Pneumatic Clamping

328,5 mm 8,5 mm 120 mm 42 mm
160 mm
Handling
▼
Handling
Machining
Assembly
Control
47,3 mm
Pneumatics
▼
Pneumatics
Electronics
Mechanics
Sensorics
Software
88,5 mm
Hesse Clamping with compressed air and vacuum
Hesse
Clamping with
compressed air
and vacuum
158,5 mm
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Chinese
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English
French
German
Russian
195 mm
Spanish
Blue Digest
Blue Digest
on Automation
053 585
225 mm
Hesse
Clamping with compressed air and vacuum

Handling
Pneumatics
Stefan Hesse
Clamping with compressed

air and vacuum
Blue Digest
on Automation
Blue Digest on Automation
© 2001 by Festo AG & Co.

Ruiter Strasse 82
D-73734 Esslingen
Tel. +49 (0)711 347-0
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All texts, representations, illustrations and drawings included in this book are
the intellectual property of Festo AG & Co., and are protected by copyright law.
All rights reserved, including translation rights. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of Festo AG & Co.
Often small and inconspicuous, sometimes large and bulky, but always
Foreword indispensable – such is the nature of clamping devices. These are used in the
metalworking industry for drilling and milling operations and in the automobile
industry for clamping components which are to be welded. Basic assembly
components frequently require clamping, as do many types of workpiece in the
woodworking industry. In short-processing or machining needs to be preceded
by precision clamping. This secures workpieces against the forces generated
during processing or machining and also the force of gravity. The efficient and
reproducible clamping of workpieces naturally also offers considerable potential
for rationalisation benefits. Many manufacturing companies therefore see an
opportunity to optimise costs not only in terms of spindle speeds and feed rates
but also through improved clamping systems. More and more use is being made
of modular clamping systems.
In the design of clamping systems, compressed air and vacuum have proved to
be excellent working media for powering clamping devices. Pneumatic clamps
are efficient, reliable and inexpensive. There are, however, a large number of
variants. Users therefore need to be well informed concerning the type of
clamping these variants offer, their operating conditions and the pneumatic
components involved. The aim of this book is to help provide this information.
The main emphasis here is accordingly on the design concepts for clamping
devices which are used in constantly new forms in craft workshops and factories.
The wealth of proven pneumatic components which are available creates an
excellent basis which allows users to enjoy an attractive cost/benefit ratio and
achieve a high level of standardisation. The field of clamping technology is of
course much larger in its entirety than we are able to cover in this short introduc-
tion. Notwithstanding this, we hope that the practical users for whom this book
has been written will be encouraged to work independently to further expand
their detailed knowledge of clamping technology and make creative use of this.
We wish all our readers every success in this endeavour.
Stefan Hesse
5
1 Fundamentals of clamping technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Contents 1.1 Clamping as a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Definition and positioning as preliminary stages to clamping . . . . . 14
1.3 Clamping methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 Requirements placed on clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.1 Classification of clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Clamping force and clamping reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Maintaining clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Amplifying clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Pressure intensifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6 Limiting clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Clamping range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8 Clamping accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Types of clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.1 Lever clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.1 Simple lever clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.2 Toggle-lever clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.3 Toothed-segment clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.1.4 Swivel clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.5 Welding clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.6 Clamps with a centring action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 Hold-down clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3 Frame and panel clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4 Diaphragm clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 Tubing clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6 Vacuum clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 Internal clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8 Clamping against conveyor belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.9 Compensating clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.10 Clamps for automobile bodywork construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Pneumatic section of a clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.1 Control of clamping cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2 Position monitoring using back sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3 Control system for a vacuum-operated clamping table . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Design and selection of clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.1 Steps in the design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Selection of clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6 Safety with clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7 A brief overview of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Glossary of technical terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7
Clamping technology is an important element in craft workshops and factories,
1 since workpieces, assemblies and semi-finished products need to be held
Fundamentals of securely to allow work to be carried out on them. Clamping ensures a defined
clamping technology and secure relationship between a workpiece and a machine table (machine
coordinate system) and thus between the workpiece and the tool in question.
Clamping devices also have to absorb machining forces, assuming that machin-
ing is not being carried out by laser, in which case no motion forces are applied
to the workpiece. Devices which hold workpieces securely in place are known as
clamping devices or simply clamps. There are also clamps whose only purpose
is to secure workpieces against gravity, for example tack-welding devices. In
general, however, the following principle applies:
Every active force (machining force, processing force) generated by a tool must
be counterbalanced by the reactive force (holding force) of the clamping device
in question.
Clamps should be simple, fast and easy to operate and should be capable of
being adapted without difficulty for new clamping tasks. Notwithstanding the
need for flexibility, it is also necessary to maintain close tolerances.
Furthermore, workpieces should be easily accessible while clamped, which is
often not easy to achieve, for example with large bodywork components in the
automobile industry. Clamping technology is, among other things, the art of
holding a workpiece securely while using the minimum possible force.
Pneumatically powered clamps have proved to be an ideal way of achieving this.
If we take a more general view of the clamping process, we find that the use
of clamping devices goes far beyond the clamping of workpieces. In the con-
struction of containers and apparatus, for example, it is necessary to hold covers
closed and/or interlock these, while in mechanical engineering there is a need to
clamp tools and jigs securely and durably. There is a similar need in the field of
metal forming, where press tools, extruder heads and cutting and bending tools
also need to be held accurately in position. In security zones, access doors must
be interlocked and secured against unauthorised forcible opening. For these
applications, too, there is a choice of pneumatics-based solutions, both for
manual control and for integration into automatic control sequences.
The term “clamping” is used mainly in the construction of jigs and fixtures, while
1.1 in the field of handling technology we speak of “gripping” (Fig. 1-1). The purpose
Clamping as a function of clamping is to maintain a defined state. In the field of production technology,
it is necessary to secure three-dimensional objects only temporarily; in this book
we will consider only clamping achieved through the pairing of forces. The quali-
ty of the result achieved in production and assembly operations will generally
depend directly on precise and dependable clamping.
1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 9

Fig. 1-1:
Classification of handling Handling functions
functions in accordance
with VDI 2860 Storing Quantity Moving Securing Controlling
changing
Ordered storing Parting Turning Holding Checking

(Magazining) Compiling Transferring Releasing – Identity
Separating Swivelling Clamping – Presence
Sorted parts Allocating Orientating – Size
storing Branching Positioning – Colour
(Stacking) Converging Arranging – Weight
(Collecting) Guiding
Random storing Passing on Unclamping Measuring
(Binning) Conveying Counting
How is “clamping” defined?

Clamping and unclamping are variants of the elementary functions “holding”
and “releasing”. “Holding” is the temporary securing of a body in a certain
position. This can be achieved through the pairing of materials, the pairing of
shapes (positive locking) or the pairing of forces (force locking). Working on the
basis of the VDI Guideline 2860, we can thus state the following definitions:
Clamping
Temporary holding (securing) of a body in a certain orientation and position
through the use of forces.
Unclamping
The opposite of clamping, which is to say the release of a body through the
removal of clamping forces.
Clamping forces are applied in one or two coordinate directions with the aid of
clamping components. As a general rule, the use of three clamping devices will
result in an unacceptable restriction of the freedom of axis of the tool in ques-
tion and should therefore be avoided. The magnitude and direction of clamping
forces should be controllable, and clamping forces should in general be aligned
at right angles to workpiece surfaces. Clamping forces must furthermore not
fluctuate as a function of time. “Clamping” includes the following subfunctions:
Positioning
This comprises the moving of a workpiece within a clamping device from its
initial (insertion) position to the desired orientation position for all three coor-
dinate axes. In the case of automatic clamping, special positioning components
are used. These must not, however, impede feeding, processing and gripping
operations.
Definition
Determinate definition of the position and orientation of a workpiece in a clamp-
ing device through the contact of the determining workpiece surface with the
defining surfaces of the clamping device.
10 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

Support
Support components prevent processing forces from causing undesired defor-
mation of the workpiece. These components ensure secure support of the
workpiece, free of the risk of tilting (see also Fig. 1-13).
It will be appreciated that it is necessary to take into account a large number of

fundamental principles and recommendations if we are to obtain favourable
designs of clamps for every application. We can state some general rules (which
could be described as rules for “clamping-friendly design”) as follows:
• As far as possible, no clamping forces should act on workpieces during

definition. These should be allowed to come into contact with the defining
surfaces without external pressure forces, which should be applied only
during the clamping operation.
• Force should be applied only when the workpiece has ceased to move, thus
avoiding the risk of workpiece deformation.
• The accessibility of clamped workpieces must not be restricted by clamping

components. Clamping cannot be carried out at the same place and time as
machining. If there is a need to keep 5 sides of a workpiece clear, it may be
necessary to use magnetic or vacuum clamping plates (see also Chapter 3.6).
• Force should as far as possible be applied evenly to all points of the work-
piece. If this is not done, the workpiece may revert to a previous shape when
unclamped. This will also mean a distortion of machined surfaces.
• There must be a safety interlock between the clamping device and the ma-
chine tool concerned. There must be no possibility of machining starting
before the full clamping force has built up. In cases where several indepen-
dent clamping components are used, clamping force must be applied in a
defined sequence.
• Efforts should be made in mechanical engineering in cases where workpieces

are machined on all sides, to work with the minimum possible number of
workpiece clamps. Furthermore, the auxiliary process time for clamping,
reclamping and unclamping should also be kept to a minimum.
Clamping devices may be of dedicated or multi-purpose design. In many cases,

these devices are created from standard pneumatic components. We should
distinguish between standard and special clamping devices. Special devices are
justified in cases of high-volume production where workpiece clamping needs to
be at an optimum level. Special clamping devices are designed and produced on
the basis of workpiece drawings or by studying workpiece reject patterns and
with due regard to the machining operation involved.

Clamps may be fixed, i.e. permanently installed, but may also be mobile,
for example if they are installed on workpiece carriers and circulate within trans-
fer systems. In the case of mobile devices, these will have a mechanical clamp-
ing action (spring force) and a pneumatic unclamping action. This means that
a connection to a source of compressed air will be required only briefly at a
loading or unloading station within a production line. Fig. 1-2 shows the clamp
variants which are theoretically possible, disregarding electrical and electro-
magnetic clamps.
Fig. 1-2:
The operating principle of
Clamping Unclamping Example showing design principle
clamping devices is variable
mechanical pneumatic
pneumatic pneumatic
pneumatic mechanical
mechanical mechanical
Although clamping devices are often extremely simple, we must conduct an

analysis of influential factors before deciding on a design. Clamping should
always be considered within the context of the relevant working environment.
This process is shown in generalised form in Fig. 1-3. Another factor governing
the quality of finished workpieces is the way in which a clamping device is
aligned and mounted on the machine table. Further important factors are as
follows:
• The way in which workpieces are fed to the clamp, and the time required for
this
• The tendency of the workpiece to deform, and its surface properties
• The rise in machining forces as tools slowly become blunt
• The need for reliable operation despite the presence of machining swarf and
liquid coolant.

The workpiece contact points within clamping devices may become dirty after
processing only 15 to 20 workpieces. To enable clamping devices to be cleaned
easily, “dirt traps” should be avoided. Clamping systems should also have dirt-
repellent surfaces. Clamping devices should continue to operate reliably in all
cases even if dirt deposits are present.
Fig. 1-3:
Factors influencing
the clamping operation
Environmental influences
Workpieces Tool
Development of Clamping Development of

clamping force Unclamping clamping force
Machining process Machine
Environmental influences
Automated sequences must be monitored continuously to ensure that all the

conditions are fulfilled for correct clamping operation. Fig. 1-4 shows in detail
the associated subfunctions. Every function which is considered necessary must
be implemented in the form of some kind of function provider. The example
assumes that workpieces are inserted by a handling device with a jaws-type or
vacuum gripper.
Fig. 1-4:
Workpiece-related Monitoring of
subfunctions and monitoring
tasks with automatic
clamping devices
Gripper Presence Correct Clamping Clamping Clamping Presence Clean-
freedom Identity position and posi- and posi- status liness
tion status tion status Gripper
freedom
Support Work- Applica- Machining Release Support Cleaning

for inser- piece tion of of clamp- for re-
tion definition clamping ing force moval
force Hold-
ing
Workpiece Workpiece
– Unmachined Chip – Machined
– In gripper removal Chips – In gripper
– Over clamp Coolant – Over clamp
Clamping and machining or shaping are sometimes very closely linked. A case of
this kind is shown in Fig. 1-5.

Here, a plywood casing is “clamped” against a heated former. Strictly speaking,
this “clamping device” is a press. Clamping must be carried out in a defined
sequence. A solution using a pneumatic drive is without doubt highly advan-
tageous.
Fig. 1-5:
Shaping device for casings
1
1 Mounting plate
2 Foot mounting
3 Pneumatic cylinder 2
4 Pressure jaw 3
5 Plywood casing
6 Heater
7 Heater plate
8 Former
4
8 5
Among the preliminary considerations in the process of designing a clamping

1.2 device is the question of what defining surfaces and components are to be used.
Definition and Lack of attention here may mean that the resulting clamping device does not
positioning as pre- work correctly. The aim of the process is to ensure that the machining operation
liminary stages to can be carried out to the required tolerances. In order to achieve this, reference
clamping surfaces must be defined on the workpiece drawing when dimensions are enter-
ed. Following this, we must select the defining surfaces for clamping. 6 contact
points are required in order to determine a V-shaped body and thus prevent this
from moving in all 3 dimensions. This applies to both gripping and clamping. The
principle is shown in Fig. 1-6.

Fig. 1-6:
Defining a body
with 6 contact points
1 Contact point
2 Workpiece
3 Supporting force
4 Defining surface
2
3
4
The term “defining surface” is used to describe the plane on which definition is
actually carried out. The defining surface is governed by production factors. The
defining surfaces, on the other hand, are the contact surfaces present on the
workpiece and used for determining. In defining these contact points, we must
pay attention to the following points:
• The contact points for a defining surface should be as far apart as possible.
• The defining components must be capable of absorbing clamping, weight and
machining forces.
• Clamping forces should always be applied at right angles to the contact points
(the centre of lines linking these points of the centre of a clamped triangle).
• The defining surfaces should be available on the workpiece in the form of
machined surfaces, since it may otherwise not be possible to maintain unam-
biguous and reproducible positional relationships.
With regard to the last requirement, additional machined shaped components

are often fitted to the workpiece to prevent the possibility of undefined position
determination. An example is shown in Fig. 1-7. If side contact surfaces are used
with an undulating blank workpiece, this will lead to an imprecise and non-
reproducible position in the clamp. The workpiece has accordingly been pro-
vided with a finish-machined hole which is used for definition purposes in the
first and subsequent clamping devices. The centre of the hole can be used
as a reference point for precise positioning.

