and enjoy doing things together. The
we-group can be as small as a family but it can be as big as a nation or international region like the feeling
being an Asian. When the we-group feeling involves the family, neighbor, barrio, town province, region or
nation, it is an involuntary group.

There are certain functions of the we-group feeling. Such function are (1) it contributes to group loyalty and
promotes group solidarity, (2) it promotes conformity and therefore becomes a form of social control, (3) it
promotes nationalism (Hederson, bustos and Espiritu, p. 47), and it promotes protectiveness among its
members.

When the we-group is excessive, however, it becomes destructive. The wars or conflicts between
fraternities, barangays, tribes or even between nations are the results of an excessive we-group feeling.

b) The they-group
This is called an out-group by other sources. This is a group toward which one has a feeling of indifference,
strangeness, avoidance, dislike, antagonism and even hatred. (Biertedt, Bustos and Espiritu, p. 47). When
the members of a we-group speak about themselves they say “we” or “our group.” But when they speak
about people who are not members of the group they say “they.” The members of the we-group deal with
those of the they-group only because of necessity

4. Formal voluntary associations. There are many kinds and types of voluntary associations but they have some
common characteristics which are the following.

a) They are formally organized in the sense that they elect a set of officers that would run to associate.

b) Entrance have the associations is voluntary;

c) They have a constitution and Bu-laws or a set of rules and regulations to guide their activities;

d) They conct regular and/or special meetings in a definite designated place;

e) They collect membership and annual fees;

f) They conduct regular and/or special activities to attain their goals;

g) They are non-profit;

h) They have special provisions for helping co-members in distress especially in times of sickness of death; and

i) A member may or can get out of or resign from the association of which he is a member without any legal

implications or obligations.

In addition, while most associations have local membership, some have provincial, regional, national, and even
international membership like the Rotary Club and the Lions International.

The kinds or types of formal voluntary associations are the following:

a) Recreation group. Those interested in recreational activities form themselves into associations to give
fuller fulfillment of their desire for recreation. And so there are tennis clubs, golf clubs, chess clubs, travel
clubs, dance clubs, etc.
b) Social Service groups. Those who have a soft heart for the underprivileged, disadvantaged, and
handicapped form themselves into groups to be able to render better service of those who are in need.
These groups render a free medical and dental services, construct waiting sheds, put up orphanages,
rehabilitation centers, give aid to victim of calamities, and the like. The Red cross is a good example.
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c) Ideology or political action groups. These who have the same belief or idea in some kind of governmental
structures or administration form themselves into groups and works as team for their ideological goals.
They form or join political parties and work for the election of candidates that espouse their cause. In
some instances, they resort to violence to achieve their cause.

d) Professional groups. Professionals form themselves into association for the purpose of enhancing and
improving their professional knowledge and skills. They hold conventions, conferences, seminars,
workshop, demonstration, and the like to update themselves in the new trends in their respective
professions. Example of professional associations are the Philippine Association for Graduate Education
(PAGE) for graduate educators, Philippine Association for Teachers Education (PAFTE) for teachers,
Philippine Medical Association for doctors of medicine, and the Integrated Bar of the Philippines (IBP) for
Lawyers.

e) Fraternity groups. The main pupose of fraternities is to promote brotherhood among the members. It is
here where the we-group feeling is keenly felt. Examples are the Free and Accepted masonry in the
Philippines and the fraternities and sororities in the colleges and universities. Sororities are for women
while fraternities are for men.

f) Religious groups. Members of religious groups or church aspire for the salvation of their souls. They also
promote brotherhood among men. Religious services are held every Sunday or Saturday and in some
special days and occasions. Churches are very effective instruments for social control because they stress
the teaching of spiritual and social values, especially peace and goodwill among men.

g) The activist groups. Activism is a new phenomenon in the social and political fields. People who feel
deprived of certain rights and privileges group themselves and stage rallies and marches and make
demands that are sometimes impossible to grant. Sometimes the rallyists, carried emotionally by the
fiery speeches of their leaders become violent damaging some stores, turning cars, trucks, and buses
upside down and sometimes burning them that the police have to intervene resulting in the death and
wounding of some of the rallyists and arrest of the leaders. In some other cases, people leave their
positions of responsibility and join rallies violating some employment laws of the land. Generally, though,
rallies and marches are conducted peacefully and in orderly fashion and demands are presented with
sobriety.

h) The union groups. It is now common practice that workers in factories and other establishment and even
in the government forge themselves into unions to enable them to have a stronger bargaining power.
Labor unions usually work for better wages, working conditions and some other benefits. Labor unions
usually forge collection bargaining agreement with their employers. The strongest weapon of labor unions
is the strike. Because of the strike, weapon of labors union usually win a major portion of their demands
or at least get some concessions.

i) The syndicates. The list of groups is not complete unless the syndicates are included. Syndicates are
groups that are organized purposely to commit criminal acts to enable the members to get what they
want. Syndicates engage in many illegal activities such as kidnap-for-ransom, bank robberies, smuggling,
drug trafficking, illegal gambling, keeping prostitution dens, robbing commercial establishments and rich
people, car napping, graft and corruption, raping, killing, and terrorizing people to be able to get what
they want. It is sad to note that some members and protectors of some syndicates are law enforcers or
public officials.

It is needless to say that all educative agencies of the land must pool their resources and work together very
hard in cooperation with the government’s efforts to minimize if not entirely eradicate the existence of
syndicates. Strong guidance and counseling program must be established in all schools. There be should be a
heavy emphasis in the teaching of spiritual and values education. The church denominations, instead of debating
and fighting against one onother must work hard cooperatively in intensifying the inculcation of spiritual values
in the minds of the young and old people as well.

INSTITUTIONAL GROUP AGENCIES FOR EDUCATION

As far as education is concerned, there are three very important institutional groups that serve as agencies for learning: the
family, the school, and the church.

THE FAMILY
The family is the smallest social institution. Bertrand defines family as a “socially sanctioned group of persons united
by kinship, marriage or adoption, who share a common habitat generally and interact according to well-defined social roles
that maintain and protect its members and perpetuate the society.” (Lardizabal, p. 91-92). In similar terms a family is
composed a father, a mother, and their children.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY

The family may be classified as follows:

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1. According to Structure
a. Conjugal or nuclear family- consisting of husband,
wife, and children.
b. Consanguine or Extended family – consisting of married couple, children, and
relatives
2. According to the Number of Spouses

a. Monogamy- consisting of only one husband and one wife married at a time. This means that a widower or a
widow can marry again.
b. Polygamy – plural marriage. There are three classes.
1) Polyandry – one woman married to two or more men at the same time
2) Polygamy – one man married to two or more women at the same time.
3) Cenogamy – group sex. Two or more men and two or more women having sex together at the
same time one after the other.

3. According to line of Descent

a. Patrilineal – descent is through the father’s line
b. Matrilineal – descent – is though the mother’s line
c. Bilineal – descent is through the father’s and mother’s line.

4. According to Residence
a. Patrilocal – when the newlyweds live with the parents of the husband.
b. Matrilocal – when the newlyweds live with the parents of the wife.
c. Neolocal – when the new couples live by themselves and have a separate household.

5. According to Dominance
a. Patriarchal – when the father is the head and makes the major decisions and dominant.
b. Matriarchal – when the mother is the head and makes the major decisions and is dominant.
c. Equalitarian – when the father and mother share in making major decisions and have equal authority.

General Function of the Family

The general functions of the family are
1. Perpetuation of the human race. The most important function of the family is sexual reproduction to perpetuate the
human race. Without sexual reproduction, humanity would face extinction. But human reproduction should be
tempered to suit the needs of society, particularly economic in nature. Family planning is now a necessity in the
socio-economic life of the people..
2. Rearing of the young. Children are helpless when they are born. They need to be taken cared of. They need to be
properly fed, clothed, and sheltered and given all the necessary comforts. Then they are sent to school. All these
things are done until the children are capable of leading an independent life.
3. Providing psychological needs of the young. Psychological needs are as important as the material needs of children.
They need love, affection, and sense of security. Embracing, kissing, praising, giving them touches and taps of
tenderness, playing with them, admonishing them gently to do good and avoid bad things, and many other
similaracts signs of love and affection mean a lot to the children for their growth and personality development. A
good environment should be provided for the growth and personality development of the children. A good aspiration
in life must also be inculcated in the minds of children.

Education Function of the Family (Home)

What are the educative functions of the family? What do the children learn from it? Some of the things that children
generally learn from their respective families are:

1. Healthful living. Children are taught what proper foods to eat, and to eat regularly; to brush their teeth regularly; to
take a bath regularly; to keep themselves always neat and clean, properly dressed, and well-groomed; how to use
toilet properly; to keep the house always clean including the surroundings for sanitation, and keep things in their
proper order. They are taught to have proper rest and sleep and avoid things that are harmful to health such as
sleeping too late, drinking liquor, smoking and many others that would make the body unhealthy.

2. Ethical standards. The rudiments of ethical standards are already learned by the children at home. Spiritual, moral,
and desirable social values are taught to them in simple ways so that will have some ideas about what is right and
what is wrong. For instance, parents or elder brothers and sisters would say, “Do not steal, that is bad; do not snatch
the food or toy of your playmate, that is bad; do not gamble, that is bad.” Parents usually emphasize the don’ts
rather than the do’s. Children are also taught good manners and right conduct for almost all occasions. Respect for
and obedience to elders are emphasized: Answering or talking back to elders is taboo. Many aspects in connection to
proper behavior are taught to children.
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3. Socialization. The children are taught about their roles and status in society, their roles as children, as students or
pupils, as parents in the future and as workers or professionals, etc. This is good because the children are taught to
be good and dutiful in their respective responsibilities.

4. Psychomotor and manipulative skills. Children are also learning at home some important psychomotor and
manipulative skills. They are taught how to dance, walk, run and sit gracefully. They are taught how to use properly
kitchen tools, appliances, and utensils, especially for girls, and carpentry tools for boys. In the farm, the boys are
taught how to use the scythe, bolo, plow, harrow, and how to sow and plant rice and vegetables.

5. Resourcefulness, industry, and thrift. Training the children to be resourceful, industrious, and thrifty is an important
concern of most parents. Having gone through life them, parents know how important these traits are and they want
to transmit them to their own children.

6. Recreational skills. Recreation is important to all people and they engage in recreational activities in one form or
another knowingly or unknowingly. Even chatting is a form of recreation to some. But many good recreational
activities have been developed from the early childhood experiences. Many have developed the love for tennis,
chess, drama, basketball, volleyball, badminton, cycling, and others because their fathers taught them how to play
these in their childhood or boyhood days. Many good hobbies have also been developed from the experiences of
boyhood or girlhood days such as gardening, hog or fowl raising, fishing, and orchard keeping.

7. Better performance in school. Usually parents help their children develop better skills in reading and writing, and
arithmetic by teaching them how to read and write properly and how to solve exercises and verbal problems in
arithmetic. This is especially true in the lower grades. The older children in the family who have already reached the
higher grades usually help their younger brothers and sisters in their school work.

Summing up, all educative functions mentioned above belong to the culture transmission or enculturation function of
the family, that of transmitting the knowledge, beliefs, and practices of the old generation to the young generation.
THE SCHOOL

What is a school? A school is an institution established by society in which the accumulated experiences of the past
generations are passed on the incoming generation by means of systematized programs of instruction. The school is the
center of learning as far as formal education is concerned. There are three elements of school: the teachers, the pupils,
students or learners, and the place where the teaching-learning activities take place. If one is non-existent, there is no school.

Functions of a School
The functions of the schools are as follows:

1. Conservation function. The school conserves and preserves thought its libraries and other devices recorded
accumulated experiences of the past generations such as knowledge, inventions, mathematics, science, historical
facts, skills, customs, traditions language, literature, music, writing, and the arts. All these are preserved for the
future generations.

2. Instructional function. This function, the main concerns of the school, is to pass on the accumulated experiences of
the past generations. This is performed by individuals trained for the purpose, called teachers, mentors, instructors or
professors. The recipients of such instruction are the young learners called pupils or the student. Some call such as
instruction enculturation when things of the local culture are taught, and acculturation, when things of a foreign
culture are taught of the students. In the performances of the function, the deavor; politics, education, trade industry,
science, especially in medicine, and the like.

