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IN-SITU Vs PRECAST CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTION: A COMPARATIVE
INVESTIGATION OF THEIR EFFECTIVENESS OF
ON HOUSING DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

Thesis · September 1996

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 THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

IN-SITU Vs PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION: A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION OF THEIR

EFFECTIVENESS OF ON HOUSING DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS.

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR

OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN BUILDING

NAME : LUNGU ALICE SUZYO

COMPUTER # : 91313104

DATE : 20TH SEPTEMBER 1996

 THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

IN-SITU Vs PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

BY

ALICE SUZYO LUNGU

2
 IF YOU KNOW THE WHY FOR LIVING,

YOU CAN ENDURE ALMOST ANYTHING.

(Leslie C. Brown).

3
DECLARATION

I ALICE SUZYO LUNGU declare that this thesis is my original work, and has not been produced or
presented before at this University or any other institution for this purpose or any other. Work
by other authors has been duly acknowledged.

SIGNED BY:
SUPERVISOR MR FRANK C KAPAMBWE ............................................
AUTHOR ALICE SUZYO LUNGU ............................................

4
DEDICATION

To my beloved parents, THOMAS and CECILIA LUNGU, all family members Mary, Peter-Thomas,
Cathy, Linda, Towela, Rhoda Mulopwe, Lemmy, and my loving and caring grandmother, Jessie
Zimba.

To everyone I say thank you very much for all that you have done for me. You have given me the
reason to go on in life even in the most troublesome times.

To God Almighty for being there all the time (Isaiah 41: 9, 10)

5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It must be noted that work of this volume is hardly ever the effort of one person. Therefore it is
for this reason that I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the following people without
whose invaluable advice and constructive criticisms this work would not have been:

Mr P Z Botah (Late): Supervisor and Thesis Co-ordinator

Mr F C Kapambwe: Co-supervisor

Mr W Shakantu: Lecturer, CBU.

Mr P M Mukalula: Lecturer, CBU.

Special thanks also go to Messers Ngoma and Mwanza of Civil Engineering Department, CBU for
their efforts in supplying me with literature material, Mr Mbebeta of Chipata-Mchinji Railway
Project, Chipata for encouraging me to do this topic, Mr. B.C. Mabo for letting me use the
computers at BERG, Mr. F. Kapambwe for talking over the late Mr. Botah’s supervisory role of my
thesis, and also the Zambian Government for the sponsorship throughout my programme.

Finally I would like to thank all my friends and classmates: Alice Banda, Kakulubelwa Mulalelo,
Dorica Daka, Gertrude Mwewa, Mutinta Mwape, Monde Mukela, Susan Zuze, Burchell
Mwanshimbala, Harrison Njamu, John Kapenda, Sambo Zulu, Henry Musonda, Potipher Kaunda
and Bwalya Kona, and Catholic Students Community (CASC) members for all that they have been
and meant to me.

6
ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to determine which form or method of construction, precast concrete
or in-situ concrete is cost, time and quality effective on housing development projects. As such a
hypothesis was formulated and it states that, ’precast concrete construction on a housing
development project offers a better alternative to achieving cost, time and quality
effectiveness’. This hypothesis was made in an attempt to offer a temporary solution to the
research problem identified. The problem was that the method of construction used on some
housing projects contributes to structural failure of these houses hence directly contributing to
the housing shortage.

The literature reviewed shows that among the most widely used building materials such as
wood, burnt bricks, mud blocks or bricks and concrete, concrete is the strongest and long lasting
material. For this reason too concrete was chosen as the construction material to be used in the
study of the mentioned construction methods. All the authors whose works were used agree
that precast construction gives better quality products, in the most reasonable time and at an
economic cost.

The research findings show that precast construction on housing projects is time and quality
effective. However, as far as cost effectiveness is concerned it could not be determined because
comparisons by respondents were mainly speculative. Nevertheless, precast concrete
construction can make headway in achieving the cost effectiveness if the recommendations
made are implemented.

7
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................................4
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................................5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................6
ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................................7
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................................8
LIST OF ACRONYMS ..........................................................................................................................10
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ..........................................................................14
1.1 INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND .......................................................................................14
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM .....................................................................................14
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .........................................................................................15
1.4 HYPOTHESIS.......................................................................................................................16
1.5 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................16
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................16
1.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION .....................................................................................17
1.8 CHAPTER SYNTHESIS .........................................................................................................17
1.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................17
CHAPTER TWO CONCRETE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL......................................................19
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................19
2.2 CONCRETE .........................................................................................................................19
2.2.1 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF CONCRETE .....................................................................20
2.2.1.1 Cement ...................................................................................................................20
2.2.1.2 Aggregates ..............................................................................................................21
2.2.1.3 Water......................................................................................................................22
2.2.1.4 Admixtures .............................................................................................................23
2.2.1.5 Reinforcing Steel ....................................................................................................24
2.2.2 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE............................................................................................25
2.2.3 CHOOSING CONCRETE FOR CONSTRUCTION ................................................................26
2.3 SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER THREE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY .......................................................29
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................29
3.2 IN-SITU CONSTRUCTION....................................................................................................29
3.2.1 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS ......................................................................................29
3.2.2 IMPORTANCE OF IN-SITU CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION .................................................31