Fig. 1-7:
A finish-machined hole
ensures precise definition for
an otherwise unmachined
casting.
Poor Good
A number of examples now follow which illustrate the choice of defining

surfaces. Fig. 1-8 shows the possibilities in the case of a panel-type workpiece.
Correct selection and shaping of defining surfaces helps to prevent
machining errors.
Fig. 1-8:
The various possible
determining surfaces with
a panel-type workpiece.
2
a) Contact edge
b) Fixed corner 1
c) Hole
1 Defining surface
2 Clamping-force generator
a b c
Example: A drilling jig is to be designed for the workpiece shown in Fig. 1-9a.
Which defining surfaces should be chosen?
Fig. 1-9:
Clamping device for drilling
panels
a) Workpiece drawing
b) Clamping-device concept
F Manual force F
Workpiece
a b

As dimensioning is carried out from one corner, this will also be used as a
defining corner. In the example, clamping is carried out diagonally via a hand
lever and a self-locking clamping cam. It would of course also be possible to use
a pneumatic cylinder as a force generator.
If we go too far with the defining process, the result is over-definition, which
must be avoided at all costs, since it will lead to operational problems. Over-
definition is present when there is more than one defining surface in a given
direction for a reference plane. The easiest way to understand this is through an
example. Fig. 1-10 shows a panel which is to be determined with the aid of two
holes. It is unfortunately possible to produce the holes to a high degree of accu-
racy either not at all or only at an unacceptable cost. The definition process must
therefore be made less critical, for example by using an elongated hole to
restrict the rotary freedom of movement of the workpiece.
Fig. 1-10:
Defining components
should be selected in such Over-defined Possible correct solution
a way that over-definition
is avoided
1 Defining component
2 Workpiece
3 Clamp baseplate
1 2 3
Instead of the elongated hole, we could select suitable jig components – in this
case, a locating pin with a pair of flats. Pins of this kind provide a defining
function in only one direction. Fig. 1-11 shows an example.
Fig. 1-11:
Examples of determining pins
a) Round defining pin

b) Defining pin with pair
of flats
a b

The defining operation is generally carried out by activating clamping
components, for example by precise insertion of a workpiece into a clamping
device. It can, however, also be carried out during the clamping process itself,
as shown by a number of examples in Fig. 1-12. This is not recommended when
precision clamping is required. The defining surfaces can be seen clearly, and
the defining operation also provides a centring function.
Fig. 1-12:
Defining through
a centring operation
Workpieces do not always have regular surfaces. Castings in particular may

exhibit major forming discrepancies. Support components should be provided
within the jig body to act as contact points and ensure that the casting is not
clamped at “hollow” points. There are three kinds of support components:
• Support components with a fixed non-adjustable support height, such as

support pins
• Precisely-adjustable components such as support screws
• Self-adjusting support components
This last type itself generates a defined support force, for example via a spring
assembly. It is, however, also possible to use pneumatic cylinders, which are
activated after clamping is complete and generate a certain supporting force to
counterbalance the machining force, for example during drilling. Fig. 1-13 shows
an example. The projecting end of the workpiece rests on a further support
which compensates for the tilting moment generated by the machining force.

Fig. 1-13:
Swivel clamp system with
pneumatically-activated
support component
FS
FB
1 Clamp lever 1
2 Workpiece
3 Support 2
4 Clamp block
5 Support cylinder
6 Swivel clamp
6 3
FS Clamping force
FB Machining force
3
4
5
To sum up, we can state that the characteristic features of support components
are their contact force against the workpiece, their support stroke to compen-
sate for position deviations, their steady-state rigidity and the maximum possi-
ble support force which they can provide.

The “clamping method” describes the way in which a clamping force is applied
1.3 to a workpiece and the number of defining surfaces planes. Clamping methods
Clamping methods can be classified on the basis of the following criteria:
• Ability to react to workpiece changes

These changes may include, for example, expansion due to heat generated by
machining. We make a distinction between rigid and flexible clamping devices.
Wedges, screws and cams are rigid and do not provide compensation, in
contrast to clamps operating with spring and magnetic force and fluid-power
clamping devices (pneumatic and hydraulic).
Fig. 1-14:
Examples of clamping from F
one side with and without
mechanical distribution
of the force F F
1/4 F 1/4 F 1/4 F 1/4 F
F F
1/2 F 1/2 F 1/2 F

1/2 F
• Clamping action
We can distinguish between clamping from one side and from both sides. The
former type can be carried out directly against the body of the jig, as shown
by the examples in Fig. 1-14. Clamping from both sides, with a jig component
between the workpieces, is shown in Fig. 1-15.
Fig. 1-15:
Some examples of double- F F
sided clamping
F
1/2 F 1/2 F 1/2 F
1/2 F 1/2 F 1/2 F
F
F F

• Alignment during clamping
In the case of centred clamping, clamping is carried out from several direc-
tions in order to bring the workpiece into a desired position on a symmetrical
plane without additional positioning components. Fig. 1-16 shows the princi-
ple of this, while Fig. 1-17 shows a practical example in which the force of a
power cylinder is distributed via 3 or 4 angle levers. The clamping centre is
always reached precisely, even in the case of diameter deviations.
Fig. 1-16:
Principle of centred clamping
Fig. 1-17:
Centred lever clamp
1 Workpiece
1
2 Angle lever
3 Lifting component
4 Short-stroke cylinder
5 Jig body
2

We distinguish between single and multiple clamps on the basis of the number
of workpieces which can be clamped simultaneously in a device. Particularly
with milling and grinding operations, it is possible to reduce both machining and
auxiliary process times considerably through the use of multiple clamps, thus
making auxiliary motions and the approach and transfer paths of tools shorter.
A force compensator is required in order to ensure that the clamping force acting
on all the workpieces in the jig is the same. This compensator is made necessary
in particular by workpiece tolerances. Examples with mechanical force distribu-
tion are shown in Fig. 1-18. The compensation effect is provided by floating
pressure pieces. The clamping force per workpiece is reduced as a function of
the number of workpieces to be clamped, for example to F/4 in the case of
clamping as shown in Fig. 1-18a.
Fig. 1-18:
Distribution of force F
with a multiple clamp F
a) Identical clamping forces F

b) Non-identical clamping
forces
1/4 F 1/4 F 1/4 F 1/4 F F/8 F/8 F/8 F/8 1/4 F
1/4 F
a b
It is of course possible to work without force distribution. In this case, directly-

acting force generators are used, as shown in the example in Fig. 1-19. The
generators in this case are pneumatic cartridge cylinders. Often, however, the
resulting clamping force is insufficient, and hydraulic cartridge cylinders are
used instead. A pneumohydraulic pressure converter can also be used as a
power source.
Fig. 1-19:
Multiple clamping device
1 Upper part of device

2 Cartridge cylinder 1
3 Pressure cap F
4 Workpiece 2 F
5 Support strips
with V grooves F
3
F Clamping force
4

Another method of achieving multiple clamping is layered clamping. This is
shown by the example, in which slots are cut in pins. Fig. 1-20 shows two
clamping solutions. The first of these is a lever clamp in which the selected lever
arm ratios provide a force boost at the pressure point. It is also possible to
arrange V-shaped workpiece holders in layers (Fig. 1-20b) and apply the piston
force directly. For example, 6 workpieces can be clamped simultaneously and
slots cut with a multiple milling cutter (Fig. 1-20c). The V-shaped holders are
inserted loose. All workpieces are clamped with a force F/2. The V-shaped
holders must of course be manufactured to close tolerances and must fit into
the jig body with only a very slight lateral play.
Fig. 1-20:
Clamping device for cutting
slots in pins
P
a) Clamping with mechanical
distribution of force F
b) Layered clamping F
(plan view)
c) Multiple milling cutter 1/4 F
to cut slots in groups of
workpieces arranged in
layers
P
p Compressed air
a b c
There are still further examples of multi-layered clamping. Fig. 1-21 shows a
number of examples. In this case, the workpieces (semi-finished products) align
one another during clamping. This type of clamping is useful when, for example,
it is desired to cut a large number of workpieces to length at the same time or
when the end faces of the workpieces are to be milled. The clamp is well able to
cope with variations of diameter or square cross-section. Solutions of this kind
are, however, suitable only for workpieces with a simple geometry.

Fig. 1-21:
Examples of multi-layered
clamping F F
F Clamping force
F F
Multi-layered clamping can also be implemented using fluid pressure transmis-

sion. The principle of a device of this kind is shown in Fig. 1-22 and is based on
Pascal’s Law:
When a pressure acts on a fluid in one direction, this pressure is propagated

unchanged throughout all parts of the fluid and in all directions.
The clamping device in this case includes a suitable pressure chamber into the
wall of which a number of small pistons are fitted. These must be fitted to close
tolerances to prevent pressure leaks. Gelatinous plastics are used as pressure
media.
Fig. 1-22: 1
Clamping with hydraulic
pressure transmission 2
1 Jig body
3 4
2 Workpiece
3 Coupling
4 Power cylinder
5 Clamping piston
6 Plastic medium 5

Thanks to their operating principle, clamping devices of this kind are able to
compensate without difficulty for variations in workpiece dimensions. In many
cases, the return of the small pistons into their initial position is assisted by
built-in springs.
To sum up, we can state that a multiple clamping device is cost-effective in cases
where the cost of workpiece changing is higher than the extra cost for a multiple
clamp in comparison with a single clamp. In certain cases, multiple clamps are
used in order to allow better exploitation of large machine table workpiece
clamping areas.

Clamping devices can be classified on the basis of numerous criteria. Modular
2 devices, for example, are those which can be assembled in accordance with
Requirements placed specifications from a component system. The components in this system include
on clamping devices basic, expansion, stop and clamping modules. The mechanical interfaces are
designed to allow countless variants to be created.
Even using standard modules, it is possible to assemble a clamping device for

2.1 the generation of a clamping force in the form of either a dedicated or multi-
Classification purpose device. Dedicated devices are usually special clamps which have been
of clamping devices created for use with a particular product and which lie idle in a storeroom
whenever this product is not being manufactured. Multi-purpose clamping
devices are created using a basic clamping system unit and workpiece-specific
clamping inserts which can be interchanged. They are less expensive overall
than individual dedicated clamping devices.
Clamping devices can be classified as shown in Fig. 2-1 on the basis of the
method used to generate the clamping force.
Fig. 2-1:
Method of classifying
clamping devices
Clamping devices
Mechanical Magnetic Vacuum Other

clamps clamps clamps solutions
Electrical Permanent magnets Suction cup Adhesive foils
Hydraulic Electromagnets Nozzle plate Piezoelectric
actuators
Pneumatic Permanent/ Grid plate
Piston electromagnet Rheological fluids
Slotted plate
Lever Memory-metal
Wedge actuators
Screw
Clamping devices with pneumatic force generation are relatively simple and of
robust construction. They are used mainly to clamp smaller workpieces. In order
to distribute forces and also to amplify these, various transmission devices,
generally of simple design, are introduced into the force flow. In special cases,
clamping devices can even be actuated via pull-rods, which allows one
pneumatic cylinder to provide the power for up to 8 clamping points.
Vacuum is primarily used for gripping tasks. Vacuum is also used successfully as
a clamping force medium for parts with smooth, non-porous or slightly porous
surfaces and also flat parts. Rotating and tilting work surfaces are available for
manual workstations which are constructed in the form of a suction area.
26 2 Requirements placed on clamping devices

Standard clamping devices consist of standard components and are suitable
to a greater or lesser degree for universal use in clamping workpieces. Standard
clamping devices allow a clamping function to be provided quickly and inexpen-
sively without the need for major design work beforehand. The reproducibility of
the workpiece position within these devices is adequate for many applications.
In the manufacturing of workpieces, the cutting forces of the tool are transmitted
2.2 to the workpiece and thus to the clamping device. The forces are then dissipated
Clamping force and from here into the machine frame. These forces must be opposed by other forces
clamping reliability which are large enough to ensure that the workpiece is not able to change its
position. These are referred to as clamping forces. If rotary or tilting torque is
present the clamping torque should be regarded as a countertorque.
Clamping forces and clamping torques or the forces generated by these must
be in static equilibrium with machining forces and torques, including an allow-
ance for safety factors.
In addition to machining forces, we must also consider the following forces:
• Piston force
Force which a power cylinder develops at a given operating pressure,
e.g. 6 bar. The force on the piston-rod side is smaller due to the piston-rod
cross section.
• Clamping force
This is the sum of all forces which are applied to the workpiece when
clamping components, such as pressure screws, jaws or pressure bars, are
closed. The clamping force should act as close to the machining point as
possible in order to minimise any lever effects caused by machining forces.
• Holding force
Force which the closed clamping device applies to the workpiece without
permanent deformation as a reactive force in order to oppose the machining
forces acting on the workpiece. Frictional forces play an important role here.
• Release force
This is the force which a pneumatic drive must develop in order to return
clamping devices to their original position. Particularly in the case of toggle-
lever clamps, this force may be high if it is necessary to overcome a lever
dead-centre point starting from over-dead centre.
• Surface force
This is a force which does not act on a point but a two-dimensional area. This
is the case with vacuum clamping devices, and the force is also referred to as
a holding force. Surface forces also occur with magnetic clamping devices and
some diaphragm clamping devices.
2 Requirements placed on clamping devices 27

Let us consider an example which illustrates how the clamping force is deter-
mined. A block-shaped workpiece is being clamped and the clamping surfaces
lie parallel to and opposite the defining surfaces. As can be seen in Fig. 2-2,
a slot is to be milled in the workpiece.
Fig. 2-2:
Forces acting on a workpiece
aligned by 3 determining
planes
5
1 Pneumatic cylinder
2 Base plate FS FS
3 Workpiece
4 Determining component
5 Tool
1
FS Fclamp FRei
FRei Ffrict 2
FB Fmach
1
FB
FR Freturn
FRei
3 FR
FRei 1/2 F
S
a
1/2 F
4
S µ
The main cutting force Fmain, the impact factor C (between 1.2 and 2.0, de-
pending on the work operation concerned) and a safety factor S are used to
calculate the machining force Fmach as follows:
Fmach = C · S · Fmain
The workpiece must be held securely against these forces.