3. Research function. This is also an important function of the school. The school conducts research to improve the old
way of doing things or to discover hitherto unknown facts of systems to improve the quality of human life. In the
performance of this function, for instance, some schools are said to have discovered a kind of fuel for machinery that
is said to be inexhaustible if made operational or functional.

4. Social service function. One justification for a particular school to exist is to render some kind of social service in the
place where is to located. This maybe done through some kind of outreach programs that may help improve the
literacy level of the community people, their health, means of livelihood, recreational activities, enjoyment of modern
conveniences, and beautification of the place.

Relationship between the School and the Community

The term community as used here refers to the whole society.

1. The community supplies the school with the facts about new inventions, discoveries, or new ways of doing things
which are necessary to transmit to the young learners. The school in turn returns in the community the usefulness
and practically of such inventions, discoveries, or new knowledge through the work of its graduates to improve the
quality human life.
2. The community makes available and accessible to the school instructional resources that are available in the place
such us farms, rivers, lakes, mountains and forests, museums, libraries, industrial and commercial firms, shop
laboratories, offices of different kinds, and many others. The schools will returns the service by means of the
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graduates applying the skills and knowledge acquired in schools when they are employed in the community after
graduation.

3. The community or society makes possible the existence of the schools by financing its operation and formulating
policies. The school will return such service by improving or enhancing the social, economic, educational, and
scientific endeavors of society through the work of its graduates.

4. The school may help the community through an outreach community programs to improve the economic life of the
people, improve their health, raise their literacy level, and beautify the place and the like. The community may return
the service by patronizing the school, give protection to it, and cooperating with the school in accomplishing its
community projects.

Evaluation of a school

The school may be evaluated in terms of the following: (the question asked should be answered in the positive if the
item referred to ranges from good to excellent)

1. Faculty. Are the faculty member’s fully qualified education? Do they have mastery of the subject matters they teach?
The medium of instruction? The method and tools of teaching? Methods and tools of communication? The psychology
of learning? Guidance and counseling? Are they punctual and industrious in teaching? Are they healthy physical and
mentally? In short, are they rendering high quality of instruction?

2. Students. Does the school select its students so that only those with adequate ability are allowed to take the higher
and more difficult courses? Are the students studious and resourceful? Are the standards of passing high enough so
that when the students graduate they posses the knowledge and skills required of the course they have finished?

3. Social climate. Is the school atmosphere democratic? Quite, peaceful, and orderly? Are all administrators, teachers
and students, going about their business dutifully and efficiently? Are there good human relation existing between
administrators and teachers? Between teachers and students? Between administrators and students satisfied with
the conditions existing in the school? Do the teachers seem to be satisfied too?

4. Facilities. Are the buildings and classrooms adequate for classroom instruction? Are the library references adequate
for the learners? Are the pupils of students adequately supplied with textbooks and other learning materials? Are the
science laboratory and equipment adequate? Are lighting and ventilation and cooling devices good? Are the pupils or
student free from danger when there is fire? Earthquake? Typhoon? Flood?

5. Campus. Is the campus located in a place that is free from too many distractions from moving vehicles? From noisy
people? From blaring music? Is the campus wide enough for the enjoyable movement of the learners? Is it clean and
sanitary? Is it free from floods because it has a good drainage system?

6. Relevance. Are the courses offered by the school relevant to the need of the community? Are the skills developed by
the school badly needed by the community? (Otherwise, the school might be contributing to the widening mismatch
between the skill needed by the community and the skills required by the graduates. This is an important factor to
consider.)

7. Social Services. Does the school render some kind of social services to the community where it is located? Does it
have a community outreach program? Does the school help in raising the literary level of the people? Improving their
health conditions? Improving their means of livelihood? Beautifying that place? Improving the recreational facilities of
the place?

8. Accreditation. Are the courses offered by school accredited and recognized by the government? Has the school
submitted some of its courses to voluntary accreditation by a duly recognized and authorized accrediting agency in
which the standards are higher than those required by the government?

THE CHURCH

The church is a lifetime school of learning for a church goer, from livelihood to death. The beauty of it is that although
there is only one book to study like the bible for the Christians, or the Koran for the Muslims, class sessions are usually lively
and rarely dull because there are always new things to learn. The Bible does not run of interesting topics to discuss.

How Teaching is done

Teaching in the Christian Church is done through the following:

1. Sermon or preaching. The sermon is the main parts of the devine services. Among the Protestants, it is delivered
usually by a minister or pastor and among the Catholics, by a priest. The sermon is equivalent to the lecture in the
secular school.
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2. Sunday School. This is a regular class held every Sunday in which the bible is studied. The class session usually lasts
for one hour. There are separate classes for adult males, adult females, young adults, young people, and children.

3. Bible studies. Bible studies are held at designated times and places usually in houses of church members. Some Bible
studies are held regularly during week days or Sunday afternoons but some are held irregularly.

4. Sermons on special occasions. Occasionally, sermons are delivered by a minister during special occasions such as
birthday parties, wedding anniversaries, thanksgiving services, blessing a house, a car, or any appliance, and
necrological services.

5. Christmas and summer institutes. Usually, young people hold institutes during the Christmas and summer vacations
lasting one week each. During these periods, they study the bible and also invite speakers to deliver sermons.

6. Rallies and spiritual retreats. These are gatherings of church members during which the bible is studied and some
speakers are invited to expound on certain religious topics. These are very similar to the seminars and workshops
held in schools.

7. Evangelistic meeting. These are held for the purpose of proselyting people to join the church. Some speakers
expound on some parts of the bible to convince the hearers to join the church. There are many things learned about
salvation during these meetings.

8. Daily vacation Church school. This is held during the long vacation. These are Bible studies but the participants are
children only. They are held in many places outside the church.

9. Conferences. The Church also holds conferences during which many of the church activities, the doctrines of the
Church, and the Bible are discussed. Many things are learned from these discussions.

What are learned in the Church?

1. History. The Bible contains many facts of history. Many facts about the ancient histories of Persia, now Iran,
Mesopotamia, now Iraq, and Israel are contained in the bible.
2. Prophecies. There are many prophecies in the Bible some of which already happened. One Example is the birth of
Christ. The birth of Christ was prophesied about five hundred years before he was born. Many of the Biblical
prophecies are still to happen according to many Biblical scholars.
3. Divine Values. Divine values deal with the right relationship between God and men and the right relationship among
men themselves. These are prerequisites to the salvation of the soul. Some examples of divine values are faith in
God, love for fellowmen, the Ten Commandments, faith in Christ, good works, charity, etc..

Characteristics of Divine Values

Some characteristics of divine values are the following:
a. Devine values are given and mandated by God.
The Ten Commandments are given and mandated by God to be obeyed. “Love thy neighbor as thyself” is given by
Jesus Christ. And so with the other divine values which are too many to be enumerated here.

Human values, on the other hand, are developed by men themselves. Human values are also cultural in the
sense that a value in one locality may not be a value in another locality. Take the case of kissing the hands by the
young to show their respect of their elders. This is practiced in some localities. Shaking hands as a sign of goodwill is
practiced in the Philippines and in the United States but this is not a common practice in Japan and in other countries.
b. Divine values are universally intended.
Divine values are mandated by god to be applied to all. The Ten Commandments mean to be applicable to all and so
with the other divine values.

Human values are cultural. The kissing and shaking of hands are practiced only in some localities but they are not in
others. In some tribes in India and in New Guinea, women can have two or more husbands and among the Muslims a
man may take two or more wives. These are Muslims a man may take two or more wives. These are already violations
of the monogamous marriage mandated by God.
c. Divine values are eternal.
Divine values are eternal in the sense that they do not change. They remain the same for all time. The Ten
Commandments are the same and still in effect as when they given by God thousands of years ago. Divine values are
the same now and forever as when they were originally given.

Human values are not so. They changes, through slowly and gradually. Some years ago, kissing in the movies was
taboo. Now, it is a common practice. Some years ago, seldom if all could one hear about a girl being pregnant before
her wedding day. Now, premarital sex and pregnancy are becoming more and more common.

d. Violators of divine values are punished.

Violators of divine values are always punished by God. The only escape is for them to be truly repentant and ask
forgiveness God. If God forgives them, then they escape punishment, otherwise they surely suffer for their deeds.
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Not all violators of human values are punished. One may lie to another and he will get away with it punished.

HUMAN RELATIONS AND LEADERSHIP

As long as people live in groups, they have to maintain some kind of relationships to enable them to carry on their
daily activities cooperatively, peacefully, and according to schedule. Accordingly, they have to have good human
relations and some have to be leaders to lead the groups in the accomplishment of their ends.

HUMAN RELATIONS
A good human relation is getting along well with other people. The basis of good human relations is good character.
One must posses important divine values as well as socially accepted human values to enable him to live well with others.

Ten Commandments of human Relations

The National Production Center formulated the following commandment of human relations:
1. Speak graciously to people. There is nothing as nice as a cheerful word of greeting.
2. Smile at people. It takes 65 muscles to frown, only 15 to smile.
3. Call people by first name. the sweetest music to anyone’s ears is the sound of greeting.
4. Be friendly and helpful. If you would have friends, be friendly and helpful.
5. Be cordial. Speak and act as if everything that you do is a genuine pleasure.
6. Be genuinely interested in people. You can like people if you try.
7. Be generous with praise, be cautious with criticism. You make friends with praise, enemies with criticism.
8. Be considerate of the feelings of other. It will be appreciated.
9. Be thoughtful of he opinion of others. There are three sides to controversy: yours, the other fellow’s and the right one.
10. Be alert to give services. What counts most in life in what we do for others?

Short Courses in Human Relations

There is going a short course in human relations designed by the same center, as follows:

Six most important words:

“I admit I made a mistake.”

Five most important words:

“you did a good job.”
Four most important words:
“what is your opinion?”
third most important words:
“If you please.”
Two most important words:
“thank you.”
Least important words:
“I.”

in additional to the techniques of human relation mentioned above, then following are suggested to maintain good human
relations:

1. Give compliments and praises freely. Always give compliments or praises to deserving people whenever occasions for
such arise.
2. Be fair always. Treat everyone as you would want to be treated by others.
3. Keep secrets. Keep secrets unless it is necessary to reveal them for the administration of justice. Do not gossip. Be as
trustworthy as possible.
4. Criticize or argue tactfully. As possible, avoid criticizing people but if it becomes necessary to criticize or argue, do it
very tactfully. People admit they are wrong of their mistakes or wrong ideas are pointed out with valid reasons. This
should be done politely, sincerely, and courteously. Avoid sarcastic remarks.
5. Admit your mistakes. Admit your mistakes if you find out you are really wrong. Be willing to subordinate your ideas to
much more superiors’ ideas of others. Say “I am sorry if you make a mistake.”
6. Recognized the merits of others’ opinions. If you disagree, say “I beg to disagree” and then state your disagreement
as courteously and politely as possible.
7. Be grateful always. Say “Thank you” for every favor you receive no matter how small the favor is.
8. Give credit to whom credit is due. Avoid credit grabbing. This is unethical.
9. Be honest. Never cheat. Cheating gets its returns sooner or later. Do not steal either.
10. Maintain a moderate level of humility. Do not boast nor show off. Boasting and showing off are usually disliked by
people.
11. Be kind, generous, and helpful. Help all people you can, in all places you can, and at all times you can.
12. Be friendly. Do not bully. You make friends if you are friendly, and enemies, if you are a bully.
13. be dependable, responsible, and keep promises. People hate those who are irresponsible and who do not keep their
promises.
14. Be punctual. Keep dates and appointments on or before time.
15. Be resourceful, hardworking, and frugal. People treat with indifference those who are lazy and spendthrift.
16. Be cooperative in group undertakings. People usually hate others who are not cooperative in group undertakings.
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17. Be firm with reasoned convictions. People usually admire those who are firm in their reasoned convictions.
18. Shun vices. Avoid evil vices such as drug addiction, drunkenness, and execessive gambling. People engaged in these
vices kake trouble without any valid cause.
19. Respect the convictions, beliefs, and practices of others. Respect the convictions, beliefs, and practices of other
people that are against the law, especially religious convictions, beliefs, and practices. Do not cast aspersions upon
such convictions, beliefs, and practices. In a friendly exchange of ideas, however, you can point out the validity of
your beliefs and falsity of the other fellow’s beliefs but without being offensive.
20. Maintain A decent and socialy approved love life. Avoid being involved in extra-marital relations which often lead to
serious family problems, broken homes, or even death.
21. Be good, law-abiding citizen. Violators of the law are usually dislike by people.

