STIFFNESS MATRIX FOR GEOMETRIC

NONLINEAR ANALYSIS

By Yeong-Bin Yang, 1 A. M . ASCE a n d William McGuire, 2 F. ASCE

ABSTRACT: A new stiffness matrix for the analysis of thin walled beams is de-
rived. Starting from the principle of virtual displacements, an updated Lagran-
gian procedure for nonlinear analysis is developed. Inclusion of nonuniform
torsion is accomplished through adoption of the principle of sectorial areas for
cross-sectional displacements. This requires incorporation of a warping degree
of freedom in addition to the conventional six degrees of freedom at each end
of the element. Problems encountered in the use of this and similar matrices
in three-dimensional analysis are described.

INTRODUCTION

Use of three-dimensional nonlinear analysis in the design of steel

structures requires a stiffness m e t h o d formulation of the analysis that
has a rigorous base, has been developed along logical, clearly discernible
lines, and is suitable for practice. This is an attempt to satisfy this need.
The result is an elastic and a geometric stiffness matrix for use in an
updated Lagrangian nonlinear elastic analysis. Nonuniform torsional ef-
fects are included.
The development starts from a fundamental virtual work equation a n d
uses standard finite element procedures. Internal m o m e n t s are repre-
sented as the resultants of stresses Calculated by engineering theories:
Euler-Befnoulli-Navier for b e n d i n g m o m e n t s , a n d Timoshenko-Vlasov
for torsional moments. The use of engineering theories, as opposed to
the theory of elasticity, is essential to practical design. It is also satis-
factory, except that it can result in peculiar problems related to the be-
havior of end m o m e n t s a n d torques as they u n d e r g o finite rotations.
These problems are described in the present paper, b u t their treatment
is reserved for a separate paper (18) for t w o reasons: (1) To permit a
thorough presentation of the mathematical development in this paper;
and (2) to permit focusing on physical implications in the other paper.

BACKGROUND LITERATURE

Research on the subject has been extensive. It is possible to cite only

a few of the most closely related works. These relate to the buckling a n d
geometrically nonlinear analysis of three-dimensional frames based on
the finite element method.
'Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., National Taiwan Univ., Taipei, Taiwan,
ROC; formerly Grad. Research Asst., School of Civ. Engrg., Cornell Univ., Ith-
aca, NY.
2
Prof. of Struct. Engrg., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY.
Note.—Discussion open until September 1, 1986. Separate discussions should
be submitted for the individual papers in this symposium. To extend the closing
date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Jour-
nals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible pub-
lication on April 2, 1985. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural Engi-
neering, Vol. 112, No. 4, April, 1986. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/86/0004-0853/$01.00.
Paper No. 20561.

853
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrig
 The effect of axial compression on stability was studied by Renton
(14), Chu and Rampetsreiter (8), and Conner, Logcher, and Chen (9).
The effect of initial bending moments was added to the stiffness for-
mulation by Zarghamee and Shah (20) and Krajcinovic (10). Barsoum
and Gallagher included the effect of initial torque on stiffness (4). Stiff-
ness matrices formulated by Bazant and El Nimeiri (7) and by Yoo (19)
differ from those of Barsoum and Gallagher in that the effect of initial
bimoment on stiffness was included while the effect of initial torque was
neglected.
The angle of twist was represented by hyperbolic functions in the
Krajcinovic formulation. Cubic interpolation functions for the angle of
twist were used by Mei (12) and by Barsoum and Gallagher (4) and found
to be more efficient than the hyperbolic functions. Fifth order Hermitian
polynomials were also used by Barsoum in representing the angle of
twist (3). Although in linear stability problems the fifth order formula-
tion provides more accurate solutions, it was found to create numerical
difficulties in nonlinear analysis. Therefore, Barsoum recommended the
use of lower order polynomials and more elements.
Argyris and co-workers presented a natural mode technique for the
formulation of a solid beam-column element subjected to bending and
uniform torsion (1,2). The nature of bending moments and torques
undergoing rotations at joints was also investigated. They concluded that
for a consistent large displacement finite element analysis both bending
moments and torques must be treated as semitangential moments.
Conventionally, two approaches are used in an incremental nonlinear
finite element analysis: the updated Lagrangian (UL) and the total La-
grangian (TL) formulation. When consistently developed, the two for-
mulations yield identical global stiffness matrices and nodal point force
vectors. Both the TL and UL formulations were reviewed by Bathe, Ramm,
and Wilson (6). Bathe and Bolourchi (5) found the UL formulation to be
computationally more effective when, as in their study, the geometric
stiffness matrix is evaluated by numerical integration.
In all of the papers mentioned, except those of Argyris et al., no at-
tention was paid to the intricate behavior of joint moments in three-
dimensional structures. Ziegler (21) and Argyris et al. (2), have shown
that assumptions regarding the behavior of moments undergoing rota-
tions can affect the calculated behavior of systems significantly.

ENGINEERING THEORIES OF BENDING AND TORSION

Elements of the engineering theories of bending and torsion to be in-

voked later will first be summarized:
Bending and Simple Torsion.—When a cross section of the bisym-
metrical element shown in Fig. 1 is subjected to direct stress, the axial
force and bending moments resulting from the stress are

Fx = oxdA; My uxzdA; Mz = - axydA (1)

JA JA JA

The transverse shears resulting from the shear stresses are

854
ownloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyright
 FIG. 1.—Elementary Stresses

Fy = 7yxdA and Fz = TzxdA (2)

JA JA
and the resulting torque is

Mx = (Tzxy - tyxz)dA (3)

JA

By partial integration of Eq. 3, in conjunction with a differential equa-

tion for a point in a member subjected to pure torsion

-^ +— =0 (4)
dy dx
it can be shown that the following relation holds (2):

yizxdA = - ZTyxdA = -Mx (5)

