Catch it where it falls

A. guide to to techinques in water conservation & management

 Wken people ask We say We try
Yet deep down We know tkis is a lie
For in reality tke proof does skoW
Tkat tke Water table is still oevy low ...

Abigail Irwin
XII, Visakka Valley Sckool
Visakkapatnam
Foreword

The tsunami of December 2004 will remain a black day in the memories of the peoples
of coastal South India. The never before seen event brought dramatically to our attention,
our vulnerability in the face of wrath of nature. We are nearing completion of 4 years now
from that event. And these years have seen many concerted efforts in solving water crisis
from various people from all walks of life.

This decade, 2005-2015, also is the INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR ACTION for
'Water for life". It aims to promote efforts to fulfill international commitments made on
water and water-related issues by 2015.

Water is essential for Life. Yet we see millions of people around the world struggling for
a few pots of water per day. The looming climate change crisis will only exacerbate the
problem of water scarcity - either in droughts or in floods and heavy precipitation. The
water crisis looms larger and larger, especially for India and more so for Tamil Nadu.

In the face of this crisis, it is imperative that we take action at every level and fast. We need
solutions that are simple to implement and that will go a long way in recharging our water
tables and fill up our reservoirs. We need simple solutions that will make every development
effort contribute in mitigating the problem. We need every man, woman and child involved
in solving the crisis.

The guide "Catch it where it falls ..." brings together relevant and appropriate solutions to
the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, that can be implemented at all levels by all people. It
demystifies the issue of water, its conservation and management. It very rightly brings to
the forefront the largely neglected issue of storm water runoff management. Rainwater
harvesting is not only about collecting water from roof-tops but also about dealing with
water-logging, and floods during rains.

I appreciate the effort made by the production .team and Mr. Alok Patnaik to bring out
this publication. I encourage all readers and users of the guide to take the message forward
and make the "Water for Life" decade a decade where the water crisis will be solved once
for all.

Benjamin Larroquette
UN Tsunami Recovery Manager
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Tamilnadu - The larger picture 3

Catching rainwater - the whys and wherefores 6

Roof-top rainwater harvesting 14

Roof Top water harvesting techniques 15

Individual tank based rainwater harvesting system 16

Roof Top rainwater harvesting through recharge pits 20

Roof Top rainwater harvesting through recharge trenches 22

Roof Top rainwater harvesting through wells & hand-pumps 23

Storm water run-offs management 27

Relevance of stormwater management in reconstruction areas 31

Storm water management techniques 32

Swales 32

Permeable surfaces - pavers and dispersion trenches 39

References 45
Introduction
Rain is the most important source of all water on earth. The water cycle is unique.
In an endless cycle, rain rejuvenates all fresh water resources. Rainwater recharges
the surface sources and slowly seeps into the ground to reach and replenish the
underground aquifers.
Today we face a severe water crisis world over.
Groundwater, accessible with easy extraction techniques available today, is under
great stress. Our Groundwater levels have declined sharply in most areas. In some
aquifers, the fresh water is underlined by brackish water. As more and more ground
water is pumped out, brackish water rises and contaminates the fresh water, making
it unsuitable for drinking. In coastal areas, there is always a threat of seawater
intrusion into freshwater reserves; as a result tube wells are downed to extract more
ground water. The crises become more and more urgent because while ground
water continues to be pumped out in huge quantities, very little water is recharged
into aquifers.
With rapid urbanization, lakes, ponds and green areas that contribute to recharge
have reduced drastically. Catchments areas have been paved and reclaimed for
construction. As a result even when the rains come, groundwater does not get
recharged.
Each year, the State of Tamil Nadu receives quite a substantial amount of rainfall.
However, in urban areas, this rainwater is unable to seep into the ground, because
the land is sealed for miles with concrete buildings and a network of roads and other
impervious surfaces. Instead, this precious rainwater rushes out through drains,
nallas and flows out into rivers and to the sea. Billions of litres of fresh water are lost
each season.
It thus becomes important and vital to address the issue of water. Considering that
water can only be managed and cannot be produced, it becomes important to catch,
store and manage water intelligently. In other words, its important to HARVEST
RAIN and MANAGE WATER.

Purpose of the

This guide was developed to assist activists working in post-disaster reconstructions,

architects, engineers, local leaders, government bodies and all those who are interested in
understanding water conservation and management. The information it presents will help
the reader to:

understand the various techniques for water conservation and management that may
apply to specific locations of tsunami reconstruction

understand the basic concepts of rainwater harvesting and management;

know what issues are commonly faced in rainwater management and how they can be
managed;

understand the basic design principles for some of the rainwater harvesting and
management systems;

know the various preventive and control methods for managing rainwater.
How this guide is organised

"Waterdrop" is our protagonist and guide throughout this book

who will draw our attention to specific ideas, interesting facts,
cautions, do's and don'ts etc. Waterdrop will also help us to look
at specific issues and problems and give links to solutions that
have worked in the past.

This guide has been designed to provide easy access to the specific
information you need regarding rainwater management. It can
be used as a guide to understanding general information about the effects of rainwater as
well as a reference for those who design and build rainwater harvesting structures.

At the end of every chapter there are list of sources from where information has been
compiled or learnings that have been gained for deeper understanding of the issue. There
are many internet links which will be useful for further research if the reader wishes to
further explore on a specific idea or topic.

When we started the work on compilation of this guide, our research took us into many
techniques. There was a huge amount of information available on roof-top harvesting - in
English and in Tamil. There were many highly technical options for recharging ground
water and many simple ones to understand information of other ground water recharge
techniques. Hence we considered the following:

• availability of information (was the information easily

available ? which were the topics where there was a large gap
- either in information availability or practices and
solutions ?)

• complexity of the solution (which were the techniques which

would enable simple solutions which large impacts? which
were the techniques which could be put in place without
very high technical knowledge or method ?)

• cost of solution (which were the techniques which were not

expensive ? which were the designs which could be put in
place with less investments ?)

• are there examples in the reconstruction areas which can

be showcased and be used as a learning example?

These parameters led us to focus on a few: infiltration systems, swales and dispersion
trenches for non-permeable surfaces, recharge pits and trenches, individual roof-top tank-
based system etc.

Please note that this manual is intended as an aid in understanding rainwater problems and
management, and it does not address specific problems or complex design considerations.
Tamilnadu - The larger picture
Before we get into the details of this guide,
let's take a quick look at Tamil Nadu and
especially the tsunami affected regions of
Tamil Nadu. Considering that construction
and resource management techniques are
very region-specific, it might be worth the
while to take a brief look at what the region
is all about.
Tamil Nadu is a coastal state prone to
droughts. The climate of this state ranges
from dry sub-humid to semi-arid. (Sub-
humid regions are those regions where
moisture is normally less than under humid
conditions but still sufficient for the
production of many agricultural crops
without irrigation or dryland farming. Semi-
arid regions are regions that are between the
desert climates and humid climates in
ecological characteristics and agricultural
potential).
Rainfall in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu has 3 distinct periods of rainfall.
It receives a little rainfall during the monsoon
season (from June to September). It receives
its maximum rainfall during the North-East
monsoon or what is popularly known as
winter rains (from October to December).
It also receives a little rainfall during the dry
season (from January to May).
Under normal conditions the state receives
about 945 mm (37.2 in) of rain. Since the
state is entirely dependent on rains for
recharging its water resources, monsoon
failures lead to acute water scarcity and
severe drought.
Dry Season
20%
Water Rains
48%
South West
Monsoon
32%
Figure 1: Rainfall in Tamil Nadu
A little about Tamil Nadu's
water resources:
Though Tamil Nadu is largely a dry region
it has several perennial rivers - Palar, Cheyyar
River, Ponnaiyar, Kaveri, Meyar, Bhavani,
Amaravati, Vaigai, Chittar River &
Tamaraparani and a few non-perennial ones
too - the Vellar, Noyal, Suruli, Gundar,
Vaipar, Valparai and Varshali.
Canals, tanks and wells are the main sources
of irrigation for farmers in the state. As of
2005-2006, the state had 2395 canals with a
length of 9,747 km, 40,319 tanks, 670
ordinary government wells, 1,620,705
ordinary private wells and 290,611 tube wells.
Tamil Nadu's Ground water quality
Tamil Nadu has its share of problems with
groundwater quality. The main problems it
faces are of salinity (inland salinity as well
as coastal salinity) and Fluoride content in
its ground water resources.
The districts most affected by salinity are
Karaikal and Pondicherry, Nagapattinam,
Pudukottai, Ramanathpuram, North Arcot,
Dharamapuri, Salem, Trichy and
Coimbatore. The fluoride content is high
in the areas of Dharampuri, Salem, North
Arcot, Villipuram, and Muthuramalingam.
The TN Government's policy on conservation and management of water

The following paragraphs have specifically • Integrated and coordinated

been included to show the seriousness with
which water conservation and management
issues are being perceived at different levels.
Traditionally, there have been many systems
for managing water. In contemporary times
many NGOs have done excellent work in
promoting awareness on water issues and
provide alternatives and solutions to the
same. Now the government has included
water conservation and management in its
agenda and we can only hope for the best.
development of surface water and
ground water and their conjunctive use,
should be envisaged right from the
project planning stage and should form
an essential part of the project.
• Over exploitation of ground water
should be avoided near the coast to
prevent ingress of sea water into sweet
water aquifers.