8
 3.3 PRECAST CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................................32
3.3.1 USES OF PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS......................................................................33
3.3.2 INNOVATIONS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ..............................................34
3.3.3 TYPES OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION ..............................................................................34
3.3.4 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS ......................................................................................35
3.3.5 IMPORTANCE OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION .................................................................35
3.4 SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................37
CHAPTER FOUR AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
USED ON HOUSING PROJECTS .........................................................................................................39
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................39
4.2 RESEARCH DATA PRESENTATION ......................................................................................39
4.2.1 CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................................40
4.2.2 QUESTIONNAIRES ..........................................................................................................40
4.2.3 INTERVIEWS ...................................................................................................................41
4.3 RESEARCH RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................................41
4.3.1 CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................................41
4.3.2 QUESTIONNAIRES ..........................................................................................................44
4.3.3 INTERVIEWS ...................................................................................................................48
4.4 LIMITATIONS .....................................................................................................................50
4.5 SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................52
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................54
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................54
5.2 RECAPITULATION ..............................................................................................................54
5.3 HYPOTHESIS EVALUATION ................................................................................................54
5.4 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................55
5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................56
5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ..............................................................57
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..............................................................................................................................59
APENDICES ....................................................................................................................................61

9
LIST OF ACRONYMS

CSO CENTRAL STATISTICS OFFICE

GRZ GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA
NHA NATIONAL HOUSING AUTHORITY
NHP NATIONAL HOUSING POLICY

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Findings from Case Studies ............................................................................................. 42

Table 2: Responses from Project Designers.................................................................................. 44
Table 3: Responses from Developers............................................................................................ 45
Table 4: Responses from Architects ............................................................................................. 46
Table 5: Responses from Occupants ............................................................................................. 48
Table 6: Responses from Building Contactors .............................................................................. 49

10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The topic of this dissertation was In-situ Concrete Construction versus Precast Concrete
Construction: A Comparative Investigation into their Effectiveness on Housing Development
Projects.

This study stemmed from the need to find a solution for a cost, time and quality effective
method of construction on housing projects. Prior to this study in 1995, the Government of the
Republic of Zambia had commissioned a group of professionals to come up with the National
Hosing Policy which was launched in January 1996. Many issues came to light which included a
housing shortage of over 800,000 units; present housing stock made up of dilapidated structures;
and proliferation of squatter settlements to address housing needs.

Of the dilapidated housing stock, over 40% units were less than 30 years old. This became a
source of concern for the author, who then decided to not only to look at the cost effectiveness
of the methods of concrete construction, but also on the time and quality effectiveness of these
methods. The aim of this study therefore was to determine which form or method concrete of
construction, precast concrete or in-situ, was cost, time and quality effective on housing
development projects, considering that at the time the government was planning to construction
a million housing units countrywide. A problem statement was formulated as follows; the
method of construction used on some housing projects contributes to structural failure of these
houses hence directly contributing to the housing shortage.

In order to offer a temporary solution to the research problem identified, a hypothesis formed
and it stated that, ‘precast concrete construction on a housing development project offers a
better alternative to achieving cost, time and quality effectiveness’.

The literature reviewed showed that among the most widely used building materials such as
wood, burnt bricks, mud blocks or bricks and concrete, concrete was the strongest and long
lasting material. For this reason too concrete was chosen as the construction material to be used
in the study of the mentioned concrete construction methods. All the authors whose works were
used agree that precast construction gives better quality products, in the most reasonable time
and at an economic cost.

11
Five sets of questionnaires were designed for the following groups; specific project designers,
Architects generally, contractors, occupants and developers. Research findings revealed the
following:

1. Precast concrete construction gives was relatively cheaper than in-situ concrete
construction. One of the reasons for that was non-use of formwork on site, which in in-situ
construction proved to e quite costly with costs ranging between 25 and 30% the cost of
concrete.

2. Precast concrete construction gives shorter total construction time on a housing project than
in-situ concrete construction. This research finding supports the authors of the literature
reviewed who said that precast concrete construction was faster than in-situ concrete
construction because elements are assembled on site without any waiting period for
concrete to cure.

3. Quality of construction was measured by determining the durability, reliability, precision,

stability and appearance of the building structure. However, at a practical level quality is
concerned with workmanship. Research findings have shown that precast concrete gives
better quality than in-situ concrete.

4. Research findings also revealed that even though precast concrete construction was
perceived to be more cost, time and quality effective than in-situ construction, designers did
not normally specify its use to due to inadequate manufacturing companies of precast and
pre-stressed concrete elements.

5. The majority of contractors interviewed indicated that they were are ready to specialise in
precast concrete construction provided the designers specified for use on projects. However,
those who have used precast concrete construction said it presented problems when loads
and connections were wrongly calculated. This revelation supports what some authors said
was the problem most encountered in erecting precast, and could cause unfathomed delays
and extra costs

The hypothesis which stated that precast concrete construction on a housing development
project offers a better alternative to achieving cost, time and quality effectiveness was thus
proved right. It now becomes a challenge for government and individual developers to use

12
precast concrete construction on housing development projects if the estimated one million
housing units are to be built by the year 2010 as stated in the National housing Policy.