Summarizing, acquire and maintain divine and usually and socially approved values to be able have good human
relations.

LEADERSHIP
Whenever and whenever people live groups, there always arises a leader in each group. This is a natural
phenomenon. But what is a leader? According to Lardizabal, a leader is a person who influences the group to follow the course
of action advocates. Hence, leadership is the act of influencing a group to follow a certain course of action.

Quality of a Leader
According to Kagan and Havemann, leadership traits consist of persistence, dependability, self-confedence,
popularity, food speech, and participation in the activities of the group.

According to Ruch, a person with leadership qualities is (1) physically healthy, (2) greatly energized, (3) easily
predictable, (4) aloof from the masses , (5) not too far above the crowd, (6) knowledgeable on human motives, (7) consistent
in unifying his follower.

According to Morgan, a leader must participate actively in the group. He must be dependable, persistence, verbally
facile, self-confident, and socially popular.

In addition to the qualities of leadership mentioned above, some Filipino leaders advocate that the following should
be among the qualities of a leader: high mental ability, honesty (very important), credibility, experience, firmness in his
conviction, righteousness, self-sacrifices, knowlegeability, willingness to take risk, and vision (the ability to see what will
happen in the future through the analysis of evens), with good human relations and with technical skill.

Leadership Foundation Defines Leadership

L – Leadership is loyalty to God, country, and People.
E – It is enthusiasm, energy to help and serve others.
A – It is action, accomplishment, achievement.
D – It is dedication, discipline, Dignity, Dependability, devotion to duty, daring, determination, decisiveness for the general
welfare.
E – It is Excellence, exemplary work for others to follow and emulate.
R – it is reliability, responsibility, respect for the law and the rights of others, reconciliation for peace and unity, fairness in
rewarding.
S – it is sincerity, service, self-sacrifice, social justice to make life better for mankind, self-confidence, oral proficiency.
H – It is humility, honesty, honor, helpfulness, hard work.
I – it is integrity, interest, initiative, idealism.
P – it is patience, perseverance, beyond partisanship, religion or creed, love for peace, progress and prosperity for mankind
and predictability.

Theories About the Emergence of leaders

1. Situation theory. The qualities of a person are those needed to deal with the situation and so, he is selected as a
leader.
2. Personal behavior theory. A person behaves according to the demands of the situation and so, he is selected to lead.
3. Supportive or participatory theory. A prospective leader supports or helps his prospective followers, supporting the
letter in his quest for leadership.
4. Social theory. An individual facilitates the activities of the members of a group and resolves their conflicts and
because he is good facilitators, he is selected as the leader of the group.
5. Psychological theory. The individual who motivates the members of a group to engage in activities that would satisfy
their personal needs is selected as a leader. This is true with labor leaders.
6. Autocratic theory. An individual uses coercion and duress to attain his leadership status.
7. Supernatural powers theory. An individual may have an “agimat,””taliman ” or magic power that enables him to
attain his leadership status.
8. Inheritance theory. When a king or emperor dies, his heir, usually a son inherits the throne of his father.
9. Accident theory. When an elected president dies of resign, his vice-president takes over the position.
10. Prestige theory. Usually the most prestigious member of a group is selected as the leader of the group.
11. Personality traits theory. When a person has good traits such as high mental ability, integrity and honesty, willingness
to serve, high education attainment, good character, etc., is selected as a leader.

Kinds or Types of Leaders

1. According to Status
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A. Formal leader – one who officially occupies a position of leadership as president, vice president, king, etc.
B. Informal or contributing leader – one who has no official position but who provides or contributes bright ideas
for the group.
2. According to Managerial Grid
a. Autocrat – one with high regard for work but very little regard or care for workers.
b. Missionary – one with the highest concern for people.
c. Compromiser – one with equal concern for work and people.
d. Deserter – one with very little concern for service and people.
e. Executive - one with the highest regard for service or work as well as for workers or people. This
is the highest type of leadership.

3. According to Manner of Participation

a. Autocratic – there is practically no participation of the group in decision-making.
b. Participatory – authority is decentralized. The group is involved in decision-making.
c. Free rein – the leader depends upon the group for decision- making.
4. According to Democratic Practices
a. Authoritarian – decision –making is in the hands of one man.
b. Democratic – decision-making is in the hands of the group. The group itself is self-governing.

Function and roles of a Leader in an Organization

The leader:
1. Establishes well-defined patterns of organization, channel of communication, and ways of getting jobs done.
2. Serves as spokesman and representative of the group.
3. Helps the group determined procedure in decision-making and in carrying out plans.
4. Initiates plan.
5. Settles conflicts and difficulties in the group. Helps establish a social climate, esprit de corp.
6. Clarifies duties and help the group organize itself.
7. Serves as guidance counselor.
8. Maintains membership, cohesiveness, cooperation; develop the feeling that to stay is pleasant.
9. Work for the attainment of goals and objectives.
10. Delegates’ responsibility and authority to maximize participation and performance.

How a leader Deals with His Subordinates

In dealing with his subordinates, a leader must assume the following roles:
1. Supporter and friend, especially for promotion.
2. Provider of necessary information and facilities.
3. trainer, helps group learn from experience or otherwise.
4. counselor, counsels subordinates who have problems.
5. Practices democratic ways with subordinates.
6. he should maximize subordinates’ ideas and participation. He should not grab ideas as his own but should give credit
to whom it is due.

Methods a Leader May Use in Influencing the Group in Decision-Making

1. Telling. The leader identifies the problem, considers alternatives solutions and selects one and informs the group of
his decision. The leader makes the decision without consulting the group.
2. Selling. The leader makes the decision and conveniences the group to accept the decision by citing its advantages.
3. testing. The leader presents the problem and necessary information. Then the members of the group, including
himself, give proposals to solve the problem. Then they test the proposals to see which is the best and the most
relevant.
4. Consulting. The leader presents the problem with background information. Then he asks the members to give their
ideas and alternative solutions. Then he selects the best proposal according to his judgement.
5. Joining. The leaders joins and participates in the discussion and agrees to abide by whatever decision the group
makes.

The Problem-Solving Process a Leader may Use

1. Identify, state, and define or clarity the problem (project).

2. If the problem or project is complicated, it may be divided into sub-problems. Committees are assigned to gather
facts about each sub-problem.
3. In plenary session, all available facts should be utilized in discussing all the ramifications of the problem or project.
4. This is now the ideas-getting process. The members are enjoined to give their proposed or alternative solutions to the
problem or project.
5. This is now the idea-evaluation process. The advantages or disadvantages of each proposed or alternatives solution
are presented.
6. Choice of the final proposed or alternatives solution is achieved by voting or by other means.
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7. Implementation.

Salesmanship

The leader ia a salesmanship. However, he does not sell material goods for personal profit. What he sells are ideas or
sometimes material goods to answer the needs of the group. He sells ideas in the sense that he uses his persuasive powers to
convince his group to adopt his ideas for the good of the group. Following are some suggestion for an effective selling
technique:
S- sell an important idea. Be sure the idea benefits those it is intended for. An instance is the setting up of a cooperative.
A – Advertise the idea. Inform all the people involved. In the example above, it is the putting up of a cooperative.
L – Let the people learn all the essential aspects of the idea. A seminar or a meeting may be held where everything is
explained.
E – Be enthusiastic and eloquent. Enthusiasm begets enthusiasm.
S – select points that appeal most to the people. It is credit cooperative?
M – Let one move for the adoption or approval of the idea.
A – Apply the idea if it is approved. This is implementation.
N – If the idea is not approved, the extreme necessary of its adoption must be pointed out more emphatically.
S – Be sincere. If the people see the sincerity of the leader in pushing through the idea, they may relent.
H – Hear the people talk about their objections. The objections may be overcome by an impassioned appe*****
I – Interest the people more. Motivate them and use all kinds of motivation.
P – Persidt in pushing through the idea. Do not give up so easily. If the session is to closed slam the door shut for good.
Instead, give the people enough time to think and study the idea further and make a hint that the issue may be reopened in
some opportune time in the fortune.

General Function of a Leader

Summarizing, the general function of a leader are:

1. Planning – making plans for the activities of the organizations.
2. Organizing – putting up to structure of the organization
3. Staffing – assigning personnel to the different positions.
4. Directing – guiding the activities of the organization.
5. Coordinating – systematizing the activities of the group.
6. Budgeting – estimating the income and Expenses of the organization.

These general functions are acronymed POSDCORB. These functions are not performed alone by the leader but they are
usually done his direction and supervision.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

There are many social problems that beset the country which may adversely affect its progress. The school has an important
obligation to help minimize such problems if not entirely eradicate them. Some of the more serious problems are the following:

DRUG ADDICTION

Drug addiction is both a serious national and international problem. Some of the causes are:

1. Membership in a “barkada”. If the members of a barkada are drug addict, any incoming member will eventually
become a drug addict too because of the influence of the old members.
2. Overuse. A drug may be taken by a patient as a pain reliever but because of constant use, the patient becomes
addicted to the drug.
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3. Curiosity. Some persons, especially the young ones, are curious about the effects of a drug and they experiment
using it. Later, they become habituated to the use of the drug.
4. Frustration. Some persons, who are highly frustrated may take drugs to lessen the impact of their disappointment and
depression. The frustrations may be caused by broken homes, parental problems, soured love affairs, failure to find a
job, etc. Before it is too late, they become addicted.
5. Victim of pusher. Some persons, especially women and children, become victims of a pusher. The pusher gives
children gives them free food and drinks under the guise of friendship and kindness until they become habituated to
the drug.
6. Removal of inhibition. Some persons may be inhibited to do something under their normal consciousness;
consequently, they take drugs to weaken the inhibition. Some actors and actresses cannot act according to the
demands of the scene and they take drugs to be able to act accordingly. Some doctors cannot operate either unless
they are under the influence of a drug. Later, they become addicted.
7. Boredom. This is especially true with rich people who have high incomes from their investments or inheritance. They
do not need to work and are idle the most of the time. Because of idleness, they become bored and to lessen their
boredom, they take drugs.
8. Ignorance. Ignorance of the evil effects of drugs may lead a person to take drugs to enjoy the feeling of being “high”
until he becomes addicted. This is especially true with people of low level of education.
9. Easy access to drugs. When drugs are easily available, some people are tempted to try taking them.

Evil Effects of Drugs

The evil effects of drug abuse are being suffered by seriously addicted individuals. Some of the evil effects are the following:

1. The personality of the addict becomes disorganized. His mental powers fail to recognize logical relationships and are
discordant. For instance, if he is asked who the president of the Philippines is, he may answer Manila.
2. His physical health also deteriorates. He looks messy, haggard, and malnourished because he losses his appetite to
eat. Because of his sickly condition, mentally and physically, he ceases to be productive. Hence, he becomes a
liability to his family and to society.
3. The more he is addicted, the more he craves for the drug. When he runs out of money to but the drug, he resorts to
stealing or even killing to procure it. Thus, he becomes a menace to society.

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Juvenile delinquency as the term connotes is the commission of anti-social acts by young persons, usually minors. Although
this is not much of a problem in the rural areas, it is however a real problem in cities and big towns. Juvenile delinquency may
be in the form of disobedience, theft, robbery holdups, rape, prostitution, etc. Some of the causes are:

1. Congestion. Since industrialization and big businesses are usually found in cities and big towns, people tend to
migrate to seek employment and found their luck here. Wanting to live near their places of employment, they
construct houses near the factories or business where they work. Because of the limited space, the houses are
constructed barely a meter apart causing congestion. Other people live in apartments, where each apartment usually
accommodates two or more families resulting to congestion. Some of these houses are only shacks. Practically, there
is very little or no privacy at all. Children play in narrow and muddy streets or aisles in between houses. Quarrels
occur often. Children are easily influenced by bad characters. Such conditions, the young people become prone to
committing delinquent acts.
2. Frustration. Frustrations caused by broken homes, unrequited love, failure to acquire something extremely desired,
etc. may make a young man violent. He may resort to drinking liquor and becomes a trouble maker.
3. Joining a gang. Gangs are usually composed of teenagers who are antisocial. They develop hatred toward somebody
or something or another group without any justifiable reason at all. They are delighted in doing harm to the person
they hate.
4. Psychological Needs. Lack of an overt show of warm affection, love, guidance, and close supervision by parents who
are out most of the time due to work may give the children a feeling that they are not loved. They do not feel the joy
of the loving caress, embraces, and kisses of their parents. It is worse if the parents are cruel, overstrict, and
inconsistent in imposing discipline over their children. The children feel that they are rejected and they become
rebellious. The problem is they vent their vengeance upon other people and do all sorts of anti-social acts.
5. Poverty. “The empty stomach knows no law,” so goes the saying. Children of very poor families who are hungry are
forced to steal. Likewise, when they see the fast tempo of city life and the varied leisure activities, they are tempted
to procure by any means the amount of money they need to enable them to participate in such joy-giving activities.
They may resort to theft, robbery hold-up or pick-pocketing.
6. Idleness. Idleness usually breeds mischief.
7. Lack of spiritual and moral values. Spiritual and moral values are the most important factors that prevent anyone
from committing a crime. If children are well-instructed and seasoned in spiritual and moral values in the home,
Church and school, they will not become wayward no matter what condition or state they find themselves in. But if
children are brought up without any instruction in spiritual and moral values, they are easily tempted to do wrong.