The State Government of Tamil Nadu has

passed an Act namely "Tamil Nadu Ground
Water (Development and Management) Act,
In fact, Roof Top
2003" which includes provision of Tamil
Rain Water Harvesting
Nadu Ground Water Authority to regulate
(RTRWH) has been included
and control water development in the State
in the building by laws
of Tamil Nadu.
in all Corporation

It provides for Ground water development

and Muncipalities.
and states that:

• There should be a periodical

reassessment on a scientific basis of the
ground water potential, taking into
consideration the quality of the water
available and economic viability.

• Exploitation of ground water resources

should be regulated so as not to exceed
the recharging possibilities, as also to
ensure social equity. Ground water
recharge projects should be developed
and implemented for augmenting the
available supplies.

BHOOMIJAL SAMVARDHAN PURASKAR & NATIONAL WATER AWARD

for innovative practices of Ground Water Augmentation through Rainwater

Harvesting and Artificial Recharge

Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India

The Bhoomijal Samvardhan Puraskar and National Water Award have been
launched with an objective to encourage the Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) /Gram Panchayats/ Urban Local Bodies (for population up to 1 lakh)
for adopting innovative practices of ground water augmentation by rainwater
harvesting and artificial recharge through people's participation in the targeted
areas resulting in ensuring the sustainability of ground water resources and
development of adequate capacity amongst the stakeholders.
Norms for providing drinking 'fully covered', i.e. habitations provided with
water: 40 lpcd.

Under the Rural Water Supply Programme,

the norms are to provide 40 litres of water The status of rural habitations as on
per day per person, in the rural areas. These 01.04.2001 is as follows :
norms are arrived at with the following break
ups: 3 litres for drinking, 5 litres for cooking, Status No. of
15 litres for bathing and 17 litres for other Habitations
purposes. It also states that "wherever
Not covered Nil
sources permit, a norm of 55 lpcd is adopted
No safe source 931
with provision for individual house service
Partially covered 4,085
connections in such habitations".
Fully covered 61,615

Status of Rural Water Supply Total 66,631

The policy notes state that periodical surveys So, with some of the facts and figures in our
are conducted in the rural areas to assess minds, let us proceed to get a deeper
the status of water supply. Based on the understanding of the issue of water
levels of supply, rural habitations are harvesting.
classified into four categories as 'not-
covered', i.e. habitations with no supply; 'no
safe source', i.e. habitations affected with
quality problems; 'partially covered', i.e.
habitations with supply below 40 lpcd; and
Catching rainwater - the whys and
wherefores
Groundwater is depleting rapidly. Our rivers
are drying. Our wells are drying. Our lakes
are dying We are boring deeper and deeper
into the ground in search of the elusive drop
and are extracting much more water from
the ground than nature is able to fill up, until
it has now become a major problem. Women
walk kilometers to fetch water. Inadequacy
of water has affected every aspect of life. It
is evident we have a problem. And now there
is drastic need to counter the problem. We
have the options of reducing our extraction
and/ or replenish ground water sources as a
conscious act on our part.

In Tamilnadu, as many as 52 blocks have been classified

as overexploited blocks where the ground water
extraction has exceeded the recharge level, 37 blocks
have been classified as dark area blocks where the
ground water extraction is more than 85 % of the
estimated recharge and 86 blocks have been classified
as grey areas where the exploitation
is between 65% to 85%.

What is an AquiferP

Imagine if all the water that fell in a single year stayed right where it landed. We
would be wading through water higher than our waists! Fortunately, most of the
rain runs into lakes, rivers, ocean, or into underground storage areas called aquifers.
Aquifers are underground reservoirs. The water that reaches these chambers is usually
much cleaner than the water of reservoirs at the earth's surface. Almost no bacteria
live in aquifers. Many pollutants are filtered out as the water passes through the soil
on its way to the aquifer. Water flowing into recharge areas—land covered with soil
and trees— refills the aquifer. Bogs and swamps may absorb and store water that
later slowly drains into aquifers.

The water table is not flat as its name makes it seem. It has peaks and valleys that
echo the shape of the land above it. When a lot of water is pumped from an aquifer,
or when there is a dry spell, the water table sinks lower. Groundwater recharge
essentially means to fill up these underground reservoirs - aquifers. Increase in the
water table would mean increased water levels in the wells, borewells, rivers and
lakes drying up slower etc.

Aquifer
Bedrock
What is rain water harvesting and how can it increase or augment
groundwater resources ?

Rain water harvesting is the technique of collection and

storage of rain water in surface (or above the ground
natural or man-made structures) or in under-ground
aquifers (the under-ground water table), before it is lost
as surface run-off. Artificial recharge to ground water is
a process by which the ground water reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that under natural
conditions of replenishment.

How can rain water harvesting and water management

help us ?

4 Help us in overcoming the rapid depletion of ground water wells.

4 Arrest the decline in and depletion of ground water levels.

4 Increase the availability of ground water at specific places and times

4 Improve ground water quality by diluting the salinity in the ground water in regions
affected by the problem

4 Manage local level seasonal flooding problems

Where will rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge work?

4 Where ground water levels are going down on regular basis.

4 Where substantial amount of aquifer has been depleted.

4 Where availability of ground water is inadequate in lean months.

4 Where due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rain water into ground has decreased
drastically

4 Where the soil is reasonably permeable

From where to harvest rain?

Rainwater harvesting can be harvested from the following surfaces:

Rooftops: If buildings with impervious roofs are already in place, the catchment area is
effectively available free of charge and they provide a supply at the point of consumption.

Paved and unpaved areas i.e., landscapes, open fields, parks, stormwater drains,
roads and pavements and other open areas can be effectively used to harvest the run-off.
The main advantage in using ground as collecting surface is that water can be collected
from a larger area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall.

Waterbodies: The potential of lakes, tanks and ponds to store rainwater is immense.
The harvested rainwater can not only be used to meet water requirements of the city, it
also recharges groundwater aquifers.

Stormwater drains: Most of the residential colonies have proper network of

stormwater drains. If maintained neatly, these offer a simple and cost effective means for
harvesting rainwater.
How can groundwater be
recharged ?
There are many methods and techniques to
recharge groundwater aquifers.
These techniques can be designed to
function in most settings, from hard-
surfaced areas to soft landscaped features.
There are a variety of design options
available which allows us to tailor and
customize it to local land use, future
management and the needs of local people.
The range of options means that the various
options have to be actively considered
keeping in mind the needs and wishes of
the local users and stakeholders and the
specificity of the region and conditions.
A quick look at the some of the different
techniques:
Pits: Recharge pits are constructed for
recharging the shallow aquifer. These are pits
constructed 1 to 2 metres, wide and 3 metres
deep which are filled with boulders, gravels,
coarse sand in layers.
Trenches: These are constructed when
the soil conditions are such that water easily
percolates into the ground. Trench may be
0.5 to 1 metres wide, 1 to 1.5 metres deep
and 10 to 20 metres long depending up
availability of water. These are filled with
different filter materials like boulders,
gravels, coarse sand in layers.
Dug wells: Existing dug wells may be
utilised as recharge structures and collected
water can be directed into them. The water
should pass through filter media before
directing into dug well, so that only clean
water goes into the well.
Hand pumps: The existing hand pumps
may be used as recharge structures for
recharging the shallow/deep aquifers, if the
availability of water is limited. Care The
collected water should be filtered before
diverting it into hand pumps.
Recharge wells: Recharge wells of 100
to 300 mm. diameter are generally
constructed for recharging the deeper
aquifers and filtered water is directed into
these.
8
Recharge Shafts: These are ideal in
regions with clayey soils and where the
aquifer in located underneath these clayey
surfaces. Recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 metres
diameter and 10 to 15 metres deep are
constructed and filled with boulders, gravels
& coarse sand and collected water is directed
into these.
Lateral shafts with bore wells: For
recharging the upper as well as deeper
aquifers lateral (horizontal) shafts of 1.5 to
2 metres wide & 10 to 30 metres long are
constructed. The lateral shaft is filled with
boulders, gravels & coarse sand to ensure
that clean water gets into the shaft.
Spreading techniques : These
techniques are used when soil is loose and
easily permeable. Water is spread the by
constructing streams/nalas, check dams,
nala bunds, cement plugs, gabion structures
or a percolation pond etc.
10 good reasons to charge
the ground-water
- It is cheaper to recharge ground-
water than create above-the-
ground storage reservoirs.
- The aquifer serves as distribution
system also.
- Land is not used for storage and
hence people do not get
displaced
- Ground water is not directly
exposed to evaporation and
pollution.
- Storing water underground is
environment friendly.
- It increases the productivity of
aquifer.
- Increases ground water levels.
- It reduces flood hazards.
- Mitigates the effects of drought.
- Reduces soil erosion.
Keep in mind:
The type of soil will largely determine the effectiveness of the recharging technique. In
fact there are different techniques for different types of soil. Soil condition is an important
factor to be considered before one chooses a technique.

