EXPERIMENT 1

To study different machines in the lab.

Machine Shop: A machine shop is a room, building, or company where machining is done. In a
machine shop, machinists use machine tools and cutting tools to make parts, usually of metal or
plastic (but sometimes of other materials such as glass or wood). A machine shop can be a small
business (such as a job shop) or a portion of a factory, whether a tool room or a production area for
manufacturing. The parts produced can be the product of the factory, to be sold to customers in the
machine industry, the car industry, the aircraft industry, or others. In other cases, companies in
those fields have their own machine shops.

The production can consist of cutting, shaping, drilling, finishing, and other processes. The machine
tools typically include metal lathes, milling machines, machining centres, multitasking machines, drill
presses, or grinding machines, many controlled with computer numerical control (CNC).

Different Machines in the metal cutting lab are:

1. Computer Numeric Control (CNC) Turning centre

Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non-rotary tool bit, describes
a helix tool path by moving more or less linearly while the work piece rotates. The tool's axes of
movement may be literally a straight line, or they may be along some set of curves or angles, but
they are essentially linear (in the non mathematical sense). Usually the term "turning" is reserved for
the generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same essential cutting action
when applied to internal surfaces (that is, holes, of one kind or another) is called "boring". Thus the
phrase "turning and boring" categorizes the larger family of (essentially similar) processes known as
lathing. The cutting of faces on the work piece (that is, surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis),
whether with a turning or boring tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a
subset.

Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires continuous
supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today the most
common type of such automation is computer numerical control, better known as CNC. (CNC is also
commonly used with many other types of machining besides turning.)

When turning, a piece of relatively rigid material (such as wood, metal, plastic, or stone) is rotated
and a cutting tool is traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and
depths. Turning can be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring)
to produce tubular components to various geometries.Since the advent of CNC it has become
unusual to use non-computerized tool path control for this purpose.

The bits of waste metal from turning operations are known as chips (North America),
or swarf (Britain). In some areas they may be known as turnings

CNC Turning centres have been discussed in greater detail later.

2. Lathe

A lathe is a tool that rotates the work piece about an axis of rotation to perform various operations
such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, deformation, facing, and turning, with tools that are
applied to the work piece to create an object with symmetry about that axis.

Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, thermal spraying, parts reclamation,
and glass-working.
working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known
best design being
eing the potter's
wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most solids of
revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three- three
dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The wor workk piece is usually held in place by either one or
two centres, at least one of which can typically be moved horizontally to accommodate varying work
piece lengths. Other work-holding
holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation
using a chuckk or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs.

Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include screws, candlestick holders, gun barrels,
cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments (especially woodwind instruments),
crankshafts, and camshafts.

A lathe may or may not have legs, which sit on the floor and elevate the lathe bed to a working
height. A lathe may be small and sit on a workbench or table, not requiring a stand.

Almost all lathes have a bed, which is (almost always) a horizontal beam (although CNC lathes
commonly have an inclined or vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the
bed). Woodturning lathes specialized for turning large bowls often have no bed or tail stock, merely
a free-standing
standing headstock and a cantilevered tool rest.

At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a headstock. The
headstock contains high-precision
precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the bearings is a horizontal
axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle. Spindles are often hollow and have exterior
threads and/or an interior Morse taper on the "inboard" (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed)
by which work-holding accessories may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have exterior
threads and/or an interior taper at their "outboard" (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, and/or may
have a hand-wheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered and
impart motion to the work piece.

The spindle is driven either by foot power from a treadle and flywheel or by a belt or gear drive to a
power source. In most modern lathes this power source is an integral electric motor, often either in
the headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the headstock, concealed in the stand.

In addition to the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to convert the motor
speed into various spindle speeds. Various types of speed-changing mechanism achieve this, from a
cone pulley or step pulley, to a cone pulley with back gear (which is essentially a low range, similar in
net effect to the two-speed rear of a truck), to an entire gear train similar to that of a manual-shift
auto transmission. Some motors have electronic rheostat-type speed controls, which obviates cone
pulleys or gears.

The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, sometimes referred to as the loose head, as it can
be positioned at any convenient point on the bed by sliding it to the required area. The tail-stock
contains a barrel, which does not rotate, but can slide in and out parallel to the axis of the bed and
directly in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow and usually contains a taper to
facilitate the gripping of various types of tooling. Its most common uses are to hold a hardened steel
centre, which is used to support long thin shafts while turning, or to hold drill bits for drilling axial
holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible.

Metalworking lathes have a carriage (comprising a saddle and apron) topped with a cross-slide,
which is a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed and can be cranked at right angles to the bed.
Sitting atop the cross slide is usually another slide called a compound rest, which provides 2
additional axes of motion, rotary and linear. Atop that sits a tool post, which holds a cutting tool,
which removes material from the work piece. There may or may not be a lead screw, which moves
the cross-slide along the bed.

Woodturning and metal spinning lathes do not have cross-slides, but rather have banjos, which are
flat pieces that sit crosswise on the bed. The position of a banjo can be adjusted by hand; no gearing
is involved. Ascending vertically from the banjo is a tool-post, at the top of which is a horizontal tool-
rest. In woodturning, hand tools are braced against the tool rest and levered into the work piece. In
metal spinning, the further pin ascends vertically from the tool rest and serves as a fulcrum against
which tools may be levered into the work piece.

Accessories:

Unless a work piece has a taper machined onto it which perfectly matches the internal taper in the
spindle, or has threads which perfectly match the external threads on the spindle (two conditions
which rarely exist), an accessory must be used to mount a work piece to the spindle.