The clamping forces Fclamp generate the frictional forces Ffrict on each surface.
The result in the example is:
Ffrict = 2 · Fclamp · µ
In the above, µ is the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and defining
or clamping components. Guide values for the static coefficient of friction with
dry materials are as follows:
• Steel/PTFE 0.08
• Steel/steel 0.15 (0.10 if lubricated)
• Steel/oak 0.56 (0.11 if lubricated)
• Steel/cast iron 0.19 (0.10 if lubricated)
• Brass/oak 0.62 (0.16 if lubricated)

Coefficients of friction are subject to certain fluctuations, rather like the blood
pressure of human beings. In cases of doubt, tests can be carried out in which
a workpiece is placed free of forces on an inclined plane and allowed to slide
down this. The angle of inclination Ú of this inclined path is increased gradually
until the workpiece begins to move. Since tan Ú = µ, it is possible in this way to
calculate the coefficient of friction. In our example, we can ignore certain fine
points of geometry if we choose a safety factor S = 3. Simplified for equilibrium
reasons, we thus obtain
Freturn = S · Fmain
Freturn + Ffrict = Fmach
in which the defining component a also absorbs a certain return force Freturn. By
substitution and restatement of the above equations, we obtain an expression
for the required clamping force Fclamp as
Fclamp = S · Fmain (C – 1)/(2µ)
In other clamping situations, of course, other mathematical relationships apply.

In all cases, however, the following remains true:
Pneumatic clamping has the advantage that clamping force can be infinitely
varied as a function of pressure over a wide range.
In practical situations, we often have little idea of the possible order of magni-
tude of machining forces. Let us consider this question. In cutting-type manufac-
turing processes, the machining force is the cutting force. This can be deter-
mined with the aid of the specific cutting force kc (N/mm2) for a given material.
Assuming a chip with a thickness and width of 1 mm in each case, we can
assume specific cutting forces kc1.1 as follows:
• Steel (St50) 1,780 N/mm2

• Chill castings 2,060 N/mm2
• Brass 780 N/mm2
A guide value for the machining force can accordingly be taken as
Fmach = kc1,1 · A in N
in which A is the chip cross section in mm2.
In the case of the peripheral routing of wooden workpieces with an average chip
thickness (arc-shaped chip) of 0.3 mm, the following kc0.3 values apply:
• Red beech (with grain) 22 N/mm2

• Red beech (cross-grain) 60 N/mm2
• Pine (with grain) 20 N/mm2

Example: An underhand routing machine is to be used to cut a slot 6 mm wide
and 12 mm deep in pine workpieces with an average chip thickness of 0.3 mm.
What is the value of the cutting force (machining force)?
Fmach = kc0.3 · A
Fmach = 20 · 6 · 12 = 1,440 N
In the cases we have studied up to now, the pneumatic motors used have acted
directly on the workpieces. We are using the word “motor” here for any type of
drive, no matter whether it is of rotary or linear type.
In order to produce higher clamping forces, transmission devices are often inter-
posed. The most common types of devices are
• Clamping cam
• Clamping wedge
• Clamping screw
In these cases, the clamping force Fclamp comprises a drive force F in accordance
with the equations shown in Fig. 2-3. In all cases, the force F may be produced
by manual, pneumatic (linear, rotary) or hydraulic means.
Fig. 2-3:
Common types of force
Clamping cam Clamping wedge Clamping screw
transmission components
F Applied force F
Length of lever arm F
e Eccentricity
f Distance to pressure point L
L
h Pitch
Ì2 F
·
h
· Pitch angle Ì
Ú Friction angle
Ì
d
Ì Coefficient of friction
D
Ì1 Coefficient of friction
e Ì1
f
between spiral and

workpiece
Ì2 Coefficient of friction
between pivot pin and
bearing FS FS FS
Self-locking when Self-locking when

D ≥ 15 · e tan · ≤ tan Ú ≤ Ì
F·L F F·2·L·
FS = FS = FS =
e + Ì1 · f + Ì2 · d/2 tan · h

In cases where, for example, a clamping wedge with self-locking is used, it
should be noted that the return force is higher than the clamping force. It should
be noted that clamping cams, wedges and screws require only short clamping
paths. In the case of clamping devices on rotary tables or workpiece carriers,
it is customary to use pressure springs to produce clamping force. These may be
coil springs or also cup spring assemblies. Only in the clamping/release position
does a coupling component connect with a compressed air supply to release the
workpiece. An example of this is shown in Fig. 2-4. A single-acting short-stroke
cylinder is used in this case.
Fig. 2-4:
Mobile clamping device
on a workpiece carrier
1
1 Base assembly workpiece
2 Single-acting compact 2
cylinder
3 Twin-belt conveyor
4 Guide profile
5 Workpiece carrier plate
3 5
Clamping with spring force must be designed in a such a way that adequate
clamping security is achieved. But what do we mean by “clamping security”?
The clamping security value is the quotient of the holding force produced by
the application of a certain clamping force divided by the maximum occurring
machining force which has a tendency to force the workpiece out of the
clamping device in question.
Clamping security can be enhanced by installing an automatic pressure monitor.

For reasons of cost, however, users often content themselves with standard non-
return valves.

A clamping force maintenance system has the function of maintaining force even
2.3 in the case of a power supply failure (due, for example, to tubing rupture) and
Maintaining clamping thus protecting the clamped workpiece. Clamping force maintenance systems
force may take numerous forms:
• Clamping with spring force, release with compressed air

• Maintenance by means of piloted non-return valves
• Maintenance by means of mechanical self-locking (screw, cam, wedge)
• Locking the piston rod in the clamping position
• Over-dead centre position with toggle-lever clamping systems
Systems of this kind must also ensure that, if the shape of the workpiece
changes during clamping or leakages occur, the clamp force or clamping
components are adjusted to compensate for any loss of clamping force.
The most common method is to use non-return valves, as shown in the

schematic circuit diagram in Fig. 2-5.
Fig. 2.5:
Basic control system,
with maintained clamping
force by means of non-return
valve
1
1 Non-return valve,
pneumatically piloted
2 5/2-way valve
2
3 3/2-way valve for
emergency-stop function
Mechanical solutions are, however, also possible. Fig. 2-6 shows a clamping
device in which the generation of a clamping force Fclamp also produces a lever
force Flever. The force is divided by the slotted link into the force components
FleverY and FleverX, due to the fact that the piston rod can move only along the
X axis. The force FleverX intensifies the closing force and locks the clamping
lever, creating a self-locking effect. This diagram ignores the effect of frictional
torque and frictional forces within the system. The most important functional
criterion is the angle between the lever pivot point and the roller contact point
on the slotted link.

Fig. 2-6:
Clamping device with
mechanical self-locking
FS
via a slotted link
y
1 Connection for opening
function
2 Connection for clamping
function 1 2
FH
x
lock
FH FHy
FHx
It is also possible to lock the piston rod of a pneumatic cylinder clamping system
in order to maintain clamping force. In order to achieve this, a suitable locking
brake must be installed. Fig. 2-7 shows two possible solutions. In the first of
these, a clamping-force piston is used to provide pneumatic locking by applying
the force of this piston to a clamping collet. A release function is provided by a
built-in pressure spring. In the second solution, the clamping action begins when
the compressed-air supply fails (Fig. 2-7b) and clamping pieces then wedge
against the piston rod. In this case, the pneumatic piston is used to release the
clamping action produced by spring force.
Fig. 2-7:
Locking brakes for piston-rod
systems
a) Clamping collet brake 1 2 3 5

b) Spreader clamping system
6
1 Clamping-force piston
2 Clamping collet
3 Piston rod
7
4 Friction lining 3
5 Manual release button
6 Release piston
7 Clamping piece
4
a b

In certain cases, directly-generated clamping force will be insufficient, or else no
2.4 space will be available to install larger higher-performance pneumatic drivers.
Amplifying In these cases, special devices must be used. Fig. 2-8 shows a number of theo-
clamping force retical possibilities. Another method is to boost the force provided by the com-
pressed air by means of a pressure amplifier (see Fig. 2-12). While a “normal”
pneumatic cylinder (Fig. 2-8a) is able to deliver the force
F=p·A·Ë a tandem cylinder as shown in Fig. 2-8b is able to deliver
F = p · Ë (2A – A1)
In the above:
p Operating pressure
A Piston cross section
A1 Piston-rod cross section
Ë Efficiency, approx. 0.9
The design of a tandem cylinder, in which 4 piston systems are combined to form
a single system, is shown in Fig. 7-1.
The configuration shown in Fig. 2-8c utilises the wedge principle. A practical
application of this principle is shown in Fig. 7-2. Toggle-lever mechanisms
(Fig. 2-8d) can deliver higher final forces, but only within a very short distance
before the fully-stretched position. In the interest of longer service life, pneu-
matic drives should in any case not be subject to more than 70 % of the
maximum values quoted in the relevant data sheet.
Fig. 2-8:
Possible ways of amplifying 1
clamping force
a) Normal cylinder,
direct-acting
b) Tandem cylinder
c) Indirect action with
a 2
wedge boost
d) Toggle-lever principle 3
1 Piston area
2 Tandem piston 4
3 Toggle-lever linkage
4 Sliding wedge b
5 Workpiece 5
6 Pressure roller
c d
In order to allow high forces to be generated within a confined space, the drive
shown in Fig. 2-9 has an integrated wedge linkage. The piston travel is utilised to
drive an angle lever. To prevent lateral forces from acting on the piston rod, the

suspended wedge is in contact with 3 points at all times. The stroke of the
clamping stem is of course significantly smaller than the piston stroke of the
pneumatic cylinder. It is favourable for the design of the clamping device in this
case that the advance-stroke direction of the pressure stem is the same as that
of the pneumatic piston. There are also other types of “amplifier” solutions, for
example with wedge pieces which run one over another.
Fig. 2-9:
Clamping-force amplification
1 2
with wedge and toggle-lever
transmission
1 Support roller
2 Wedge slide
3 Compressed air connection F
4 Cylinder
5 Piston with spring return
6 Toggle lever
7 Pressure stem
F Clamping force 3 4 5 6 7
The clamping device shown in Fig. 2-10 uses the wedge principle in a slightly
different way. If a curved slot is created instead of a straight one, the motion
characteristics of the clamping arm can be modified in virtually any desired way
by appropriate shaping of this curve. For example, a rapid swivel motion can be
provided at the end of the opening motion, or a self-locking action at the end of
the clamping motion. The clamping operation here is one-dimensional.
Fig. 2-10:
Clamping via a slotted link
By clever choice of the kinematic properties of the moving components con-

cerned, it is also possible to obtain a two-dimensional clamping action with
one drive. This is shown in Fig. 2-11. The clamping linkage is a combination of a
circular cam and an angle lever. Clamping forces are operative on two surfaces at
right-angles, without regard to any workpiece tolerances. High clamping forces
can be achieved, but with the disadvantage that the top face of the workpiece is
no longer completely unobstructed.

2.5
Pressure intensifiers 2
3
Fig. 2-11:
Lever clamp with clamping
cam
1
1 Cam lever
2 Compressed air connection
4 Frame
In certain clamping applications, the jig used does not offer enough space to
install large cylinders. One convenient solution is to use small hydraulic cylin-
ders for example of cartridge type. The required fluid pressure can be generated
with the aid of a pneumohydraulic pressure intensifier. The principle of this is
shown in Fig. 2-12. The intensifier converts a given air pressure from the com-
pressed air supply network into a higher hydraulic-fluid pressure. Intensifiers
have two pressure chambers of different cross section and volume. The piston
rod of the pneumatic cylinder enters the oil chamber and acts as a pressure
piston. A facility is also provided for topping-up with hydraulic fluid.
Fig. 2-12:
Transportable pneumatic 3
pressure intensifier
1
1 Secondary pressure pout ,
hydraulic fluid at 160 bar
2 Primary pressure pin, 2
compressed air at 6 bar
3 Carrying handle
D
d
The secondary pressure at the hydraulic cylinder is higher than the primary
pressure at the compressed air input in accordance with the boost ratio of the
intensifier, which may range from 1:4 to 1:80.

In accordance with the principle of equilibrium:
D2 ·  · 1/4 · pin = d2 ·  · 1/4 · pout
The hydraulic fluid pressure is accordingly as follows:
pout = D2 · pin/d2
If we assume diameters of D = 200 mm and d = 50, then with a nominal primary

pressure of 6 bar we obtain a secondary pressure of 96 bar. With this and a
clamping piston diameter of 16 mm, we obtain a clamping force of approxi-
mately 2 kN, disregarding frictional losses and spring forces.
The relevant pneumohydraulic circuit is shown in Fig. 2-13 as a simple basic cir-
cuit. As the pneumatic piston is reset by spring force, which also scavenges the
hydraulic fluid, it is not absolutely necessary to equip the individual clamping
pistons with return springs.
Fig. 2-13:
Example of control system
with pressure intensifier
activated by hand lever
3
1 Clamping device
2 Hydraulic cylinder
3 Workpiece
4 Pressure intensifier
5 Control cam with hand
lever
1

There are also pressure boosters which operate without hydraulic components,
since they are designed as air/air intensifiers. These take the form of differential
piston systems or twin or multi piston devices, with the same piston diameters
on the low- and high-pressure sides. Fig. 4-3b shows a circuit diagram for a
booster of this kind. The secondary pressure lies between the primary supply
pressure and a value equal to twice this.
Air/air pressure intensifiers are used when the available supply pressure is not
sufficient to allow the desired forces to be attained using the available drives
(actuators). In the field of clamping technology, this method can also be used to
provide the necessary reserves of force. Boosters are also of interest for applica-
tions in which hydraulic components are not desirable, such as the woodworking
industry. They also provide a simple solution in the occasional cases in which
pneumatic drives have been accidentally undersized in terms of force delivery. It
is then possible to obtain higher force without modifications; in many cases of
this kind, there will in any case not be the space available, for example, to install
a larger power cylinder.
One of the great advantages of fluid-power clamping systems is that clamping

2.6 force can be infinitely adjusted as a function of pressure. It is necessary to limit
Limiting clamping force clamping force in order to restrict the load acting on the workpiece and thus
avoid excessive pressure per unit area and deformation. In the case of toggle-
lever clamps, variations on workpiece dimensions may lead to considerable
fluctuations in clamping force. The maximum permissible pressures per unit area
with pulsed loads are approximately as follows:
• Steel 3,000 to 5,000 N/cm2