A JA ^

Eqs. 4 and 5 are valid only in cases of simple torsion (St. Venant tor-
sion), i.e., when there is no restraint against out of plane warping of
cross sections. When warping restraint is present, normal stresses, aw,
can develop. Thus, instead of Eq. 4, we have
9T,„ 6J2X do\. 3aw
x
-^ + ^^= -= ^0 (6)
dy dz dx dx
and Eq. 5 no longer holds since it follows from Eq. 4.
Nonuniform Torsion.—When warping restraint is present, the total
torque, Mx, acting at a section is the sum of the St. Venant torsion, Tsv,
and the warping torsion, Tw :
MX=TSV+TW (7)
Vlasov's engineering theory for treating this condition (15) incorpo-
rates implicitly the assumptions that underlie the above common flexure
formulas, e.g., plane cross sections remain plane in bending and ho-
mogeneous elastic material. It also includes the following assumptions
explicitly: (1) The beam is shallow; (2) the section is thin-walled; (3) there
855
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyr
 (a)

(b)

FIG. 2.—Section Geometry: (a) Differential Sectorial Area; (b) Coordinates

is no in-plane distortion of the cross section; and (4) the shearing de-
formation of the profile is negligible.
Summary of the Vlasov theory starts with an arbitrary generalized co-
ordinate system consisting of three reference points C, T, and D on a
typical cross section, which need not possess any symmetry properties
(Fig. 2). Point C represents an origin of Cartesian coordinates, point T
a reference point for twisting, and point D a sectorial origin. A right-
hand coordinate system is formed by x, y, and z axes. As noted below,
when certain orthogonality conditions for the principal generalized co-
ordinates are satisfied, the reference points C and T turn out to be the
centroid and the shear center, respectively, while point D remains an
auxiliary point used in calculating the principal sectorial area.
For simplicity, distributed loads are neglected. As implied in the above
list of elementary equations, the stress resultants on a cross section of
a member are referred to the initial state of that cross section. Thus we
have the following, in which the changes from the previous list are the
addition of the "bimoment" B, and reference of Mx to an axis through
point T:

Fx = vxdA; FV = iyxdA; Fz = xdA;

JA JA

856
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 Mx= [rzx(y - ay) - TIJX(Z - az)]dA; My = crxzcL4;
JA JA

M z = - I axydA; B= crxti>TdA . (8)

in which all the integrals are carried over the section area A. a>r = the
sectorial area at an arbitrary point N (Fig. 2).

Wj- :
pds (9)

in which p = the distance from point T to the tangent of a point (Ni)

on arc DN. The bimoment B is a set of self-equilibrating direct stresses
that has the dimension of moment multiplied by length.
According to the geometric hypothesis of in-plane rigid cross sections,
only three displacement components, i.e., two translations and a twist-
ing rotation, are required to describe the cross-sectional behavior. From
Fig. 3 the transverse displacements uy and uz of the arbitrary point, N,
are
uy = uyT - (z - az)Qx; wz = uzT + (y - av)Qx (10)
if the angle of twist 6* is small. In Eq. 10, (u,jT,uzT) = the displacements
of point T.
The longitudinal displacement ux of the arbitrary point, N, due to
warping of the cross section may be found by utilizing the hypothesis
concerning the absence of shearing strain in the profile:
ux = uxC - zuzT - yu'yT - coTei (11)
It follows that the linear axial strain e* can be expressed as
er = —1 = u'xC ~ zuxT - yu'yT - w r 9" (12)
dx
and the normal stress as
vx = E(u'xC - zulT - yu'yT - <oTe") (13)

(y-ay)0* £ p^Hl

N(y,z (y-aJft.

(z-aJS,

FIG. 3.—Displacement of Point on Section Contour

857
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/cop
 Substituting for ax in Eq. 8, one can express the generalized stresses Fx,
My,Mz, and B for a cross section of the thin-walled beam in terms of
the generalized strains uxC, uyT, u"T, and 0" about the reference axes as

A Sz ^W U'xc

My *-wz -«5r (14)

Mz f
ivy
IB _(symm) — V) —

in which A = \ dA; Sy = \ ydA; Sz = zdA; lyz = yzdA;

Sw = <oTdA; ImJ = yoiTdA; Iwz - I zmTdA;

JA

Iy= zldA; Zz= yldA; Cw= (Oj-dA (15)

The generalized stress-strain relationships can be simplified if the

functions y, z, and wr are to satisfy the following conditions of orthog-
onality for the generalized coordinates:
u
z L
yz ^w L
wy 'L
wz w
(16)
The first three conditions determine the principal centroidal axes of
the section. The last two are used in the determination of the principal
sectorial pole, i.e., the shear center, for a>r. The remaining condition (Sw
= 0) is used to determine the principal sectorial area co:

o>r I oiTdA. (17)

A JA
in which the sectorial area cor is defined with an arbitrary origin D.

STIFFNESS MATRIX DERIVATION

There are two parts to the development of the desired elastic and geo-
metric stiffness matrices: (1) Development of a set of virtual displace-
ment equations; and (2) reduction of these equations to a matrix equa-
tion through the use of finite element development procedures. These
are summarized in the following. Additional details may be found in
Ref. 17.
Application of the Principle of Virtual Displacements.—Fig. 4 shows
a typical beam-column element in its path of deformation. As indicated,
configuration 0 (C0) represents the initial undeformed state; configura-
tion 1 (Ci) is a current (known) deformed equilibrium state; and config-
uration 2 (C2) is a neighboring (desired) deformed equilibrium state. Also
shown in Fig. 4 are the local and the global coordinate systems. In an
updated Lagrangian formulation the local reference state for each ele-
ment is its last calculated configuration, Q . In global analysis, displace-
ments, loads, and properties are referred to the stationary Cartesian co-
ordinate system shown.
858
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyright
 Configuration 2

x3 />• Configuration 1

2
ov i Y v
A , , A , , A2
*3 0, , - - —
—'< Configuration 0

•+XXX
2
°Y 'Y Y
A A A
3> 3' 3

FIG. 4.—Motion of Three-Dimensional Beam and its Coordinate System

The tensor notation and nomenclature used in Refs. 5 and 6 will be

adopted with slight modification. The description of the motion of a body
is based on the three configurations, C 0 , Q , and C 2 , and both left sub-
scripts and superscripts on a symbol are used to denote these configu-
rations. A left superscript denotes the configuration in which the quan-
tity occurs. The absence of such a superscript indicates that the quantity
is an increment between Cx and C 2 . A left subscript denotes the config-
uration in which the quantity is measured. A comma denotes differen-
tiation with respect to the coordinate following; thus, for example,