LACK OF PEACE AND ORDER

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What are the peace and order conditions in the country today? Every day, we hear from the radio or read in the
newspapers about killings, robbery hold-ups especially in jeepneys and passenger buses and taxis, rape with homicide, etc. On
of the most heinous and sensationalized crime committed was the massacre with rape of the Vizconde family. There are many
of the same type of crime occurring throughout the country such as bank robberies that occur in a matter of minutes.
Carnapping is very rampant. Kidnap for ransom is a very lucrative business for the crime syndicates. There is insurgency in
every region of the land. Houses and business establishments are ransacked and robbed. Drug trafficking proliferates. Graft
and corruption in the government is not an uncommon occurrence.

The occurrence of such gloomy picture may be attributed to the following causes:

1. Ideology. Some Filipinos have embraced the communistic ideology. They want to wrest control of the government by
all means so that they can push through with their program of government. Because they cannot wrest control of the
government by peaceful means, they resort to insurgency. Coup d’etats also occur.
2. Poverty. Because of extreme necessity of basic needs especially food, some people resort to petty thefts, jewelry
snatchings, holdups especially in jeepneys, buses, and taxism and robbery.
3. Get-rich-quick mentality. Some people have this mentality and they engage in bank holdups and robberies, kidnaps
for ransom, and carnappings from which they get away with hundreds of thousands and millions of pesos. Graft and
corruption in the government is rampant, too.
4. Lack of spiritual and moral values. People with rich spiritual and moral values rarely commit crimes against others. It
is the unprincipled individuals who consider that what are yours and mine are also theirs.
5. Ineffective law enforcement. When criminality is rampant it means that law enforcement is ineffective. This is
because the wrong doers get away free and unpunished. It is sad to note that there are some high-ranking officers in
the law enforcement agencies who are in connivance with crime syndicates. This may be one reason why law
enforcement is weak.

SEX PROBLEMS

The more serious sex problems are the following:

1. Pre-marital relations – having sexual relations before legal marriage.

2. Extra-marital relations – married people having sexual relations with others not their spouses.
3. Frigidity and impotence – Frigidity is the absence of sexual desire on the part of a woman and impotence is the failure
of erection of the male organ. If the woman is frigid and the man is sexually strong, or if the woman is not frigid and
the man is sexually impotent, sexual incompatibility results. The sexual desire of a partner cannot be satisfied by the
other.
4. Prostitution – A woman is paid immediately, usually in the form of money, after having sex with a man.

Sex Problems in the Country

1. Incest – sexual intercourse between father and daughter, mother and son, or brother and sister.
2. Wife-swapping – exchanging of wives. We have yet to see this happen in the country.
3. Hippie Family – several men and women living together intimately and having sexual relations among themselves.
Like wife-swapping, we have yet to see this kind of sex relationship.
4. Homosexuality – sexual attraction to the same sex. There are many homosexuals but they are not creating any
serious social problem.
5. Nymphomania – very extreme sexual desire in women. Women having this problem are very rare unless fed with a
sex stimulant.

Causes of Sex Problems

1. Trial Marriage. There are minority tribes that practice trial marriage because of their dwindling population. if a boy
and a girl live together as husband and wife for a certain time, and they are not able to produce a child, they
separate and find other partners. Even here in the lowlands, some partners practice trial marriage to find out if they
are compatible; otherwise, they separate.
2. Contraceptives. The development of birth control techniques especially the use of the pill and the condom lessen the
fear of untimely pregnancy. With this inhibition removed, girls become more free to engage in premarital sex.
3. Poverty. This may be the principal cause of prostitution. This is more prevalent in cities. Even very young boys and
girls engaged in this kind of money-earning venture. They especially cater to foreigners who give higher tips. Some
married women whose husbands are jobless may engage in extra-marital relations for survival. Also, some women
desire a luxurious style of living may attach themselves to men who can give them the kind of lifestyle they want.
4. Congestion. Living in crowded dwellings as a result of industrialization where privacy is very much lacking may throw
people of opposite sex intimately together, resulting in aroused sexual desire.
5. Influence of movie stars – Popular movie stars, actors and actresses alike are often reported by the media to have two
or more sex partners, some at the same time while others one after the other. Without strong condemnation from
society, movie fans tend to follow the footsteps of their movie idols.
6. Desire for luxury – A woman who desires to have a luxurious living may attach herself to a rich man who give her the
kind of living she wants: a comfortable home, car, jewelry, etc.
7. Working women – Married women who work, especially in offices where they have close contacts with their male
officemates, are often tempted to fall in love with the latter. This results in secret meetings and illicit relationships.
8. Lewd shows – Lewd shows in the movie houses, and private home with Betamax equipment arouse the sex desires of
both male and female who then seek outlets to satisfy their aroused sex desires.
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9. Women’s Lib – The women’s liberation movement wants to erase the double standard of sex morality between men
and women. While a married man is tolerated or even idolized by society if he engages in extra-marital relationships,
this is a taboo for women. Women want to be in equal footing with men when it comes to extra-marital relations.
Thus, a woman who catches her husband having an affair with another woman may do the same.
10. Weakening of close family ties – Because of the weakening close family ties, there is now more permissiveness
prevailing in the family. Children are more easy going and do not pay much attention to the advice of their parents.
Hence, they become easy victims of sex perversions.
11. Accessibility of hotels and motels – The easy accessibility of hotels, motels and other houses of bliss often encourages
people to engage in elicit love affairs. Illicit lovers can easily go to these places for their sex adventure.
12. A spouse working abroad – When a spouse has to work abroad, either spouse feels the loneliness of living without a
partner or being deprived of the satisfaction of sex relationship. Thus, he or she may fall into the temptation of falling
in love with another partner. This may result in separation. There are many cases of this kind.
13. Lack of strong spiritual and moral values – Spiritual and moral values are the strongest defenses against sex way-
wardness.

Negative Effects of Sex Problems

1. Untimely pregnancy. This is the result of premarital sex relationship. If the boy does not want to wed the girl, it is a
big problem for her and her family. Since honor is involved, the girl may resort to abortion which may result to
abortion which may result in her death. In some cases, the girl commits suicide.
2. Broken Home. If a husband or a wife engages in extramarital relations and the other one discovers this, the spouses
may end up separating from each other. Their children will suffer the effects of the separation. In some cases, the
man enraged by jealousy may kill his wife’s lover or his wife or it may be other way around. In another case, a boy
forced to marry a pregnant girl whom he does not love later on break up the marriage, resulting in a broken home.
3. Venereal disease and / or AIDS. Venereal diseases and AIDS often afflict people who are engaged in prostitution.
There is also transmission of the diseases in extra-marital relations. The ordinary venereal diseases are curable but so
far, no drug has been found yet to cure AIDS. Besides, children of parents affected by a venereal disease are born
defective. They may have deformed faces, limbs, etc. and may be retarded mentally.

POPULATION EXPLOSION

Population in the Philippines is increasing by leaps and bounds. Some of the causes are:

1. Values and Beliefs. In agricultural areas, children are considered as assets because they can help their parents work
in the farms, and so, the couples do not practice family planning. The Catholic Church only approves of the rhythm
method or abstinence as a method of birth control which is ineffective and difficult to apply. Hence, Catholics have to
make a difficult decision between the rhythm method and contraceptives.
2. Medical consciousness. People are now medically conscious. Once they feel something wrong with their bodies, they
go to a hospital or to a doctor. They now seldom go to a herbolario. Hence, many lives are saved from death and the
life span is prolonged. Pregnant women now go to a hospital or to a doctor for a check-up. As a result, there is very
little infant mortality.
3. Ignorance of birth control methods. This is true especially in the rural areas where the people are less educated and
less informed. They do not know any method of birth control except abstinence which is very difficult to apply.
4. Poverty. Some couples know some techniques but they cannot afford to sustain the constant buying of
contraceptives. Some resort to ligation but others are still afraid undergo this kind of minor operation.

Negative Effects of Overpopulation

1. Poverty. This is the result of underdevelopment and unemployment because there are more people than jobs
available. There is also less food supply, resulting in malnutrition. The quality of life is also lower. Because of poverty,
many parents cannot send their children to school and so there is a lower educational attainment of the people.
Because of poverty, many people cannot afford to buy lots and construct houses and they resort to squatting in
makeshift dwellings.
2. Retarded national economy. The economic gains realized each year are gobbled up by the increase in pollution. For
instance, we increase in rice production but the increase is leap-frogged by the increase in population and so we have
to import rice to cover up the shortage.

POVERTY

Among the causes of poverty are the following:

1. Overpopulation. If there is only one pie to be eaten, two persons can eat more than when there are ten people to eat
it.
2. Calamities. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons, floods and fires often make people impoverished.
3. Unemployment. Because of over population, there are not enough jobs to accommodate the people resulting in
unemployment. This is made worse by the lack of resourcefulness and the indolence of the people.
4. Graft and Corruption. It is not uncommon that funds intended for economic development go into the pockets of a few
individuals, thus depriving the intended beneficiaries of the benefits they would derive from such economic
development. Even victims of calamities suffer from this kind of social malaise.
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Naturally, the effects of poverty are deprivation of even the basic necessities of life, how quality of life, low education, low
morale, feeling of insecurity, malnutrition, and theft and robberies.

GAMBLING

Legal or illegal, gambling is a problem. The more common forms of gambling are gambling in the casino, jueteng, cockfighting,
and card games. The possible causes are:

1. Recreation. Some people consider gambling a recreational activity.

2. Strong belief in “luck”. Some people strongly believe that luck maybe on their side, so they gamble.
3. Get rich quick mentality. Some like to accumulate lots of money in a short time and in an easy way and so they place
bets in gambling and buy sweepstakes tickets. The poor people in the barrios and towns are encouraged to place
their bets in jueteng because with a few centavos, they can win hundreds of pesos.
4. Lack of strong spiritual an moral values, Anybody lacking these can become wayward.

Negative Effects of Gambling

1. Some people become impoverished because of gambling.

2. They lose fortunes especially if luck is not on their side.
3. Excessive gambling at night causes deterioration in the health of an individual.
4. Since gambling has no economic value, time spent in it is useless.

ALCOHOLISM

Alcoholism is an excessive drinking or liquor. It results to drunkenness which is also a serious social problem. Among the
possible causes of alcoholism are the following:

1. Recreation. Some people consider drinking with friends as a recreational activity. Members of a barkada are very
happy when they drink together.
2. Social function. Some people consider liquor drinking as a part of a social function. To them, social function is not
complete without drinking a beer or wine.
3. Frustration. Some people drink to drown out their frustrations. To forget problems and worries, people resort to
drinking until they become drunk.
4. Lack of spiritual and moral values. Persons without spiritual and moral values are easily tempted to get drunk.

Negative Effects of Alcoholism

1. Killing. Probably, this is the most serious bad effect of drunkenness. This is especially true in big cities. Every
morning, we hear from the radio that someone has been stabbed or shot after a drinking spree. This is due to the fact
that the inhibitory powers of an individual are greatly weakened when he is under the influence of liquor and do
things which he cannot do when he is under his moral consciousness. Thus, a slight argument between two drinkers
may trigger one to stab or shoot the other. Persons under the influence of liquor are potential troublemakers.
2. Injury to health. Excessive drinking weakens the constitution of the body. It also aggravates certain ailments like
stomach ulcers, hypertension, and tuberculosis. It is especially dangerous for people with heart ailments to drink
excessively.