• Hardened steel 4,000 to 6,000 N/cm2
• Brass 1,000 to 1,500 N/cm2
In general, the maximum permissible values will be governed by the hardness

and surface properties of the material concerned.
Clamping force can be limited by means of a pressure regulator, as shown

in Fig. 2-14.
Fig. 2-14:
Limitation of clamping force 1 2
by means of a pressure
regulator
1 Clamping cylinder
2 Workpiece
3 Pressure regulator
4 Directional control valve
3 4

If force-boosting linkages are also present between the pneumatic drive and
clamping component, for example a toggle lever or spindle mechanism, purely
mechanical limitation of the torque may be a practical way of limiting the clamp-
ing force. This could take the form of adjustable overload protection devices.
In the case of toggle-lever clamps with a cantilever clamping arm, it would be
possible to install a torque-limiting torsion device in the force flow, as shown
in Fig. 2-15. This torsion device incorporates rubber components with a choice
of Shore harnesses or else takes the form of an integral rubber/metal device.
The rubber hardnesses used are 70 Shore A (hard), 60 Shore A (medium)
and 45 Shore A (soft). The dimensions are governed by the desired maximum
permissible steady-state torque. Rubber/metal components provide electrical
insulation between the clamping arm and housing and store energy which
assists the return stroke. Furthermore, they do not require precise adjustment
to the height of the object to be clamped. On the other hand, the maximum
clamping force which can be attained is significantly lower.
Fig. 2-15:
Limitation of clamping force
of a toggle-lever clamp by 1
means of a rubber/metal
component
2
1 Metal core of torsion
component
2 Vulcanised-on rubber
3
3 Metal ring
The stroke which the clamping components (clamping jaw carriers) are able to
2.7 execute is referred to as the clamping range. Strictly speaking, this applies only
Clamping range to clamp jaws with a translatory closing motion. In the case of swivelling clamp
jaws, we could specify a swivel angle. Clamps with a small clamping range are
sufficient for series production. For universal clamping, on the other hand, a
large clamping range is advantageous. Base plates are available with a hole and
slot system on which clamp blocks can easily be repositioned. This allows work-
pieces of different size to be clamped without the need to vary the clamping
stroke. A very small clamping range, for example, is provided by the lateral
pressure pieces shown in Fig. 2-16. These components admittedly have nothing
to do with pneumatics but are simple and inexpensive. They have internal
springs made of wire or elastomer but no controlled drive. These components
must be placed into jigs accurately, since the excursion angle of the clamping
pins is small.

Fig. 2-16:
Example of very small
clamping range – clamping
with lateral pressure pieces
FS Clamping force
FS
Large clamping ranges and high clamping forces, on the other hand, can be
attained with spindle drives. Fig. 2-17 shows a machine vice driven by a pneu-
matic motor. The air pressure can be varied to control the clamping force and
ensure that the workpiece is held securely but not distorted. Lamellar motors
are available with clamping torque ratings from 0.1 to 20 Nm. This includes the
necessary gearing to reduce speed. This type of motor can, incidentally, be over-
loaded down to a standstill without damage.
Fig. 2-17:
Machine vice driven
by a pneumatic motor S
4
1 Clamping jaw
2 Body
3 Lamellar pneumatic motor
4 Milling cutter
5
5 Clamped workpiece 3 1
S Clamping range 2

The precision of a machine tool can be fully exploited only if it is not cancelled
2.8 out by inaccuracies of the associated clamping system. Clamping devices must
Clamping accuracy therefore be produced to the same level of accuracy as machine tools them-
selves.
What are the factors which may impair clamping accuracy?
• Insufficient accuracy of stop (determining) components.

• Inaccurate holes and hole pattern for stop components.
• Machining forces which are too high and at times overcome
the holding forces.
• Stop, support and clamping components whose accuracy is affected by dirt.
• Defining components which are worn or insufficiently durable.
• Fluctuations in clamping force.
• Excessive workpiece tolerances which lead to axial position shifts.
• Excessive clamping forces which cause workpiece deformation.
“Clamping accuracy” is always used to mean repetition accuracy. This is the

distribution of the differences between the attained positions and the average
attained position.
In general, it can be said that clamping accuracy is a function of the tolerances of

the relevant workpiece, jig, workpiece shape and workpiece position, and also of
the properties of the workpiece surface.
As Fig. 2-18 shows, friction-locking clamping may lead to deformation, partic-

ularly with thin-walled workpieces. Workpieces may become flattened at the
points at which forces act and may develop clamping marks. Workpiece defor-
mation can be counteracted by increasing the number of force action points.
Plastic inserts on the clamping jaws protect workpieces against clamping marks.
Fig. 2-18:
Deformation of a cylindrical
workpiece as the result
of uneven distribution of
clamping force

The following principle applies:
Clamping forces must be distributed across as large a contact area as possible.
Clamping errors can also result if the body of the clamping device deforms as
the result of the clamping force. Strictly speaking, this always happens, but the
practical effect is small, provided that the device has sufficient rigidity. This
effect can also be minimised by making the path of clamping force as short as
possible. Fig. 2-19 shows an example to illustrate this. The clamping force acts
both in a pulling direction and in a pushing direction. In the case of a clamping
motor with a pushing action, the deformation of the jig varies in proportion to
the distance H and in inverse proportion to the cross-section A on which the
clamping force acts. In the configuration shown in Fig. 2-19b, the clamping-force
path is short, preventing the jig from distorting. The pneumatic cylinder has a
pulling action in this case.
Fig. 2-19:
Clamping-force path 1 2
in a clamping device
a) Clamping force with

pushing action
b) Clamping force with
pulling action FS
H
1 Workpiece carrier
2 Pressure disk
3 Jig body
4 Slip-in disk
A 3
5 Workpiece
6 Tie rod
a
4 5 6 7
8 Support
FS Clamping force
A Cross-section subject
to clamping force FS
H Effective distance
8
Clamping forces produce deformation of clamping devices which result in

slight shifts in the positions of the components in the workpiece/clamping
jaws system.
In order to ensure precise clamping, the contact deformation between the work-
piece and the clamping, support and determining components should also be
kept as small as possible. The following therefore applies:
• The surface roughness of contact areas should be as small as possible.

• The number of components and connections through which clamping forces
flow should be as small as possible.
• Clamping forces should be routed in such a way that they do not cause
positional changes.

Clamping devices are characterised first and foremost by the requirements of a
3 given work or clamping operation. The wide range of applications is reflected in
Types of clamping the large number of clamping devices of more or less specialised design. The
devices current trend is away from custom-built clamping devices and towards modular
clamping systems. Modular workpiece clamps are generally based on a small
number of basic components and product-specific clamp jaws. The basic compo-
nents can be used in all cases.
Clamping using a lever principle can be regarded as a technical variant of hold-

3.1 ing workpieces with the hand or fingers. Levers, in both straight and angle
Lever clamps form, can also be used to intensify force on the basis of the lever relationship
rule:
3.1.1
Simple lever clamps Force x force arm = Load x load arm
The levers in question are generally driven by pneumatic power cylinders, which
are widely used in clamping technology, due to the numerous mounting options
which they offer. Examples of these are shown in Fig. 3-1. The cylinders shown
here have integrated clevis foot mountings on their bearing caps. This allows
easy connection and any desired mounting position. The cylinders can also be
equipped with an integrated flow control system, which saves space and money.
Fig. 3-1:
Use of clamping cylinders
in lever clamps of the type
frequently installed on
vehicle bodywork welding
production lines
a) Mounting via integrated

clevis foot
b) Fixed foot mounting
c) Installation above actual
clamping point a b
d) Adaptation to meet local
requirements
1 3
1 Claw clamp 4
2 Workpiece
2
c d
3 Types of clamping devices 43

This type of clamp is very widely used and very effective. It is distinguished by
3.1.2 its force-intensifying action close to the fully-stretched position of the toggle
Toggle-lever clamps lever. Certain types of toggle-lever clamps require a relatively large amount of
installation space at the clamping point. Fig. 3-2 shows the design principles of
two toggle-lever clamps.
Fig. 3-2:
Toggle-lever clamps
with concealed pneumatic
cylinders
a) Horizontal clamping,
pulling clamping action
b) Vertical clamping,
pushing clamping action
a b
These are “half ” toggle-lever clamps, so called because their lever arms have
one fixed pivot point. Fig. 3-3, on the other hand, shows a “full” toggle-lever
system. The theoretically usable clamping force Fclamp of the device can be
calculated as follows:
Fclamp = p · A · Ë [( 1/tan · + ‚) – tan Ú]
In the above, ‚ is defined as follows:
‚ = arc sin (2 · R · Ì/L )
The coefficient of friction Ì is also defined as Ì = tan Ú. The tangent of the

frictional angle is the equal to the coefficient of friction.
Fig. 3-3:
Forces operative within a
“full” toggle-lever system,
shown by the example
of an internal clamp
A
A Piston cross section
F Piston force p
FS Clamping force
L Arm length
R Pivot pin radius R
p Operating pressure
Ë Efficiency
Ì Coefficient of friction
L
FS FS
α
F
44 3 Types of clamping devices

The example assumes that the two lever arms have the same length L. If this
were not the case, it would be necessary to incorporate the ratio of the two lever
lengths into the equation.
For practical applications, it should be noted that approximately identical

clamping forces for each workpiece are obtained only within a narrow clamping
range. The examples in Figs. 3-4 and 3-5 show that the use of the toggle levers
and pneumatic cylinders in combination opens up a wealth of possible applica-
tions. The choice of variant for a particular application depends on a number of
factors. One of these is freedom of access to the clamping point and the ques-
tion of whether workpieces need to be inserted from the side or can also be
inserted from above, by automated means if necessary.
Fig. 3-4:
Push-rod clamp with toggle-
lever mechanism
Fig. 3-5:
Vertical clamping with a
toggle-lever system.
The piston rod is supported
by the base plate via a roller
Toggle-lever clamps are frequently used in automobile factories to clamp sheet-

metal workpieces, particularly on bodywork production lines. Chapter 3.10 will
deal with this type of clamp in detail. For present purposes, we will confine
ourselves to the clamp shown in Fig. 3-6. We see that the numerous connection
points allow a wide choice of mounting options. If the fishplate pin is extended
(Fig. 3-6b), it is even possible to arrange for the entire clamp housing to swivel
away as the clamp opens. This creates a large space in which a gripper can
operate.

Fig. 3-6:
Examples of mounting
toggle-lever clamps
a) Use of a connection
surface to attach
a workpiece support
b) Use of a guide linkage
to swivel away the
complete clamp
c) Connection
to a clamping station
a b c
These clamps can centre workpieces to a constant clamp jaw mid-point. In order
3.1.3 to achieve this, the clamp arms are linked together via toothed segments.
Toothed-segment An example is shown in Fig. 3-7. Clamps of this kind can be used to good effect
clamps in a multiple parallel configuration to clamp long semi-finished products such
as rails, bars, system profiles and piping. The material to be clamped can be
inserted axially or horizontally. It is also possible to make the clamp jaws inter-
changeable. The motion sequence can be monitored via electrical inductive
sensors on the power cylinder or on the clamp arms.
Fig. 3-7:
Toothed-segment clamps
1 Clamp jaw 1
2 Rod clevis
3 Piston rod 2
4 Mounting bracket
3
6 Stop to limit opening angle
7 Basic plate
8 Clamping jaw
4 5 6 7 8
Toothed-segment clamps are also a good way of clamping panel material.

A clamp of this kind is shown in Fig. 3-8. A major advantage is that the clamp
claw swings fully away, thus ensuring that the insertion of panels from above is
not impeded. This principle is also used in various underclamping systems

Fig. 3-8:
Clamping panels 1
1 Workpiece
2 Clamp segment
3 Gear rack
3
4
These are generally standard clamping devices which execute a lifting/rotary

3.1.4 motion. After the clamp claw opens, it swivels to the side, allowing unimpeded
Swivel clamps removal of the workpiece from above. This is an important factor if the clamping
device is to be fed by program-controlled handling devices. As Fig. 3-9 shows,
the 90° swivel motion is achieved by means of a spiral-slot guide in the piston
rod.
Fig. 3-9:
Design of a pneumatic
swivel clamp
1
1 Clamp claw
2
2 Workpiece
3 Spiral slot
4 Piston

There are various types of swivel clamps (Fig. 3-10), generally designed to
provide higher clamping forces than hydraulic cylinders. Pneumatic swivel
clamps generate clamping forces from 0.2 to 1.6 kN, which is usually sufficient,
for example, to clamp workpieces for welding. The advantages of swivel clamps
are their smooth outer surfaces and favourable deflection angles, which ensure
that swarf and drilling emulsion slide off easily and do not accumulate in trap
points. The swivel area of the clamps must at all times be kept free of collision
hazards. Clamping forces must be used only during the vertical lifting phase.
Versions are available which swivel to the right or to the left. In the case of
twin-arm types, the clamping force available for each workpiece is half the
total.
Fig. 3-10:
Common types of com-
mercially-available swivel
clamps
a) Table-mounting type
b) Screw-in swivel clamp
c) Double-arm swivel clamp
a b c
Workpieces to be welded must be held by hand or by means of a robot in a

suitable position for tack and finish welding. The clamping devices used must
3.1.5 be robust and unaffected by the stress resulting from the application of heat. In
Welding clamps view of the fact that work with welding torches or spot-welding tongs requires a
great deal of space, the interference contours created by the clamping compo-
nents should be kept as small as possible. Consideration must also be given to
those components of the clamping device which are susceptible to dirt. Power
cylinders are equipped with a special wiper ring which prevents welding spatter
from damaging the piston rod. Another way of achieving this would be to fit
gaiters, but these are costly. It is always advantageous to position the drive
units slightly away from the working area (Fig. 3-11) or install these under cover
if possible (Fig. 3-12).