Soil Type Testing comprised primarily of sand and larger

particles. Set the jar aside, being careful
Soil type refers to the texture of your soil. not to mix the sand layer that has already
Soil is composed of organic matter, mineral
settled and wait approximately an hour.
particles and air spaces. Soil comes in three
Now, place a mark on the side of the jar at
types: sand, silt and clay. Sand is the largest
the top of the next layer to settle out. This
particle. Silt particles are smaller than fine
is the silt layer. Again, place the jar aside
sand but can still be seen by the human
for a full day, being careful not to shake or
eye. Clay particles are microscopic. The
relative proportion of these particles mix the layers that have setded out. After

determines the soil texture. 24 hours, or when the water is once again
clear place a mark on the side of the jar at
the top of the final layer. This is the clay
Test Soil Type by Hand layer. The percentage of each layer tells you
Take a handful of moist soil, feel it and what kind of soil you have.
rub it between your fingers. c , ., Sandy Soil
Sandy soils are
If it is rough and gritty and breaks up easily,
found throughout
it is sandy. 10% Clay
but are very
10-50% Silt
If it feels sticky and like plastic it is clay. common near the 80% Sand

If it feels slippery with smaller particles mountain foothills,

than sand, it is silt. along rivers and Loam Soil

streams and certain
Next try to form a lump with it. If it makes
coastal areas. Sandy 30% Clay
a solid lump that won't crumble it is clay.
soils are light and 30-50% Silt
If it won't form a lump but crumbles at 30-50% Sand
typically very free
once it is sand.
draining, usually
Clayey Soil
holding water very
The Jar Test poorly due to very
50-100% Clay
low organic
First, find an empty, clean glass 0-45% Silt
content. 0-45% Sand
bottle or jar. Fill it about 2/3 full
with clean water.
Loam soils are also common particularly
in the valleys and flat areas (flood plains)
Next, take a sample of soil
surrounding rivers and streams. Loam soils
(break the large clods apart so it
are somewhat heavier than sandy soils, but
will fit through the jar opening)
also tend to be fairly free draining, due to
and fill the jar and water until
typically low organic content.
the jar is nearly full, leaving
about 1" of air space at the top.
Clay soils are very common in certain areas,
Screw on the lid and shake it vigorously
particularly around urban areas where fill
for a minute or two, until all the soil par
soils have been used to establish grade in
ticles are broken down into suspension in
subdivisions and developments. Clay soils
the water.
are not typically free draining, and water

Now, allow the suspended soil to settle for tends to take a long time to infiltrate. When
wet, such soils tend to allow virtually all
about a minute, and place a mark on the
water to run-off. Clay soils tend to be heavy
side of the jar at the top of the layer that
and difficult to work when dry.
has settled out. This is the sand layer is

9
It is important to take care that these techniques are NOT adopted in
areas where chemicals and other pollutants can destroy ground water
- industrial areas, petrol bunks, chemical warehouses, garages and
mechanic sheds etc. In these areas, additional and strong cautionary
measures have to be put in place before water reaches into the ground.

Industrial areas

Warehouses & storage of chemicals,

pesticides and other toxic materials

Auto-sheds, garages, etc. where oil,

fuel and greases drips to the ground

10
Traditional Systems of harvesting rainwater

Every village in Tamil Nadu had three water Lifelines of Tamil Nadu:
bodies: one for irrigation, one for cattle and Kanmois and Ooranis
an Oorani (pond) for drinking water. All
three are rain-fed. Many villages have Kanmois are traditional tanks with earthen

survived centuries because of these
catchment bodies.
The traditional systems are a well recognised
fact, as this has been given as an example in
the - Xl-five-year-plan (Rural Drinking Wa
ter and Sanitation in the Eleventh Plan pe
riod - Excerpts). It says:
"For the people of Tamil Nadu the traditional
Ooranis orponds have trulyproved to be a blessing.
The Ooranis were developed as the main supply
systems in Tamil Nadu centuries back. These
earthen bunded ponds were constructed by the
collective efforts of thepeople over the ages and have
been designed hydrologically to have adequate and
assured inflow of surface run-offs. A.lmost all
Ooranis are well connected with irrigation tanks
called Kanmoi.
bunds constructed many centuries ago. They
are large surface water stores that collected
and stored surface water run-offs. They
largely supported and were used for
agricultural purposes as well as for drinking
water.
Ooranis are small ponds that have collected
rainwater from rains and from surrounding
catchment areas. These Ooranis traditionally
were used for various needs of drinking,
washing, bathing needs of the villages
around it.
Oorani is a Tamil word meaning village
pond. It is an institution as old as Tamil
society. Poet Thiruvalluvar referred to them
2000 years ago. Ooranis were usually
endowed by ruling or merchant princes.
Beneficiaries were involved in excavation and

In recentyears however the Ooranis were neglected maintenance. They developed a sense of

and dilapidated due to implementation of new water ownership. After Independence the

supplyfacilities like handpumps, deep borewell and government departments took over every

Combined Water Supply Schemes (CWSS)." aspect of village management and Ooranis
fell to neglect.

In fact Tamil Nadu had a

wonderful system of participatory
maintenance of these water
bodies, called Kudimaramathu.
Kudimaramathu was a system in
which the villagers would
contribute free labour to maintain
these structures involving desilting
of the tanks and ponds, renovating
the structures, deepening of
channels, clearing and cleaning of Perumthottam Tank, Sirkali Taluk

the water bodies etc.

The concept is so interesting that

it has inspired the government to
launch a scheme called "nammaku
namme thittam" (meaning we are
our own support) which is based
on the Kudimaramathu practice of
the ancient times.

A pond - Oorani - in a village - defunct and unused

11
1 i

Harvesting from the Roofs

Roof-top rain water harvesting
Rain can be caught as it falls - it can be
caught into anything — roofs, roads,
pavements, ground and stored into tanks,
wells, open surface storages like lakes and
ponds, and in the aquifers.
Roof-tops are excellent rain-catchers. After
the initial run-off when the roof becomes
clean and the water harvestable, considerable
amount of water can be caught from the
roof tops.

How much water can be harvested from rain ?

Type of Catchment Coefficients

Roof Catchments
- Tiles 0.8- 0.9
- Corrugated metal sheets 0.7- 0.9

Ground surface coverings

- Concrete 0.6- 0.8
- Brick pavement 0.5- 0.6

Untreated ground catchments

- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 0.0 - 0.3
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5

Harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Run-off coefficient

So the larger the surface area, the more water can be caught.

66,000 litres of water can be caught from a house with 100 sq.mts in one year.
Ground water recharged from this is sufficient for a normal family size of five
members for a period of four months.

AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL = 732.13 mm

ROOF TOTAL VOLUME

AREA RAINFALL AVAILABLE TYPE OF STRUCTURE RECOMMENDED FOR RECHARGE
(m2) VOLUME FROM RAINFALL
(90%) (cum)
Alluvial area Hard Rock area

50 37.61 32.95 Recharge pit/ hand pump Recharge pit/ hand pump

100 73.21 65.89 Recharge pit/ hand pump Recharge pit/ hand pump

150 109.82 94.84 Recharge pit/ hand pump Trench/hand pump

200 146.43 131.78 Trench Trench

250 183.03 164.73 Trench Trench

300 219.64 197.68 Gravity head recharge well Gravity head recharge well

350 256.25 230.62 Gravity head recharge well Gravity head recharge well

400 292.85 263.57 Gravity head recharge well Gravity head recharge well

450 329.46 296.51 Gravity head recharge well Gravity head recharge well

500 366.07 329.46 Gravity head recharge well Gravity head recharge well

1000 732.13 658.92 Gravity head recharge well Recharging shaft/dug well

2000 1464.26 1317.83 Recharging shaft/dug well Recharging shaft/dug well

2500 1830.33 1647.29 Recharging shaft/dug well Recharging shaft/dug well

3000 2196.39 1976.75 Recharging shaft/dug well Recharging shaft/dug well

4000 2928.52 2635.67 Recharging shaft/dug well Recharging shaft/dug well

5000 3660.65 3294.59 Recharging shaft/dug well Recharging shaft/dug well

Source: http://www.cgwb.gov.in/WCR/rainwater_harvesting.htm; Central Ground Water board, Ministry of water resource, GOL