TRAFFIC CONGESTION

1. Concentration of establishments in the city. There is too much concentration of industrial and commercial
establishments as well as educational institutions in the city. This causes too many people to flock to the city where
many vehicles are needed to transport them to their places of work and places of study.
2. Oversupply of vehicles. There is an oversupply of private vehicles and small transport vehicles such as jeeps and
tricycles which occupy more space in the streets than big buses do.
3. Narrow streets. Many of the city streets are constructed without foresight. They are very narrow and cannot
accommodate many vehicles.
4. Lack of flyovers and double-decked streets. Flyovers certainly ease traffic in street intersections. Double-decked
streets can accommodate more vehicles. Double-decked streets are found in some cities in Japan.
5. Illegal parking. There are so many vehicles illegally parked in the streets obstructing the smooth flow of traffic.

Negative Effects of Traffic Congestion

1. Waste of Time. It often happens that a distance which can be negotiated is a matter of minutes when there is very
light traffic is negotiated in a number of hours when there is heavy traffic which can be traversed in thirty minutes of
less when traffic is light. It is simply a waste of time.
2. Hampered production. Because of traffic jams, workers often go to their places of work late not only in minutes but
hours. Students also go to their classes late. Under such condition, production is surely hampered, economic or
otherwise.
3. Accidents and killings. Traffic jams often cause accidents and sometimes killing or mauling.
 13

BROWNOUTS

Brownouts are becoming a serious problem throughout the country. Some of the causes are:

1. Lack of foresight. There is an apparent lack of foresight on the part of our national leaders who do not foresee the
increasing need of electricity. They do not construct enough electric-generating plants that would supply the future
needs of the country.
2. Lack of expertise. The operations of electric-generating plants seem to lack the expertise to run the plants resulting
in the frequent breakdown of the plants. Hence, there is a suggestion from some quarters that the government
should employ consultants who are experts in the trade.
3. Graft and corruption. There are allegations reported in the newspapers that the agency in charge of electric
generation is graft-ridden. There were even reports that the fuel for the generating plants is often stolen, resulting in
the inefficiency or the agency.

Adverse Effects of Brownouts

1. Reduced production. When daily brownouts occur, ranging from four to six hours, reduced production of economic
goods cannot be avoided. This hampers economic progress.
2. Unemployment and underemployment. As a result of brownouts, some companies closed down or reduced their
production, resulting in the unemployment and underemployment of the workers. This results in poverty of the
workers deprived of work.
3. Demoralization. many people are demoralized because of the daily lack of light in their places of work, in their offices,
and in their homes during which their house appliances cannot function. Hospitals are especially affected.

DEFORESTATION

This is also a serious national problem. Some causes of deforestation are the following:

1. Illegal logging. This is a problem which the government cannot succeed to solve. If this cannot be stopped, our forests
will get denuded.
2. Charcoal making. This is not being paid attention to but sometimes this is worse than illegal logging. in logging, only
the big trees are cut down but in charcoal making, even the young trees are cut down to be burned into charcoal.
3. Kaingin system. This practice is worse than the first two. In this practice, the hillsides or mountainsides are cleared
thoroughly. All the trees, big and small, are cut down and burned. The place is then planted with rice, corn or
vegetables. After two or three years, the cleared hillsides or mountainsides become barren wastelands. This is so
because the fertile surface soil has been washed down by rain. The kaingero leaves the barren hillside and finds
another hillside to clear. This is the reason why the hillsides and mountainsides that we see from the lowlands are
barren.

Negative Effects of Deforestation

1. Flash floods. Flash floods in deforested areas occur whenever there are heavy rains, resulting in the destruction of
crops and loss of lives. Very little vegetation in the hillsides and mountainsides can hold the rainwater from onrushing
to the lowlands. An example is the flash flood that occurred in Ormoc, Leyte killing about two hundred people.

POLLUTION

Pollution is also a serious problem especially in the cities and big towns. The causes are:

1. The emission of toxic carbon dioxide from moving vehicles especially the smoke-belching trucks. With thousands of
vehicles running in the streets, one can imagine the amount of toxic gas being emitted that pollutes the air to a great
extent.
2. The factories emptying their toxic wastes into rivers or esteros or into the ocean cause water pollution.
3. Radiation from a nuclear plant creates extensive damages.

Negative Effects of Pollution

1. Poisoning of people. The polluted air being inhaled by people slowly poisons the people. Sooner or later, they will
develop respiratory ailments.
2. Poisoning of water life. The toxic wastes being emptied into rivers, esteros, and ocean poison and kill water life such
as fish and other water creatures. Even plants, especially rice, and adversely affected by such toxic wastes from
factories and power plants.
3. Instant death. When pollution is caused by radiation from a nuclear plant, it causes instant death like what happened
in Chernobyl , Russia. When the nuclear plant accidentally exploded and caught fire. many of the residents living
nearby met instant death because of radiation.

UNEMPLOYMENT

This is a perennial problem. Among the causes are:

 13

1. Population explosion. The increase in population exceeds the increase in jobs being created.
2. Mismatch between skills developed by schools and skills needed in industry. The manpower skills being developed by
the schools do not match the manpower skills needed by the industry. Thus, there are many unemployed graduates
every year.
3. Slow industrialization. The industrialization of the country is very slow and so very few jobs are created every year.

Adverse Effects of Unemployment

1. Poverty. It is natural that the family of a jobless man becomes impoverished.

2. Employment Abroad. With no jobs available, coupled by the low value of the peso compared to the dollar, many
Filipinos strive hard to find jobs abroad causing brain drain in the country. The people working abroad also sacrifice
being separated for a long time from their loved ones. Sometimes this separation causes a break of the family.
3. Low education and low quality of life. Children of unemployed people cannot pursue higher education. Because of
poverty, they also lead a low quality of life.
4. Squatting. Because of unemployment or underemployment, many poor families cannot afford to buy a house and lot
and they resort to squatting. They usually build their shanties on the banks of rivers, creeks, esteros, seawall, and on
lots not their own. Squatting is now becoming a serious national problem, too.

References

Ballen, Jerome B. “Physical Anthropology and its Place ion General Education.” Anthropology: Range and Relevance, Zamora,
Mario and Salazar, Zews A. Quezon City: Kayumanggi Publishers, 1969, pp. 195-206.

Beals, Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry, Introduction to Anthropology, New York: The McMillan Co.,1965, Chapter 9.

Bertrand, Alvin L. Basic Sociology. 2nd edition. New York: Meredith Corporation, 1973, Chapter 2 and 6.

Catapusan, Benicio T. and Catapusan, Flora Diaz. Introduction to Sociology, Quezon City: Filipino Books, Inc, 1973, Chapter 4.

Dressler, David with Garns, Donald. Sociology 2nd. ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1973, Chapters 1, 3, and 10.

Espiritu, Socorro C. Sociology in the New Philippine Society. Q.C. Alemar – Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. 1977, Chapters 3 and
5.

Fried, Morton, Readings in Anthropology. New York: Thomas F. Crowell Co.,1959. Chapter 20, 31. 32.

Herskovitz, Melville and Stern, Bernhard T. General Anthropology, New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc. 1952 Chapter XVI.

Jacobs, Melville, and Stern, Bernhard J., General Anthropology, N.Y. Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1952, Chapter 1.

Keesing. Felix M. Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958, Chapter VII.

Kottack, Conrad Philip, Anthropology, New York: Random Home, Inc. 1974, Chapter 13.
 13

Kluckhon, Clyde, Mirror for Man. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,1949, Chapter 6.

Ross, H. Laurence, Perspectives on the Social Order. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963, Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

Pi-Sunyer, Oriol and Salzmann, Zdeneck. Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houhgton Mifflin Co.,1978. Chapter 1.

Zamora, Mario D. and Lawless, Robert, An Introduction to Anthropology for Non-Anthropologists, ed. Zamora and Lawless,
Quezon City: College of Arts and Sciences, UP., 1966-67.

Module 3
Anthropological Foundations of Education

Anthropology was derived from the Greek word anthrope meaning man and logy meaning science. The literal meaning
of anthropology then is science of man. It is the study of mankind. The dictionary defines anthropology as the science that
treats of the origin, development (physical, intellectual, moral, etc.) and specially the cultural development, customs, beliefs,
etc. of man. Briefly, Herskovitz defines anthropology as “the science of man and his works.” According to Jacobs and Stern,
anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and cultural development and behavior of human beings since their
appearance on earth.

Actually, anthropology studies man as a member of the animal kingdom and studies his behavior as a member of society. Man
is unique in the animal kingdom because (1) he walks erect, (2) he uses his hands for handling, and (3) he has a more complex
brain. (4) He is also unique in the field of behavior for the following reasons:

1. He possesses tools and other material artifacts.

2. He has complex techniques for getting and preparing food.
3. He has social and political organization.
4. He has a system of religious beliefs and rituals.
5. He communicates by means of language.

Divisions of Anthropology

Anthropology may be classified as physical and cultural. Physical anthropology deals with the study of man as a
product of the evolutionary process. It is connected with man’s bodily structures. It studies and analyzes human population.
Cultural anthropology deals with man’s behavior and with ways human beings carry out the activities of daily living. The
 13

diversity of human behavior is seen in: food habits, ways food is cooked, habits of dress and ornaments and relations with in-
laws. Cultural anthropology has the following sub-divisions:

1. Archaeology which deals with ancient cultures and past phases of modern civilization based on documents,
paintings, stone carvings, etc. It is the study of antiquity by the excavation and description of remains. Through
diggings and fossils remains, the age of man has been established. In 1654, according to Archbishop Ussher of
Ireland, the first man as well as the universe, was created 4004 B.C. Archaeology has also established different eras
or periods of the earth when living things appeared, more than 1,500 million years ago. In geology, these eras are: (1)
the Archezoic when primitive forms of life appeared, (2) the Protozoic when early life forms increased, and (3)
Paleozoic when fish, amphibians, and other marine forms appeared, and (4) the Mesozoic when huge reptiles
predominated. This was also called the Age of Reptiles. (5) The Cenozoic era followed in which there were more
advanced forms of animals.

The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods: (1) the Tertiary or Age of Mammals and the Quartenary, or age when
modern forms of man first appeared. The Quartenary is divided into (1) Pleistocene (Ice Age) period when man first
appeared and culture began and (2) Holocene period. Discovery of stone tools, implements and houses has held to
the period known as Stone Age.

2. Ethnology treats of and describes diverse cultures and explains similarities and differences. It deals with the sub-
divisions of mankind, their origins, relations, speech, institutions, etc. Mankind is divided into five races – white, black,
yellow, red and brown. Within each race, there are subdivisions. For example the Americans, German, French,
Spanish, Scandinavians, etc. all belong to the white race, but they have their own culture and physical characteristics,
and they have different levels of civilization. As to the origin of man, there are several versions. There are also many
different places where the bones of pre-historic man were found.
3. Linguistics, which is concerned with man’s language, non-literate or literate, past and present. It takes up
interrelation between language of a people and other aspects of culture. As a science, it includes phonetics,
phonemics, morphology, and syntax. The sub-divisions are descriptive linguistics and comparative or historical
linguistics. It is obvious that every country has its language and dialects, for all people whether civilized or not, have
a means of communication. This means of communication is language, which differentiates man from animals. There
are several characteristics of language, however, that may change, improve, add, subtract, or enrich its meaning,
such as intonation and emphasis or stress. The study of language is called linguistics who has two sub-divisions as
stated above.

Descriptive linguistics deals with the classification, arrangement and study of the features language which will be taken
up later. Comparative or historical linguistics takes up the changes in language, the borrowings from other languages, and
the comparison of languages.

The diagram on p. 156 may make the sub-divisions of anthropology clearer.

 13

Anthropology

Physical Anthropology
Cultural Anthropology
Man as biological animal

Ethnology Linguistics
Archaeology
People’s Cultures & behaviors Analysis of Language

Social Anthropology
Ethnology
(Development of scientific
(scientific description &
generalizations about a culture,
classification of racial
society or personality in a universal
groups of mankind
sense
 13

Relation of Anthropology to Other Sciences

Physical Anthropology is related to the biological sciences - anatomy, physiology, embryology and
genetics. Social Anthropology is related to sociology, psychology, geography, and economics and political
science. Cultural anthropology is related to humanistic disciplines such as history, literature, arts and
music.

