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How to Calculate the Fourier Transform of a Function

Three Parts: Properties of the Fourier Transform Fourier Transforms Distributions

The Fourier transform is an integral transform widely used in physics and engineering. They are widely used in signal analysis
and are well-equipped to solve certain partial differential equations.

The convergence criteria of the Fourier transform (namely, that the function be absolutely integrable on the real line) are quite
severe due to the lack of the exponential decay term as seen in the Laplace transform, and it means that functions like
polynomials, exponentials, and trigonometric functions all do not have Fourier transforms in the usual sense. However, we can
make use of the Dirac delta function to assign these functions Fourier transforms in a way that makes sense.

Because even the simplest functions that are encountered may need this type of treatment, it is recommended that you be
familiar with the properties of the Laplace transform before moving on. Furthermore, it is more instructive to begin with the
properties of the Fourier transform before moving on to more concrete examples.

Preliminaries

We define the Fourier transform of 𝑓(𝑡) as the following function, provided the integral converges.
∞

∫−∞
𝑓^ (𝜔) = ℱ{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

The inverse Fourier transform is defined in a similar manner. Notice the symmetry present between the Fourier
transform and its inverse, a symmetry that is not present in the Laplace transform.
1 ∞^
2𝜋 ∫−∞
𝑓(𝑡) = ℱ −1{𝑓^ (𝜔)} = 𝑓 (𝜔)𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝜔

There are many other definitions of the Fourier transform. The above definition making use of angular frequency is one
of them, and we will use this convention in this article. See the tips for two other commonly used definitions.
The Fourier transform and its inverse are linear operators, and therefore they both obey superposition and
proportionality.
∞ ∞ ∞

∫−∞ ∫−∞ ∫−∞

[𝑎𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑡)]𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑔(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

Part
1 Properties of the Fourier Transform

1 Determine the Fourier transform of a derivative. A simple integration by parts, coupled with the
observation that 𝑓(𝑡) must vanish at both infinities, yields the answer below.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑓 ′(𝑡)} = 𝑓 ′(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡,   𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡,  𝑣 = 𝑓 ′(𝑡)d 𝑡

= 𝑖𝜔𝑓^ (𝜔)
In general, we can take 𝑛 derivatives.

ℱ{𝑓 (𝑛)(𝑡)} = (𝑖𝜔) 𝑛𝑓^ (𝜔)

This yields the interesting property, stated below, which may be familiar in quantum mechanics as the
form that the momentum operator takes in position space (on the left) and momentum space (on the
right).
d
−𝑖 →𝜔
d𝑡

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2 Determine the Fourier transform of a function multiplied by 𝑡 𝑛. The symmetry of the Fourier transform
gives the analogous property in frequency space. We will first work with 𝑛 = 1 and then generalize.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑡𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

∞
∂ −𝑖𝜔𝑡
∫−∞ ∂ 𝜔
= 𝑖 (𝑒 )𝑓(𝑡)d 𝑡

d ^
=𝑖 𝑓 (𝜔)
d𝜔
In general, we can multiply by 𝑡 𝑛 .
d𝑛 ^
ℱ{𝑡 𝑛𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑖 𝑛 𝑓 (𝜔)
d 𝜔𝑛

We immediately obtain the below result. This is a symmetry that is not fully realized with the Laplace
transforms between the variables 𝑡 and 𝑠 .
d
𝑖 →𝑡
d𝜔

3 Determine the Fourier transform of a function multiplied by 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡. Multiplication by 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡 in the time domain
corresponds to a shift in the frequency domain.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔 − 𝑎)𝑡 d 𝑡 = 𝑓^ (𝜔 − 𝑎)

4 Determine the Fourier transform of a shifted function 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑐). A shift in the time domain corresponds to
multiplication by 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑐 in the frequency domain, which again illustrates the symmetry between 𝑡 and 𝜔 . We
can easily evaluate this using a simple substitution.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑐)} = 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑐)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

∫−∞
= 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡 + 𝑐) d 𝑡

= 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑐𝑓^ (𝜔)

5 Determine the Fourier transform of a stretched function 𝑓(𝑐𝑡). The stretch property seen in the Laplace
transform also has an analogue in the Fourier transform.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑓(𝑐𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑐𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡, 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑡

1 ∞
|𝑐| ∫−∞
= 𝑓(𝑢)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑢/𝑐 d 𝑢

1 ^ 𝜔
|𝑐| ( 𝑐 )
= 𝑓

6 Determine the Fourier transform of a convolution of two functions. As with the Laplace transform,
convolution in real space corresponds to multiplication in the Fourier space.
∞ ∞

∫−∞ ∫−∞
ℱ{𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑦)𝑔(𝑦)d 𝑦, 𝑢=𝑡−𝑦

∞ ∞

∫−∞ ∫−∞
= 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑢 + 𝑦) d 𝑢 𝑓(𝑢)𝑔(𝑦)d 𝑦

∞ ∞

∫−∞ ∫−∞
= 𝑓(𝑢)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑢 d 𝑢 𝑔(𝑦)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑦 d 𝑦

= 𝑓^ (𝜔)𝑔^(𝜔)

7 Determine the Fourier transform of even and odd functions. Even and odd functions have particular
symmetries. We arrive at these results using Euler's formula and understanding how even and odd
functions multiply.