14
Rooftop water harvesting techniques
The components of a standard Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
System
A Rainwater harvesting system is made up
of the cycle of "Harvesting - Carrying -
Filtering - Storage - Use".
1. Harvesting
We normally come across two types of
harvesting structures, one is RCC slab flat-
roof and the other is traditional sloping roof
system. However for this example we are
considering flat roofs of roughly 35 square
meters (350 sq Feet) that have been typically
built in the Tsunami reconstruction effort.
2. Carrying
In case of a flat-roof, a PVC pipe or Cement-
pipe is appropriate and advisable
3. Filtering
Rainwater is a pure form of water, free of
any biological & bacterial contamination.
However, when it rains some suspended
impurities in the atmosphere get dissolved
in the rain. To prevent any form of contami
nations of the water stored in the tank, these
impurities need to be filtered out. This
filtering is carried out in two stages:
a. First-Rain separator: The first rain-
separator is a built-in plumbing system that
separates the first few minutes of the rain.
15
b. Filter : After the first rain separator,
the rain water will still carry suspended
impurities. These need to be filtered out.
This can be done with a simple sand - stone
- charcoal filter. Even a clean folded cotton
cloth placed in a sieve acts as an effective
filter.
4. Storage
The last component which completes the
Rainwater harvesting system is the storage
system. The water from filter is directed and
stored in the storage-system for day to day
use.
Typically one can go for either of the
following types of storage systems:
a. Individual tank based system where the
water is stored into brick/stone masonry
tank or pre-cast ferro cement tanks or
Polypropylene tank (popularly known as
Sintex tanks)
b. Surface Storage systems like ponds,
tanks, etc.
c. Underground storage systems: mainly
charging the existing aquifers through
directing the water into hand-pumps,
Dug wells, Pits and / or Trenches
5. Use
Water stored in any of the systems is fit for
use. It can be used on a day to day basis for
all needs. For drinking and cooking, one will
need to take standard care processes to clean
and decontaminate the water.
Individual tank based rainwater harvesting system
Step 1 : Harvesting from the roof of a house
All house roofs whether flat or sloping play
the role of the harvester. The quantity of
water that can be harvested depends on the
total area and on the roofing material.
The most important thing to keep in mind
is that the roof should be cleaned of all
leaves, dust or other material before the
monsoons. The roof should be strictly free
of any dangerous materials like chemicals/
pesticides/ fertilizers.
House with Flat slab roof
A typical flat-slab house, constructed post-
Tsunami is 350 sq.ft built-up area. The roof
of such a house would typically have one
rainwater outlet.
• Replace existing water-outlet with 4"
diameter L-junction, either PVC or
Cement.
• The joint around is sealed with cement
slurry.
• Check that the water does not stagnate
in from of the water outlet. If so redo
the surface so as to ensure that water
flows out well.
Step 2: Filtration
Rainwater is a pure form of water, free of
any biological & bacterial contamination.
However, when it rains some suspended
impurities in the atmosphere get dissolved
in the rain. The roof and gutters have
accumulated organic and inorganic matter
in the form of leaves, dust, sand, mud etc.
As the rain hits the roof all these impurities
dissolve into the rainwater or are carried
along. These impurities can affect the quality
of the water collected. To prevent any form
of contamination of the water being
harvested, these impurities need to be
filtered out.
This filtering is carried out in two stages:
1. First Rain Separator
Most of the dust and organic matter
deposited on the roof dissolves and flows
within the first few minutes of the rain. This
water needs to be separated in order to
16
The roof
should be
strictly free of
any dangerous
materials like
chemicals/
pesticides/
fertilizers.
prevent contami-nation of water being
harvested.
The first rain-separator is a built-in
plumbing-system that separates the first few
minutes of the rain without any major need
of supervision.
A 4" diameter PVC junction pipe is fixed
into the lower end of the L-junction that
comes from the roof.
A 4" down-pipe is fixed to the lower end of
the T-junction. It usually will go upto 30 cm
(1 foot) above the ground level. The down-
pipe is then provided with an L-junction.
This L-Junction has an end cap. This
contraption from T-junction below works
as the first-rain-separator.
How it works:
As the rainwater from roof flows down it
first fills up the down pipe (described above
as the first rain separator). The quantity of
water stored in the downpipe equals the first
few minutes of rain and will carry with it
most impurities. As the downpipe fills up
the water starts flowing out of the In
junction (from its upper outlet) into the
other downtake pipe which takes the water
to the filter.
After every rain, it is advised that the end-
cap from the bottom is released and water
collected in this empty portion of pipe is
flushed out. So that it is ready to store the
first few minutes of the rain for next time.
2. Downpipe
To the lower outlet of the T-junction we
have fixed the first rain separator described
above. Fix a 4" L-junction to the other upper
outlet. Fix a 4" downpipe to the L-junction
that goes to the filter described below.
3. Filter
The water that comes for filtration after the
filling up of the first rain separator would
still have suspended and dissolved impurities.
These need to be filtered out. These filters
can be of different types.
We can rely on a simple stone-sand-charcoal
filter. It is easy to construct and maintain.
a. Take any 20 litre container or plastic
drum or a plastic bucket.
b. Make an opening in the drum cover so
that a 4" diameter PVC pipe can enter.
c. On one side of this drum/ bucket (or
on the bottom side) make an opening
so that a 4" pipe can be fixed as an outlet.
This joint should be sealed from the
inside.
d. Note: If more sophisticated filters are
unavailable or are not possible due to
any reason, a fine cotton cloth folded
several times can also be used as a filter.
A combination of a cotton cloth and
aluminum mesh can serve as a relatively
effective filter.
Fill the container with a layer of baby jelly,
and then a layer of coarse sand and on the
top a layer of charcoal.
Ensure that at least 6" at the top is left open.
Slow percolation of water through the layers
i.e. the filtration medium ensures that the
dissolved and suspended impurities are
filtered.
Remember!
For the filters to work properly
they need to be cleaned on a
regular basis. All the material
should be removed from the
container and washed
separately. The container should
be washed and dried and the
filter materials should be
replaced.
17
Note: If more sophisticated filters are
unavailable or are not possible due to
any reason, a fine cotton cloth folded
several times can also be used as a
filter. A combination of a cotton cloth
and aluminum mesh can serve as a
relatively effective filter.
Step 3: Water Storage tank
The size/ capacity of the water tank is a
critical decision in the design of the
rainwater harvesting system. It is determined
by various factors including
• Average rainfall in the region and rainfall
pattern
• Roof-top area
• Water requirements of the family
• Budget
In rural areas of Tamil Nadu, the cost factor
is likely to play the deciding role in
determining the tank size. For optimum
utilization for the rainwater harvesting
system a water tank of 1500 - 2000 liter
capacity is suitable.
Keeping in mind the needs of the local
economy a masonry tank that employs a
local mason is advisable. Another important
reason is that the tank top of a masonry
tank can be used for various activities like
drying food, seating, sleeping etc. The tank
shape can also be according to our needs —
for example a narrow space can have a
vertical tank. This kind of flexibility is absent
in Sintex type tanks. It costs more or less
the same as a Sintext type tank, but will
ensure that the money goes to a local mason
and labour instead of going to a material
supplier.
Masonry tank can be placed on the ground,
partially below the ground or completely
below ground level. It should be preferably
kept above the ground. The reasons for this
are:
Excavation of the ground for the tank
that is partially or completely below
ground will be an additional cost and
thus increase the cost of the system.
Keeping it above the ground also allows
for quick detection of leaks and their
repair.
It is easier to clean the tank and drain
out the water.
Building a ground level water tank: cement-mortar. This plaster is then
properly finished with a rich cement
• The place where the tank is going to be
slurry. The external surface above
placed is leveled and the ground is well
ground is plastered with 1:6 cement-
compacted
mortar.

• Lay a 4" thick 1:4:8 bed concrete to the

• During construction, curing should be
make the bottom surface of the tank.
carried out regularly.

• A single brick wall is enough for a water

• Provide a 2" thick band of PCC 1:2:4
tank that is upto 3 feet high.
on top of the brick wall. The tank needs
• If the tank is higher than 3 feet, the wall to be covered with a RCC slab or stone-
should be two-brick thick. slabs.

• The corners of the tank should be • Once the tank is ready it needs to be
strengthened. filled with water and left for a week to
test it for any leaks. Provide access or
• The joints should be overlapped an option of someone going inside for
properly. cleaning purpose.

• The interal surface is plastered with 1:3

Important: Care needs to be taken that no sunlight can reach the water in the tank
as sunlight will enable creation of bacteria.

Polypropylene (Sintex) tank

A molder polypropylene tank (popularly should be placed on a raised even platform

known as Sintex tanks) can also be used. It of 6" height made with PCC 1:4:8.

Cost of constructing a rooftop rainwater harvesting system.

Item Total Unit rate (Rs.) Actual cost (Rs.)

Water tank quantity
4" PVC pipe 1500 liters 4-5 Rs./lit 6000-7500
(quality medium) 6 ml 20 feet Rs.60/ meter 360

4" T junction 1 no. Rs.80 Rs.80

4" L junction 5 nos Rs.60 Rs.300
4" end cap 1 no. Rs.30 Rs.30
Collars 6 nos. Rs. 30 Rs.180
Fixing bracket 4 nos. Rs. 10 Rs.40
20 liter drum/ bucket 1 no. Rs. 200 Rs.200
PVC Glueing solvent 1 no. Rs.30 Rs.30
Plumbing labour 1 day Rs. 250/ day Rs.250
Other material - Rs.200
charcoal, sand,
gravel
Incidental Rs.200
Total approximate Rs. 8000 - Rs.9500
cost

18
Important questions on the Individual Tank based

Rainwater Harvesting System

/. If the water we collectfrom rain safe?

Rainwater is a pure form of water, free of any biological or bacterial contamination.

However when it rains some suspended impurities in the atmosphere get dissolved
in the rain. The roof and gutters have accumulated organic and inorganic matter
like leaves, dust, sand, mud etc. They will also have insects etc. As the rain hits the
roof most of these impurities dissolve into the rainwater or are carried along. That
is why a filtration process is necessary. The charcoal-sand-gravel filter or even cotton
cloth helps filter almost all impurities. Care has to be taken to keep the roof and the
gutters clean. This will reduce the extent of impurities in the first place. The storage
tank should also be kept clean and properly covered at all times. This is important in

keeping the water safe and clean.

2. Can we use rainwaterfor all the daily consumption ?

The water collected from rain is like any other water so it can be used for all the
activities. However we should refrain from using this water for cooking and drinking
unless it has been boiled and filtered.

3. Will the Individual Tank based Rainwater Harvesting System provide water needs
throughout theyear ?

No. The number of days that this system will serve an individual household depends
on various factors like rainfall pattern, the storage capacity of the tank and the area
of the roof, household needs etc. The water collected usually is sufficient for a
period of 4-6 months in a year.

4. How much does it cost to build the RWH system ?

We have provided the sample break-up of items for the estimate of the RWH System
at domestic level. Water-tank is the most expensive 'factor' in the construction of
the RWH system. The estimate will vary depending on the cost of the water tank. A
rough estimate is for a system with a tank capacity of 1500 litres, it will cost roughly
Rs.8000.

5. What all maintenance does this RWH System require ?

a. Check the gutter system every year. Clean it of any debris, sand or mud that has
accumulated. In case you notice that there is blockage then a bucket of water
thrown with some force down the pipes could help clear it.

b. Filter should be cleaned every year, especially before and after the rains. Remove
the filtration medium from the filter, wash the medium thoroughly, put the
material in sunlight for a few days and refill the filter. Water tank should be
cleaned twice every year.

c. The roof should be cleaned on a regular basis especially before the monsoon.