Ui.i = (18)
d°X; '
Proper application of the principle of virtual displacements requires
that the equilibrium of the body be expressed in the deformed C2 (6):

2
rij?>2eij2dV = 22R (19)

in which 2R = the external virtual work expression

2
,R ]tkUu2dA (20)
2A

if the body force is neglected. In Eqs. 19 and 20, 2T,J = the Cauchy stress
tensor, 82e« the variation of the linear or Almansi strain tensor, \tk the
859
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/cop
 vector of surface tractions, and buk a variation of the displacement com-
ponents at C 2 .
Eq. 19 cannot be solved directly since C2 is unknown. However, in
Ref. 5 it is shown that, in an updated Lagrangian formulation, it can be
transformed to an incremental form and then linearized in the incre-
mental displacements to yield:

iQpaieubieqW + ^Ma'dV = lR-\R (21)

in which lR = \tkhukldA; and \R = ^h^dV (22)

In Eqs. 21 and 22, ae,j and jT|(y = the linear and nonlinear components of
the Green-Lagrange incremental strain tensor, ^ denotes the Cauchy
stress tensor at Q , iQ^j represents the components of the constitutive
tensor, and \tk is the surface load at C2 but measured in Q .
In the foregoing, the incremental equilibrium equations of a beam are
given corresponding to the global coordinate system CXi , 1 X 2 , 1 X 3 ).
However, using a conventional finite element procedure, it is more ef-
fective to first evaluate the finite element matrices in the local principal
axes (1x1, 1x2, 1x3) of the element (Fig. 4), and then to transform them to
the global coordinate system prior to the element assembly process (5).
For this reason, the incremental equilibrium equations and the corre-
sponding stiffness equation will be referred to the local coordinates. For
convenience, the global system will be denoted as (X, Y, Z) and the local
coordinates at C\ as (x,y,z).
In the conventional engineering theory of a three-dimensional beam,
\22 = 1T33 = 2T23 = 0, ^ = \2i / and \13 = : T 31 . Thus there are only three
independent stress components, \ n , : T 12 , and 'T^ , and three indepen-
dent strain components (increments), ie n , 1 e 12 , and je 13 . If the following
notation is used for the stress and strain:
°v = V i ; v = l x i2 / T** = 1TI3 ( 23 )
and ex = e H + t\xx = ie n + yrin = fyi
V = Cyx + 1\yx = ^ U + l^ltf) = 1*12
7 « = e-xx + f\zx = 2 ( i e i 3 + ! % 3 ) = ! € 1 3 (24)
X
the Cauchy stress vector, ( T), the linear strain vector, de), and the non-
linear strain vector, di\), can be written as (5):
(M = ( i r l V a ) (25)
de) = (e«e y i O (26)
and d*)) = (iq^'vrw) (27)
The material matrix [iC] can be expressed as (16):
"£
[iC]= G (28)

Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyright
 Substituting Eqs. 25-28 into Eq. 21, one obtains the virtual work equi-
librium equation for a three-dimensional beam:

[Eexxhexx + Geyxheyx + Gezxhezx\dV

+ KBirkr + V 8 T W + T^S-rydV = 2R - : R (29)

in which the superscripts for V and d y and the subscripts for 2R and 1R
have been dropped since it is known that all variables in this equation
are expressed with respect to the known coordinates of configuration 1.
Substituting the following expressions for the linear and nonlinear
strains in Eq. 29:
6xx U X,X f "\JX WXiy T" UyrX / £ZX Wx,Z ' UZiX (30)

and r\xx = - (u%x + u2y,x + u2ZiX); f\yx - uX/lJuXiX + uy,yuy,x + uZii/uZiX

^lzx UXZUXX ~r UyiZUyrX ~r UZZUZX W-*-)

the virtual work equation becomes

- [E8(M?J + Gh{(uXty + uyiXf + (ux,z + uZiXf]\dV + - CT,8(M^ + u2z,x)dV

2 Jv *• Jv

+ byxHuXryuXrX + uz,yuZiX) + tzxh{ux,zuXiX + uyiZUyiX)dV = 2R-1R (32)

Jv
in which it is noted that uy>y = uZiZ = 0. In arriving at Eq. 32, the term
containing the square of the derivative of ux in the nonlinear axial strain
has been neglected as usual (2,16). The terms containing the products
of derivatives of ux in the shear strains, i.e., uXiyuXiX and uXiZuXtX, may be
of significant magnitude and are therefore preserved.
The derivatives for sectional displacements can be obtained from the
Vlasov thepry equations presented earlier. Although the general theory
could be retained without difficulty, only bisymmetrical sections will be
considered here. Letting ay = az = 0 in Eqs. 10 and 11 and substituting
these expressions in Eq. 32, one obtains:
1
ES( M ; - 2o4 - ywy - «<) 2 + G8\ [ z + yj + (y - ~ ) \ (V2 dV

1
+- az8[(H; - z e * ) + («z + ye.;)2] dv
2 Jv
dW
8 (u'x - zu" - yu" - 0)0") + (uz + yQx)Qx > dV
+ IV
3y
3(0
+ I T2I8 -u,- (u'x - zxi'z - yuy - 0)6^) - (uy - zQ'x)Qx \ dV
dz
= <8u>({2/} - i1/}) (33)