A work piece may be bolted or screwed to a faceplate, a large, flat disk that mounts to the spindle. In
the alternative, faceplate dogs may be used to secure the work to the faceplate.
A work piece may be mounted on a mandrel, or circular work clamped in a three- or four-jaw chuck.
For irregular shaped work pieces it is usual to use a four jaw (independent moving jaws) chuck.
These holding devices mount directly to the lathe headstock spindle.

In precision work, and in some classes of repetition work, cylindrical work pieces are usually held in a
collet inserted into the spindle and secured either by a draw-bar, or by a collet closing cap on the
spindle. Suitable collets may also be used to mount square or hexagonal work pieces. In precision
toolmaking work such collets are usually of the draw-in variety, where, as the collet is tightened, the
work piece moves slightly back into the headstock, whereas for most repetition work the dead
length variety is preferred, as this ensures that the position of the work piece does not move as the
collet is tightened.

A soft work piece (e.g., wood) may be pinched between centres by using a spur drive at the
headstock, which bites into the wood and imparts torque to it.

A soft dead centre is used in the headstock spindle as the work rotates with the centre. Because the
centre is soft it can be trued in place before use. The included angle is 60°. Traditionally, a hard dead
center is used together with suitable lubricant in the tailstock to support the work piece. In modern
practice the dead center is frequently replaced by a live center, as it turns freely with the work
piece—usually on ball bearings—reducing the frictional heat, especially important at high speeds.
When clear facing a long length of material it must be supported at both ends. This can be achieved
by the use of a travelling or fixed steady. If a steady is not available, the end face being worked on
may be supported by a dead (stationary) half centre. A half center has a flat surface machined across
a broad section of half of its diameter at the pointed end. A small section of the tip of the dead
center is retained to ensure concentricity. Lubrication must be applied at this point of contact and
tail stock pressure reduced. A lathe carrier or lathe dog may also be employed when turning
between two centers.
In woodturning, one variation of a live center is a cup center, which is a cone of metal surrounded by
an annular ring of metal that decreases the chances of the work piece splitting.

A circular metal plate with even spaced holes around the periphery, mounted to the spindle, is called
an "index plate". It can be used to rotate the spindle to a precise angle, then lock it in place,
facilitating repeated auxiliary operations done to the work piece.

Other accessories, including items such as taper turning attachments, knurling tools, vertical slides,
fixed and traveling steadies, etc., increase the versatility of a lathe and the range of work it may
perform.

Modes of use

When a work piece is fixed between the headstock and the tail-stock, it is said to be "between
centres". When a work piece is supported at both ends, it is more stable, and more force may be
applied to the work piece, via tools, at a right angle to the axis of rotation, without fear that the
work piece may break loose.

When a work piece is fixed only to the spindle at the headstock end, the work is said to be "face
work". When a work piece is supported in this manner, less force may be applied to the work piece,
via tools, at a right angle to the axis of rotation, lest the work piece rip free. Thus, most work must
be done axially, towards the headstock, or at right angles, but gently.

When a work piece is mounted with a certain axis of rotation, worked, then remounted with a new
axis of rotation, this is referred to as "eccentric turning" or "multi-axis turning". The result is that
various cross sections of the work piece are rotationally symmetric, but the work piece as a whole is
not rotationally symmetric. This technique is used for camshafts, various types of chair legs.

Varieties

Lathes are manufactured in a variety of types and sizes, from very small bench lathes used for
precision work to huge lathes used for turning large steel shafts. But the principle of operation and
function of all types of lathes is same. The different types of lathes are:

1. Speed lathe 3. Bench lathe

(a) Wood working 4. Tool room Lathe

(b) Spinning 5. Capstan and Turret lathe

(c) Centring 6. Special purpose lathe

(d) Polishing (a) Wheel lathe

2. Centre or engine lathe (b) Gap bed lathe

(a) Belt drive (c) Duplicating lathe

(b) Individual motor drive (d) T-lathe

(c) Gear head lathe 7. Automatic lathe

3. Milling Machine

Milling is a cutting process that uses a milling

milling cutter to remove material from the surface of a work
piece.. The milling cutter is a rotary cutting tool, often with multiple cutting points. As opposed to
drilling, where the tool is advanced along its rotation axis, the cutter in milling is usually move
moved
perpendicular to its axis so that cutting occurs on the circumference of the cutter. As the milling
cutter enters the work piece,, the cutting edges (flutes or teeth) of the tool repeatedly cut into and
exit from the material, shaving off chips (swarf) frofrom the work piece with each pass. The cutting
action is shear deformation; material is pushed off the work piece in tiny clumps that hang together
to a greater or lesser extent (depending on the material) to form chips. This makes metal cutting
somewhat differentrent (in its mechanics) from slicing softer materials with a blade.

The milling process removes material by performing many separate, small cuts. This is accomplished
by using a cutter with many teeth, spinning the cutter at high speed, or advancing the ma material
through the cutter slowly; most often it is some combination of these three approaches. The speeds
and feeds used are varied to suit a combination of variables. The speed at which the piece advances
through the cutter is called feed rate, or just feed;
feed; it is most often measured in length of material per
full revolution of the cutter.

Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools. The original class of machine tools for
milling was the milling machine (often called a mill). After the advent of
of computer numerical control
(CNC), milling machines evolved into machining centers: milling machines augmented by automatic
tool changers, tool magazines or carousels, CNC capability, coolant systems, and enclosures. Milling
centers are generally classified
ed as vertical machining centers (VMCs) or horizontal machining centers
(HMCs).

The integration of milling into turning environments, and vice versa, begun with live tooling for
lathes and the occasional use of mills for turning operations. This led to a n
new
ew class of machine tools,
multitasking machines (MTMs), which are purpose-built to facilitate milling and turning within the
same work envelope.