19
Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting Through Recharge Pits

Recharge pits are simple, economical and 3. the recharge pit to charge the
eco-friendly way to use the rooftop rainwater groundwater
to charge the groundwater. This method is
The method involves collection of rainwater
best suited for houses with a rooftop area
from rooftops, designing down pipes for
of 50-150 sq.mts. It can also be used to catch
rain, separating the first 2mm through a first
water from a small catchment like water tap
flush system, filtering the rainwater through
standposts etc. and is ideal for recharging
a gravel-and-sand filter charging the ground
shallow aquifers.
water wherever feasible like wells,
This works best when done in alluvial areas handpumps, recharge pits, trenches or shafts
where permeable rocks are exposed on the etc.

land surface or at very shallow depth.

The basic technique involves collecting the
rainwater and directing it into a pit. A pit of
2-3 meters and filled with simple materials
that will filter the water that is being directed
into it, can work wonders to charge the
ground water.
There are 3 components:
1. harvesting (collecting) the rainwater from
the rooftop
2. directing the collected water through
pipes to the recharge pit
The first 2 steps of harvesting and
filtration of the roof-top rainwater are
similar to the previous section. So the
same steps need to be followed.
Alluvial soil refers to soil or
sediments deposited by a river or
running water. This soil is typically
made up of a variety of materials
including fine particles of silt and clay
and larger particles of sand and
gravel.

,.:X« * * t 4 t

AQUIFER OJl WATER

IMPERMEABLE FORMATION
B = 1 TO 2 MM
D = 2 TO 3 MM COST RS. 2500 - 5000

Advantages of Recharge Pits:

• This is an ideal method of rainwater harvesting where there is inadequate ground

water supply or the surface resources are either lacking or insignificant.

• It helps in reducing flood hazards

• It improves the quality of ground water through dilution since rainwater is

bacteriologically free from organic matters and is soft in nature.

20
Step by step construction of Recharge Pit

• Dig a pit 4m wide near your house till 2000-—>

you reach the water level.

• Go one more metre deep and put a layer

of charcoal and 11/2 metres of river
sand which acts as a strainer. If required,
use an iron sheet all around the pit to
keep the pit from collapsing. Remove
the sheet after you put charcoal and one
and half metres of river sand.

• Insert two 2-inch PVC pipes, perforated SMALL

at the lower ends 25 cm apart. Cover BOULDERS
the perforated ends with net to prevent
stones and other particles from coming
up. BIG
BOULDERS
• Connect one pipe to the DOWNPIPE
that comes from the roof.

• A strainer at the top will keep leaves and

other wastes from going down along
with the rainwater.

• Rainwater displaces the dense hard

water underground. If water comes up
to the surface, put half a metre of
ordinary sand on top of river sand. This
Quick reference
will prevent the water from overflowing.

Recharge pits are constructed

for recharging the shallow
aquifers.

These are constructed generally

Take care that the water that flows 1 to 2 m wide and 2 to 3 m deep
down does not move through any and are filled with pebbles and
harmful chemicals, oils, petrol, or boulders.

pesticides etc. If these are stored

on the roof, do not use the
rain water from this roof. Otherwise
the groundwater being recharged
will get contaminated with harmful
products.
Maintenance of Recharge Pits
The Recharge Pits have to be cleaned
regularly as it would have clogged with run
Water to be recharged, should
be silt free.
Cleaning of the pit should be
done periodically.
It is suitable for small buildings
having the roof top area upto
100 sq.m.
Recharge pit may be of any
shape i.e. circular, square or
rectangular.

off sand, mud, leaves e tc.

If the pit is of trapezoidal shape,
Clean the recharge pit once a year. the side slopes should be steep
enough to avoid silt deposition.

Dig out the filler material. And fill it once

again with clean materials.

21
Roof Top rainwater Harvesting through Recharge Trenches
Recharge trenches are similar to recharge
pits.
This method is suitable for buildings having
a rooftop area of 200-300 sq. mts. Recharge
trenches are suitable for areas with shallow
water level in hard rock as well as soft rock
areas for large group housing societies,
schools and small industrial sheds.
How it works:
Ideally the trench is constructed across the
land slope along the boundary walls of the
house.
The trench may be 0.5 to 1 m wide, 1 to 1.5
m deep and 10 to 20 m long, depending
upon the availability of land and rooftop
area.
The trench is filled with boulders at the
bottom followed by pebbles and by sand on
the top (filler material).
The collected water from the roof is diverted
through the drain pipe to the trench.
Recharge trenches, by their nature of larger
area, charge larger amount of water
compared to recharge pits. Hence it is better
used in rooftop areas that collect large
amount of water.
RECHARGE TRENCH FILLED
WITH BOULDERS
COST Rs. 5000/- -10,000/-
22
Step by step construction
of Recharge Trenches
• Dig a trench about 0.5 to 1 m wide, 1
to 1.5m. deep and 10 to 20 m. long
depending upon availability of water to
be recharged
• Fill the trench with boulders (5-20cm),
gravel (5-10 mm) and coarse sand (1.5-
2 mm) - the boulders at the bottom
(bottom most layer), gravel in between
and coarse sand at the top.
• Provide a mesh around the outlet at the
roof so that leaves or any other solid
waste debris is prevented from entering
the trenches. A desilting/ collection
chamber may also be provided on
ground to arrest the flow of finer
particles to the trench.
• Provide a by-pass arrangement before
the collection chamber to reject the first
showers.
Maintenance:
The Recharge Trenches should be cleaned
regularly as it would have clogged with run
off sand, mud, leaves etc.
Clean the recharge pit once a year.
Dig out the top layer of sand and replace
with fresh sand.
A 1.0
BOULDERJ
3 t0
i 1.5
v m
<-- B -->
0.5 --> 1 M
Roof Top rainwater Harvesting through Wells & Hand-pumps

Roof-top harvested water can also be ideally How it works:

diverted to existing wells and hand-pumps.
Since wells and hand-pumps are dug deep Before using the dug well as recharge

and access the aquifers, they make excellent structure, its bottom should be cleaned and
recharging pits. all the fine deposits should be removed.

This is especially useful if the well /
handpumps are abandoned and not in
regular use. These abandoned structures are
ideal as we use existing resources and do not
have to spend additional funds for putting
these in place.
This design is suitable for areas with shallow
(5 to 15 m) water level in hard rock as well
as soft rock terrain for individual houses,
group housing societies, schools and small
industrial sheds.
The recharge water is guided through a pipe
to the bottom of well or below the water
level to avoid scouring of bottom and
entrapment of air bubbles in the aquifer.
Recharge water should be silt free. Hence a
sedimentation tank before the water is
diverted to the well would be useful.
Sedimentation tanks are a simple structure
that hold water and allow the sand and mud
particles to settle down. The top part of the
tank is connected to the well.

COST RS. 3000 - RS. 8000/-

COST RS. 1500-2500/-

CLAY LAYER

RECHARGE THROUGH HAND PUMP

RECHARGE THROUGH ABANDONED DUG WELL

Periodic chlorination should be done for controlling the bacteriological contaminations.

23
-•

$-±oijj})jysx±Bi
The monsoon brings with it very welcome showers. The earth sings with joy after a hot
summer. People feel a great relief from heat and from the suffering of lack of water. We
all welcome rain with open arms.

Yet, many a times, the rain which we wait for

so longingly becomes a curse, a problem.
There are floods — some manageable and some
unmanageable — resulting in destruction,
health hazards, epidemics and what not. If
nothing else, it results in water-logged areas
near the habitation creating major incon
veniences in access and mobility and become breeding
houses for mosquitoes, flies and every other germ and
bacteria.

Thus the gift can turn into a curse.

Rainwater, has a cycle. The way the water moves through

the landscape decides very much how the land and people
live. Does the water move fast and cause erosion ? Does the
water meander and thus is beneficial ? What does it carry
with it and what does it bring with it ?

As one can see in the picture, run-offs from roofs move into open spaces and streets
around the house sites. From there, following the slope of the land, they collect and drain
into the nearest water
bodies.

Managing this water

run-off can be very
beneficial. It would
mean increasing the
time the water takes to
reach the water bodies,
the speed with which
the water moves
towards them, what it
carries with it etc.

Stormwat s up in
local st akes etc.