861
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyr
 y

t . yA
a- I @yB T Q'
U U
A U x A f VA YB [ U x
• » • - - « r - ^ ™ 4 j - » • #^ 1-
u u
B T
/ zA / zB
'zA 9lB
4—=l 1 /
z
(a)

B fM" M BB
F
** F<Af » F >B f F>B I
K /A /B MXB 4
ZA
/ J V ^B
2
(b)

FIG. 5.—Subject Element: (a) Degrees of Freedom; (b) Nodal Forces

where a> is the principal sectorial area. The subscripts C and T for dis-
placements have been dropped from the above equation, as they refer
to the same point of the bisymmetrical section, i.e., the centroid. Cor-
respondingly, ux, uy i and uz should be recognized as displacements of
the centroid. (8u) is the variation of displacements at the nodes, in which
(Fig- 5)
(u) = {uxAuyAuzAQxAQvAQzAuxBuyBuzBQxBQyBQzBQxAd'xB) (34)
2
( f) = the vector of nodal forces at the end of the step,
(2f > = (%A%A%A2MxA2MvA2MzA%B%B%B2MxB2MyB2MzB2BA2BB) (35)
and (:f) = the vector of nodal forces at the beginning of the step, which
can be obtained by switching superscripts in Eq. 35 from 2 to 1. Both
(2f > and (:f) are stated in the coordinates of Q .
862
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 Neglecting the higher order terms, adopting the orthogonality con-
ditions for principal generalized coordinates (Eq. 16), and making use
of the expressions for stress resultants (Eq. 8), one obtains the following
equation in terms of the principal generalized coordinates:
i

[EA§(ux) + EIy5(wf) + EI 2 8K ) + EQ„5(0i' ) + G/8(0; )]dx

o
l 7

— 8 « + uT)dx + - I Kh(%'x)dx
0

Fyh{u'z%x)dx- Mzh{u'zWx)dx
Jo

Fzh{u'y%x)dx- Myh(u'yWx)dx- I [Fyh{u'yu'x) + Fzb(u'zux)]dx

- {l-a)Mxh{uyul)dx+ aM,8( M ^;)dx=(8u)({ 2 /}-{ 1 /}) (36)

Jo Jo
in which K = the Wagner coefficient:

K=^ (I, = ly + Iz) (37)

The parameter a is defined as a ratio of the torque resisted by T2I to the

total torque Mx or
{-Tyxz)dA
(38)
Mr
For St. Venant torsion problems or for thin-walled members with point-
symmetrical cross sections, a is equal to 1/2 (see Eq. 5). At this point
the value of a = 1/2 will be adopted to simplify the remainder of the
stiffness matrix derivation. This is an arbitrary decision, however, and
it is one which dictates the type of behavior the element end torques
exhibit as they undergo rotations. It will be reviewed when the behavior
of both torsional and flexural moments is scrutinized in terms of the
concepts of semi- and quasi-tangential moment behavior to be intro-
duced later. In obtaining Eq. 36, the cross-sectional properties for A, Iy,
lz, and Cw as given in Eq. 15 have been used. In particular, the torsional
constant / is recognized to be (11):
2 /. \ 2-|
f f , , (dw\ /dw\ (dw\ /dco
dA (39)

Finite Element Formulation.—The element studied is shown in Fig.

5, in which the local coordinates x, y, and z are chosen such that y and
z are the principal axes of the cross section and x coincides with the
centroidal axis of the element. A linear displacement field is adopted for
the axial displacement, ux, and a cubic displacement field for other dis-
placements. Using the notation ( ) for a row vector and { } for a column
vector, the incremental displacements can be expressed as
863
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyri
 ux = (n1){ux}; uy = (n3){wy}; uz = (n3){uz}; Qx = (n3){Qx}. (40)
in which, using i = x/l,

(n 3 ) = ((1 - 3/ 2 + 2*3), (/ + li2 + i3), (3i2 - 2i3), (i3 - i2)) (41)

The nodal degrees of freedom, i.e., the incremental displacements at
ends A and B of the element are, as indicated in Fig. 5(a):
(Uz) = {UXAUXBY, (Uy) = (UyAl§zAUyBlQzB)

(%) = (uzA - 1%A uzB - l0zB); <§,) = (QxA WxA %xB 1%'*) (42)
The corresponding nodal forces are shown in Fig. 5(b).
The stress resultants in Ci at section x of the member can be expressed
in terms of those at the element nodes as:
-(MzA + MzB)
Fx = Fx, Fy = -
I
F,-^^H M, = Ma
I
Mv = -M„„
yA I 1 - - j + MyB I - j ;
l Mz = -MzA\ 1 - - ] + Mz; (43)

while the Wagner coefficient is (Eq. 37):

K — FxB ~r (44)

Substituting the expressions for incremental displacements (Eq. 40) and

the expressions for stress resultants (Eqs. 43 and 44) in Eq. 36, one ob-
tains the following equation of equilibrium in terms of nodal displace-
ments and nodal forces (the symbol " " " above each real or virtual dis-
placement vector has been dropped for simplicity):
EA
s a/ - W J i ^ (MM + MzB) f
(Su,) — {n[}(n[)dt{ux} + -2 M}<n 3 )dz{tt y }
o >-• Jo '
I
{MyA + MyB) EI.,
/2 —— {n[}{n3)di{uz} + <8uy) l ,3 M<nS)di
o i

+ I - y M <n3>rfi I {tt y }+ j2 {n3}{nL)di{ux}

0

M.•xB
(M<j®-{r®{n&)di{uJ
2l2
(MyA + MyB) M,•yA
+ - {n3}(n3)di+ I -f*(l-i){n&(n$di
I 0 '