In conclusion, let us look at a type of clamp for very high clamping forces
(Fig. 3-13). The top-fitted clamping plate is driven via an angle-arm device
which forms a toggle-lever linkage. The end position is limited by an adjustable
stop bolt.
Fig. 3-11:
Wide-opening lever clamp
for workpieces to be welded
1 Workpiece to be welded
2 Clamp arm
3 Frame
Fig. 3-12:
Welding workstation with
pipe clamping device 1
1 Workpiece 2
2 Pull-down stop 3
3 Clamp lever
with rod eye

Fig. 3-13:
Clamping station with
toggle-lever clamp system
1 Pressure plate
2 Workpiece support
1
3 Stop bolt
4 Fishplate
5 Bracket 2
6 Device body 6 7
7 Power cylinder
The requirements of production technology often mean that workpieces must

3.1.6 be clamped with centring action, which ensures that, despite dimensional
Clamps tolerances, workpieces are always centre-aligned. This is necessary in cases
with a centring action where machine-tool operating program are based on this centre point
(symmetrical axes, reference point). From the point of view of the clamping
device, this means that there can be no fixed clamping block and that the clamp-
ing components must move towards each other equally. To achieve this, the
clamp jaws must be coupled together in one way or another. In the solution
shown in Fig. 3-14, this is achieved by means of a lever mechanism. It would
also be possible to introduce force at another point within the system. This
principle of synchronous mechanical clamping allows high clamping forces to
be achieved. The clamp jaw inserts are interchangeable, permitting adaptation
to different shapes of workpieces or semi-finished products.

Fig. 3-14
Jaw clamping device with
coupled lever mechanism 1
1 Clamp jaw
2
2 Support and guide
3 Angle lever 3
4 Jaw guide
5 Base plate 7
6 Power cylinder
7 Toggle lever
8
8 Clamping edge
4
5
6
It is also possible to use cams, the simplest of which have a conical form. Motion
and force characteristics can be controlled by the choice of cam shape. It is even
possible to select an angle of inclination at the end of the clamping operation
such that the clamping device automatically locks. An example of this is shown
in Fig. 3-15.
Fig. 3-15:
Claw clamp drive via a cam
1 Cam 1 2
2 Clamping cylinder
3 Foot mounting
4 Workpiece
5 Clamp claw
6 Workbench 3
4
5
6
The design of clamping device shown in Fig. 3-16 can be used for workpieces
with either a round or rectangular cross section. A centring action on 2 planes is,
however, obtained only when an appropriate number of jaw pairs (more than 2)
are provided. The transmission levers are then connected to the piston rod via
a star linkage, for example for 3 clamp arms in the case of the clamping of rota-
tionally symmetrical workpieces.

The clamp jaws of the variants shown in Figs. 3-14 and 3-16 cannot open very
wide, which may be a disadvantage.
Fig. 3-16:
Pneumatic toggle-lever clamp
for centred clamping
1
1 Rotationally symmetrical
workpiece
2 Clamp jaw 2
3 Toggle-lever mechanism
I am sure all my readers will have experience of using a rubber hammer to tap
3.2 home workpieces in a machine vice. This takes time and is not possible at all
Hold-down clamps in automated production sequences. The aim of tapping home is to ensure that
workpieces are pressed not only against clamp jaws or positioning bars but also
against the support surface on which they lie. This can be achieved by arranging
for the force-generating components to act on the workpiece at a slightly
inclined angle. Examples are shown in Fig. 3-17. The angle a need be no more
than 3 to 5°. It is also possible to install clamp claws and pressure screws to act
in this direction. In certain cases, it may be sufficient to have clamp components
with inclined pressure surfaces which divide the available force into 2 compo-
nents. Clamps of this kind are also referred to as hold-down clamps, reflecting
the action which they produce.

Fig. 3-17:
With these clamps, there is
also a force component which
acts downwards towards the
support surface
a) Direct inclined force action

b) Clamping via taper
a b
c) Inclined clamp claw
d) Clamping via wedge
c d
A hold-down action is also produced by the clamping device shown in Fig. 3-18.
The action is obtained through appropriate design of the clamping block and by
means of a ribbed clamp jaw which acts on the workpiece (a casting) in an arc.
Fig. 3-18:
Clamp with hold-down
action for castings
1
1 Workpiece
2 Clamp block 5
3 Clamping device body 2
5 Clamp lever
6 Clamp claw with ribbed
jaw
3
6
4
Frames and panels are geometrically simple bodies. Typically, they can be
3.3 clamped not via their main faces but only at the sides. It will generally be the
Frame and panel case that machining operations will be carried out on the main faces and that
clamps clamp jaws would interfere with these. Fig. 3-19 shows some well-proven solu-
tions. Precise positioning is achieved by means of defining components, which in
certain cases can be inserted into a hole matrix as appropriate to the size of
panel concerned. The resulting clamping force is directed towards the “fixed cor-
ner” or is generated to act in this direction.

Fig. 3-19:
Devices for clamping panels
a) Cam as intermediate
mechanism
b) Direct-acting
pneumatic drives
c) Diagonal clamp slide 1
d) Angle lever as pressure
component 2
1 Lever
2 Clamp slide 4 3
3 Clamp cam a b
8 9
4 Base plate
5 Workpiece
6 Pressure piece 5
8 Determining pin
9 Pressure roller 6
10 Angle lever
7
10
c d
A similar solution, for clamping frames, is shown in Fig. 3-20. In this case, the
clamping force is directed at the gluing points of the wooden battens. Here, too,
it is advantageous to have defining bars with locating pins which allow be
re-positioning. The pressure components are able to move to a certain degree to
allow them to make full contact with workpieces with a slight angle deviation.
The clamping cylinders can be re-positioned as desired along the side of the
device.
Fig. 3-20:
Clamping a frame using
direct-acting pneumatic
drives
1
1 Base plate with hole grid
2 Stop bar
3 Wooden batten 2
4 Pressure jaw
5 Clamping cylinder
3
4
5

Diaphragm systems are pneumatic devices whose shape and stability are
3.4 provided or significantly influenced by pressure differences. The characteristic
Diaphragm clamps feature of these devices is their flexible tensile-stressed envelope (diaphragm),
which can also be combined with a meshed fabric. Diaphragm clamps exploit the
flexible properties of a two-dimensional component. Diaphragms can also be
made (spun) from metal or produced from rubber or elastomer materials.
Elastomer clamping modules of the kind shown in Fig. 3-21 have only a small
clamping stroke but offer a direct action. The pliable surface of diaphragm
clamps means that they are able to hold even workpieces with uneven surfaces
securely. The modules are very low and can be installed easily in devices with
limited installation space. Pressure surfaces can be stabilised by means of a
clipped-on metal pressure plate, which prolongs the service life of the elastomer
diaphragm. A return force is produced by the elasticity of the stressed dia-
phragm. If we regard the pressure plate as a “piston rod”, we can equally regard
a diaphragm clamping module as a single-acting pneumatic cylinder.
Fig. 3-21:
Pneumatic clamping modules
with clamping forces ranging 1 1
from 95 to 1690 N for each
2
individual module, depending 3
on size
a) Rectangular clamping
module
b) Circular version
1 Rubber diaphragm
Symbol
2 Clipped-on pressure plate
3 Clamping module housing
Stroke
a b
A great advantage of these devices is their modular design, which makes it easy
to arrange a number of modules in parallel to form a clamping system.
Configurations can be adapted to suit different shapes of workpieces. Fig. 3-22
shows examples of configurations. Clamping forces are cumulative when mod-
ules are arranged in series or parallel. Modules can, however, also be arranged
in opposition to provide external or internal clamping. The principle of these
two basic applications is shown in Fig. 3-23. We should, however, note that in
the example shown all the contact points have a certain flexibility, which means
that precise centre alignment cannot be expected.

Fig. 3-22:
Combinations of clamping
modules
a) Single module
b) Parallel configuration
c) Clamping curved
mouldings
a
d) Vice-type configuration
e) Combination for internal
clamping
c d
f ) In-line configuration
b e f
Fig. 3-23:
Typical clamping methods 1 1
for rotationally symmetrical
workpieces
2 2
a) Internal clamping
b) External clamping
1 Workpiece 3
2 Jig body
3 Clamping module
a b
Clamping modules can also be used to obtain an indirect clamping action.

In this case, they form part of a mechanical structure, as shown in Fig. 3-24.
The clamping path is very short, and the very flat design of the modules is a
great advantage if only a small amount of installation space is available. The
overall clamping force can be increased by arranging several modules in series.
In this case, the clamp claw would be equipped with a pressure bar which
extends over several modules. As the clamp is of single-acting design, its air
consumption for a clamping operation is only half that of a double-acting
cylinder.

Fig. 3-24:
Lever clamp based on a round
clamping module with a 2
rubber diaphragm
3
1 Clamping module
2 Clamp arm 1
3 Workpiece
4 Clamping device
Finally, there are also metal diaphragms, which are however installed in
clamping devices in a completely different way. As Fig. 3-25 shows, diaphragms
are produced precisely to a required clamping diameter and machined down in
such a way that a spring clamping force of a defined magnitude is obtained.
The edge of the diaphragm is used for clamping. The example shown involves
internal clamping. A drive is required only for unclamping. When the diaphragm
is arched, its diameter is slightly reduced, and the workpiece in question can
be removed. The clamp has a centring action, and the pressure per unit area
at the contact points is low. There is very little tendency to produce pressure
marks. Due to the fact that the clamping (spring) path is small, only workpieces
produced to close tolerances can be clamped.
Fig. 3-25:
Metal diaphragm clamp
(RINGSPANN design)
1 2 3
1 Puller bolt
2 Metal diaphragm
3 Workpiece
4 Support ring 4
5 Base plate
6 Jig plate
for release 5
8 Power cylinder
7 6
8

A special type of clamping function can be obtained by using “Fluidic Muscles”.
These are pneumatic drives which operate on the same contraction principle
as natural muscles, such as the ones we use to bend or stretch our arms.
A fluidic muscle consists of a rubber tube whose walls are fitted along the
sheath axis with strong reinforcing fibres in rhomboidal form. When the tube is
pressurised by compressed air, the lattice type fibre structure stretches in the
peripheral direction, accompanied by a longitudinal contraction of the fluidic
muscle by approx. 20 % of its length. This creates a tensile force in the axial
direction. A fluidic muscle as shown in Fig. 3-26 with a length of 150 mm and
an internal diameter of 20 mm can generate a force of 1,730 N with 6 bar inter-
nal pressure and a 10 mm stroke. The mass of this type of drive is relatively low,
and its reaction time is very fast. The force generated and available stroke are
largely dependent on the
• length and expandability of the pneumatic sheath

• the strength and elasticity
• the level of the internal pressure and
• the type of mounting used.
Fig. 3-26:
Fluidic muscle (Festo) Stroke
3
a) Configuration 1
b) Example of use
for clamping 2
c) Changing the direction
of force action
1 Locking nut
2 Flange
3 Contraction diaphragm
4 Workpiece a relaxed contracted
5 Clamping device
6 Clamp arm
7 Pushrod
8 Mounting bracket 4
5
b 6
3
7
8
c

Fluidic muscles are also of interest as drives for clamping devices (Fig. 3-26b).
If the contraction motion of the muscle is transmitted via an internal rod to the
opposite end (Fig. 3-26c), it is also possible to generate thrust forces, which
often allows a simpler connection to be made to clamping devices, such as
beam-type clamp bars.
In physical terms, tubing clamps are also pneumatic devices utilising a dia-
3.5 phragm principle. This type of device is, by the way, also found in nature.
Tubing clamps Water frogs, for example, are equipped with resonating sacs consisting of high-
strength cellular material. When these are subject to internal pressure, they
swell to a spherical shape. Tubing also expands under pressure and generates
a radial force. Tubing can accordingly be used in clamping technology as a pneu-
matic drive. In earlier times, firefighting hoses were popular in joinery and
furniture-making workshops as the basis for frame presses. Clamping devices
of this kind are simple and robust. Fig. 3-27 shows the principles of a number
of applications.
Fig. 3-27:
Tubing used as a pneumatic F 2 F
drive F F
a) Pressure-plate unit 1
b) Pressure-pin clamp
c) Lever clamp
d) Double-acting rocker lever F
F 5
1 Pressure tube 3 F
2 Rocker arm 4
3 Pressure spring
4 Tensile spring
5 Lever
a b c d
Hoses are, however, rather makeshift clamping devices, particularly for large and
long workpieces. Today, standard components are available which can be used
with little need for adaptation, are more robust and deliver more performance.
Nonetheless, there may well be special cases where it is useful to recall the
principle of “tubing drives”, which are able to provide interesting solutions for
clamping round workpieces, as shown in Fig. 3-28. Workpieces such as slightly
conical containers made of plastic can be clamped gently all round. A length of
tubing is fitted into the clamp housing in the form of a coil and generates a
clamping force when pressurised. The natural elasticity of the tubing means
that it resumes its initial shape when depressurised, allowing the workpiece in
question to be removed.

Fig. 3-28:
Tubing clamp for lightweight
round workpieces
1 2 3 4
1 Compressed air supply
2 All-round clamp housing
3 Workpiece
4 Pressure tube
In the device shown in Fig. 3-29, the clamp jaws are driven by tubing pieces. This
device is easy to produce and the drive is highly compact, which is a particular
advantage. The clamping forces are lower than with other types of clamp but will
be adequate for special cases.
Fig. 3-29:
Holding device for piping,
using an inflatable tubing
drive
1 Clamp jaw 1
2 Workpiece
3 Pressure tube
2
4 Jaw pivot axis
An interesting holding device, albeit not a clamp, is shown in Fig. 3-30. This is
for irregularly-shaped castings. The workpiece contour is temporarily mirrored
by a matrix of support rods as the workpiece is laid onto these. In a sense, the
matrix is programmed by this action. The workpiece is now in a stable position
and can be worked on by hand, for example to trim moulding joins. Before this
can be done, however, the rods must be locked into place. This is achieved by

means of a piece of tubing threaded through the matrix in an S shape. This is a
very inexpensive solution, notwithstanding that the forces holding the rods in
place are not very high. Other types of rod locking devices involve considerably
greater mechanical complexity. This device is admittedly a special solution but
its principle may provide the answers to other applications.
Fig. 3-30:
Programmable holding
device for castings
1
1 Workpieces
2
2 Holding device (plan view)
3 Spring-loaded
displaceable support rod 3
4 Pressure tube
4
A simple and interesting solution is offered by pneumatic cushions, a kind of

modern ready-made version of the “tubing motors”. Fig. 3-31 shows one of the
many possible applications. “Pneumatic clamp bars” are available in lengths
from 0.1 to 20 metres and can be used to clamp even very large workpieces of
the type encountered in the woodworking industry. Pneumatic cushions are
produced as cylindrical convoluted bellows and of course also in square form.