26
 Storm water run-offs management
What is storm water run-off?
Storm water run-off is the volume of water
generated by a storm that does not infiltrate
into the ground or is not retained in storage
as surface water. As the name suggests, it
runs off. Run-off flows overland during and
following a rainfall, picking up material along
the way as it moves downgrade to a river,
stream, lake or reservoir. The volume of
storm water run-off is related to the amount
of impervious surface areas in a watershed.
Impervious areas are those areas which do
not allow water to seep into the ground.
Urbanization and the resulting increase in
land area devoted to parking lots, rooftops,
and additional roads is the primary source
of increases in storm water run-off.
Why be concerned
with storm water run-off?
Storm water run-off occurs over a very small
percentage of the total land area, yet it is
responsible for a majority of the surface
water pollution. As urbanization occurs, the
speed with which a drop of water in a remote
area of the watershed can make its way to
the receiving surface water (i.e., streams or
lakes) is increased considerably. Not only is
it quicker for water to flow over paved
surfaces versus natural soil, but storm sewers
■ Higher and more
Large Storm
Preconstmction and post-development flood hydrographs illustrating storm water run-offin response to development
further expedite drainage into the nearest
lake or river. A drop of water that used to
take hours or days to make its way through
a watershed to a channel is now there in a
matter of minutes or hours.
Effects of increased storm water
run-off
The increase in storm water run-off has its
consequences. The increased speed with
which the storm water run-off enters the
receiving rivers and streams means that
channels flood more frequently in response
to relatively small storm events.
This concept is easily illustrated by a stream
hydrograph, a measure of the amount or
volume of water passing by a point on a
stream over time. As seen on the conceptual
hydrographs presented in Figure 1, increased
run-off causes the volume of water to
increase rapidly, pushing the peak discharge
of the stream much higher for the same
storm event.
The higher the discharge the more power
the stream has for erosion, and thus the
channel becomes unstable and begins to
incise or widen to accommodate the new
peak discharge. Unstable channels
jeopardize the stability of bridges and other
structures located along stream channels.
rapid peak discharge
Small Storm
Predevelopment
Postdevelopment
27
The same storm event results in two Storm water detention measures, porous

different run-off regimes. Increased pavement, and subsurface infiltration/

development increases the area covered by detention measures all reduce the volume
impermeable surfaces, so the volume of and speed of storm water entering natural
storm water run-off increases and also systems. Storm water management measures

reaches its peak volume sooner after the that promote infiltration and not just
initiation of the run-off event. detention also promote ground water
recharge, an important component often
Storm water itself is a concern when present
overlooked in storm water management
in large quantities. Storm water can be
plans.
detrimental to the environment due to the
sheer volume of water that falls into an area.

This is especially important in the reconstruction areas where site design and drainage
have not always got importance which inevitably result in seasonalfloods, and site water-logging.

Water-logged sites, flooded streets - results of inadequate stormwater management practices

28
Stormwater also carries with it many pollutants which eventually reach the different water
bodies and also permeate into the ground. Good stormwater management practices can
eliminate or reduce such pollutants.

Storm Water Pollutant Sources Impacts

Sediment Construction sites, Accumulates in rivers and

disturbed areas,
streambank erosion,
sand treatment of roadways
Degradation/wearing of
paved surfaces
Nutrients Fertilized fields, agricultural
applications, leaking
sewers and septic
tanks
reservoirs.
Suppresses populations of fish,
mussels, and aquatic in
vertebrates.
Brings in excessive nutrients
which are adsorbed by
sediment particles.
Causes unchecked growth in
aquatic systems followed by
deadly anoxic conditions.
Indicated by unusual algal
blooms in lakes and rivers.

Bacteria Animal waste from cattle, A major health hazard to

goats etc., leaking humans.
sewers, combined Destroys recreational potential
sewer overflows of waterways, causing economic
losses.
Increases water treatment costs.

Oil and Grease Automobiles, industrial Limits the interaction of surface

areas, illegal dumping, garages water and air by covering
and mechanic sheds, petrol a body of water in a film of oil.
bunks, warehouses etc. Can be deadly to aquatic life
and humans in large amounts.

Trace Metals Automobile wear, Are long lived in the

exhaust, industrial areas
environment.
Often work their way into the
food chain and are passed from
one organism to another.
Have toxic effects when built up
in a system over time.

Road Salt Roads, parking lots, Is lethal to aquatic organisms

Home applications in high concentrations

Chemicals Pesticide applications, Lethal to aquatic organisms and

accidental spills, automobiles, often build up in the environment
illegal dumping causing problems later on

Storm water run-off picks up a variety of pollutants that degrade the quality of surface
waters. Sediment is by far the most visible and common pollutant carried by storm water
run-off into rivers and streams.

Sediment has drastic effects on aquatic life living in the stream and also causes increased
dredging and decreased reservoir capacity over the long term.

The impacts to our waterways from unchecked storm water run-off are substantial.

The consequences are not only biological, but economic as well as aesthetic. Populations
of fish and other aquatic organisms decrease, the capacity of the waterbodies to store
water decreases, waterbodies get polluted etc.

There are, however, steps that can be taken to mitigate these impacts.

There are various measures which can be taken to manage storrriwater. Storm water
management measures that promote infiltration and not just detention also promote ground
water recharge, an important component often overlooked in storm water management
plans, Stromwaier managemen^constitutes filtration systems and infiltration systems.

29
FILTRATION MEASURES
Filtration measures work on the principal
that storm water run-off is intercepted and
allowed to pass through a filtering medium
such as sand, organic material, or soil for
pollutant removal. They are not intended for
use as storm water retention measures.
Filtration systems are typically used to treat
run-off from small residential, commercial,
and industrial sites and parking lots. There
are two types of filtration systems: (1)
surface flow filtration and (2) underground
infiltration.
Surface flow filtration systems are typically
designed to check and manage stormwater
on the surface i.e. sheet flow run-off (run
offs over large areas) and allow the run-off
to pass through the filtering medium.
Surface filtration systems include measures
such as compost filters, vegetated swales, and
riparian buffer zones. Grass filters and
compost mulch berms are two of the more
common filtering mediums.
Undergroundfiltration systems are used to treat
run-off below the surface. These systems
are often used in areas with limited space
and can be placed under the constructed
surfaces.
After run-off is filtered it can either be
returned to the conveyance system or
collected by an underdrain and allowed to
percolate into the underlying soil material
or infiltration medium. Underground
systems include measures such as sand filters
and peat filters.
INFILTRATION MEASURES
Infiltration measures are storm water
management solutions that are designed to
slow down, stop or collect storm water run
off and provide a means that allows the run
off to infiltrate into the ground.
Storm water infiltration measures reduce
storm water volumes and recharge ground
water. They also reduce the associated
suspended solids and pollutants attached to
suspended soil particles. These systems are
not effective in removal of water soluble or
dissolved pollutants.
30
Infiltration systems work on the principal
that stored storm water run-off is slowly
released to ground water. The permeability
of the underlying soil material is critical in
the implementation of this measure.
Infiltration measures should be carefully
sited and designed to minimize the risk of
ground water contamination.
Storm water infiltration measures are best
suited for treating storm water run-off
generated from small residential areas and
commercial developments.
Infiltration measure over a period of time
get sealed or clogged. Therefore, storm
water run-off should be filtered to remove
solids, oil, grease, and floatables before
allowing the run-off to discharge into the
infiltration measure. Infiltration measures
should not be used in areas with high
sediment loads or during construction,
especially in situations where sediment-laden
run-off from disturbed areas will be directed
into the system.
Infiltration measures include but are not
limited to porous pavement, porous paver
systems, infiltration trenches, and infiltration
ponds, recharge pits etc.
In the following chapters, we shall be
discussing one example each of filtration and
infiltration systems and how they can be
combined. We shall discuss Swales,
Percolation pits and Permeable Pavements
(roads).
These techniques have been used in the
reconstruction areas and hence can be seen
and tested out in real-time.
Infiltration systems should not be
used in areas where the land use of
the contributing drainage area is
associated with chemical storage,
high levels of pesticides, the washing
and maintenance of vehicles or
equipment, or where wastes are
handled.
 Relevance of Stormwater management in reconstruction areas
Almost all the reconstruction sites have a surfaces (roofs, internal roads, etc.), and have
similar nature, feel and pattern of a large potential to harvest rainwater.
construction. They are built in a grid format,
with similar kinds and sizes of houses, Stormwater, if not managed adequately, will

generally 350 sq.ft., with RCC slab roof and inevitably create large water-logged areas,

brick and cement plastered walls.
The drainage and sewage systems and the
internal roads are expected to be built by
the government while the NGOs have built
the houses.
The sites very often are in open areas with
little or no vegetation. And in many of the
cases are in low-lying, prone to water-logging
etc.
These patterns of construction will
inevitably generate large, impermeable
which may or may not permeate into the
soil over a period of time. In many areas
the topsoil is clayey and is not very
permeable. This would create public and
open spaces which are not very usable as
these spaces would either be water-logged
or when dry, cracked and hard soil.
Considering these aspects, good post-
construction stormwater management
systems will help to create better, livable, and
humane areas.

Let us now take a look at some of the most suitable technologies for the tsunami construction
areas. These methods have also been implemented in some of the sites and thus have been
validated at the field level.

31
Storm water management techniques

Swales

Swales are simply shallow, low depressions

in the ground designed to encourage the
accumulation of rain during storms and hold
it for a few hours or days to let it infiltrate
into the soil. Swales ideally are tree-lined and
store water for the immediate landscape as
well as help cleanse the water as it percolates
down. Swales can be installed separately or
as part of a larger water rain catchment
system with other water conservation
measures.

Swales on slight slopes can also be used to

direct water away into percolation pits that
will charge the groundwater.

Swales dug into even the gentlest of slopes

will fill with water after every good rain and
allow the moisture to percolate deep into
the soil over a day or more. This charges the
subsoil over several years allowing the trees
planted into the mound to thrive even during
the driest of times.