There are two major classes of milling process:

• In face milling, the cutting action occurs primarily at the end corners of the milling cutter.
Face milling is used to cut flat surfaces (faces) into the work piece, or to cut flat-bottomed cavities.

• In peripheral milling, the cutting action occurs primarily along the circumference of the
cutter, so that the cross section of the milled surface ends up receiving the shape of the cutter. In
this case the blades of the cutter can be seen as scooping out material from the work piece.
Peripheral milling is well suited to the cutting of deep slots, threads, and gear teeth.

Milling cutters

Many different types of cutting tools are used in the milling process. Milling cutters such as endmills
may have cutting surfaces across their entire end surface, so that they can be drilled into the work
piece (plunging). Milling cutters may also have extended cutting surfaces on their sides to allow for
peripheral milling. Tools optimized for face milling tend to have only small cutters at their end
corners.

The cutting surfaces of a milling cutter are generally made of a hard and temperature-resistant
material, so that they wear slowly. A low cost cutter may have surfaces made of high speed steel.
More expensive but slower-wearing materials include cemented carbide. Thin film coatings may be
applied to decrease friction or further increase hardness.

They are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining centres to perform milling
operations (and occasionally in other machine tools). They remove material by their movement
within the machine (e.g., a ball nose mill) or directly from the cutter's shape (e.g., a form tool such as
a hobbing cutter).

4. Radial Drilling Machine

This type of drilling machines is designed for medium to large and heavy work pieces. The machine is
having a vertical column mounted on the large base. The column is supported by radial arm which
can be raised or lowered to accommodate work pieces of different heights. The arm can swing
horizontally to any position around the column over the work. The drill head mechanism for rotating
the spindle and feeding the drill is mounted on the radial arm can be moved horizontally to and fro
from the column then it is clamped at any desired position.

These three movements in a radial-drilling machine when combined together permit the drill to be
located at any desired position. When two or more holes are to be drilled in a work piece, the
position of the arm and drill head is altered so that drill spindle can be moved from one hole to
another without altering the setting of the work. If the work piece is too big it can be clamped
directly on the base.

Radial drilling has been discussed in next experiment.

5. Grinding Machine

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.

A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:

• Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)

• Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
• Various kinds of expensive industrial machine tools called grinding machines
• Bench grinders

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and tool making. It can produce very
fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also rough out
large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the machining of very hard
materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools such as tool bits
or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way to machine such materials
as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is usually better suited to taking very
shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s diameter by half a thousandth of an inch or 12.7 μm.

Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each grain of abrasive
functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and
shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning,
milling, drilling, tapping, etc.). However, among people who work in the machining fields, the term
cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is often
mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms are usually used separately in
shop-floor practice.

Lapping and sanding are subsets of grinding.

 EXPERIMENT 2

To study the effect of cutting speed, feed, and drill diameter on the
thrust and torque while drilling on a radial drilling machine.
Apparatus: Radial drilling machine, different drills, drill chuck, drill dynamometer.

Theory: This type of drilling machines is designed for medium to large and heavy work pieces. The
machine is having a vertical column mounted on the large base. The column is supported by radial
arm which can be raised or lowered to accommodate work pieces of different heights. The arm can
swing horizontally to any position around the column over the work. The drill head mechanism for
rotating the spindle and feeding the drill is mounted on the radial arm can be moved horizontally to
and fro from the column then it is clamped at any desired position.

These three movements in a radial-drilling machine when combined together permit the drill to be
located at any desired position. When two or more holes are to be drilled in a work piece, the
position of the arm and drill head is altered so that drill spindle can be moved from one hole to
another without altering the setting of the work. If the work piece is too big it can be clamped
directly on the base.

Parts of Radial Drilling Machine

The parts of radial drilling machine are as follows:

(a) Base. Base of the radial drilling machine is a rectangular casting and is supports column at one
end and the other end is finished and provided with “T” slots to hold the table or work pieces. In
some radial drilling machines two bases are provided for setting jobs for mass production. Loading
or unloading can be carried out on one base while drilling operation is carried out on another.

(b) Column. It is mounted at one end of the base. It is a cylindrical casting and supports the radial
arm which slides up and down. A motor is mounted on the top of column which imparts vertical
movement to the radial arm by rotating a screw passing through a nut attached to the radial arm.

(c) Radial Arm. It is mounted on the column and extends horizontally over the base. The face is
accurately machined and drill head slides over it. It can be swung around the column. In some
modern machines a separate motor controls the radial arm.

(d) Drill Head. The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and it drives the spindle. It is having
mechanism for different speeds and feeds. The drill head slides over the radial arm for adjusting the
position of the drill. The drill head can be clamped at any position on the radial arm after sliding.

(e) Spindle Drive and Feed Mechanism. In some radial drilling machines a motor is mounted at
the overhanging arm. The motion is transmitted to the drill head by bevel gears through a train of
gears in drill head the spindle speeds and feeds may be adjusted. In some machines the motor is
mounted directly on the drill head.
Types of Radial Drilling Machine

The radial drilling machines are of three types, these are:

(a) Plain Radial Drilling Machine. In this type the arm is having vertical and horizontal movement of
the drill head along the arm and circular movement of the arm in horizontal plane about the vertical
column.

(b) Semi Universal Radial Drilling Machine. In this type of radial drilling machine, in addition to the
above three movements the drill head can be swung about the horizontal axis perpendicular to the
arm. This permits to drill a hole at an angle to the horizontal plane.

(c) Universal Radial Drilling Machine. In this drilling machine in addition to above four movements,
the arm holding the drill head can be rotated on the horizontal axis. All these movements in radial
drilling machine enable to drill on a work piece at any desired place at any angle.

Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the tool point of the cutter moves with respect to the
work measured in feet per minute.

Feed is the rate at which the work moves into the cutter measured in feet per tooth revolution.
Feeds and speeds affect the time to finish a cut, tool life, finish of the machined surface, and power
required of the machine.

The cutting speed is mostly determined by the material to be cut and material of the tool. To
calculate the proper spindle speed, divide the desired cutting speed by the circumference of the tool
(or of the part that is rotating) expressed in feet. The feed rate depends on the width and depth of
cut, finish desired and many other variables. To calculate the desired feed setting from the feed rate,
multiply feed per tooth per revolution by number of teeth and rpm of the spindle.

Nomenclature of Twist Drills and Other Terms Relating to Drilling

Axis: The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal center line of the drill.
Back Taper: A slight decrease in diameter from front to back in the body of the drill.
Body: The portion of the drill extending from the shank or neck to the outer corners of the cutting
lips.
Body Diameter Clearance: That portion of the land that has been cut away so it will not rub against
the walls of the hole.
Built-Up Edge: An adhering deposit of nascent material on the cutting lip or the point of the drill.
Cam Relief: The relief from the cutting edge to the back of the land, produced by a cam actuated
cutting tool or grinding wheel on a relieving machine.
Chip Breaker: Nicks or Grooves designed to reduce the size of chips; they may be steps or grooves in
the cutting lip or in the leading face of the land at or adjacent to the cutting lips.
Chisel Edge: The edge at the end of the web that connects the cutting lips.
Chisel Edge Angle: The angle included between the chisel edge and the cutting lip, as viewed from
the end of the drill.
Clearance: The space provided to eliminate undesirable contact between the drill and the work
piece.

Crankshaft or Deep Hole Drills: Drills designed for drilling oil holes in crankshafts, connecting rods
and similar deep holes; they are generally made with heavy webs and higher helix angles than
normal.
Drift: A flat tapered bar for forcing a taper shank out of its socket.
Drift Slot: A slot through a socket at the small end of the tapered hole to receive a drift for forcing a
taper shank out of its socket.
Drill Diameter: The diameter over the margins of the drill measured at the point.
External Center: The conical point on the shank end of the drill, and the point end on some sizes of
core drills.
Flat Drill: A drill whose flutes are produced by two parallel or tapered flats.
Flat (Spade) Drill: A removable cutting drill tip usually attached to a special holder designed for this
purpose; generally used for drilling or enlarging cored holes.
Flutes: Helical or straight grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting lips, to
permit removal of chips, and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.
Flute Length: The length from the outer corners of the cutting lips to the extreme back end of the
flutes; it includes the sweep of the tool used to generate the flutes and, therefore, does not indicate
the usable length of the flutes.
Gage Line: The axial position on a taper where the diameter is equal to the basic large end diameter
of the specified taper.
Galling: An adhering deposit of nascent work material on the margin adjacent to the leading edge
and near the point of a drill.
Guide: A cylindrical portion, following the cutting portion of the flutes, acting as a guide to keep the
drill in proper alignment; the guide portion may be fluted, grooved, or solid.
Gun Drill: Special purpose straight flute drills with one or more flutes used for deep hole drilling;
they are usually provided with coolant passages through the body; they may be either solid or tipped
Heel: The trailing edge of the land.
Helix Angle: The angle made by the leading edge of the land with a plane containing the axis of the
drill.
Land: The peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes.
Lead: The axial advance of a leading edge of the land in one turn around the circumference.
Lips: The cutting edges of a two flute drill extending from the chisel edge to the periphery.
Lip Relief: The axial relief on the drill point.
Lip Relief Angle: The axial relief angle at the outer corner of the lip; it is measured by projection into
a plane tangent to the periphery at the outer corner of the lip.
Margin: The cylindrical portion of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance.
Neck: The section of reduced diameter between the body and the shank of a drill.
Oil Grooves: Longitudinal straight or helical grooves in the shank, or grooves in the lands of a drill to
carry cutting fluid to the cutting lips Oil Holes or Tubes: Holes through the lands or web of a drill for
passage of cutting fluid to the cutting lips.
Overall Length: The length from the extreme end of the shank to the outer corners of the cutting
lips; it does not include the conical shank end often used on straight shank drills, nor does it include
the conical cutting point used on both straight and taper shank drills.
Peripheral Rake Angle: The angle between the leading edge of the land and an axial plane at the drill
point.
Pilot: A cylindrical portion of the drill body preceding the cutting lips; it may be solid, grooved, or
fluted.
Point: The cutting end of a drill, made up of the ends of the lands and the web; in form it resembles
a cone, but departs from a true cone to furnish clearance behind the cutting lips.
Forces and torque in drilling:

Like any other metal cutting tool, when in operation, the drill is subjected to a twisting couple ‘T’ and
axial thrust ‘F’, the parameters which influence torque and thrusts acting on a drill are:

a) Drill diameter (d) f) Point angle (2σ)

b) Feed, mm/rev g) Work material and its structure

c) Helix angle (Ø) h) Depth of cut (d/2)

d) No. of cutting edges (n) i) Cutting fluid

e) Length of chisel edge (c) j) Drill sharpness

The torque acting on a drill is due to the following actions:

a) Cutting along the lips of the drill. c) Extrusion at chisel edge

b) Cutting at the chisel edge, and

Formulae used:

The torque acting on the drill is determined by using the expression:

T = C1 d1.9 f0.8 kg mm

Where, C1 = constant

For carbon steel, C1 = 33.8

For cast iron, C1 = 23.3

The thrust acting on the drill is also due to above mentioned three factors.
Thrust acting on the drill is given as:

F = C2 d f0.7

Where, C2 = 84.7 for carbon steel

C2 = 60.5 for CI

Observations: Work material = Mild steel

Tool material = High speed steel (HSS)

Table 1: Drill diameter vs. Thrust &Torque.