Practical Applications of anthropology

The questions may will be asked. Of what use is anthropology? Anthropology has practical uses.
Anthropology reduces ethnocentrism by instilling appreciation of other cultures through study of other
societies and cultures, it contributes to education. It suggest the potential and general value of
anthropology in inspiring government action. Research on all aspects of culture is undertaken by
anthropologists. Through anthropological studies, programs of aid in the military, economic, and political
fields are assessed and evaluated. Not only is there evaluation, but also inspiration of economic
development and technical assistant programs. Through what is termed “Participant interference,”
anthropology acts catalyzer and instigates action.

REFERENCES:
Ballen, Jerome B. “Physical Anthropology and its Place ion General Education.” Anthropology: Range and
Relevance, Zamora, Mario and Salazar, Zews A. Quezon City: Kayumanggi Publishers, 1969, pp.
195-206.
Beals, Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry. An Introduction to Anthropolgy , 3 rd ed. New York: The MacMillian Co.,
1965, Chapter 1.
Jacobs, Melville, and Stern, Bernhard J., General Anthropology, N.Y. Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1952, Chapter
1.
Kottak, Conrad Philip. Anthropology, New York: Random House, 1974, Chapter 1.
Pi-Sunyer, Oriol and Salzmann, Zdeneck. Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houhgton Mifflin Co.,1978.
Chapter 1.
Zamora, Mario D. and Lawless, Robert, An Introduction to Anthropology for Non-Anthropologists, ed.
Zamora and Lawless, Quezon City: College of Arts and Sciences, UP., 1966-67.
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
How are culture and society related? What are the kinds, forms, and components of culture?

Meaning of Culture
Different meanings come to mind with the word culture. A person who is refined in manners and
speech is said to be a “cultured” individual. A descendant of a line of “ladies” and “gentlemen” or of
nobility who has wealth and do not need to work is “cultured.” One who observes the rules of etiquette is
“cultured”. Knowledge about a wide range of subjects is designated as “culture.” “Culture” also means
esthetic interest and sophisticated understanding of arts and humanities. High level of perfection in art,
science, etc. is also deemed “culture”.
Sociologically, culture has a different meaning from those given above. According to Dressler,
“culture is a social heritage, transmitted from one generation to another and shared. It consists of the sum
total of skill, beliefs, knowledges, and products that are commonly shared by a number of people and
transmitted to their children.” Through culture, therefore, people learn to communicate with each other
and to think and behave in certain ways approved by the group. According to Smith, Stanley, and Shores,
“culture is the fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, esthetic objects, methods of thinking, customs, and
institutions into which each member of society is born. Culture is that part of the environment which man
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himself has made.” Bertrand defines culture as “the complex whole which includes knowledges, beliefs,
arts, morals, law, costumes, and other capabilities gained by man as a member of society.” Other
definitions of culture are:

1. Clyde Kluckhon – Historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational,
and non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for behavior.
2. American College Dictionary – Particular stage or state of civilization of a nation or period, such
as Greek culture, sum total ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted
from generation to generation.
3. Way people have learned to live together; behavior learned as a result of living in groups which
tend to be patterned and to be transmitted from generation to generation.
4. Ragan – the environment man has made consisting of artifacts, ideas, language, attitudes, beliefs,
customs, etc. existing at a particular time and place.

Classification of Culture
Culture may be classified as static or dynamic. It is static when it emphasizes cultural
transmission; i.e., the same culture is passed on from generation to generation. It is dynamic when it
emphasizes change; i.e., it goes thru revision with each generation.
Culture may also be classified as stable or unstable. The culture is stable where folkways and mores are
satisfying New elements and traits are incorporated smoothly and without conflict. In a stable culture, the
more educated the individual, the more conservative he becomes. Where the group does not have
satisfying solutions to most of its problems and conflicts, the culture is usually unstable. Conflict exists
between the traditional and radical groups and their values. The more educated the individual, the more
he sees the inadequacy of the culture. In unstable culture the school should pay attention to developing
worthwhile values and provide for change.

How would you classify our culture?

Forms of Culture
Culture may be material or non-material. Material culture consists of tangible things houses,
clothing, tools, utensils, automobiles, TV, etc. Non-material culture refers to what is symbolic or intangible
such as sentiments, folkways, mores, systems, and beliefs and knowledge. What form of Philippine culture
is becoming more prevalent among the youth in the Philippines today?
Examples of non-material culture follow:
Folkways are traditional ways of doing things in a certain culture. An example of a folkway in the
Philippines is pamanhikan where the parents of the boy ask for the girl’s hand in marriage. Mores are
heavily sanctioned folkways for group survival and are accepted without question as they embody moral
views of the group. An Igorot folkway is for a boy to sleep in the ulog with the girl he is courting. If she
becomes pregnant and he does not marry her, he is ostracized by the whole group, according to the mores
of the tribe.
Costum means habitual practice. It is a custom in the Philippines to invite a guest to partake of a
meal if he happens to b in the house at meal time. Another custom is for children to kiss the hand of their
grandparents. Beliefs are also part of non-material culture. In India, some walk on live coals or lie a bed of
nails and come out unscathed according to their belief. In Pampanga, every Good Friday, a man himself
nailed to the Cross in the belief that no harm would come to him and nothing does.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
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Culture is made of material or non-material triats. A combination of related traits form a culture complex,
such as a football complex which is made up of football and the rules of the game. A culture complex has
traits patterned around another important trait. Examples are the horse and buggy complex, automobile
complex, television complex, and superiority complex. In a superiority complex, the central traits to which
others are related is the thought that over-confidence, condescencion toward all others, self-pride,
boastfulness, over-bearing manner, swaggering attitude, affectation in manner, etc. A culture pattern is a
combination of culture complexes, as for instance, a sports pattern made up of football, basketball, and
track cultures. “Pattern” refers to a specific way of behaving that is part of a given culture. For example,
the way of greeting:

Americans – shake hands

Latin Americans – embrace
Eskimos – touch noses
Thai – put hands together and bow
Japanese – bow deeply
Filipino young or old – kiss hands

Functions of Culture
Culture is important and useful in many ways. Through culture, communication is possible by
means of an language that is learned. People belonging to the same culture can anticipate how others may
respond to their actions. The culture provides standards for differentiating right and wrong, beautiful and
ugly, tragic and humorous, safe and dangerous, reasonable and unreasonable. Among Christians, pre-
marital sex is considered immoral, but not among the Igorots. To the Moslems, it is all right to have more
than one wife, but not to the Christians. A tattooed body is considered beautiful by some African tribes, but
it is ugly in the eyes of others. Children are trained to behave in ways approved by the group. Every culture
provides the knowledge and skills needed for its survival. Through their culture, people identify with others
and feel a sense of belonging.

Characteristics of Culture
What are the characteristics of a culture?
They are:
1. Only human society possess culture.
2. Human cultures vary considerably although they resemble each other in some respects.
3. Culture tends to persist, once learned and accepted.
4. Culture changes gradually and continuously.
5. Culture exists in the minds of men who learned it from previous generations and who use it to
guide their conduct with others.
6. There is a tendency to borrow from other cultures.
7. Members of a culture may behave differently as in the case of those who belong to sub-cultures.
Ex. Ilokanos may behave differently from the Visayans although they are both Filipinos.
8. No person can escape entirely from his culture.
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Another authority gives the following set of characteristics:

1. Culture is concerned with actions, ideas, and artifacts which individual learn, share and value.
Others call this organized group behavior an institution.
Ex. English taking afternoon tea.
“Misa de gallo” (dawn masses) before Christmas
2. Culture may be regarded as a historical phenomenon, originating through innovation and spread
by diffusion.
Ex. Association of candles with religion.
Carrying candles during processions.
3. Culture may be regarded as a regional phenomenon
- geographic or locality distribution.
Ex. drinking coffee; smoking which originated with American Indians an spread
throughout the world.
4. Culture tends to be patterned – repetition of similar approved behavior so that it has a form or
structure. Specific way of behaving in a certain culture.
Ex. making the sign of the cross when passing a church
5. Cultural elements have a function.
Ex. social status enhanced by owning a car
6. Culture tends to be integrated – unity of premises, values, goals.
Ex. meaning of fiesta or patron saint
7. Culture is subject to change.
Individual conduct varies, innovations occur, etc.
Ex. change in form and function of candles.
8. Culture is valid to the extent that the local way of life is well-defined, homogenous, stable.
Yet variations may occur, such as sub-cultures. Certain wedding practices may exist only in certain
regions. In Lucban, Quezon, after the wedding, there is a dance where bride and groom take partners
who pin money on them. This is repeated with several partners until quite a sum is accumulated.

9. Culture is sometimes designated as a system where interrelated elements are treated as a whole.
Ex. American culture has specific cultural systems which may be termed sub-cultures.
10. Culture is a “continuum” – passed on from individual to individual, from generation to generation.
11. Culture is “symbolic” – meanings attached to artifacts and personal motivations.
Ex. We have to know the meaning of certain wedding ceremonies or they would seem foolish to
us. What is the meaning of pinning the veil and cord around the bride and groom?

Concept of Society
Culture is created by society which approves its system of values. It also includes a system of
intermediate values that implements the ultimate values. Society, however, does not mean just
the total sum of its people. To survive, society needs to perform certain basic needs, suh as law
and order, transporation, agriculture, and industrial systems.

Meaning of Society
What constitute a society? To Keesing, it is an organized group or population. To Linton, it
is human beings and institutions by which they live together in their culture. According to
Dressler, “a society consists of all the people who share a distinct and continuous way of life. (that
is, a culture) and think of themselves as one united people.” Bertrand defines society as “a social
 13

group that occupies territory, recruit its members by intergroup sexual reproduction, has a shared
comprehensive culture.” To Smith, Stanley, and Shores, a society is a group of organized
individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group, who have something in common, a set of
loyalties and sentiments, an esprit de corps which makes the individual under certain
circumstances to sacrifice himself for the good of the group.”
From the above definitions, it follows that a group of people does not constitute a society unless it
has the characteristics mentioned above.
How are society and culture related?

Relation Between Culture and Society

There can be no culture without society and there can be no society without culture. Both society
and culture have common elements, but the two are not identical. Society is composed of people;
culture consists of things people have learned to do, to behave, and to enjoy.

Personality and Characteristics in Relation to Culture

Each individual is unique. heredity and environment (education, training, etc.) give him/his
individuality. He is not a passive recipient of culture; he is active, creative, and reacts actively to
his culture; he may add innovations to culture.
Development of his personality is influenced by his capacity to learn, need to interact with others,
ability to select, to create, to make individual decisions in relation to cultural and social milieu.
Character is sometimes used interchangeably with personality. Character, however, refers more to
moral qualities or ethical standards. Character influences behavior. Behavior of individuals
influences the culture and culture influences individuals. Socialization is becoming a member of
society – assumption of place within a social system.

Educational Implications
1. Cultures differ and one should not judge another culture by using his own culture as basis.
2. To avoid prejudices, there should be more contact between cultures.
3. Travel, education, and reading about other societies are ways of bringing about tolerance and
understanding between nations.
4. With more diffusion between cultures, one global society may result.
5. With the U.S as the best example of people getting along in spite of different sub-cultures,
perhaps a one world concept may be brought about some day. Unity in spite of diversity.
6. Society can be improve by improving the culture.
7. Since culture is made by man himself, he should develop worthwhile values and weed out those
beliefs, mores, superstitions, etc. that are detrimental to progress.
8. Since culture is learned, the school should inculcate in the young, good aspects of the culture.
9. Since culture changes, the change should be for the better and society should decide what those
changes should be.
10. The home, the school and the church should guard against borrowing from other cultures things
that are against the Philippine way of life.

Can you name what is good in Philippine culture and what is not?
 13

LANGUAGE AND WRITING

Why is language important? What is the function of writing?

A man’s language is a reflection of the kind person he is, the family he comes from, the level of education
he has attained, and an index to the behavior that may be expected from him. What is language?

Definition of Language
According to Keesing, language is “a vocal symbolism of speech, with its related bodily gestures and
mechanical signals which give precision and finesse to communication.”

Beals and Hoijer define language as “a way of speaking, distinct in every culture.”

To Herskovitz, language is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which members of social group
cooperate and interact by which the learning process is effectuated and a given of way of life achieved
both through continuity and change.”