Also known as infiltration swales, biofilters,

grassed swales, or in-line biorentention, bio swales
are vegetated open channels specifically
designed to attenuate and treat stormwater
run-off for a defined water volume. Like
open ditches, they convey larger stormwater
volumes from a source to a discharge point,
but unlike ditches, they intentionally
promote slowing, cleansing and infiltration
along the way.
design variation incorporates a shallow

Types of swales permanent pool and wetland vegetation to

provide stormwater treatment. Wet swales
Grassed Channels are rarely used in residential settings because
the shallow standing water is often
These are similar to a conventional drainage
unpopular with homeowners.
ditch, with the major differences being flatter
side slopes and longitudinal slopes, and a Dry Swales
slower design velocity for water quality
treatment of small storm events. Grass Dry swales incorporate a deep fabricated soil

channels are the least expensive option.
Grass channels should be designed to ensure
that run-off takes an average of ten minutes
to flow from the top to the bottom of the
channel.
Wet Swales
These swales intersect the groundwater, and
behave almost like a linear wetland cell. The
bed into the bottom of the channel. Existing
soils are replaced with a sand/soil mix that
meets minimum permeability requirements.
An underdrain system is also placed under
the soil bed. Typically, the underdrain
consists of a layer of gravel encasing a
perforated pipe. Stormwater treated by the
soil bed flows into the underdrain, which
conveys treated stormwater back to the
storm drain system.

32
 What are the benefits of using swales?
Improves water quality

Cheaper to construct than piped systems

Can be incorporated into the landscape

Low maintenance

Visible operation

What makes a good swale?

• The longer the swale the better. A long and a winding swale allows plenty of time for
settlement of solids contained in the run-off. Swales of more than 70m in length give
good, consistent performance.

• No sharp corners. Swales should have gentle curves.

• Shallow gradients. A swale which curves to and fro with a shallow gradient is better
than a swale which is built directly down slope.

• Shallow swales with no permanent water have better chance of establishing a grass
sward.

Swales work better when used in conjunction with other filtration techniques like
recharge pits, recharge trenches etc.

Design Considerations

Factors to be kept in mind while constructing swales:

Soils

• Soil infiltration rates between 0.5 and 3.0 inches per hour are preferred.

• The clay content of the soil should be less than 20 percent, and the silt/clay content
should be less than 40 percent.

• Coarse, highly permeable soils should be avoided because they have shorter infiltration
times and are less conducive to supporting growth of vegetation.

• Impermeable soils facilitate ponding and should be avoided.

• The bottom of the swale should be at a minimum of two feet above the seasonal water
table or bedrock.

• Less desirable soils can be amended to improve infiltration characteristics.

Cross Section Shape

• Parabolic or trapezoidal cross sections maximize infiltration.

• Triangular cross sections should be avoided as they concentrate flow and promote channel
erosion.

• Side slopes should be relatively flat (3:1 or flatter).

• Channel bottom width should be between two feet and eight feet (based on cross-sectional
area of flow for the channel).

The design of swales and other infiltration measures can be complex and
generally requires detailed site investigation, including an assessment of potential
pollutants and the application of sound engineering principles. A professional,
knowledgeable of storm water management and water quality principles and
experienced in design should be consulted when using infiltration measures.

33
Slopes and Swale Length

• Swale gradients (slopes) of one to two percent are recommended.

• Swale length should be a minimum of 200 feet to encourage deposition.

Vegetative Cover

• Vegetation should be limited to perennial grasses and grass-legume mixes.

• Species of vegetation chosen should have a dense growth habit and be able to tolerate
extended periods of flooding.

• Vegetative species can be selected to target different types of pollutants.

• Vegetation height should be maintained at a minimum height of three to four inches.

Design Calculations

• Typical storm intensities should be calculated for each specific site location.

• Swale design should be based on flow rate, not volume. Run-off should pass from the
upstream end to the downstream end of the swale in ten minutes.

• Swale should be designed to effectively handle run-off from a one-inch, 24-hour storm
event and efficiently pass excess run-off from larger storms (e.g., 10-year storm events).

Where should the swale be located?

This will depend on the layout of the site and the amount of space available, but the swale
would usually run either parallel with or at 90° to the houses, with the hard-standing
draining towards the swale.

Roof water can be directed to the swale via surface drains or via smaller swales.

They can also be constructed to drain areas which flood or hold water for a long time. This
water can be directed into a recharge pit that could charge the ground water.

Where swales should NOT be located ?

Swales and other stormwater infiltration systems should not be used in areas where the
land around which drains the water into the system is associated with or used for chemical
storage, high levels of pesticides, the washing and maintenance of vehicles or equipment,
or where wastes are handled.

They also have to carefully used near petrol bunks, garages, mechanic sheds etc. and other
areas where oils, grease, and other types of toxic materials can get into the groundwater.

We shall now use a case study of swales constructed in the tsunami reconstruction areas.

34
Case Study: Construction of filtration and infiltration measures
in reconstruction sites of Karaikaimedu, Kilinijalmedu,
Kottucherrymedu, Karaikal.

General Site Environs at Karaikal Setting :

The new sites for rehabilitation, of the
villages of Karaikaimedu, Kilinijalmedu,
Kottucherrymedu are located just across
from the mandatory 500 meter line of the
CRZ. In all the three cases, the new
developments are almost a continuation of
the existing / affected settlements.
The soil texture in the region is very poor.
Its proximity to the coast line dictates a sandy
— to sandy loam range. The soil is low on
plasticity with poor water retention
characteristics. Combined, these lead to a
fairly high tendency for salt water ingress in
the shallow aquifers.
Both the micro and macro regions are
predominantly flat and are prone to water
logging due to poor drainage conditions.
Other than pockets of domestic / kitchen
gardens in the existing settlements, there is
very little green cover in the immediate
surroundings. The dominant species of tree
cover are areca, phoenix and prosopis genus.
There is little cover of the middle and lower
storey, increasing wind and water erosion.

New settlements:

The new setdements are located in low lying The ground water level is comparatively high
areas on artificially filled sites that are to the other inland villages; water can be
expected to prevent water logging. These reached at 8 to 10 feet and the water is saline
kinds of conditions are seen in many of in nature. During monsoons the water gets
reconstruction sites. Lack of availability of logged for eight to ten days approximately.
land and dense coastal populations have The water turns turbid and slowly percolates
meant that available land, whether suitable into the soil which takes 10 to 12 days. The
or not for construction, have been pulled water cannot be diverted to the sea as the
into reconstruction. new construction site is not well connected
with surface run-off drainage.
This single aspect has many repercussions,
mainly those of unstable edges along the
filled area and a severely altered / disturbed
catchment and drainage. The edges of the
filling will in all likelihood continue to erode,
thereby destabilizing the ground plane and
choking the waterways. Though the erosion
has no structural implication on the
buildings themselves, it will have fairly
serious impact on the site and surroundings.
Further, the cost of development of
conventional roads, pavements, drains, etc
will prove expensive and technically
cumbersome.

35
The new settlements are totally devoid of
any green cover, presenting a harsh and
hostile environment. There is a complete
absence of any transition between the built
form and the landscape.
One striking aspect in the two larger
settlements is that there is no recognition
of the fact that the two are actually one
continuous settlement on either side of the
road. Though this may have possibly been
necessitated due to administrative, cultural,
political or social parameters, the physical
dimension should have effectively integrated
the two. Many of the larger facilities could
have been designed to be common, thereby
freeing up funds for additional facilities.
To arrive at the solutions / adoptable
options the existing site parameters were
taken into account. The important site
existing and considered are as below:
1. The natural site level is raised up by three
feet by filling saline sand
2. The filled up site surface is observed to
be sinking and would continue to
further sink
3. Due to uneven sinking at places there is
no uniform surface slope
36
4. Due to raised site level, soil erosion was
a major threat
5. The existing peripheral homes or homes
along the open spaces are exposed suns
radiation
The following interventions were made
considering the above parameters and site
conditions. It may also be mentioned here
that all the below mentioned interventions
have been conceived, designed and
demonstrated on site through community
participation.
Swales and filter strips with intermediary
recharge pits which will drain water evenly
off the impermeable areas were put in
places. This had the dual advantages of
preventing the problem of flooding and
water damage to the foundation of the
houses and also simultaneously ground
water being recharged resulting in dilution
of saline ground water over a period of time.
Swales and filter strips enable effective
removing of polluting solids through
filtration and sedimentation. The extra water
flows into the recharge pits recharging the
ground water.
Construction Process

How is a swale constructed?

The construction of the swales + recharge pits essentially involved the following
components:

• study and marking of gradient

• digging of gutters and cladding its surface

• filling up the gutters with filler material

• digging of recharge pits at depressions where the water would naturally log.

1. Study and marking of gradient

Swales work best on a gradual slope of not

more than 20°. Since the idea of the swales
is to collect water and divert it out of the
site, it is important to follow the contours
of the site.

In the reconstructions site of 3 villages,

detailed contour surve}[ was done before
designing the swells with filter strips and
recharge pits. The gradient was marked in
the green areas for demonstration with an
average slope of 20°.

2. Digging of gutters

The gutters collect and hold the water during

course of the diversion of the water. The
gutters are meandering ensuring that the
flow of water is slow and gradual. And since
the slope is gradual and the water flow slow,
the water percolates through the filler
material into the ground.

In Kottucherrymedu 115 meters,

Karaikalmedu 120meters and in
Kilinjalmedu 90 meters of sloping contour
lines were marked. The earth was excavated
650mm wide and 300mm deep. The trench
then was filled with water for 24 hours so
that the excavated edges and sub-surface
would settle.

3. Filling with filter material

The filter material ensures that solid

pollutants are filtered before the ground
water is charged. The filler also holds the
water and ensures a slow percolation.