Feed= 0.12 mm/rev RPM= 220

Drill diameter (mm) Thrust (kgf) Torque (kgfm)

8 121 2
10 222 7
12 373 13.5

Table 2: RPM vs. Thrust &Torque.

Drill diameter= 12 Feed= 0.12 mm/rev

RPM Thrust (kgf) Torque (kgfm)

56 325 11
220 373 13.5
440 74 26.5

Table 3: Feed vs. Thrust &Torque.

Drill diameter= 10 RPM= 300

Feed (mm/rev) Thrust (kgf) Torque (kgfm)

0.12 357 10.5
0.2 390 12
0.3 710 21
 EXPERIMENT 3

To study the wear of a given HSS tool while turning.

Apparatus: Lathe, Tool maker's microscope, Vernier Calliper, Cutting tool, Stop watch.
Theory: Tool wear describes the gradual failure of cutting tools due to regular operation. It is a
term often associated with tipped tools, tool bits, or drill bits that are used with machine tools.

Types of wear include:

Flank wear: The portion of the tool in contact with the finished part erodes. Can be described using
the Tool Life Expectancy equation.

Crater wear: Contact with chips erodes the rake face. This is somewhat normal for tool wear, and
does not seriously degrade the use of a tool until it becomes serious enough to cause a cutting edge
failure and can be caused by spindle speed that is too low or a feed rate that is too high. In
orthogonal cutting this typically occurs where the tool temperature is highest.

Built-up edge: Material being machined builds up on the cutting edge. Some materials (notably
aluminium and copper) have a tendency to anneal themselves to the cutting edge of a tool. It occurs
most frequently on softer metals, with a lower melting point. It can be prevented by increasing
cutting speeds and using lubricant. When drilling, it can be noticed as alternating dark and shiny
rings.

Glazing: It occurs on grinding wheels, and occurs when the exposed abrasive becomes dulled. It is
noticeable as a shine while the wheel is in motion.

Edge wear: in drills, refers to wear to the outer edge of a drill bit around the cutting face caused by
excessive cutting speed. It extends down the drill flutes, and requires a large volume of material to
be removed from the drill bit before it can be corrected.

Effects of Tool Wear:

Some General effects of tool wear include:

1. Increased cutting forces

2. Increased cutting temperatures
3. Poor surface finish
4. Decreased accuracy of finished part
5. May lead to tool breakage
6. Causes change in tool geometry
7. Reduction in tool wear can be accomplished by using lubricants and coolants while
machining. These reduce friction and temperatures, thus reducing the tool wear.

Tool life equation:

A more general form of the equation is:

VC TN DX SY = C

Where,
VC=cutting speed D=depth of cut

T=tool life S=feed rate

x and y are determined experimentally

n and C are constants found by experimentation or published data; they are properties of tool
material, work piece and feed rate.

Temperature considerations have been neglected.

Procedure:
1. Make a mark on measuring device where the cross bar point and tool point coincide.

2. Perform a turning operation on lathe tool, using this HSS tool for one min.

3. After doing this remove the burrs from the tool using grinding wheel.

4. Put the tool again on the measuring instrument and adjust, in such a way that the tool point again
coincide with cross bar point.

5. Repeat step 2 to step 4 for two min and three min machining time.

Observations: Diameter of work piece = 60 mm

RPM = 250

Feed = 0.1 mm/rev

Depth of cut = 0.5 mm

LC of micrometer = 0.001 inch

Initial reading = 0.707 inch

Work piece material = Mild steel

Tool material = High speed steel (HSS)

Readings
Time Cumulative Wear Cumulative Wear
S. No.
(min) Time (min) MSR VSR TSR (inch) (inch)
1 0 0 0.7 7 0.707 0 0
2 1 1 0.7 5 0.705 0.002 0.002
3 2 3 0.7 4 0.704 0.001 0.003
4 3 6 0.7 4 0.704 0.000 0.003
5 4 10 0.7 1 0.701 0.003 0.006
6 5 15 0.675 21 0.696 0.005 0.011
 EXPERIMENT 4

To study and find out the effect of cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and
rake angle on cutting ratio and shear angle.
Apparatus: Lathe, Vernier calliper, cutting tool, Thread, Ruler.

Theory: Irrespective of the basic nature of the chip obtained during machining of metal, the main
factor governing the formation of chips is the plastic deformation of the metal by a shear process.
The deformation of metal occurs along a plane just ahead of the tool and running upto free work
surface. After passing out the shear plane, the deformed metal slides along the tool face due to the
velocity of the cutting tool. The size of the shear zone is thick if the metal is machined at a low
cutting speed and vice versa.

During orthogonal cutting let

Rake angle = α Chip thickness ratio = r

Uncut chip thickness = t Shear angle = ø

Cut chip thickness = tc

In adjoining figure,

t = AB sin ø

tc= AB cos(ø - α)

r = t/tc

r = sin ø/ cos(ø - α)

Tan ø = r cos α / ( 1- r sin α )

Now, let the length of chip be l and length of uncut chip be lc, we get arelation i.e.

Lctc= Lt

Where, L = πd, d= diameter of the work piece.