M,•yB .
iMin^di U&J + (8u2) ( j ^ M < i ^ > d «
0 I

FxB (MyA
+ j y {n3}<n3)rf*JK} - J + M y B ) {n0<nj><« {HX}

864
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 M B
* ,i >a/ >\ i n / » \ W J i W (MZA + MZB)
o—
21 (K}(n^) - {ri3}(rii))di{uy} + I - {«3}<n3)d;

M2i :
+ f ^ (I - iM}(n£di iM<nJ>d» {6,}
Jo <•

+ <B6,> M ~{^{^)di + J y{n0<i$di+ J F ^ M M A e , }

(M„ A + M „ B ) (MzA + MzB)
{n3}(n^)di{uy}- {n3}(n3)dz{M2}
Z
M„A .......... f M,
+ 1 j -^(l-z){«3}<n3)dZ- . i{n'3}(n3)di \{uy)
Jo t Jo *
I A \
^ (1 - Z){n3}(n3)dz - ^ Z{W3}(n3>dz){H2}
' Jo ' / .
2 1 2
= <8«,>({ F,} + i ^}) + <Suy)({ Fy} - {%})
+ <8u2)({2F2} - f F j ) + (Se.XfMJ - {XMJ) (45)
The vectors of virtual displacements o n t h e right-hand side of Eq. 45
are simply variations of t h e nodal displacements given in Eq. 42. The
force vectors are
2 2
MzA^ MzB
<2F,> = (2FxA2FxB); (2F,) = P F , ^JB'
V

<2M,\>_ =/ 2 a( , * JMI^ J 23 2 M 3
2M
AT, V - /2 2r VA 2T 2 M Z B
\ .
< Z F 2 >= F; ; /2TV* (46)
z
and OFj), (1Fy), (!F2), and (XMX) are obtained by switching superscripts in
Eq. 46 from 2 to 1.
Admitting the arbitrary nature of virtual displacements, one may write
the equilibrium equations for the thin-walled element as

FA
^ — ^ 4 ^ raw
\PAyA + MyB) r „110lr -, _ ,2-r 2-r \T /lr lr \T /An„\
_ [£i3 j | M j _ ( f xA j-xB) - ( j - x / 1 1 x B ) (47a)

y[^3°]W + y [ ^ > y }

{MzA + MzB) 1 1 0 ; , MXB uo fur^io^r.. i

H J2 1^31 Wxt - T 7 T (1^-30 J 1^33 ]){Uzi

X
2
MzA 2
MzB 'M z . X
M;A T
= / 2r b - %y i "
r F,ys" (47b)
y/f yB ,

865
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrig
 r I

(MyA + MyB) MxB

-2 [Kl?]{u
[K3i ]{uxx}--^
} - — (im°]
"^ - - lKi0]){uv}

+ ^f (-[Klf] + [Kg0] - lKl?]){ex} + ^f (-[Klf] - [K£]m

T T
% A = ^ % ^ ) - ( % A ^ % B = ^ ) . . : (470

' ~ [Kg°] + f [KU°]){BX} + FxB ± [Kl?m

+ ^f (-[K°J°] + [Klf] - [KW]){uv} + ¥& (-[Klf] - [Kg1]) W

+ ^f (-[Klf] + [Klf] - [KW]){uz} + ¥2 (-[K°3f] - [KW]){uz}

= hMxA^Mjfj- (iM^Mjf) (4W)

in which [K%] = iv {ni} (n'h) di (48)

The symbols in Eq. 48 are adopted from Ref. 13 as a convenient short-

hand for an integral matrix. The subscripts "g" and "h" = the degree
of the interpolation vectors, superscripts "s" and "t" the order of dif-
ferentiation, and "v" = the exponent of the multiplying factor i. The
matrices of Eq. 48 that are used in the present development are given
in Ref. 17. The equilibrium equation for the thin-walled beam-column
element that results from the integrations symbolized in Eq. 47 can be
written in a compact matrix form as

[*.]{«} + [*,]{"} = i2/} - i1/} (49)

in which [ke] and [kg] = the linear and geometrical stiffness matrices, {«}
= the incremental displacement vector as given in Eq. 34, and j 1 /} and
{2/} = the element nodal forces at the beginning and the end of the in-
cremental step. The elements of [ke] and [kg] are given in Appendices I
and II, respectively. The element forces appearing in [kg] are of course
those existing in configuration 1 (see Eq. 43).

ANALYSIS

The matrices in Appendices I and II may be used in programs for

determining elastic critical loads or in updated Lagrangian programs for
866
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 the geometric nonlinear analysis of one-, two-, or three-dimensional
framed structures. As they stand, they are at least as comprehensive as
matrices of a comparable nature that have been derived previously and,
in some respects, they are superior to the others in rationality and the
significant effects they include. Application of these matrices is straight-
forward and would require no further examination were it not for certain
problems that affect them, in common with the others. These problems,
which relate to the behavior of moments undergoing finite rotations and
an apparent lack of equilibrium in the displaced position, were identified
in Refs. 1 and 2. Explanation of the difficulties requires an examination
of this behavior.
The Nature of Moments Undergoing Rotations.—For a conservative
direct force, direction and magnitude remain unchanged when the struc-
ture on which the force acts is displaced. Hence, a vector expression for

-MA

(a) (b)

1M X 5 Z M,fl,

(1st kind) (2nd kind)

(d)
FIG. 6.—Various Types of Moments: (a) Axial; (b) Tangential; (c) Semitangential;
(d) Quasitangentlal