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The Fourier transform of an even function 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) is also even, because the integral is even in 𝜔 due to the
cos 𝜔𝑡 . Furthermore, if 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡) is real, then its Fourier transform is also real.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑓𝑒 (𝑡)} = 𝑓𝑒 (𝑡)(cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡)d 𝑡

∫0 𝑒
=2 𝑓 (𝑡)cos 𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

The Fourier transform of an odd function 𝑓𝑜 (𝑡) is also odd, because the integral is odd in 𝜔 due to the
sin 𝜔𝑡 . Furthermore, if 𝑓𝑜 (𝑡) is real, then its Fourier transform is purely imaginary.
∞

∫−∞
ℱ{𝑓𝑜 (𝑡)} = 𝑓𝑜 (𝑡)(cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡)d 𝑡

∫0 𝑜
= − 2𝑖 𝑓 (𝑡)sin 𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

Part
2 Fourier Transforms

1 Substitute the function into the definition of the Fourier transform. As with the Laplace transform,
calculating the Fourier transform of a function can be done directly by using the definition. We will use the
1
example function 𝑓(𝑡) = , which definitely satisfies our convergence criteria.
𝑡2 + 1

{ 𝑡 + 1 } ∫−∞ 𝑡 2 + 1
∞ −𝑖𝜔𝑡
1 𝑒
ℱ 2 = d𝑡

2 Evaluate the integral using any means possible. This integral resists the techniques of elementary
calculus, but we can make use of residue theory instead.
To use residues, we create a contour 𝛾 consisting of a concatenation of the real line and a semicircular
arc in the lower half plane that circles clockwise. The goal is to show that the real integral equals the
contour integral by showing that the arc integral vanishes.
∞ −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
∮𝛾 𝑡 2 + 1 ∫−∞ 𝑡 2 + 1 ∫arc 𝑡 2 + 1
d𝑡 = d𝑡 + d𝑡

We may factor the denominator to show that the function has simple poles at 𝑡± = ± 𝑖 . Since only 𝑡− is
being enclosed, we can use the residue theorem to calculate the value of the contour integral.
𝑒 −𝜔
Res(𝑓(𝑡); − 𝑖) =
−2𝑖

Note that since our contour is in the clockwise direction, there is an additional negative sign.
𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑒 −𝜔
∮𝛾 𝑡 + 1
d 𝑡 = − 2𝜋𝑖 ⋅ = 𝜋𝑒 −𝜔
2 −2𝑖

Equally important is the process in showing that the arc integral vanishes. Jordan's lemma aids in this
evaluation. While the lemma does not say that the integral vanishes, it does bound the difference
between the contour integral and the real integral. We apply the lemma to the lower half plane below for
a function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡𝑔(𝑡), where 𝜔 > 0. Given a parameterization 𝐶 = 𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 where 𝜙 ∈ [0, 𝜋], then
Jordan's lemma prescribes the following bound of the integral:
| |
| 𝑓(𝑡)d 𝑡 | ≤ 𝜋 max 𝑔(𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝜙)
||∫ ||
| 𝐶 | 𝜔 𝜙 ∈ [0,𝜋]
| |

Now, all we need to do is show that 𝑔(𝑡) vanishes in the large 𝑅 limit, which is trivial here because the
function falls off as 1/𝑅 2 .
1
lim =0
𝑅→∞ (𝑅𝑒 −𝑖𝜙) 2 + 1

What is the domain of 𝜔 in this result? As stated previously, Jordan's lemma only applies for 𝜔 > 0.
However, when one repeats this calculation by enclosing the upper half plane, finding the residue at the

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other pole, and applying Jordan's lemma again to ensure the arc integral vanishes, the result will be 𝜋𝑒 𝜔
while the domain of 𝜔 will be the negative reals. So the final answer is written below.

{𝑡 + 1}
1
ℱ 2 = 𝜋𝑒 − | 𝜔|

3 Evaluate the Fourier transform of the rectangular function. The rectangular function rect(𝑡), or the unit
1 1
pulse, is defined as a piecewise function that equals 1 if − < 𝑡 < , and 0 everywhere else. As such, we
2 2
can evaluate the integral over just these bounds. The result is the cardinal sine function.
1/2

∫−1/2
ℱ{rect(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

1 𝑖𝜔/2
= (𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔/2)
𝑖𝜔
2 𝜔
=sin
𝜔 2
If the unit pulse is shifted such that the bounds are 0 and 1, then there exists an imaginary component
as well, as seen by the graph above. This is due to the fact that the function is no longer even.