Procedure:

1. Perform a turning operation on Lathe using a sharp tool.

2. Perform orthogonal cutting.

3. Obtain the chip produced.

4. With the help of a thread and a ruler, measure its length.

5. Calculate the cutting ratio using the given formula.

6. Calculate the shear angle.

7. Perform the above operation at different speeds, feed and depth of cut.

Observations: Diameter of work piece, D =

Slot width =

Length of uncut chip, L1 = πD – Slot width =

Rake angle =

Feed= Depth of cut=

RPM L2 (cm) rc = L2/ L1 ϕ

Feed= RPM=

Depth of Cut L2 (cm) rc = L2/ L1 ϕ

RPM= Depth of cut=

Feed L2 (cm) rc = L2/ L1 ϕ

 EXPERIMENT 5

To study CNC Turning Centre

What is a CNC Machine?

Computerized Numerical Control(Computer + Numerical Control)

• Numerical control is a programmable automation in which process is controlled by

Numbers, Letters, and symbols.
• CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use of
computers to control machine tools like lathes, mills and grinders.

Why is CNC machining necessary?

• To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely expensive by

mechanical means (which usually would require complex jigs to control the cutter motions).
• Machining components with high Repeatability and Precision.
• Unmanned machining operations.
• To improve production planning and to increase productivity.
• To survive in global market CNC machines are must to achieve close tolerances.

Differences between cnc machines tools and conventional machine tools

• Basically conventional machine have 2 axes, known as X & Y axis.

• There is also a Z axis long which only the bed moves vertically.
• The spindle along with the tool does not move as it is fixed with the machine body.
• But in case of CNC machine, there are minimum 3 axes with Spindle moving parallel to Z axis.
• CNC machines have more rigid construction when compared to the conventional machine.
• The slide ways, guide and spindles of the CNC machine all look over proportioned when
compared to the conventional machine.
• The structure of the CNC machine is therefore designed to cope with the torsion forces and
heavy duty cutting imposed on these machines

Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:

I. Part program:-

• A series of coded instructions required to produce a part.

• Controls the movement of the machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary functions such as
spindle rotation and coolant.
• The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.

II. Program input device

• The program input device is the means for part program to be entered into the CNC control.
 • Three commonly used program input devices are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader,
and computer via RS-232-C communication.

III. Machine Control Unit

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It is used to perform the following
functions:

• To read the coded instructions.

• To decode the coded instructions.
• To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion
commands.
• To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
• To receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
• To implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.

IV. Machine Tool

• CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools.

• Regardless of which type of machine tool is controlled, it always has a slide table and a
spindle to control position and speed.
• The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z axis.

V. Feed Back System

• The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system.

• It uses position and speed transducers to continuously monitor the position at which the
cutting tool is located at any particular instant.
• The MCU uses the difference between reference signals and feedback signals to generate
the control signals for correcting position and speed errors.

VI. Drive System

• Drives are used to provide controlled motion to CNC elements

• A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and ball lead-screws.
• The MCU feeds the control signals (position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits.
• The control signals are augmented to actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-
screws to position the machine table.

VII. POWER DRIVES

• In machine tools, power is generally required for driving the main spindle, saddles and
carriages and to some auxiliary units.
 •
The motors used for CNC system are of two kinds - Electrical - AC , DC or Stepper motors
•
Fluid - Hydraulic or Pneumatic
• In CNC, usually stepper and servo electrical drives are used. They exhibit favourable torque-
speed characteristics and are relatively inexpensive.

A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which is either an encoder or resolver. This device
changes mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a feedback. This feedback is sent to
the error detector , which compares the actual operation with that of the reference input. If there is
an error, that error is fed directly to the amplifier, which will be used to make necessary corrections
in control action. In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored. Servomotors
provide accurate speed, torque, and have ability of direction control.

Part Programming

A group of commands given to the CNC for operating the machine is called the program.

It consists of:

a) Information about part geometry

b) Motion statements to move the cutting tool
c) Cutting speed
d) Feed
e) Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction

A part program contains a set of instruction which is written in different block in the order of
execution of different operations to be performed on the job. The part program contains a string of
blocks which defined as the sequence of operations. Each block contains a set of letters and
numerical values and followed by and characters. The length of the block is sufficient to
accommodate 120 characters and at the each time. It can display 80 characters. The block numbers
will be entered with address N. The block numbers are freely selectable.

Commonly used word addresses

• G-CODE: Preparatory Word, used as a communication device to prepare the MCU. The G-
code indicates that a given control function such as G01, linear interpolation, is to be
requested. Examples are:

G00 - Positioning at rapid speed; Mill and Lathe

G01 - Linear interpolation (machining a straight line); Mill and Lathe
G02 - Circular interpolation clockwise (machining arcs); Mill and Lathe
G03 - Circular interpolation, counter clockwise; Mill and Lathe
G04 - Mill and Lathe, Dwell
G09 - Mill and Lathe, Exact stop
G10 - Setting offsets in the program; Mill and Lathe
G17 - X-Y plane for arc machining; Mill and Lathe with live tooling
G18 - Z-X plane for arc machining; Mill and Lathe with live tooling
G19 - Z-Y plane for arc machining; Mill and Lathe with live tooling

• M-CODE: Miscellaneous function. The M code is used todesignate a particular mode of

operation for an NC machine tool. Examples are:

M00 - Program stop; Mill and Lathe

M01 - Optional program stop; Lathe and Mill
M02 - Program end; Lathe and Mill
M03 - Spindle on clockwise; Lathe and Mill
M04 - Spindle on counter clockwise; Lathe and Mill
M05 - Spindle off; Lathe and Mill
M08 - Coolant on; Lathe and Mill
M09 - Coolant off; Lathe and Mill
M10 - Chuck or rotary table clamp; Lathe and Mill
M11 - Chuck or rotary table clamp off; Lathe and Mill
 EXPERIMENT 6

To study and find out the effect of cutting speed, feed, depth of cut on
cutting/ feed forces using lathe tool dynamometer.
Apparatus: Lathe, cutting tool, lathe tool dynamometer.