867
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyr
 a conservative direct force in the deformed state is identical to that in
the initial state. However, for conservative moments, direction and mag-
nitude do not necessarily remain the same when the loaded system
undergoes rotation (1). Therefore, a vector expression for a conservative
moment in the deformed state is in general different from that in the
initial state.
Fig. 6 shows four types of moments in a displaced position, all of
which are initially of magnitude M , and acting along the x axis. The
moment components produced by rotation of the initial moment about
the other axes will be termed moment increments. A moment is defined
as an axial moment if its direction and magnitude remain unchanged in
the presence of finite rotations [Fig. 6(a)]. A moment is defined as a
tangential or a follower moment if it follows completely all rotations [Fig.
6(b)]. The definitions used are those of Ref. 21. Similarly, a semitangen-
tial moment is a moment in which incremental moments generated upon
rotation are equal to half of those generated by a corresponding tan-
gential moment [Fig. 6(c)]. The moments in Fig. 6(d) are called quasi-
tangential moments of the first and second kind, as they produce a mo-
ment increment about only one of the axes perpendicular to the initial

z
A

M,
X. -ox
-Mx,
(a)

-M,
-t>x
+M,
(b)
FIG. 7.—Quasitangential Bending Moments: (a) My; (b) Mz

z Z
A
Each
arrow
ii
1}
iC-it?
0 ->y

k~r-j|

FIG. 8.—Semitangential Torque

868
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 moment vector. The reason for defining two types of quasitangential
moment will be given later.
Conventionally, the conservativity of a physical quantity is defined in
the sense that the work done by that quantity is path-independent. It
can be shown that the work done by a semi- or quasi-tangential moment
is path-independent if an appropriate definition is adopted for the ro-
tation corresponding to each type of moment (1). Thus they are con-
servative. It can also be proven that both axial and tangential moments
are nonconservative. A thorough discussion of the conservativity of var-
ious types of moments can be found in Refs. 1, 3, and 21.
Ziegler (21) and Argyris et al. (2) identify a bending moment as a quasi-
tangential moment and a St. Venant torque as semitangential when either
is generated as a conventional stress resultant. Representations of such
moments are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. In each case the action is repre-
sented by a distributed stress and, alternatively, by a statically and ki-
nematically equivalent couple or couples. To obtain the increment for a
rotated bending moment consider a small element of area, dA, of a bi-
symmetrical section on which an axial stress is acting (Fig. 9). When the
element undergoes a torsional rotation, 6X, the following moment in-
crements are induced:
d{AMz) = vx%xzdA and d(AMy) = crxQxydA (50)
which can be integrated to yield
AMZ = My% (due toM y ) (51)
and AMy = -MZQX (due to M2) (52)
The same incremental moments can be generated by the alternative
mechanisms shown in Fig. 7 undergoing the same rotation. Bending mo-
ments My and M2 which are generated as stress resultants are referred
to as quasitangential moments of the first kind. To obtain the increment
for a rotated St- Venant torque consider Fig. 10. If the cross section ro-
tates about the y axis, an incremental moment about the z axis will be
induced:

FIG. 9.—-Normal Stresses Undergoing FIG. 10.—Shear Stresses Undergoing

Rotation Rotation

869
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrig
 d(AM2) = iyx%yzdA (53)

Similarly, a rotation about the z axis leads to

rf(AMy) = rzxQzydA (54)

Integrating the differential quantities yields the moment increments:

1 1:
AOv (55)
AMy = -M x 0 z and AM2

It is evident that identical moment increments can be generated by the

semi-tangential mechanism shown in Fig. 8 undergoing the same rota-
tions.
Conceptually, moments and torques need not be viewed as conven-
tional stress resultants. They can also be generated by the conservative
mechanisms shown in Figs. 11 and 12. For example, Fig. 11 shows that
a torque can be generated by a quasitangential mechanism with a lever
arm of the force couple directed along either the y or z axis. In the pres-
ence of finite rotations, the first kind of quasitangential torque (QT-1
torque) in Fig. ll(fl) will induce the following quantities (1):

AMy = MXGZ and AM, = 0 (56)

Similarly, the moment increments induced by the second kind of quasi-
tangential torque undergoing rotations in Fig. 11(b) are

A y
M v /2 '
"V* Mj/2
^
JZZZ Z
/ \ n
-& X

M,/2.
My/2 My/2
Z-

(a) (b)
FIG. 11.—Quasitangential Torques: (a) First Kind; (b) Second Kind

Mx ™

1 ™«« X J*
^\
/ \

(a) (b)
FIG. 12.—Semitangential Bending Moments: (a) My; (b) Mz
870
ownloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyright
 AMy = 0 AM, -IvL 6„ (57)

Bending moments are quasitangential of the first kind when treated

as conventional stress resultants. If the stress resultant restriction is re-
moved, they can be quasitangential of the second kind or, indeed, semi-
tangential. For instance, a semitangential bending moment (Fig. 12) in-
duces the following increments when subjected to finite rotations (2):

AMZ = -MvBx; AMX = - - My82 (due to My). (58)

and AMy = — MzQx; AM, = - Mz6y (due to M2) (59)

A list of the moment increments generated by various types of moment

is available in Ref. 17. Such extensions of a concept are more than the-
oretical curiosities. They may have physical reality and they help to ex-
plain differences between derived geometric stiffness matrices.
As an example, consider a member subjected to nonuniform torsion
in which the total torque is resisted in part by St. Venant and in part
by warping torsion (see Eq. 7). It has been illustrated that the St. Venant
torsion behaves in a semitangential fashion. But it is difficult to say
whether the warping torsion is semitangential or not, and Eqs. 4-6 in-
dicated it need not be semitangential. In the case of an I-section member
[Fig. 13(a)] the warping torsion should be treated as quasitangential.
However, for the double I-section in Fig. 13(b), the warping torsion is
semitangential. An additional problem is that the portion of Mx resisted
as warping torsion, Tw, is unknown before the finite element equations
for the structure are solved. Thus it is seen that torsion has two types
of indeterminacy: (1) The portion of the total torsional resistance that
appears as warping torsion, Tw, is unknown a priori; and (2) the rota-
tional behavior of this portion is member-dependent. This problem was
suppressed in the stiffness matrix derivation by setting the parameter a
in Eq. 38 equal to one-half, which in effect dictates that all calculated
torsional behavior be semi-tangential (see Eq. 5).