( )
1
sin 𝜔 cos 𝜔 − 1
∫0
𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡 = +𝑖
𝜔 𝜔

4 Evaluate the Fourier transform of the Gaussian function. The Gaussian function is one of the few
functions that is its own Fourier transform. We integrate by completing the square.
∞

∫−∞
2 2
ℱ{𝑒 −𝑡 } = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡

∫−∞
2 + 𝑖𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔 2 /4 + 𝜔 2 /4)
= 𝑒 −(𝑡 d𝑡

∫−∞
2 /4 2
= 𝑒 −𝜔 𝑒 −(𝑡 + 𝑖𝜔/2) d 𝑡

2 /4
= √𝜋𝑒 −𝜔

Part
3 Distributions

1 Evaluate the Fourier transform of 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡. If you have had some exposure to Laplace transforms before, you
know that the exponential function is the "simplest" function that has a Laplace transform. In the case of
the Fourier transform, this function is not well-behaved because the modulus of this function does not tend to 0
as 𝑡 → ∞ . Nevertheless, its Fourier transform is given as the delta function.
ℱ{𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡} = 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔 − 𝑎)
The imaginary exponential oscillates around the unit circle, except when 𝑡 = 0, where the exponential
equals 1. You can think of the contributions by the oscillations as canceling themselves out for all 𝑡 ≠ 0.
At 𝑡 = 0, the integral of the function then diverges. The delta function is then used to model this behavior.
This result gives us the Fourier transform of three other functions for "free." The Fourier transform of the
constant function is obtained when we set 𝑎 = 0.
ℱ{1} = 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔)

The Fourier transform of the delta function is simply 1.

ℱ{𝛿(𝑡)} = 1

Using Euler's formula, we get the Fourier transforms of the cosine and sine functions.
ℱ{cos 𝑎𝑡} = 𝜋(𝛿(𝜔 − 𝑎) + 𝛿(𝜔 + 𝑎))
ℱ{sin 𝑎𝑡} = − 𝑖𝜋(𝛿(𝜔 − 𝑎) − 𝛿(𝜔 + 𝑎))

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2 Evaluate the Fourier transform of 𝑡 𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡. We can use the shift property to compute Fourier transforms of
powers, and therefore all polynomials. Note that this involves computing derivatives of the delta function.
d𝑛
ℱ{𝑡 𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑡} = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑛 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝑎)
d 𝜔𝑛

3 Evaluate the Fourier transform of the Heaviside step function. The Heaviside function Θ(𝑡) is the
function that equals 0 for negative 𝑡 and 1 for positive 𝑡 . As with the delta function, Θ(𝑡) does not have a
Fourier transform in the usual sense because Θ(𝑡) is not absolutely integrable. Ignoring this warning, we can
write out its Fourier transform by naively doing the integral.
∞
𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 || ∞ 1
∫0
ℱ{Θ(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡 = =
−𝑖𝜔 ||0 𝑖𝜔
|
In order to make sense of this answer, we appeal to convolutions. The derivative of a convolution of two
functions is given below. Note that this is not the product rule of ordinary derivatives.
d
(𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)) = 𝑓 ′ ∗ 𝑔 = 𝑓 ∗ 𝑔 ′
d𝑡

Then, we see that the convolution of the derivative of an absolutely integrable function 𝑓(𝑡) with Θ(𝑡) can
be written in the following manner. This also implies the important relation Θ ′(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) .
∞

∫−∞
𝑓 ′(𝑡) ∗ Θ(𝑡) = 𝑓 ′(𝑦)Θ(𝑡 − 𝑦)d 𝑦

∫−∞
= 𝑓 ′(𝑦)d 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡)

′
^ (𝜔) = 𝑖𝜔𝑓^ (𝜔)Θ
ℱ{𝑓 ′(𝑡) ∗ Θ(𝑡)} = 𝑓^ (𝜔) = 𝑓^ (𝜔)Θ ^ (𝜔)

1
In this sense, we may then conclude that ℱ{Θ(𝑡)} = .
𝑖𝜔

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Tips

There are two other commonly used conventions for the Fourier transform.
Some authors define the Fourier transform to split the factor of 2𝜋 evenly between the integrals.
The result is a greater symmetry between the transforms.
∞
1
√2𝜋 ∫
𝑓^ (𝜔) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝑡
−∞

∞
1
√2𝜋 ∫
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓^ (𝜔)𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 d 𝜔
−∞

Others use the normal frequency variable 𝜉, which is related to angular frequency by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜉 .
∞

∫−∞
𝑓^ (𝜉) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖2𝜋𝜉𝑡 d 𝑡

∫−∞
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓^ (𝜉)𝑒 𝑖2𝜋𝜉𝑡 d 𝜉

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