Theory: Whenever a metal cutting operation is being carried out, the tool material is subject to
various forces.

There are three types of cutting forces acting on the lathe tool, they are –

1. Ft – Tangential Force

2. Ff – Feed Force

3. Fr – Radial Force

Lathe Tool Dynamometer is a cutting force measuring

instrument used to measure the cutting forces coming on the
tool tip on the Lathe Machine. The sensor is designed in such a
way that it can be rigidly mounted on the tool post, and the
cutting tool can be fixed to the sensor directly. This feature will
help to measure the forces accurately without loss of the force.
The sensor is made of single element with three different
Wheatstone strain gauge bridge. The principle of all
dynamometers in based on the measurement of deflections or
strain produced from the dynamometer structure from the
action of cutting force.

Procedure:

1. Hold the work piece on chuck.

2. Adjust the speed, feed and depth of cut of the machine.

3. Note down the forces represented by the lathe tool dynamometer when a stable reading is
observed.

4. Do the same by varying depth of cut, speed and feed one by one while keeping the rest of the
parameters constant.
Observations: Work Material = Mild Steel

Tool Material = Carbide

Diameter of Work piece = 35mm

Table 1: Depth of cut vs. Cutting/Feed forces

Feed= 0.0025 in/rev RPM= 409

Depth of Cut (divisions) Cutting force (kgf) Feed force (kgf)

30 16 8
25 13 4
20 9 3
15 6 1

Table 2: RPM vs. Cutting/Feed force

Depth of Cut= 30 divisions Feed= 0.0025 in/rev

RPM Cutting force (kgf) Feed force (kgf)

289 14 6
409 16 8
639 18 10
1000 19 12

Table 3: Feed vs. Cutting/Feed force

Depth of Cut= 30 divisions RPM= 409

Feed (in/rev) Cutting force (kgf) Feed force (kgf)

0.0025 16 8
0.0029 20 9
0.0034 22 10
0.0040 30 17
 EXPERIMENT 7

To study various types of grinding machines and different grinding

processes.
Introduction: Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting
tool. A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:

• Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)

• Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
• Various kinds of expensive industrial machine tools called grinding machines
• Bench grinders

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and tool making. It can produce very
fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also rough out
large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the machining of very hard
materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools such as tool bits
or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way to machine such materials
as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is usually better suited to taking very
shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s diameter by half a thousandth of an inch or 12.7 μm.

Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each grain of abrasive
functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and
shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning,
milling, drilling, tapping, etc.). However, among people who work in the machining fields, the term
cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is often
mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms are usually used separately in
shop-floor practice.

Lapping and sanding are subsets of grinding.

Various types of grinding processes are:

Surface grinding
Surface grinders are used to produce flat, angular and irregular surfaces. In the surface grinding
process, the grinding wheel revolves on a spindle; and the work piece, mounted on either a
reciprocating or a rotary table, is brought into contact with the grinding wheel.

Four types of surface grinders are commonly used in industry: the horizontal spindle/reciprocating
table; the horizontal spindle/rotary table; the vertical spindle/reciprocating table; and the vertical
spindle/rotary table.

Horizontal spindle/reciprocating table — this surface grinder is the most commonly used type in
machining operations. It is available in various sizes to accommodate large or small work pieces.
With this type of surface grinder, the work moves back and forth under the grinding wheel. The
grinding wheel is mounted on a horizontal spindle and cuts on its periphery as it contacts the work
piece.
Horizontal spindle/rotary table — this surface grinder also has a horizontally mounted grinding
wheel that cuts on its periphery. The work piece rotates 360 degrees on a rotary table underneath
the wheel head. The wheel head moves across the work piece to provide the necessary cross feed
movements.

Vertical spindle/reciprocating table — This type is particularly suited for grinding long and narrow
castings, like the bed ways of an engine lathe. It removes metal with the face of the grinder wheel
while the work reciprocates under the wheel. The wheel head assembly, as on most other types of
surface grinders, moves vertically to control the depth of cut. The table moving laterally
accomplishes cross feed.

Vertical spindle/rotary table — this grinding machine is capable of heavy cuts and high metal-
removal rates. Vertical spindle machines use cup, cylinder, or segmented wheels. Many are
equipped with multiple spindles to successively rough, semi-finish, and finish large castings, forgings,
and welded fabrications.

These processes have been illustrated through the following diagram.

Surface Grinding Processes

Cylindrical grinding

Cylindrical grinding is the process of grinding the outside surfaces of a cylinder. These surfaces may
be straight, tapered or contoured. Cylindrical grinding operations resemble lathe-turning operations.
They replace the lathe when the work piece is hardened or when extreme accuracy and superior
finish are required. As the work piece revolves, the grinding wheel, rotating much faster in the
opposite direction, is brought into contact with the part. The work piece and table reciprocate while
in contact with the grinding wheel to remove material.

Work holding devices — Work holding devices and accessories used on center-type cylindrical
grinders are similar to those used on engine lathes.
Independent, universal and collet
llet chucks can be used on cylindrical grinders when the work is odd
odd-
shaped or contains no center hole. These also are used for internal grinding operations.

Cylindrical Grinding

Center less grinding

Center less grinding machines eliminate the need to have center holes for the work or to use work
holding devices. In center less grinding, the work piece rests on a work rest blade and is backed up
by a second wheel, called the regulating wheel. The rotation of the grinding wheel pushes the work
piece down on the work rest blade and against the regulating wheel. The regulating wheel, usually
made of a rubber-bonded
bonded abrasive, rotates in the same direction as the grinding wheel and controls
the longitudinal feed of the work when set at a slight angle. By chan
changing
ging this angle and the speed of
the wheel, the work piece feed rate can be changed.