Fig. 3-31:
Clamping with pneumatic
cushions (PRONAL)
1 Support structure 2 3
2 Workpiece
3 Clamp block
4 Pneumatic cushion or bar 1
5 Compressed air connector
6 Vulcanised-on
threaded pin
4
5 6
The advantage of vacuum clamping technology is the gentle non-damaging

3.6 clamping action which it provides. Workpieces do not suffer any of the scratches
Vacuum clamps or clamping marks associated with mechanical clamping. Demand for vacuum
clamping systems is rising due to the increased use of thin-walled light metal
workpieces, those made of composite materials and flat plastic workpieces,
which cannot be clamped by magnetic means. Vacuum clamps develop a holding
force which is spread across the entire workpiece area, making them ideal for
flat thin-walled workpieces.
The components of a vacuum clamp are the vacuum generator, clamping tool,
seal components in the case of grid plates, and a control valve. Vacuum clamps
themselves do not require any power transmission components and thus be
produced in lightweight materials (aluminium). To make vacuum clamps easier
to use, they can be provided with positioning crosses or full-area carrier tem-
plates for workpieces. Even chucks are produced in the form of vacuum clamps.
Fig. 3-32 shows an overview of the most important types of vacuum clamps.

Fig. 3-32:
Vacuum-operated clamping
1 1
plates for holding workpieces 2 3
a) Suction plate
b) Carrier plate
c) Round vacuum- 4
operated chuck a b c
d) Slotted suction plate
e) Sintered metal clamp 1
plate (SAV) 5 7
f ) Vacuum-operated clamping 9
table with rubber suction
cups
1 Workpiece 8
2 Suction air plate d e f
Vacuum
3 Carrier template
4 Suction air openings
or slot system
5 Suction slot In the case of slotted grid systems, the working area must be sealed against
6 Vacuum connection
atmosphere by a neoprene bead. There are also clamping plates whose unused
7 Cover foil
8 Sintered metal plate suction-air openings are sealed by plugs. With sintered metal plates, the sur-
9 Disk suction cup faces of these must be sealed by a foil with a cut-out aperture only in the
area where the workpiece is placed. The level of clamping force which can be
achieved is governed by the size of the workpiece contact area, together in
certain cases with the workpiece shape and the flatness of the contact area.
The maximum vacuum which can be achieved depends on the instantaneous at-
mospheric pressure, which can vary from approximately 0.930 bar to 1.013 bar.
We can thus assume a clamping force of only around 9.3 N/cm2, which may be
reduced still further as the result of clamping conditions. If we take 98% vacuum
as being the most that can be achieved, we shall obtain a clamping force of only
9.1 N/cm2. If we then allow for a safety factor of around 1.5 to 2 and for leakage
losses due to unevenness and roughness, the maximum force will fall still fur-
ther. For rough calculation purposes, the following applies:
Fclamp = 0.01 · V · po · A · S –1 in N
In the above:
V Maximum relative vacuum in percent

po Atmospheric pressure in hPa
A Effective workpiece support area in cm2
S Safety factor
The required suction power depends on the size of the grid (or slotted) clamp
plates. The following can be taken as a guide:
• Grid clamp plate with an active area of 800 cm2 – approx. 7.5 m3/h
• Grid clamp plate with an active area of 2,400 cm2 – approx. 21 m3/h

Fig. 3-33 show a vacuum-operated clamp plate in which the suction area has
been limited to the dimensions of the workpiece. This is achieved by inserting a
bead seal into the slots in the plate. There is only one row of suction holes in the
centre of the plate; vacuum is distributed via the grid slots. This system is even
able to deal reliably with holes and slots in the workpiece in question. If the
entire area is used, measuring 300 x 300 mm, the resulting holding force, with
a 3x safety factor, is approximately 2,000 N.
Fig. 3-33:
Vacuum-operated clamp plate
with grid slot system 1 2
(Swisstool)
1 Grid suction plate

2 Bead seal insert
In addition to vacuum clamp plates, there are also dice-shaped 5-sided vacuum
components which can, for example, be used to clamp angle workpieces. If
workpieces held by vacuum clamp plates are separated, the vacuum collapses.
To deal with this problem, ingenious people have come up with a plastic mat
which can be laid under the workpiece. This contains a large number of micro-
distributed vacuum points in the form of vacuum suction cups of various sizes
with flexible lips at the top and a fine hole in the centre. The undersides of the
cups are equipped with plastic lugs which can be inserted into the vacuum
clamp plate. This allows clamped workpieces to be separated, and it is even
possible to mill into the plastic mat.
The main use of internal clamps is to pick up workpieces via drilled holes.
3.7 This can be achieved with jaw-type clamps if the holes in question are large
Internal clamps enough, but spreading and expanding devices can also be used. Fig. 3-34 shows
a number of practical examples. A cup-spring assembly has a relatively precise
centring action during clamping, but this cannot be expected with elastic rubber
clamping devices. These devices also develop less holding force.

Fig. 3-34
Internal clamp
with pneumatic drive
a) Clamp with cup spring

1
assembly 2
b) Clamping with elastomer
device
1 Workpiece
2 Cup spring assembly
P
3 Barrel-shaped rubber
component
4 Tie rod a
5 Clamping support
6 Bracket for pneumatic
3 4 5 6
cylinder
In jig construction, we also find numerous other solutions, for example equipped
with inclined pull-action slides or wedges which use the pulling or pushing
action of a drive to generate a spreading or expanding clamping action.
Expanding tapered mandrels used in this way generate high holding forces and
also maintain the axis centre of the clamped workpieces to a high standard of
accuracy.
For ring- and tyre-shaped workpieces, it is possible to construct a clamping

device as shown in Fig. 3-35. In this case, the force of a pneumatic cylinder is
distributed among a number of clamping rods. The power cylinder can be in-
stalled below the table plate. The rod guides are suspension-mounted to ensure
that the rods do not jam. As all the rods advance at the same time, the work-
piece is always correctly aligned to the centre.

Fig. 3-35:
Device for internal clamping,
with force distribution
(plan view)
1 Clamping cylinder
2 Workpiece 1
3 Pressure roller
4 Clamp block
2
Fig. 3-36 shows a design which is both simple and interesting. Although original-
ly intended as a gripper, this rubber-pin device can also be used for stationary
clamping tasks. The rubber pins which “advance” when pressure is applied offer
a high coefficient of friction, ensuring that workpieces are held securely. With a
diameter D of 100 mm, 6 bar operating pressure, and a safety margin of 20 %,
a total force of 2,800 N is developed.
Fig. 3-36:
Rubber-pin gripper used as
workpiece holder (Sommer)
1 Body 1
P
2 Rubber-pin diaphragm
F Pin force D
p Compressed air 2
F F

The task of clamping stationary workpieces presents requirements which are
3.8 fundamentally different from those in the case of moving workpieces, such as
Clamping against turned components rotating in a chuck or clamping against conveyor belts.
conveyor belts There are various ways of achieving the latter function, including suction air
(Fig. 3-37). Vacuum conveyor belts hold moving workpieces securely in place,
producing a ‘clamping’ function by means of air pressure. This method can be
used, for example, to hold lengths of foil and at the same time draw this away
from a roll. Operations of this kind are of great interest, for example, in pack-
aging technology. A holding function is provided only above the suction air
chamber.
Fig. 3-37:
Vacuum conveyor belt
1 Perforated conveyor belt 1

or toothed belt with
perforations between teeth
2 Suction air chamber
3 Vacuum connection
4 Vacuum
3 2
Particularly in the woodworking industry with panel-cutting machines, it is

important to generate the pressure of the workpiece against the conveyor belt
which is necessary to ensure that the workpiece is transported by friction. In the
solution shown in Fig. 3-38, the pressure rollers operate directly on the work-
piece. The pressing force is produced by a pneumatic cylinder. Good use is made
here of the spring action of the compressed air and the facility for infinite
pressure adjustment.
Fig. 3-38:
Clamping against a conveyor
belt using pneumatic
cylinders
2 Pressure roller 1
3 Workpiece passing
through machine
4 Belt support 2
5 Conveyor belt
3
4 5

It is also possible to apply clamping force to the conveyor belt, as shown
in Fig. 3-39. The roller pressure segments are able to swivel through a small
angle, ensuring that all the pressure rollers within a segment are in contact with
the belt. The pressure force can be adjusted easily as a function of the com-
pressed air pressure. Differences in workpiece heights can be managed without
difficulty. The compressibility of the air once again offers the advantage of a
spring-loaded effect, allowing the travelling conveyor belt to conform well to the
workpiece.
Fig. 3-39:
Pressure device
with pneumatic cylinders
1 2 3
1 Guide roller
3 Conveyor belt
4 Incoming workpiece
5 Roller pressure segment
6 Lateral belt guide roller 5 6
4
We have already considered the principle of compensatory clamping. This in-

3.9 volves the even distribution of clamping force among several workpieces, even
Compensating clamps though these may have different shapes and dimensions. Fig. 3-40 shows a so-
lution in which force is applied via wedge pieces. These are inserted loose and
their position can be varied by small amounts from a central control point. The
force F initially acts on the first sliding wedge and is then propagated through
any
desired number of wedge-shaped pressure and compensator pieces until the
last wedge piece, whose position is fixed. The pressure pins are returned to
their initial position by return springs. The required stroke H at the point of force
application is made up of the individual clamping strokes a of the various pres-
sure pins. In this case, its value is:
H=4·a

Fig. 3-40:
Compensatory clamping
with the aid of wedge pieces
(plan view)
1 Clamp arm 8
2 Pressure piece
7
4 Compensator piece
5 Pressure pin 6
6 Workpiece
7 Determining pin 5
8 Jig body
H
a F
2
4 1
There are certain cases where it is necessary to clamp a workpiece securely

against another but without allowing any forces to act on the inboard workpiece
(Fig. 3-41) due to the risk of bending. These cases require a facility for position
adjustment between the individual clamps. This is called “floating” clamping.
The pneumatic cylinders are fitted in pairs on a clamping bridge which is able
to move freely and undriven within a guide. This produces a closed-loop flow
of force via the bridge at each clamping point. This system is comparable to
clamping with 4 individual screws clamps. At each point, the force and counter-
force are in equilibrium.

Fig. 3-41:
Clamping mouldings with
floating clamping bridges
1 Clamping device for basic 1

component
3 Bridge
4 Additional clamped
workpiece
5 Basic component
6 Bridge guide
2
4
3 5
5 4
2
Toggle-lever clamps have become particularly important in the automobile in-

3.10 dustry and are used for the temporary clamping of sheet metal, profiles or large-
Clamps for automobile volume workpieces such as seat, suspension and chassis components. Fig. 3-42
bodywork construction shows a typical design of a toggle-lever clamp. The decisive advantage of this
type of clamp is the good accessibility it provides with large bodywork compo-
nents. Toggle-lever clamps operate quickly and reliably and require no mainte-
nance even after long periods of service. Their opening angle is large, and their
width should be kept as small as possible. Flat oval-piston cylinders are there-
fore often used as force generators. The end position on the opening stroke is
cushioned. The heavily-loaded clamp shaft usually runs in plain bearings, but
needle bearings are also used. Clamps should offer a service life of at least
5 million strokes.

Fig. 3-42:
Pneumatic clamp with single
toggle lever (Festo)
1 Pressure screw
2 Clamp arm
1
3 Aluminium housing 2
4 Clamp shaft
5 Fishplate 3
6 Guided rod head 10
7 Bushing
9 Piston rod 4 4
10 Washer
5
6
9
7
Automobile production lines require torque values at the clamp arm ranging
from 20 to 400 (500) Nm. The toggle-lever clamps used are thus often referred
to as power clamps. Their housings should have as many mechanical interfaces
as possible to allow connections to be made as required on any of 4 sides (side
and end faces). Clamps are also made with integrated valve systems (attached
to the base of the cylinder) and with integrated sensing of operational status.
A distinction can be made between the following 4 types, based on the design
of the clamp arm:
• Clamp arm with open head

• Clamp arm with enclosed head
• Clamp arm connected at one side only
• Double clamp arms
These variants are shown in Fig. 3-43. The toggle lever of the open-head design
is susceptible to dirt (welding spatter), while the enclosed-head design avoids
this, the encapsulated head providing secure protection. Enclosed-type clamps
are thus becoming more and more widespread in the mechanical-engineering
and automobile industries. Clamp arms connected at one side only are easier to
remove, but both right- and left-hand versions are then required. Double-arm
clamps are used as large grippers.

Fig. 3-43:
Clamp arm variants
a) Open head, opening

angles 40°, 90°, 135°, 180°
b) One-sided clamp arm
c) Enclosed head,
opening angle 135°
d) Double clamp arm
a b
c d
The clamp arms can be equipped with pressure screws, pressure bars or pres-
sure pieces shaped to match the workpiece in question, as the examples in
Fig. 3-44 show. The fitting by which the arms are attached to drive shafts may be
square, hexagonal or octagonal.
Fig. 3-44:
Some designs of clamp arms
1
1 Contour of machine tool 2 3
2 Sheet metal workpiece
3 Clamp jaw
4 Toggle-lever clamp
5 Pressure screw
6 Clamp arm with octagonal
fittings
4
5
6

With certain clamps, it is even possible to modify their kinematic properties by
adding supplementary components. For example, the motion path of a claw
clamp can be changed to allow insertion into sheet-metal workpieces even in
confined spaces. Moreover, it can be arranged for support components to move
into contact with the workpiece contour as the clamp closes. Fig. 3-45 shows
some examples. It can be seen that the clamp housing is prepared with a series
of holes to allow the fitting of supplementary components. Clamps of this kind
have been used for the last 40 years in the American automobile industry. The
inventor L. Blatt designed these clamps so that they are self-locking at an angle
of 12 to 2° before dead centre. “Self-locking” means that the workpiece will
continue to be securely held even if the compressed air supply fails.
Fig. 3-45:
Examples of applications
of standard clamps for sheet-
metal workpieces based on
toggle-lever systems
(IMI-NORGREN)
A particular problem with toggle-lever clamps is to achieve precise setting of

the pressure point. As we know, at dead centre the resulting force tends towards
infinity. If the mechanism is moved beyond dead centre, a self-locking effect
is produced. We call this an “over dead centre interlock”. The travel of the
mechanism is often halted 8° before dead centre. If it is allowed to pass beyond
dead centre, there is the risk that the power cylinder may not be able to deliver
enough force for the return stroke. How is it then possible to adjust the pressure
point precisely to the relevant workpiece thickness? The following methods can
be used:
• After the clamp has been fitted, spacers can be placed under the pressure
piece to correct the height of this. These spacers are available in thicknesses
of 4 to 6 mm in steps of 0.2 mm.