The trenches were filled with 90mm of

coarse sand maintaining a slope of 1 : 35 in
a shallow concave shape,

37
4. Recharge pits

There are naturally depressed areas in a site
where water has a tendency to collect. Such
areas are ideal to put in recharge pits that
would utilize the collected water to charge
the ground water. The recharge pits are
constructed similar to what we have
discussed before in the recharge pits section.
is filled with sand. In the recharge pits in
the 3Ks, similar technique was used. The first
layer of 1000mm is filled with 60mm blue
metal. The second layer of 1700 mm is filled
with 40mm blue metal and brick bats. The
top layer of 300mm is filled with coarse
sand.

The depressions (contours more than 25%

slope) in-between the swells were marked
for construction of recharge pits at regular
intervals.

Recharge pits were dug 1600mm in diameter

and 3000mm deep.

The pits are layered with large stones at the

bottom with smaller stones and brick bats
in the second layer. The final and top layer

900

-- 1000

5. Finishing with paver blocks

Once the swales and recharge pits were completed, interlocking paver blocks were laid on
top of them and were connected to the edges.

38
Permeable Surfaces - Pavers and Dispersion Trenches

The typical reconstruction site in Tamil built of asphalt and tar. The drains are made,
Nadu is in a grid format. Where the NGOs in most cases, alongside the roads and are
have constructed, they have provided the designed to carry the stormwater out of the
housing (or shelter) component, while the site. This water in most probability meets a
government has taken up the responsibility nearby stream or water body.
of providing the internal (and external)
roads, drainage and sewage system.
The internal roads are typically made of
compacted earth with aggregate (stones) or

These typical solutions create a whole lot

of impermeable surfaces -which means that
water flows off with little or no opportunity
to percolate into the ground.

The alternative to such a situation can be

addressed with using engineered stormwater
management techniques or low impact
development techniques, which create
permeable surfaces instead of impermeable
surfaces. These techniques use a wide variety
of materials, design solutions and could
become a good solution to address the
flooding problem in sites as well as ground
water recharge.

39
What are Permeable Pavements ?

Pervious pavements reduce the amount of
run-off by allowing water to pass through
surfaces that would otherwise
impervious. Water can either infiltrate into
the ground if soil permeability rates allow,
or be conveyed to other storm-water systems
by an under-drain.
Alternative pavers (or porous paver systems)
are permeable or semi-permeable surfaces
be that can replace asphalt and concrete and
can be used for pavements, and other
common spaces that are concreted. From a
stormwater perspective, this is important
because alternative pavers can replace
impervious surfaces, creating less
stormwater run-off. The two broad
categories of alternative pavers are paving
blocks and other surfaces including gravel,
cobbles, wood, mulch, brick, and natural
stone.

Porous paver systems are typically placed

over an aggregate substrate (stone layer
underneath) to prevent uneven settling of
the paver units.

Where can these be used ?

Porous paver systems are generally used and
work best along with other alternative site
design or low impact development
techniques that reduce storm water run-off
volumes and pollutant loads.
Porous pavers systems are well suited for
use in low traffic areas (generally 500 average
daily trips or less), parking, internal roads
and pavements in residential areas, etc. These
systems are also very useful in storm water
management applications where space is
limited. These also work best where the soil
is permeable.

Where Permeable Paver System

should NOT be used ?

Storm water hotspots include areas such as

petrol bunks (fueling stations), truck/
vehicle stops, vehicle service and
maintenance areas like garages and mechanic
shops, vehicle and equipment washing/
steam cleaning facilities, auto recycling
facilities, loading and unloading facilities,
commercial storage areas, outdoor container
storage areas, public works storage areas,
commercial nurseries, marinas, hazardous
material generators, and industrial rooftops
because these areas are frequently subject
to the high risk of ground water
contamination.

Permeable Pavers also cannot be'used in

high traffic areas.

40
Advantages Disadvantages

• Allows rain to pass through the gaps of Requires design and installation by
the paving system and thus charges the experienced engineers and contractors.
groundwater.
More costly than conventional
• Reduces the volume of storm water pavement due to materials and
run-off and associated erosion installation.
potential.
Depends on the soil permeability.
• Controls peak discharge flows and
Not suitable for use in wellhead
reduces the amount of storm water
protection areas.
entering storm drain systems.
• Poorly suited for use in naturally
• Provides some natural filtration capacity
occurring seasonal high water table soils.
while maintaining the structural and
functional features of the conventional • The pavement surface, if improperly
pavement material it replaces. installed and maintained, has a tendency
to become clogged with particulate
• Minimizes the disruption of the
matter and debris.
hydrology of an area by providing a
reservoir and percolation field for • Poses a risk to ground water
surface water to re-enter ground water contamination if installed in
aquifers, recharges low flow in streams inappropriate places or stormwater
during dry periods, and reduces hotspots. Potential risk for vehicle fuels,
downstream flooding. oils, greases, and other substances to
leak onto the pavement and leach into
• Minimizes construction and
ground water.
maintenance costs of street curbs and
gutters, storm sewer systems typically • Typically have higher maintenance
required to carry storm water out of the requirements than conventional
site. Aesthetically pleasing. pavement systems.

• When damaged, or clogged, small areas

can be easily replaced.

41
Case Study - Permeable Pavers in conjunction with Dispersion
Trenches - in the demonstration sites of Karaikalmedu, Kilinjalmedu
and Kottucherrymedu, Karaikal

The new reconstruction sites of Kottucherrymedu, Karaikalmedu and Kilinjalmedu is a

recently earth/ sand filled area (average filling depth of 4-1/2 feet). We have given details
of the site and the background earlier. We use the same site as an example.

In due course of time there will be natural settlement which will affect the newly constructed
services and facilities since the traditional way of road construction i.e. bitumen/ tar,
cement concrete, etc is very rigid and cannot withstand various levels of underground
settlement (which happens to the newly filled areas.)

In this case 'paver block' roads is the best option as it can adjust to ground settlement
without any problem of cracks or maintenance. Dispersion trench ('L' drain) was used as
a solution along with the paver blocks to manage the surface run-off water. The pervious
surface allows rain water to percolate, avoids water stagnation, reduces surface run-off
water quantity and increases site water table. It is also easy to rectify problems created by
the surface changes affected by sinking of the site filling.

How it works:

The pavement

The pavement has three components. The road itself, the dispersion trench and the green
belts on the sides. These 3 components work in tandem to form the complete solution.

The roads allow the surface

water to percolate inside the
ii i ii

ground; the trenches collect

the excess run-offs and
hold them for some time;
while the green belt absorbs
the excess the run-off and
further percolates the water
into the ground while using
Coo
it.

42
Construction Process

Study & Marking

The roads were marked 4.2 meters wide and

110m long in Kottucherrymedu, 3.05 meters
wide and 72m long in Kilinjalmedu, 4.2
meters wide and 62m Long in Karaikalmedu
in the allotted demo areas.

Digging and preparation

of the trenches

On both sides of the road trenches

measuring 650mm by 650mm in cross
section were dug for the construction of 'U
drains.

The road side edge was defined by 75mm

thick 'L' shaped concreting both horizontally
and vertically; horizontally at the ground
and vertically at the road-side edge.

4 inch PCC was done with 40mm blue metal

on the base. 3 inch concreting with 20mm

blue metal and 8 mm steel on the edge was

done perpendicular to ground (vertically) so
that it would provide the other edge. The
other side was left unfinished and provided
the pervious edge that would allow surface
run-off water to percolate. This enables
managing the run-off water locally. The
concrete was cured with water for 5 days.

The trench was then filled with 40mm blue

metal.

Fly-ash blocks, an environment

sensitive materials are selected for the
construction as this area is very eco-
fragile. Fly-ash paver blocks are a
good option as it is a remarkable
material that cost-effectively
improves the performance of
products it is added to and also
reduces the need for cement
production — a major energy user and
source of "greenhouse gas"
emissions.

43
Preparation of the roads :

After the construction of drain, the road in-between (soil) was excavated upto an average
depth of 45 cms then it was filled with water for 48 hours so that it may properly setde. It
was then filled with river sand (coarse) and compacted with water for 3 days and dried
properly in the sun. During the process the road was realigned and pegs were tied to mark
the gradient of 1:15 (4°) for drainage on both sides of the road.

Sub-surface completed before laying

the paver blocks

Compaction of sub-surface with water

After the compaction, lOcms of dry coarse

sand was filled on the hard surface and then
the fly-ash inter-locking paver blocks were
laid. The edges on both sides were plastered
flushing with the 'L' drain retaining wall.
The edge plasters flushing with
V drain retaining walls

The Completed paver roads with I1 drain

Laying of paver blocks

44
Conclusion

The need for water conservation and water management cannot be over-emphasised. The
need is very great. Reconstruction activities, especially those in large scale, provide ample
opportunities to put good practices in place.
Reconstruction activities, also undertaken in a focussed manner and in a short period of
time, provide opportunities for low impact development that become examples to conven
tional development processes.
There are many techniques and methods, traditional and modern, that can go a long way in
mitigating the water problems in Tamil Nadu. It requires a concerted effort and will from
all stakeholders.

Reference;

http://www.tn.gov.in/dtp/rainwater.htm

www.rainwaterharvesting.org

www.raincentre.org

http: //wrmin. nic. in

http://www.tn.gov.in/policynotes

http ://en.wikipedia. org

http://www.cgwb.gov.in/WCR/rainwater_harvesting.htm

http://www.stormwatercenter.net/

http://ciria.org/suds/index.html

www.nps.gov/archive/wica/Hydrology_PDF.htm

www.watermatters.worldvision.org.nz/

www. unicef. org/voy/explore/wes/explore_l 818. html

www.epa.gov/safewater/kids/index.html

www.wateryear2003.org/en

www.groundwater.org/kc/kc.html

45