Antiquity of Language

Just exactly when language began is not known, but it must be very old. It probably is as old man’s
artifacts and perhaps began with culture as language is part of culture. All human societies, primitive or
civilized have languages. Today, there are numerous, different languages. The universality and diversity of
language prove that it is very old, for language develops slowly. Similarities in vocabulary and grammar
show a common origin. The differences in the modern languages must have taken a long time to develop.
Language grows and changes. For example, take the original Latin that was spoken in Rome. This
spread to other countries where changes took place independently. Out of Latin evolved the Romance
languages – Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and Romanian.
Linguistics is an important subdivision of anthropology. The anthropologist first studies the
language of a group whose culture he wants to know. Language is needed to understand a society and its
people and the role of language in their lives.

Significance and Function of Language

Language is very important. Without language, knowledge could have been maintained and accumulated.
man has able to devise, continue, and change a great variety of cultural institutions of material and non-
material nature through language. Language is a form of learned behavior by which people communicate
with each other; this function is probably one of the most important, if not the most important function of
language. According to Herskovitz, language is a vehicle of culture by which the culture is passed on from
one generation to generation. Language is a means of cooperation through which people learn to play
together and to work together. Problems are solved, not through physical activities alone, but through
thought and discussion; and therefore problem solving becomes continuous through language, according
to Shapiro. He also states that language enables man to share the experiences and thoughts of others and
to pass on knowledge to succeeding generations.
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From the anthropological point of view, language is a way of making people close to one another, of
fostering the feeling of belongingness. There are as many words as there are languages. Therefore, to
cement people of the world together, they should speak one language. All nations of the earth should learn
one language and English seems to be it. Many countries studies English as a second language.

Elements of Language

According to Herskovitz, every language has three parts which are:

1. Phonemic system consisting of sounds

2. Combination of sounds into units that have distinct significance – vocabulary
3. Combination and recombination of number 2 into large units - grammar

According to Kessing, the parts of language are:

1. Set of sound signals, the articulatory of phonetic system phonology

2. Structural principles that put sounds signals in customary form – grammar or morphology (structure)
3. Set of meaning for signals and forms – (semantics); words embodying all 3 aspects of language in
significant interrelation – vocabulary.

Kottak gives the following parts:

1. Phonology – study of sounds in human speech
2. Grammar – arrangement of sounds into longer sequence of speech or longer utterances
3. Lexicon – vocabulary or the meaning system of language

Summing up, then, all languages have a:

1. Well-defined system of speech sounds
2. Grammar – way of putting together words, phrases, sentences according to definite rules. (All
societies, whether pre-litertae pygmies or advanced European groups, have grammar)
3. Vocabulary which increases with every new culture item.

Linguistic Structure

Analysis of the language shows that it is composed of:

1. Phonemes – similar sounds contrasting and mutually exclusive; the same sounds, but different in
meaning ass the word strike
Phonemes – distinctive sounds, such as:
cat and pat – alike except in initial phonemes
cat and cot – alike except in middle phonemes
cat and cap – alike except in final phonemes
2. Morphemes – minimum significant unit forming a word or part of a word.
Ex. income from in and come.
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Morphemes – composed of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. cat is a morpheme made up of

phonemes c,a,t. Phonemes p,a,t make up the morpheme pat.

3. Morphology – combinations of words into linguistic forms. The combination of words into
sentences following grammatical rules, such as subject (noun), predicate, (verb) and modifier
(adverb or adjective).

Importance of the Study of Language

Language should be studied as it is an aspect of culture that differentiates man form animals. It should
be used correctly as it is criterion that differences the educated from the uneducated.

Writing
A confusion arises with regard to language and writing as if the later is a special language. This
may be explained by the fact that in school, children learn to read and write almost at the same time.
Also , when we speak of literacy, we think of ability to read and write. Written language, however, is
different from spoken language.
Writing, according to Beals and Hoijer, is “a set of techniques for the graphic representation of
speech.” Herskovitz defines writing as “round-about speech or mechanical gesture; a series of graphic
symbols (or symbol of symbols) which hold and store information more or less permanently according
to the medium, apart from the individuals who are in communication.

Invention of Writing
Writing is a more recent invention than language. While language appeared more than a million
years ago, that is, when man first acquired the rudiments of culture, the first written records in English
were dated A.D. 900.
Writing was invented more than once in several places. The earliest invention was in Egypt,
probably in the Bronze Age. This spread to Europe and Asia, and underwent many changes. The
Chinese also developed their own system of writing, and so did the Indians of Central America at a
much later date. The Aztecs of Mexico also had writing which was probably derived from the Central
American Indian.

Development of Writing
Writing perhaps originated from drawing, which was as much part of culture as language
Conventionalized pictographs may be regarded as the earliest form of writing. In fact, the life style of
primitive people was gleaned from the pictures drawn on the walls of their cave dwellings. With time,
the pictorial symbols became more and more abbreviated. This kind of writing was called pictograph
or picture writing.
True writing perhaps began when conventionalized graphic symbols became associated with the
sounds of a language. Symbols stood for words or particular combinations of speech sounds. This was
called logographic writing and the symbols that represented words were called logograms. Logographs
or logograms appeared in the Near East, in Chinese, and in Maya Writing. The problem of logographic
writing was the difficulty of representing abstract ideas.
China continued the above trend and developed the traditional ideographic writing – a distinctive
symbol for each idea. In modern Chinese writing, symbols are reduced to 214 basic characters which
may be combined. To read and write Chinese fluently, it is necessary to memorize all these symbols.
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Most Chinese words are one syllable, but in English where long words have several syllables, this
system of writing would be difficult.
Recognition of the phonetic factor made words that are the same in sound but different in meaning,
represented by the same character. Phonetic characters that have a constant phonographic value are
called phonograms. Phonograms came to be associated with syllables rather than whole words and
were called syllabaries. Syllabaries became widespread. Mesopotamia (Iraq), Babylonia, and Sumeria
wrote their ancient languages by means of a syllabary. They wrote on clay tablets with a stylus having
a wedge-shaped edge end. The writing was called cuneiform from the Latin word cuneus meaning
“wedge”. Old Persian and Greek were also written in syllabic characters. Syllabic writing is still used in
Japan today where the Japanese syllabary has about 65 characters.
The alphabetic system of writing developed around 1800 B.C. when Semitic – speaking peoples
took the Egyptian syllabary of 24 characters and transformed these into consonant symbols.
Alphabetic writing is further refinement of phonographic symbolism whereby a character becomes
attached to a phoneme that conveys appropriate meanings.
Ex.: pear, pair, pare
The Phonenicians are credited with the invention of the alphabet where they substituted consonants
for the 24 characters. The Greeks added vowels in place of the consonants they did not need. From
the Greeks, the complete alphabet spread to Rome and to other European countries. This is the
alphabet that we are using now.

Relation of Writing to Language

Writing has a history of its own and developed separately from language. They are not the same
although they are related. There are two different aspects of culture. Language is a complex of
patterns that govern or control speech while writing is the written symbol of speech. Writing is a
recent invention compared to language. All societies having more or less the same level of
development possess language, but not writing. Writing is found in advanced societies but may be
lacking in primitive tribes.
Importance of Writing
Writing is essential to the highly complex civilization today. It makes possible long distance
communication. It is a means of keeping records and preserving them for posterity. It is vital to the
system of education, research, and to world culture. That is why scientists consider the invention of
writing as the beginning of true civilization. However, learning, literacy, and education became widely
spread only with the invention of the printing press.

Educational Implications
1. Since language is an aspect of culture, one should study the language well and speak it correctly.
2. The more languages a person knows, the better educated he is and the easier he can adjust to
other peoples.
3. To understand people, it is necessary to know their language.
4. Knowing a people’s language is a means of fostering good public relations.
5. Since English is the language spoken throughout most of the world, one should study it well.
6. Reading books and magazines is one way of increasing one’s vocabulary.
7. A person should learn to write legibly and clearly as this is a mark of the well-educated.
8. Fluency in speaking and writing comes with practice; so one should take every opportunity to
speak and write well.
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What other implications can be made regarding language and writing?

RELIGION

What are some of the great religions of the world? What role does religion play in human affairs?

Another factor in man’s life that influences his behavior is religion. What is religion?

Definition of Religion

1. Pi-Sunyer and Salzmann define religion as “recognition of belief in some source or power that
transcends human and is capable of assisting or harming them.”
2. Anthony F.C. Wallace gives this definition – “a kind of human behavior which can be classified as
belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers and forces.”
3. Beals and Hoijer define religion as “ response to man’s needs for an organized conception of the
universe, for mechanism that will allay his anxieties concerning his inability to predict and
understand events that do not conform to natural law.”
4. To Herskovitz, religion is the control of the universe; means by which man maintains himself in the
scheme of things.

From the foregoing definitions, certain characteristics of religion are evident, such as: (1) belief in the
supernatural which is all powerful, (2) an influence on human behavior, (3) an explanation for what is
unexpected. Examples of situations or occurrences that cannot be explained by science and where
religion is used to provide the answers are:

1. A healthy individual who had no previous history of heart disease suddenly has a heart attack and
dies.
2. A person who had cancer as shown by x-ray suddenly shows no trace of the disease (by x-ray)
after a visit to Lourdes shrine, France.
3. An out-of-reason typhoon in April destroys a crop.
4. A very good husband, rich and good-looking, is deserted by his wife.

Nature of Religion

In some societies there is a belief in a generalized and impersonal force, influence, or power that
exists invisibly throughout the universe and may be possessed to a greater or lesser degree by gods,
men, the forces of nature (sun, moon, rain, or thunder) and natural objects such as pools, rivers, trees,
stones. A concept of impersonal power exists. In other societies, there is a belief in gods, spirits, and
other personalized supernaturals. Some tribes believe in animism where the spirit continues to exist
after the death or destruction of the body. The spirits are supposed to control events in the material
world and in man’s life. This led to the beliefs in souls and in a future state, which is part of the
Catholic religion today.

Folk or Primitive Religion

Where or how religion started in not very clear, but even the primitive tribes had some kind of religion.
American Indians worshipped supernatural beings. The Aztecs of Mexico worshipped a god. The city-
state of Athens worshipped the goddess Athena. The Greeks and the Romans had their gods and
goddesses. The Roman emperor and the Egyptian pharaoh were regarded as deities in times of
classical antiquity. The Japanese emperor was venerated as descendant of the sun-god before World
War II.

Variety of Religious

Today many different kinds of religions abound in the world. The Christian religions are composed of
Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox (Greek) Catholics and Judaoe-Christianity. The non-
Christian religions consist of:
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Islam-Mohammedan
Buddhism
Confucianism
Hinduism
Zoroastrianism
Jewish
Shintoism
Animism

There are many things that are common in all religion rather than differences. The golden rule is part of
most religions.

Belief in Most Societies Regarding Religion

Whatever religion they belong to, different societies have common beliefs. These are:

1. Religion does things for people. Most prayers ask for something that people want done for
them.
2. Religion has to do with the powers of the universe, the range and intensity of these powers,
and the manner in which they influence the lives of people. Religion influences not only the
life style of people, but also their behavior. The Moslems do not eat pork. In India, the cow is
not only not eaten, but it is venerated. Most Catholics do not eat meat on Fridays, especially
on Good Friday. Seventh Day Adventists are mostly vegetarians.
3. There are methods by which these powers may be enlisted in behalf of man, not only as
benevolent guardians, but also as agents that may help man achieve certain ends. Some of
the methods employed are prayers, masses, sacrifices, abstinence, apostolic work, etc.
Christians usually make sacrifices and penance during Holy Week. Novelas are a common
means employed by Catholics to request something. Some have masses said for many
occasions. Going to Mecca is to the Moslems what going to Jerusalem is to the Christians. It
probably represents the nearest thing to heaven on this earth.

Instruments of Religion

To reach ends desired by man, different instrument of religion are used. There is the ritual, which
is prescribed way of performing religious acts. Various religions have different rituals. Examples
are the rain dance performed by American Indians, the temple dance, dance to the gods by Bestal
Virgins. Praying, singing sacred songs, making sacrifices, preparing offerings, making the sign of
the cross, are other rituals. Prayer may be a devout petition, a supplication to an object of
worship, a thanksgiving, or a spiritual communion with God. A ceremony is a number of
interconnected and related rituals, performed at a given time. Examples of ceremonies are:

a. Sunday morning service

b. Marriage ceremony
c. Baptismal rites and confirmation rites
d. Puberty rites
e. Blessing of a house
f. Processions to a patron saint

Taboos are prohibitions. Different religions have certain taboos, which are ignored, are supposed to bring
down misfortune on the violator. Examples, of taboos are those on food and incest. There is also the taboo
on prohibition of sexual intercourse while the mother is nursing the baby. Sometimes this taboo may act to
maintain population level.