• Clamps are available with a diagonally split housing, allowing precision
adjustment of the upper part of the housing and thus facilitating height
adjustment.
• The generated clamping force can be limited in the vicinity of dead centre by
(patented) mechanical means, such as a slight hollowing-out of the guide slot
for the guide roller. This causes the piston rod to shift slightly to the side,
reducing the high terminal force in the fully-stretched position.
• The generated torque can be limited by resilient (elastomer) intermediate
components. These may, for example, be rubber torsion components of the
kind already shown in Fig. 2-15.
It is often necessary in vehicle bodywork construction to carry out clamping

through holes and other openings which may be distributed over a wide area.
The clamping devices used for this are adapted accordingly. Fig. 3-46 shows
the clamp claws of the devices known as under-clamps. The clamping mandrel
holders have diameters of 18 to 40 mm, strokes range from 25 to 100 mm and
the devices can clamp sheet metal components up to 2.5 mm thick. Clamps
with a centring mandrel provide the functions of aligning the workpiece to be
clamped (centring) and holding it securely in this position.
In the case of pull-action and swivel hook systems, the hooks are retracted fully
into the centring mandrel as the clamp opens.
Fig. 3-46:
Under-clamp systems
for shaped sheet-metal
workpieces D1
Open
a) With centring mandrel and
pull-action hook,
D1 = 20 to 40 mm
b) With centring mandrel and
swivel hook
c) With retracting hook,
D2 = 40 mm Clamped
a b
D2

An interesting clamp which can also be used as a gripper is shown in Fig. 3-47.
It recalls the “Devil’s claw”, a tongs-type gripper for use with wooden beams,
which was used as far back as the 19th century. The operating principle can be
seen clearly. As the gripper arms close, their inner sides act in the same way as
cams over which a roller travels, with high force being achieved at the end of the
‘clamping curve’. During the opening phase, on the other hand, the roller drives
the clamp arms apart. As the point of action of the roller now lies close to the
pivot axis of the arms, a large opening angle is produced, with a choice of 60°,
90° and 150°. The unusual shape of the arms is dictated by their function.
A large range of different clamp arms is available, together with interchangeable
jaws, which are mounted in a floating manner. The gripper will continue to hold a
workpiece securely even in the case of a sudden failure of the compressed air
supply.
Fig. 3-47:
Clamp or gripper system for
sheet metal workpieces (BTM)
1 Clamp jaw
2 Clamp arm
3 Sheet metal workpiece
±5°

It is in principle easy to control a clamping cylinder, and a 5/2-way valve can be
4 used for this purpose. One-way flow control valves are usually fitted externally,
Pneumatic section as close as possible to the relevant cylinder. The control process becomes more
of a clamping device complicated if the clamping operation is part of a complex functional sequence,
in which case the opening and closing of the clamp jaws are only individual
steps in a sequence chain. In this case, in addition to automatic operation,
4.1 provision must also be made for manual actuation of the clamp to allow func-
Control of clamping tional testing.
cylinders
Fig. 4-1 shows a control circuit for single-acting clamping cylinders. The clamping
pistons are reset in this case by spring force.
Fig. 4-1:
Schematic control circuit
for pneumatic clamping
with several drives
If there is a requirement for clamping of the piston rod in order to maintain

clamping force, the control circuit shown in Fig. 4-2 can be used. The clamping
function can be provided by a pneumatic clamping unit. These are available in
single- and double-acting versions.
If the clamping cylinder is powered via a pressure intensifier, it can be connected

up as shown in Fig. 4-3. This is a pneumohydraulic system.
Fig. 4-3b shows a schematic circuit diagram for a pressure booster which oper-
ates in the air/air system as a twin-piston pressure intensifier. The power pis-
tons are fed with compressed air via a pneumatically-actuated directional
control valve. The piston direction is reversed each time a stroke end position
is reached, thus producing the required oscillating action.
76 4 Pneumatic section of a clamping device

Fig. 4-2:
Clamping cylinder
with clamping of piston rod
Typical piston diameters are 63 and 100 mm. Not shown are the pressure
gauges used to indicate the primary and secondary (high-pressure side)
pressures.
Fig. 4-3
Boosting force through
pressure intensification
a) Clamping cylinder with

air/hydraulic fluid
pressure intensifier
b) Air/air pressure intensifier
It is also possible to fit the clamping cylinder with inductive sensors which
generate an electrical signal by contactless means when the cylinder piston
reaches a certain position. This signal is triggered by a permanent magnet fitted
to the piston of the cylinder. The magnetic field passes through the cylinder wall.
Sensors of this kind may not operate reliably in a working environment where
strong magnetic fields are present, for example in the case of resistance welding
machines. There are, however, special sensor circuits which can detect whether
4 Pneumatic section of a clamping device 77

the sensor in question is being triggered by a constant magnetic field (the field
of the switching magnet) or an alternating magnetic field such as a thyristor-con-
trolled welding machine. It is therefore necessary to consider whether inductive
sensors should be fitted which are resistance to magnetic fields (welding-proof ).
Fig. 4-4 shows a circuit for a reed switch which includes operational status in-
dicators for the clamp. These are in the form of LEDs which together with the
ballast resistor R also provide a protective circuit function.
Fig. 4-4:
Schematic circuit diagram
for a reed switch with LED Load
indicators used as a cylinder
switch (end-position sensing)
R 0V
24 V DC
In automated production systems, workpieces to be clamped are fed into the

4.2 relevant clamping devices automatically. Before clamping, a check must be car-
Position monitoring ried out to see that the workpiece is correctly in contact with the determining
using back pressure surfaces. This can be achieved by various means, including pneumatic back
sensors pressure sensors. Fig. 4-5 shows a schematic circuit diagram for the clamp
concerned. The status of the sensors D1 to D7 is evaluated in a logic circuit. The
sensors monitor the horizontal plane on the clamp slide side (D1, D2, D3), the
horizontal plane on the clamp block side (D4, D5) and the vertical plane on the
clamp block side (D6, D7).
E1 D6
Fig. 4-5:
for an automatic workpiece
clamping device D7
E1 Sensor to monitor E2
clamping cylinder stroke
E2 Pressure switch
Di Back pressure sensors
D1 D2 D3
D4 D5

Fig. 4-6 shows the defining components, which are equipped with integrated air
nozzles. These reflex nozzles are used as a pneumoelectrical sensor system to
verify that the workpiece is correctly positioned and in contact with the correct
surfaces. This system does, however, require every defining component to be
fitted with tubing, and the generated signal must be converted and evaluated.
Reflex sensors can detect distances of ≥ 0.1 mm. The maximum switching
distance of pneumoelectrical sensors is governed by the following factors:
• Nozzle diameter
• Throttle diameter
• Switching pressure of threshold switch
• Properties of contact surfaces of workpiece
Fig. 4-6:
Determining components
with pneumatic monitoring
of position and contact 1
1 Workpiece 2
2 Defining component
for vertical reference
surfaces
3 Reflex sensor
4 Jig baseplate
5 Compressed air connection 3
With fully-automatic operation of clamping devices, for example for a milling

machine, the equipment required for signal detection and evaluation may be
highly complex. The steps in the sequence are as follows:
- Workpiece clamping device free?

- Insert workpiece.
- Workpiece inserted? Correct position reached?
- Position and clamp workpiece.
- Is workpiece in contact with vertical defining surfaces?
- Is workpiece in contact with horizontal defining surfaces?
- Is the required clamping pressure present?
- Workpiece is machined.
- Is machining complete?
- Open clamp slide.
- Is clamp slide open?
- Remove workpiece.
4 Pneumatic section of a clamping device 79

If the answer to any question is “no”, the sequence is interrupted and an error
message is generated. Even with this relatively simple clamping task, there is a
need for logic processing of a number of signals.
In conclusion, let us take at look at clamping with vacuum. We will choose as

4.3 our example a clamping table which is used to hold workpieces for manual
Control system work operations. In most cases, tables of this kind will offer a 3-dimensional tilt
for a vacuum-operated facility to allow the worker concerned to assume an ergonomically favourable
clamping table posture. They may also feature a pneumatic lifting axis, which is very useful.
A possible variant for the control system is shown in Fig. 4-7. In this case, every
suction cup is connected up via a flow control valve. When a workpiece makes
contact with the suction cups, these are automatically activated. The flow control
valve of each suction cup shuts off the air supply to the cup if it is not covered
by a workpiece. This not only makes it easier to work with the device but also
helps maintain the vacuum circuit. An ejector pulse is all that is required to
remove workpieces from the suction cups. It can also be advantageous to
arrange for the workpiece first to come into contact with the suction cups, be
carefully positioned and then be clamped only after this, controlled by a manual
switch.
Fig 4-7:
Vacuum-operated
clamping table
1 Workpiece 1
2 Suction cup
3 Clamping table frame
4 Flow control valve
5 Vacuum control valve, 2
pneumatically piloted
6 Ejector valve
3
Vacuum

Clamping devices are never used in isolation. They always form part of the
5 equipment of a particular workstation. They are thus incorporated into the work-
Design and selection piece/tool/machine system. Any evaluation of solutions must therefore always
of clamping devices be based on a study of the wide-ranging requirements and parameters which
characterise the point at which the clamping device in question is being used.
Every clamping application is different and must therefore be thought through

5.1 from the beginning. Standard solutions are not appropriate. It is, however,
Steps in the design possible to describe a standard procedure in general terms. It is necessary to
process work through the following steps:
• Definition of task
- Detachment of clamping task from the technical operating sequence
- Definition of object to be clamped
- Definition of accuracy criteria
- Definition of safety criteria
• Definition of clamping geometry details

- Definition of defining surfaces based on technological factors
- Definition of reference and contact points
- Definition if appropriate of any necessary support points
• Study of force relationships

- Calculation or estimation of relevant machining (cutting) forces and torques
- Derivation of necessary holding force
- Determination of coefficients of friction
- Determination of clamping force
- Check of existing and maximum possible pressures per unit area
• Selection of function units

- Defining and positioning components
- Clamping unit
- Support modules
- Monitoring, sensor and control modules
- Support or base modules
- Cleaning accessories, such as flushing nozzles
• Combination to form overall solution

- Overall assembly
- Comparison with requirement profile (functional, geometrical, safety-related,
mechanical with regard to overload, economics)
- Check for collision hazards.
Collision analysis is an important aspect of planning work, especially in the case

of flexible devices which are to be used with several different workpieces. This
will involve different clamp jaw positions and possibly also different tools.
Objects which may collide include the following:
• Components of the clamping device with other components
• The workpiece and clamp components
5 Design and selection of clamping devices 81

• The clamp and a gripper (in the case of automatic feed)
• The clamp and the workpiece.
In cases where conditions are complicated, CAD systems are also used.
The design process can be considerably shortened in the case of comparatively
simple applications. In more demanding mechanical-engineering applications,
on the other hand, clamping becomes a science. The clamping operation may
even have effects on the workpiece in the sense of requiring an easy-to-clamp
workpiece design. In order to achieve this, it may be necessary to provide spe-
cial clamping recesses in castings, support shoulders and centring and clamping
points.
The decisive factor in the design process is to provide resistance to process

forces while at the same time ensuring the necessary accuracy.
Many suppliers offer clamps which can be used without the need for custom
5.2 modifications. In these cases, users must determine which products are most
Selection of suitable for their requirements. The 10 most important factors can be stated as
clamping devices follows:
1. Where can the workpiece be clamped?
Accessible surfaces will often be small or already finish-machined. It is
best to mark impermissible areas on the relevant drawing. It is important
to achieve an appropriate positional relationship between the areas of
the workpiece which are to be machined, the areas which are to be left
unmachined and the machine coordinate system.
2. How can the workpiece be clamped?

The decisive factor here is the workpiece geometry. Clarification is necessary
of the surfaces on which the workpiece can lie and by which it can be sup-
ported and how machining forces can be dissipated into the machine.
Clamping points should be limited to a minimum. The form elements which
are suitable for the positional definition for subsequent clamping operations
must be assigned the relevant quality parameters.
3. What clamping force is required?

This must be high enough to hold the workpiece securely in every possible
situation. Machining forces should not act against clamping forces but
against fixed jig components. The required clamping force should be kept
as low as possible.
4. Will the workpiece be able to withstand the clamping force?

It is not possible to apply clamping force to every type of workpiece. In some
cases, this may result in clamping marks and deformation. Both of these will
generally not be acceptable. Furthermore, clamping forces must not cause
distortion of the workpiece. Allowance must be made for workpiece strength
and the maximum permissible pressure per unit area. Defining and
clamping areas must therefore be dimensioned sufficiently large.
82 5 Design and selection of clamping devices

5. What motions are the clamping components required to execute?
This is a question of clamping range, which must be variable if different
workpieces are to be clamped. The clamping range may be significantly
larger than the workpiece dimensions if space is required for the insertion
and removal of workpiece, for example to provide the necessary working
space for the gripper jaws of a handling device. Clamping and feed paths
should be short to ensure that the time required for motions is kept to a
minimum.
6. What kind of power supply is required?

Manual clamping is still a viable option for working processes with long
cycles. If powered operation is required, it will depend on the clamping
devices used as to whether the drive power is pneumatic, pneumatic with
a booster, electrical, magnetic or hydraulic.
7. Are custom-made clamping devices necessary?

These will be used only if universal or standard clamps and components
are not adequate. A further factor is the scale of the production operation
involved. For very long production runs, a more expensive customer-built
clamping device may be more cost-effective, since its design can be opti-
mised for a specific task. The general rule, of course, is to make clamps as
non-specific to particular workpieces as possible.
8. What installation space is available?

The objective here is to install a clamping device on a workstation or ma-
chine in such a way that collisions do not occur. It may be the case that
multiple clamps cannot be used at all, due to lack of space. The interference
contour of the clamping device must not impede tool motion and must also
permit automatic feed, for example by means of industrial robots.
9. Are accuracy requirements met?

Accuracy requirements (for repetition accuracy) must be met in order to
ensure consistent workpiece quality. A centring clamping action can be an
important factor here, as can a facility for easy replacement of wearing parts
which affect accuracy. Clamping devices should also be easy to clean.
Special attention should be paid to ensuring that jigs are sufficiently rigid.
10. Is it intended to automate the clamping operation?