y y
4

r=

z +- z «-
n
r i
(a) (b)
FIG. 13.—Nature of Warping Torques: (a) I Section; (b) Double I Section

871
ownloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 The Problem of Equilibrium at Angle Joints.—All bending moments
and torques generated as stress resultants have been based on engi-
neering definitions which consider only the initial state of the cross sec-
tion on which the forces act. When these definitions are used, moments
and torques equilibrating a joint in a "configuration 1" condition may
no longer be in equilibrium as the joint is rotated to a new, "configu-
ration 2," equilibrium position. This incompatibility is illustrated and
discussed in Ref. 18.
Resolution of the Problems.—There are several ways to deal with the
difficulties that have been defined, i.e., the unwieldy behavior of torques
when warping restraint is present, and the problem of possible inability
to obtain equilibrium at rotated joints. One is to use a more sophisti-
cated, elasticity theory based, finite element, but this would make non-
linear analysis of actual frames impractical. A second is to ignore the
problem, but this could lead to unforeseen and unpredictable errors. A
third is to "adjust" or "correct" the derived stiffness matrix (or any other
comparable matrix, since all encounter similar problems). The last is the
approach that is used in Refs. 1 and 2, and it is the one that is followed
in the present research.
It is seen that the manner in which the matrices in Appendixes I and
II have been developed dictates that end bending moments behave qua-
sitangentially and end torques behave semitangentially. To find rational
ways to adjust these matrices the matrix equilibrium Eq. 29 must be
scrutinized. It is preferable to do this in a separate paper (18) where the
physical meaning of that equation can be given proper attention. Briefly,
such scrutiny involves dissecting the geometric stiffness matrix (Appen-
dix II), separating it into its internal and external parts, and showing

APPENDIX I.—-LINEAR ELASTIC STIFFNESS MATRIX [ke]

"M Hy/t "zA 8Z/1 »zA

EA/l -EA/l
t
yA 12E72//3 6EIJ12
12EJ¥/;3 -6E7„// 2
6/5 GJ/l
M-xA 12ECJ13
MyA 4Ely/l
4EIJI
Fa EA/l

Mxl

(SYMMETRICAL)

BA

872
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 how the external part can be adjusted to produce any desired type of
behavior.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A consistent finite element model for elastic thin-walled beam-col-

umns must consider the following: (1) Equilibrium of beam-columns in
the displaced state; (2) the rotational behavior of joint moments; (3) non-
uniform torsion; and (4) appropriate nonlinear terms in strains.
In this paper, a virtual work incremental equilibrium equation is de-
rived for elastic beam-columns using the updated Lagrangian formula-
tion. Based on the engineering theory of thin-walled beams, a finite ele-
ment model is derived in terms of conventional stress resultants, i.e.,
semitangential torques and quasitangential bending moments. Consid-
eration of the effect of joint rotations for other types of moment is the
subject of a separate paper.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation under

Grant No. CEE-8117028 to the Department of Structural Engineering and
the Program of Computer Graphics, Cornell Univ. The writers wish to
thank John F. Abel for his contributions to the project as a co-principal
investigator. Any opinions expressed are those of the writers and not of
the sponsors.

ll
UyB zB 6xB %B ®zB §'xA Q'xB

-12E/,// 3 6EIJ12
~12EyP -6EIV/P
(-6/5)G//Z G//10 G//10
-12EC„,// 3 +6EC„// 2 +6ECJ12
6Ely/f 2EI„/Z
-6E1J12 2EIJI

\2EIJP -6EIJ12
12EJ„// 3
6EIv/l2
(6/5)G/// -G//10 -G//10
+12ECJP -6EQ,// 2 -6EC„/Z 2
AEly/l
4E1JI
2G///15 -G/7/30
+4EC„/Z +2ECJI
2G/Z/15
+4EC„/Z

873
wnloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrigh
 APPENDIX II.—GEOMETRICAL STIFFNESS MATRIX [kg]

UxA UyA "zA ®*A V 9M U,B

I ]M M / ; 2

FM +M2B//2 -M,B/;2
l.lM y A // -MM//2
6F 2B /5/ MIB// Fxfl/10
FyA -M,B/10! -M 2 B // 2
I.IMM// MyA/l1
6FIB/5/ -F l B /10 M 2 B //
FM -M 2 B /10/ +M yB // 2
MM/10 -MJM/10
M^ 6K/5/
+M 2 „/5 -M y B /5

MyA 2F 2B //15

MM 2F»B//15

Fa

FyB

F2B

MxB

MyB

MzB (SYMMETRICAL)

APPENDIX III.—REFERENCES

1. Argyris, J, H., Dunne, P. C., Malejannakis, G. A., and Scharpf, D. W., "On
Large Displacement—Small Strain Analysis of Structures with Rotational De-
grees of Freedom," Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering,
Vol. 14, 1978, pp. 401-451, and Vol. 15, 1978, pp. 99-135.
2. Argyris, J. H., Hilbert, O., Malejannakis, G. A., and Scharpf, D. W., "On
the Geometrical Stiffness of a Beam in Space—a Consistent V.W. Ap-
proach," Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 20, 1979,
pp. 105-131.
3. Barsoum, R. S., "A Finite Element Formulation for the General Stability
Analysis of Thin-Walled Members," thesis presented to Cornell Univ., at
Ithaca, NY, in 1970, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy.
4. Barsoum, R. S., and Gallagher, R. H., "Finite Element Analysis of Torsional-
Flexural Stability Problems," International Journal for Numerical Methods in En-
gineering, Vol. 2, 1970, pp. 335-352.
5. Bathe, K.-J., and Bolourchi, S., "Large Displacement Analysis of Three-Di-
mensional Beam Structures," International Journal for Numerical Methods in En-
gineering, Vol. 14, 1979, pp. 961-986.
6. Bathe, K.-J., Ramm, E., and Wilson, E. L., "Finite Element Formulation for
Large Deformation Dynamic Analysis," International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Engineering, Vol. 9, 1975, pp. 353-386.