Centre less Grinding

Internal grinding
Internal grinders are used to finish straight, tapered or formed holes accurately. The most popular
internal grinder is similar in
n operation to a boring operation in a lathe: The work piece is held by a
work holding device, usually a chuck or collet, and revolved by a motorized headstock. A separate
motor head in the same direction as the work piece revolves the grinding wheel. It can be fed in and
out of the work and also adjusted for depth of cut.

Internal Grinding
 EXPERIMENT 8

To identify various angles and parameters of different single-point and

multi-point cutting tools.
Introduction:

A cutting tool in metal working can be defined as “any tool that is used to remove material from the
work piece by means of shear deformation”. Frequently, it also refers as a tool bit. In order to
perform effective cutting operation, the cutting tool must be made of a material harder than the
work material to be cut. Also, the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated during
machining process.

The tool must have a specific geometry (known as tool geometry) for effective cutting and smooth
surface finish. According to the tool geometry, the cutting tools can be classified into solid cutting
tools and carbide tipped tools.

There are two surfaces adjacent to the cutting edge of the tool:

(a) Rake surface : Rake surface directs the flow of newly formed chip. It is oriented at a certain angle
is called the rake angel ‘a’. It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work surface.
The rake angle can be positive or negative.

(b) Flank surface. : The flank surface of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly
formed work surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion which would degrade the finish. This
angle between work surface and the flank surface is called the relief or clearance angle.

Following are some important parameters to be considered while selecting a cutting tool for
particular machining operation:

i. Geometry. v. Machine tool quality.

ii. Material to be machined. vi. Surface finish required.

iii. Shape and Size of part. vii. Holding facility.

iv. Type of operation required. viii. Machining parameters such as feed speed
and depth of cut selected.
The major classifications of cutting tools are following:

(i) According to Construction:

(a) Solid tool. (b) Carbide tipped tool.

(ii) According to Number of Cutting Edges:

(a) Single point tool. (b) Multipoint tool.

(iii) According to Operations:

(a) Turning. (e) Boring.

(b) Drilling. (f) Forming.

(c) Threading. (g) Parting-off.

(d) Knurling. (h) Reaming

Cutting tool angles

The face and the flank are pain surfaces, the cutting edge can be assumed to be a line. These
surfaces and the edges are inclined with respect to some reference plan or line. The inclinations are
called tool angles.

These angles are defined by various names. They are provided for various purposes.

From the geometry of cutting tool the various cutting tool angles are shown:

Tool geometry of a single point right hand cutting tool

Tool geometry of multi point plain milling cutter

 Geometry of multi point twist drill

Rake Angle (α):

(a) Black rake angle. : It is the angle between the face of the tool and plane parallel to its
base. It is also known as front rake angle or top rake angle.
(b) Side rake angle. : It is the angle between the face of the tool and the shank of the tool.

Clearance or Relief Angle (γ):

(a) End clearance relief angle. : It is the angle between the front surface of the tool and a line
normal to the base of the tool. It is also known as front clearance angle.
(b) Side clearance relief angle. : It is the angle between the side surface of the tool and a line
normal to the base of the tool.

Cutting Edge Angle:

(a) End cutting edge angle. : It is the angle between the end cutting edge of the tool and a
line perpendicular to its shank.
(b) Side cutting edge angle. : It is the angle between the side cutting edge of the tool and
shank of the tool.

Nose Radius:

Nose radius is one which connects the side and end cutting edge.

Now, we will discuss the functions and effects of cutting tool angles on cutting process.

Functions of Back Rake Angle:

i. It helps to control the chip flow in a convenient direction.

 ii. It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps to
reduces power requirements and increase tool life.
iii. It also helps counteract the pressure against the cutting tool from the work by pulling the
tool into the work.
iv. It provides keenness to the cutting edge and improves the surface finish.

Functions of Side Rake angle:

i. It performs similar functions as performed by back rake angle.

ii. Side rake angle along with back rake angle controls the chip flow direction.
iii. It partly counteracts the resistance of the work to the movement of the cutter.
iv. For example, brass requires a back and side rake angle of almost 0°, while aluminum uses
a back rake of 35° and a side rake of 15°.

Functions of End Clearance (relief) Angle:

i. It allows the tool to cut freely without rubbing against the work surface.
ii. This angle varies from 0° to 15°, and usually 8°.
iii. Excessive relief angle reduces strength of the tool.

Functions of Side Clearance (relief) Angle:

i. It avoids the rubbing of flank against the work piece when the tool is fed longitudinally.
ii. This angle is 6° to 10° for steel, 8° for aluminum.
iii. It maintains that no part of the tool besides the actual cutting edge can touch the work.

Functions of End Cutting Edge Angle:

i. It avoids rubbing between the edge of the tool and workspace.

ii. It influences the direction of chip flow.

Functions of Side Cutting Edge Angle:

i. Increase in side cutting edge angle tends to widen and thin the chip.
ii. An excessive side cutting edge angle redirects feed forces in radial direction which may
cause chatter.

Functions of Nose Radius:

i. A sharp point at the end of tool is undesirable, because it is highly stressed, short lived
and leaves groove in the path of cut. Therefore, Nose Radius is favorable for long tool life
and good surface quality.
ii. It affects the tool life, radial force, and surface quality of work piece.
iii. If nose radius is too large chatter will occur.
iv. If the nose radius exceeds optimum value, the tool life decreases.
v. Larger nose radius means larger area of contact between tool and work piece. Resulting
more frictional heat is generated. Also, cutting force increases due to which the work part
may start vibrating and chattering, if work part holding is not very tight.