This must be considered from both the technical and economic point of view.
Automation will generally mean more sensors, which will in turn mean a
greater volume of data for processing. Automation is appropriate if work-
piece changing directly requires the machine tool in question to be at a
standstill. Any automatic monitoring system should include the clamping
force.
From the point of view of users of industrial pneumatics, it is also important to

source components as far possible from a single supplier, since this simplifies
servicing, training and the maintenance of stocks of spare parts.
5 Design and selection of clamping devices 83

The devices used for power clamping can be regarded as miniature presses.
6 There is the risk of crushing injuries as the clamping components close and also
Safety with during the manual insertion of workpieces. It must be ensured that it is not
clamping devices possible to activate clamping power accidentally, for example by means of a foot
switch, at any time when operators’ hands are within hazardous zones.
In order to make workpiece insertion easier, it may be advantageous to provide
workpieces with grip recesses and thus ensure that it is not necessary to insert
hands directly into jigs. Any sharp edges of jigs must be rounded off. To prevent
fingers from entering the gap between a workpiece and the clamp jaws, this gap
should not be larger than 8 mm (fingertip width) when the clamping device is
open.
We have already dealt at some length with clamping security. Under no circum-
stances must it be possible for a failure of clamping force to occur during ma-
chining, since this may cause workpieces to be thrown out of machines in an
uncontrolled manner. It is thus advantageous to fit monitoring devices for pres-
sures and clamping paths. Arrangements must be made for machine tools to
switch off automatically if the clamping pressure falls by more than 20 %.
All linkages used with clamping devices to transmit force and motion must be
covered in such a way as to eliminate any risk to operators of crushing injuries
and cuts.
It must be possible to install and uninstall clamping devices without risk.

If necessary, the devices must be provided with eye bolts to allow hoisting.
Manual raising and lowering is permissible with weights of up to 20 kg.
Clamping devices are often heavier than the workpieces which they are used
to clamp. The same weight limit applies to workpieces in cases where these
are inserted manually. If workpieces are heavier than this, the workstation con-
cerned should be equipped with hoists.
The main danger with powered equipment driven by mechanical, pneumatic,

electrical or hydraulic energy is motions which may result in injury.
It is also important to select the correct types of tubing, hoses and valves which
are able to resist the pressures and pressure fluctuations occurring in the appli-
cation in question. Tubing and hoses should be protected as far as possible
from the effects of heat, due to the risk of premature ageing and consequent
weakening which this poses. Tubing and hoses must be laid in such a way that
they are protected from falling workpieces and impermissible bending, com-
pression and torsional loads.
If it is not possible by other means to eliminate all risk of injury to operators’

hands during clamping operations, a two-hand control unit should be provided.
This obliges operators to keep both hands on the two pushbuttons, which must
be pressed within 0.2 to 0.5 seconds of each other and kept pressed until a
visual signal appears, indicating the completion of the clamping operation.
A system of this kind does not, however, provide protection for any second
machine operator who may be present. It is therefore nonetheless important for
84 6 Safety with clamping devices

operating personnel to observe all applicable accident-prevention regulations.
Fig. 6-1 shows the control logic for a pneumatic two-hand control block. The
pneumatic cylinder connected to the output A is fed with pressure only when
the two inputs P1 and P2 are pressurised simultaneously. The compressed air
supply is fed to a dual-pressure valve with an AND function. This opens only
when pressure is present at both inputs.
Fig. 6-1:
for a two-hand control block
A
1 Shuttle valve (OR function)
2 Two-hand control block
3 Dual-pressure valve 1
4 Start valve
P1 P2 4
An interesting contribution to working safety is made by the toggle-lever clamp

shown in Fig. 6-2. This develops its full clamping force only a few millimetres
before the end of its stroke (during the last 5° of the clamp arm motion). If the
clamp claw encounters an obstacle before this, this will cause a pressure relief
valve to open and the clamp arm will come to a stop. This pressure relief valve is
built into the piston and is operative at all times except at the end of the stroke,
at which time the outlet duct in the piston rod is closed. The overall motion of
the clamp is thus subdivided into a non-hazardous rapid traverse followed by
the actual power stroke. The motion of the clamp arm is cushioned starting
approximately 30 mm before the point at which actual clamping starts.
6 Safety with clamping devices 85

Fig. 6-2:
Toggle-lever clamp
with integrated safety
function (Tünkers) 1
1 Clamp claw 2
2 Clamp block
3 Non-return
(pressure relief ) valve
86 6 Safety with clamping devices

In this book, we have considered many ways of creating clamp points by using
7 pneumatic energy. It would therefore seem appropriate to list once again the
A brief overview components which can be used for this purpose. These components are com-
of components mercially available and allow clamping devices to be assembled quickly and
reliably.
Compressed-air force generators

- Pneumatic cylinders, single- and double-acting
- Power cylinders with integrated suspension mounting
- Tandem cylinders
- Bellows cylinders, pressure cushions and bars
- Rotary vane drives
- Swivel clamps with lifting/turning action
- Toggle-lever clamps and other power clamp cylinders
- Diaphragm cylinders and fluidic muscles
- Clamping modules
- Pneumatic motors.
This list of components does not of course indicate the possible ways in which
they can be combined. As Fig. 7-1 shows, tandem cylinders, for example, can
be connected in series, producing a multiple of the thrust of one cylinder. This
is an alternative to fitting a cylinder with a larger diameter. Designers thus have
the choice of making their clamp drives “wide and short” or “narrow and long”.
There are of course also numerous piston diameters available, which provides a
number of intermediate solutions as well. In this configuration, the entire force
is transmitted by a single piston rod. The cylinder caps are equipped with heavy-
duty bearings which are able to absorb higher lateral forces. For applications
involving harsh environments, cylinders are also available with heat-resistant
seals (for temperatures up to 150 °C) and/or corrosion- and acid-resistant piston
rods.
Fig. 7-1:
Cylinder combination
to provide higher thrust
(Festo)
Available diameters:
25, 40, 63 and 100 mm
7 A brief overview of components 87

Vacuum-based force generators
- Vacuum grid plates with bead edge seal
- Suction cup arrays
- Circular vacuum clamp plates
- Sintered-metal vacuum clamp plates
- Slot-type vacuum clamp plates
Accessories
- Mounting components
- Compensating couplings
- Tubing and piping, with connector components
- Piston-rod clamp units
- Pressure intensifiers
- Vacuum reservoirs
- Bead seals, sealing mats and foils
- Compressed-air and vacuum generators
Measuring equipment and sensors

- Pressure gauges
- Proximity sensors, cylinder switches
- Vacuum and pressure switches
- Back pressure sensors
- LED indicators
Control components
- Directional control valves and operator controls
- Vacuum flow control valves
- Pressure regulators
- Non-return and one-way flow control valves
- Two-hand start blocks
- Soft start valves
- Logic control components (AND and OR functions)
Basic components for jig construction

- Guide components
- Rigid support components
- Springs and system spring units
- Base plates and supplementary plates (smooth or with hole or slot grids)
- Clamp jaws and clamp jaw attachments
- Support components and auxiliary supports
- Support bars, workpiece stops
- Pairs of clamp vees
- Spindles
- Clamp cam profile bars
- Auxiliary materials from modular jig systems
- Clamping collets, e.g. in accordance with DIN 6343.
88 7 A brief overview of components

Fig. 7-2 shows how a clamping collet can be used to produce a high-power
pneumatic clamp. We have already seen the operating principle involved,
in Fig. 2-8c. During the clamp operation, the clamp sleeve is pushed upwards
by a combination ball/wedge device. The return stroke of the pneumatic piston
is powered by pressure springs. This device offers economical air consumption
combined with high clamping forces. With a primary pressure of 6 bar, clamping
forces of up to 70 kN can be achieved.
Fig. 7-2:
Collet clamping device (Festo)
1 Compressed air connection 3

2 Ball bearing
3 Lock nut
4 Clamping collet 4
5 Piston
6 Return spring
5
1
2
6
A final word of advice: When assembling clamping devices, always try to use
a high proportion of well-proven and easily-obtainable components. This raises
the level of standardisation and reliability of the clamping devices concerned
and means that only relatively simple planning work is required instead of
laborious design from first principles.
7 A brief overview of components 89

Leiseder, L.M.: Pneumatische Spanntechnik (Pneumatic Clamping Technology),
Literature published by verlag moderne industrie, Landsberg 1989
Deppert, W.; Stoll, K.: Pneumatische Steuerungen (Pneumatic Control Systems),

10th edition, published by Vogel Verlag, Würzburg 1994
Krahn, H.; Nörthemann, K.-H.; Stenger, L.; Hesse, S.: Konstruktionselemente –

Beispielsammlung für den Vorrichtungs- und Maschinenbau (Design Com-
ponents – A Collection Of Examples For Jig And Machine Construction),
2nd edition, published by Vogel Verlag, Würzburg 1994
Krahn, H.; Nörthemann, K.-H.; Eh, D.; Hesse, S.: Konstruktionselemente 3 –

Beispielsammlung für Montage- und Zufuhrtechnik (Design Components 3 –
A Collection Of Examples For Assembly And Feed Technology),
published by Vogel Verlag, Würzburg 1999
Trummer, A.; Wiebach, H.: Vorrichtungen der Produktionstechnik

(Production Technology Equipment),
published by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden 1996
90 Literature
A Active force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Glossary Air/air pressure intensifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
of technical terms Amplifying clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Area force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
B Back pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
C Cartridge cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Clamp arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Clamping accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Clamping application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Clamping cam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 36, 54
Clamping collet brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Clamping error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Clamping force maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Clamping mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Clamping method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Clamping module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Clamping moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Clamping range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Clamping screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Clamping security value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Clamping technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Clamping torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Clamping unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Clamping wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 31
Clamping with wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Clamping-device concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Clamping-force piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Claw clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 73
Claw clamp drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 44
Collet clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Collision analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Compensatory clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Contact deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Contact monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Control process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Custom-made clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Cutting force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
D Dedicated device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Defining bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Defining pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Glossary of technical terms 91

Defining plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Defining surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Diaphragm clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Distribution of clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Double-arm swivel clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
E End-position sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
External clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
F Floating clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Flow control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Flow of force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fluidic muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Force compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Force distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 66
Frame clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Frictional force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
G Grid clamp plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
H Handling function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hold-down clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Holding force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 64
I Impact factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Inflatable tubing drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Interference contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Internal clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Internal clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J Jaw clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
L Lamellar pneumatic motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Lateral pressure piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Layered clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Lever clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 36, 43, 57
Limiting clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Locking brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
M Machine vice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Machining force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Maximum permissible pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Metal diaphragm clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Multi-layered clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Multiple clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Multi-purpose device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
92 Glossary of technical terms

N Non-return valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
O Over dead centre interlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Over dead centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Over dead centre position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Over definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Overload protection device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
P Panel clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Path of clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Peripheral routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Pipe clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Piston force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Pneumatic cushion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Pneumatic motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Position monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Power clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Power stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Precisely adjustable component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Pressure booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Pressure device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pressure intensifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 77
Pressure per unit area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Pressure regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Pressure roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Pressure transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Pressure pin clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Pressure plate unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Push-rod clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
R Reactive force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Reed switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Reference point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Reflex sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Release force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Repetition accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Roller pressure segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Round vacuum-operated chuck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Rubber clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Rubber diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Rubber/metal component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Rubber pin gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Rubber pin diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
S Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Safety factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 63
Self-locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Glossary of technical terms 93

Sheet-metal workpiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Sintered metal plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Slotted link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 35
Spiral-slot guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Spreader clamping system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Standard clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Static coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Suction plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Support component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Swivel clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Swivel hook system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
T Tandem cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Toggle-lever clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 44, 70
Toggle-lever mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Toothed-segment clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Torsion component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Tubing clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Twin-piston pressure intensifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Two-hand control block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
U Under-clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
V Vacuum-operated clamping plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Vacuum-operated clamping table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 80
Vacuum clamping technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Vacuum conveyor belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
W Wedge linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Welding clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Workpiece carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
94 Glossary of technical terms

Pneumatic Clamping

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328,5 mm 8,5 mm 120 mm 42 mm

Clamping with compressed air and vacuum

Clamping with compressed

© 2001 by Festo AG & Co.

2 Requirements placed on clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Types of clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Pneumatic section of a clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

5 Design and selection of clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6 Safety with clamping devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

7 A brief overview of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Glossary of technical terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 9

Ordered storing Parting Turning Holding Checking

How is “clamping” defined?

10 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

It will be appreciated that it is necessary to take into account a large number of

• As far as possible, no clamping forces should act on workpieces during

• The accessibility of clamped workpieces must not be restricted by clamping

• Efforts should be made in mechanical engineering in cases where workpieces

Clamping devices may be of dedicated or multi-purpose design. In many cases,

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 11

Although clamping devices are often extremely simple, we must conduct an

12 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

Development of Clamping Development of

Machining process Machine

Automated sequences must be monitored continuously to ensure that all the

Support Work- Applica- Machining Release Support Cleaning

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 13

Among the preliminary considerations in the process of designing a clamping

14 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

With regard to the last requirement, additional machined shaped components

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 15

A number of examples now follow which illustrate the choice of defining

16 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

a) Round defining pin

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 17

Workpieces do not always have regular surfaces. Castings in particular may

• Support components with a fixed non-adjustable support height, such as

18 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 19

• Ability to react to workpiece changes

1/2 F 1/2 F 1/2 F

1/2 F 1/2 F 1/2 F

20 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 21

a) Identical clamping forces F

It is of course possible to work without force distribution. In this case, directly-

1 Upper part of device

22 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 23

Multi-layered clamping can also be implemented using fluid pressure transmis-

When a pressure acts on a fluid in one direction, this pressure is propagated

24 1 Fundamentals of clamping technology

1 Fundamentals of clamping technology 25

Even using standard modules, it is possible to assemble a clamping device for

Mechanical Magnetic Vacuum Other

26 2 Requirements placed on clamping devices

In addition to machining forces, we must also consider the following forces:

2 Requirements placed on clamping devices 27

The workpiece must be held securely against these forces.

28 2 Requirements placed on clamping devices

Freturn + Ffrict = Fmach

Fclamp = S · Fmain (C – 1)/(2µ)