Religious Practitioners

In the educational field, the teacher is the agent of instruction. In the religious world who are the leaders or
practitioners? They are:

1. The Shaman – man or who serves society as part-time religious practitioner – usually in primitive
societies.
2. The priest or minister – full-time religious practitioner who gets power through association with an
organized religious group.

Priest are prepared by intensive training unlike the shaman who may be the result of inspiration
or possession by a god or spirit.

The other word religions also have their leaders or practitioners.

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Use of Religion

Religion is used to:

1. Explain events or situations that defy comprehension (meaningless, contradictory or inexplicable)

2. Provide comfort in times of stress and anxiety.
3. Set guidelines for conduct of human affairs and furnish a sense of common purpose for members
of a social group.

Role or Function of Religion are:

1. Provide an organized picture of the universe and establish orderly relationships between man and
his surroundings.
2. Reduce fears and anxieties and give man not only a feeling of security in the uncertain present,
but the hope as well of a tolerable future.
3. Reflect close and intimate relations with the world of the supernatural and also with animals,
plants, and other aspects of nature.
4. Reinforce and maintain cultural values.
a. Few religions except Judaism and Christianity are linked to ethics and morality.
5. Support and emphasize particular culturally defined standards of behavior.
6. Preserves knowledge through rituals and ceremony.
a. Ceremonies are dramas that symbolically re-enact important procedures.
7. Rituals and ceremonies together with uniform beliefs, contribute to social participation and
solidarity.
a. individual participation in such occasions bring emotional satisfaction.
b. ceremonies were as a social function which develop social cohesion and group solidarity.
c. Also create and maintain divisions.
d. Instrument of change – Ex. Jesus Christ’s preaching of love

Educational Implications

1. It is important for every one to have a religion in view of the role that religion play’s in one’s life.
2. Since religion influences behavior, one should choose one’s religion wisely.
3. Since the nature and function of all religions are the same, there should be tolerance of all
religions.
4. One should study one’s religion well and live it.
5. Apply the teachings of religion to self, family, community, and the world.

Make your own implications regarding your religion.

THE ARTS

Why is art important? What are its functions?

Nature and Definition of Art

If religion stems from a psychological need in the individual, perhaps the same thing may be said of the
arts. Art is a part of culture and dates back to antiquity. It is present in all societies although not at the
same rate of development. That art is universal is probably the best proof that it satisfies a deep
psychological need common to all people.

What is art? The dictionary defines art as a production or expression of what is beautiful or appealing; an
esthetic expression. According to Beals, art is “an activity that over and above its utilitarian values brings
satisfaction both to the artist and to those who participate in his work as beholders, audience, or
collaborators.” This esthetic exponent differentiates art from other aspects of culture.

The earliest stages of art were realistic or representative of expression. Later, art became geometric,
symbolic, and decorative in expression. The tendency is to change toward progressive simplification and
conventionalization. Painting is a good example. In the beginning, paintings were made to appear as close
as possible to the original as shown by landscapes and portraits of people. Now, modern painting has
become symbolic and representational ass shown by cubistic painting. The works of Picazzo and Edades
illustrate this. The trend now is toward impressionistic painting.

Functions of Art
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Of what use is art? The following are the functions of art:

1. Art gives esthetic satisfaction to artists, performers, audience or participants. A person sings for
the mere pleasure it gives him. People dance because they enjoy doing it. Watching a ballet
performance or listening to a symphonic concert gives pleasure. Looking at a painting may evoke
pleasant emotions.
2. Art serves as a medium for the communication of ideas, attitudes and values. The degree of
communication depends on how much the conventions and symbols use are understood by the
audience. For instance, in our society, a halo or a ring over the head of a figure symbolizes a
saint. Some primitive groups may not understand this. In Chinese and Japanese plays, the actors
and actresses wear masks. The audience should know which mask represents the hero, the
heroine, and the villain. A room in a stage drama has only three walls. Sometimes, all walls are
dispensed with in the arena style of drama.
3. Art conserves and reinforces beliefs, customs, attitudes and values. This function is possessed by
all arts, but it is more evident in literary and pictorial arts. The religious art in the architecture of
churches, the religious scenes, and the images of saints create emotional and intellectual
atmosphere needed for religious exercises; serve to remind one in what he should believe in; and
when in drama form, serve for instructional purpose (or propaganda).
4. As stated above, Art may be used for instructional purpose (or propaganda). Examples of these
are the mystery plays and the religious dramas coupled with dance that were given in Europe
during the Middle Ages. In the Philippines, the “Moro-moro” plays where Christians vanquished
the Mohammedans, were used to spread Christianity. Schools made use of Christmas plays,
pageants, myths and folk tales to develop certain attitudes and values. Today, mass media like
the motion picture, is a very good vehicle for changing attitudes, instilling values, and solving
social problems.
5. Art reveals its relationship to society and shows how art forms are transmitted through time and
space. The state of the art in a society is a reflection of the attitude of that society toward art and
its stage of progress. The collection of art works in the group will not only give a history of art
development but also show how this has been transmitted from generation to generation.

Art is a cultural tradition. The techniques used, the choice of subject matter, the preferences or
emphasis on certain art, the functions of art, the attitudes toward art take the attitude toward
paintings of nude. There are many of these in the art galleries of Europe. Some conservative societies
may frown on paintings of nudes and this may influence painters.

Music

Music is the art that best shows the effect of cultural tradition in deciding what is approved and
desirable, both socially and individually. However, what is pleasing I one society may not be so in
another. Chinese music sounds queer to Western eras and so does music of primitive tribes.

Music probably originated in song rather than in devised instruments. The earliest forms of rhythmical
activity that were accompanied by singing were probably rocking infants, walking, or repeated regular
work movements. Music did away with the monotony of labor and acted as stimulant.
Occassions for music among non-literate people are:
1. Lullabies composed by mothers which are learned by children and sung while playing.
2. Songs by young men to amuse and entertain their sweethearts.
3. Serenades outside the tipi (tent) to the loved one.
4. Sacred songs in time of personal crisis, ceremonies, and rituals.
5. Martial songs before and after war.
6. Songs of praise and mourning songs.
The evolution of music passed through two stages. The first stage was singing which went through the
range of the human voice. The second stage was musical expression by fashioned instruments.

The history of music shows that what was considered “barbaric” in one era may be accepted later. An
example is jazz music which was not accepted when it first appeared. Now, it is very popular. Primitive
music has rhythm, but lacks melody.

Today some modern music seems to revert to rhythm, but lacks melody.

Musical instruments developed much later than singing. The flute and piccolo-like instruments made of
wood, bamboo or bone were found in most regions. There were also a few percussion instruments like
rattle, tambourine, and drums. Later, xylophone – like instrument of wood and bamboo were also
developed. In the Old World, complex instruments capable of various effects and musical styles, were
invented. Stringed instruments like the multistringed lyre and cithara spread from the Near East to the Old
World.

The major factors in the history of modern European music were:

 13

1. Writing, symbolic representation, and analysis of music.

2. Cumulative advances in the technology of string instruments.
3. Development of harmony.

Dance

The dance is a universal feature of human society. It is found in all groups as the human body has the
same nervous system and muscle equipment no matter what race. Hence, dance styles can be as complex
and beautiful among the primitives as among the civilized. The dance which may display superb esthetic
quality is not a rarity primitive society.

The different forms of the dance are religious or magico-ceremonial dancing, play dancing, dramatic and
symbolic dancing. The dance has a social and cultural function.

The dance originated far back in time. In primitive society, the dancer’s body was not confined. Now, the
higher the economic level the more progressive and intriguing the dance regalia because recently, dance
themes became more entertaining rather than religious or magico-ceremonial.

Poetry and Pose

Although prose and poetry are related, they are not the same. Prose is ordinary, matter of fact language.
Poetry is beautiful thought in beautiful language, rhythmically expressed. Poetry is difficult to separate
from song. The poems of primitive people were short and chanted.

Prose, oral and written, is found among all peoples. The types of prose found are:

1. Narratives, which, like songs, are universal and are composed of –

Myths – stories of another world that deal with gods, spirits and other supernaturals; usually
concerned with origins of the universe and its aspects such as fire, food, animals, plants, death,
illness, society, ceremonials, and rituals.

Legends – events in the present world or an earlier time with men as actors; more worldly in
content although they may include what is wonderful, awesome, and supernatural.

Proverbs and riddles – contains wisdom of the group. These are not as universal in non-literate
societies.

Rhymes which are found only in literary productions.

Dramas and oratory.

How did oral literature come about? With the development of language, events were described
and narrated. Natural phenomena such as the seasons, phases of the moon, path of the sun, comets,
shooting stars, tides, storms, lightning, thunder, floods, forest, fires, and fogs were treated allegorically
and became the origin of folk tales.

Folktales perform certain functions, such as:

1. To entertain
2. To know the rationale behind customs and geographical features.
3. To teach moral lessons.
4. To direct minor educational functions.

Art in the Individual

The production of art involves two factors:

1. The Culture and the period in history in which the artist participates.
2. The people with whom he lives and works – critics, collaborators, friends and relatives.

Art is produced by individuals although many may collaborate a in a dramatic production, a ballet, a
symphonic concert, a movie production, etc. Many forms, actions, and patterns may make up a completed
production, but the act of creating can be traced to an individual. It is erroneous to think that a work of art
is the exclusive production of one person or that a movie is the sum of individual contributions. In a
painting, there is the painter and the model. A poem is composed by the poet after being inspired by some
one. The artist gives expression to sentiments, and ideas that arise through his interaction with others.
Hence, social and cultural setting is important.
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The artist may work in strict isolation, but he is always subject to influences from his culture, historical
period, and people with whom he lives. An example is the narration of myths and legends wherein the
story teller adapts his tale to reactions of the audience. This is also true in singing.

In primitive society, the individual is not given ass much prominence as a modern society where the
painter or novelist may become famous. Hence, in primitive society, art is designated as folk art.

Educational Implications

1. Art should be included in the curriculum of the elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels.
2. The second should try to find out the kind of artistic inclination of the child and try to develop this.
3. In order to give outlets for different individual talents, the school should offer varied extra-
curricular activities, such as Glee Club, Dramatics, Dance Troupe, Rondalla, etc.
4. Field trips to museums, libraries, etc. should be sponsored by the school.
5. Artists may be invited by the school to give demonstrated lectures so that children and youth may
have first hand experience with different art forms.
6. Participation in singing contests, declamation and oratorical contest and other contests should be
encouraged by the school.

Give other educational implications.

References

Anthropology, New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc. 1952 Chapter XVI.

Beals, Ralph L. and Hoijer, Harry, Introduction to Anthropology, New York: The McMillan Co.,1965, Chapter
9.

Bertrand, Alvin L. Basic Sociology. 2nd edition. New York: Meredith Corporation, 1973, Chapter 2 and 6.

Catapusan, Benicio T. and Catapusan, Flora Diaz. Introduction to Sociology, Quezon City: Filipino Books, Inc,
1973, Chapter 4.

Dressler, David with Garns, Donald. Sociology 2nd. ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1973, Chapters 1, 3,
and 10.

Espiritu, Socorro C. Sociology in the New Philippine Society. Q.C. Alemar – Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
1977, Chapters 3 and 5.

Fried, Morton, Readings in Anthropology. New York: Thomas F. Crowell Co.,1959. Chapter 20, 31. 32.

Herskovitz, Melville and Stern, Bernhard T. General

Keesing. Felix M. Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1958, Chapter VII.

Kluckhon, Clyde, Mirror for Mass, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc.1949, Chapter 6.
 13

Kottack, Conrad Philip, Anthropology, New York: Random Home, Inc. 1974, Chapter 13.

Ross, H. Laurence, Perspectives on the Social Order. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963,
Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

Pi-Sunyer, Oriol and Salzmann, Zdenek, Humanity and Culture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1978,
Chapters 17, 18, 19.

Shapiro, Harry L., Man, Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 1956, Chapter IX.

Titiev, Misha, The Science of Man, New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1954, Chapter 24.

Zamora, Mario D. and Lawless, Robert. Anthropology for Non Anthropologists, Quezon City, Inc. 1966-1967,
pp. 109-116