874

Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copy
 WyB UZB ®xB 6yB OzB Q'xA ®'xB

MyA/l2
-M2B//2 +MsB/l2

-6FxB/5l -MyJIQl MyA/W

-M,B/l FXB/10 -MJB/10
+ l.lMyB/l
-MM/10!
-6F l B /5/ -FXB/W -Ma/l MM/10 -Ma/10
+ 1.1AW*
-l.lMyJl -1.1AW -MM/5 MyA/5
-6i?/5/ K/10 K/10
+MyB/io; +M 2S /10/ -M z B /10 +M, B /10
-MM/10 -MM//10
-Ma/l F.s/10
-M2B/5
-F, B //30 MIB/2
+M 2B //30
MM//30

MM/10 MM//10
-FlB/10 -MIB// -MIB/2 -F, B //30 -M y A //30
+MJB/5 -MJB//30
2
M r f // -MM//2
-M2B//2 -M,B/l2
MyJWl
6FxB/5l MIB// -FIB/10 -MM/10 M yB /10
-l.lMyB//
MM/10/
6F,B/5l FXB/10 M,B/i -MM/10 M 2B /10
-1.1AW/
MM/5 -MM/5
6K/5( -K/10 -K/10
+M 2B /10 -M y B /10
-MM//30
2FIB//15 -M 7 B //30
+M 2B //10
-MM//30
2F, B //15 M yB //30
-M y B //10
2K//15 -K//30
2K//15

7. Bazant, Z. P., and El Nimeiri, M., "Large-Deflection Spatial Buckling of Thin-

Walled Beams and Frames/' Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE,
Vol. 79, No. EM6, Dec, 1973, pp. 1259-1281.
8. Chu, K. H., and Rampetsreiter, R. H., "Large Deflection Buckling of Space
Frames," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. ST12, Dec,
1972, pp. 2701-2722.
9. Connor, J. J., Jr., Logcher, R. D., and Chen, S. C , "Nonlinear Analysis of
Elastic Framed Structures," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 94,
No. ST6, June, 1968, pp. 1525-1547.
10. Krajcinovic, D., "A Consistent Discrete Elements Technique for Thin-Walled
Assemblages/' International Journal of Solids and Structures, Vol. 5, 1969, pp.
639-662.
11. Love, A. E. H., A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4th ed.,
Dover Publication, NY, 1944.
12. Mei, C , "Coupled Vibrations of Thin-Walled Beams of Open Section Using
the Finite Element Method," International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Per-
garnon Press, New York, NY, Vol. 12, 1970, pp. 883-891.
13. Rajasekaran, S., "Finite Element Methods for Plastic Beam-Columns," Theory
of Beam-Columns, Space Behavior and Design, Vol. 2, Chap. 12, W. F. Chen,
and T. Atsuta, Eds., McGraw-Hill, NY, 1977, pp. 539-608.
14. Renton, J. D., "Stability of Space Frames by Computer Analysis," Journal of
the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 88, No. ST4, Aug., 1962, pp. 81-103.
15. Vlasov, V. Z., Thin-Walled Elastic Beams, 2nd ed., Moscow, USSR, 1959; En-

875
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrig
 glish translation, Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem, Israel
Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem, Israel, 1961.
16. Washizu, K., Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity, 2nd ed., Pergamon
Press, New York, NY, 1961.
17. Yang, Y. B., "Linear and Nonlinear Analysis of Space Frames with Non-
uniform Torsion Using Interactive Computer Graphics," thesis presented to
Cornell Univ., at Ithaca, NY, in 1984, in partial fulfillment of the require-
ments for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
18. Yang, Y. B., and McGuire, W., "Joint Rotations and Geometric Nonlinear
Analysis," Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 112, No. ST4, Apr.,
1986, pp. 879-905.
19. Yoo, C. H., "Bimoment Contribution to Stability of Thin-Walled Assem-
blages," Computer and Structures, Vol. 11, 1980, pp. 465-471.
20. Zarghamee, M. S., and Shah, J. M., "Stability of Spaceframes," Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. EM2, Apr., 1968, pp. 371-
384.
21. Ziegler, H., Principal of Structural Stability, 2nd ed., Birkhauser Verlag, Basel
und Stuttgart, 1977.

APPENDIX IV.—NOTATION

The following symbols are used in this paper:

A = area;
ay,az = coordinates of shear center;
B = bimoment;
C = constitutive tensor;
Q> = initial undeformed state;
Q = current deformed (known) state;
c2 = neighboring (desired) deformed state;
r = warping constant;
e = linear strain tensor;
F = force;
{/} = element nodal force vector;
IP = polar moment of inertia;
h>1* = moments of inertia about y and z axes;
J = St. Venant torsion constant;
K = VVagner coefficient;
IK] = element linear stiffness matrix;
&] = element geometric stiffness matrix;
M = torque or bending moment;
AM = moment increment;
R = virtual work of external forces;
s = coordinate along middle line of cross section;
T
1
= St. Venant torsion;
Tsv = warping torsion;
u = displacement;
{«} = element incremental displacement vector;
V = volume;
a = ratio of the torque resisted by jzx to the total torque;
7 = shear strain;
e = normal strain;
e,y = Green-Lagrange strain;
876
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyrig
 T| = nonlinear strain;
8 = rotation;
6i = warping deformation;
p = distance from point T to tangent at a point of contour;
cr = normal stress;
T,y = Cauchy stress;
Tyx ~ shear stresses; and
co = sectorial area.

877
Downloaded 10 Feb 2009 to 140.112.16.242. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see http://pubs.asce.org/copyr