13
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND

Housing shortage has been a problem that has dogged Zambia since independence. During the
colonial era the majority of natives were confined to rural areas apart from a few that were
employed in the mines. These were housed in shelters which were of a temporary nature. The
declaration of independence on October 24th, 1964 opened the floodgates for unregulated rural-
urban migrations from all corners of former Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia. As much as
previously disadvantaged citizens wanted to have opportunities to improve their lives, the new
government had not prepared itself for the unprecedented influx of people in terms of houses
and other social facilities. Furthermore, the kind of development that dominated in Zambia
following the years after independence was more concentrated in the urban areas leaving the
rural areas undeveloped and underdeveloped, a situation that has exacerbated the rural-urban
drift. What followed later was a situation where housing was not available for everyone who
wanted to live in the cities, and in a very short period an emergence of shanty compounds.

In trying to address the housing shortage government has come with various programmes
including squatter upgrading, and site and service schemes. Regardless of the good intentions in
designing such programmes, they have not yielded the intended results. Reasons for their failure
not only include poor planning, lack of stakeholder involvement and participation but also
inadequate funding.

1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM

As at 1990, the population census revealed that Zambia’s population stood at 7.3 million (CSO,
1990). Four years later, the unpublished agriculture and housing census showed that there were
approximate 1,444,143 housing units for a total of 1,460,000 households of at least five (5)
persons countrywide (NHA, 1994). This represents a shortfall of approximately 16,000 units. In
1995 the population was estimated at 9 million, representing a growth rate of over 3.0% per
annum. If the same growth rate was maintained, the population is projected to reach 16.2
million by 2010, a “Shelter for All” year (GRZ, 1996). Although the population keeps increasing
each year the housing stock never does. If anything it keeps reducing. In 1995 when the National
Housing Policy was being drafted the total housing stock was estimated at 1.3 million.

Considering the ever increasing population, and undoubtedly the number of households, there is
a serious shortage of housing units. Other than the growing population this shortage has been

14
compounded by the fact that many of the already existing house units are dilapidated and
beyond repair. Statistics also show that at least 5% (72,250) of the existing housing stock was
going to be obsolete by the year 2010 (CSO, 1990). Out of this figure some of these houses have
already been demolished (some Mindolo mine houses). Although some of these houses have
become disposable they have not been in use for more than twenty (20) years (NHA, 1994).

Since the whole world is marching towards achieving shelter for all by the year 2010, Zambia is
expected to build an additional of nearly 1.2 million and replace more than 72,000 units between
1990 and 2010. Considering such a magnitude of housing units to be constructed in so short a
period, speed of construction becomes a prime factor. The total cost of construction of each unit
and finally that of the whole project should also be considered when undertaking such projects
to avoid abortive works. Finally it would not pay to build 1.2 million houses that would not last
more than half a century. Therefore, quality must be borne in mind during the design stages,
when producing materials and when erecting the units. It was John Griggs, one time president of
the Concrete Society who said:
“To achieve quality we must draw quality, we must intend quality, we must contrive quality, we
must plot quality and we must desire quality.” (Concrete, 1993).

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

During a preliminary survey the author undertook a tour of some Council and ZCCM townships.
This survey was meant to determine the extent of the problem to be investigated. These
townships included Chimwemwe and Kapata in Chipata, Wusakile, Mindolo and Chamboli in
Kitwe, and Kantanshi and Kankoyo in Mufulira.

All these townships had similar problems except for Chamboli. The problems ranged from
subsiding foundation walls, cracked floors and walls, and efflorescence of concrete. Chamboli
Township on the other hand had none of such problems though nearly all houses needed
external finishes. However, the houses in Chamboli looked stronger and durable. It was
discovered that these houses were built with precast concrete units unlike the others in the
mentioned townships which had been built of concrete blocks, burnt clay bricks or unburned
mud blocks.

In the background to the problem it was mentioned that some of the houses that have become
disposable have not been in existence for more than 20 years. Probably the rest would not have
been in existence for more than fifty (50) years before they are obsolete. The questions

15
therefore that beg for answers are, why is it that such houses reached a disposable stage after
such a short period? Would it serve any purpose if the government embarked on a large, long-
term costly housing project if houses will not last more than 20 years? In trying to address the
first concern it could be safe to assume that perhaps the building materials used in the
construction of the houses, were of low quality and as such were easily affected by corrosive
agents and thus weakening the structures. On the other hand, the method of construction used
could have contributed to the structural failure of the houses under study. Finally, the second
question can well be answered by saying that it would only serve a purpose if and only if another
method of construction other than in-situ construction was used on any housing project the
government embarked on.

Therefore having been presented with facts concerning the housing situation in the country the
problem identified was as follows: the method of construction used on house developments
contributes to the structural failure of most houses.

1.4 HYPOTHESIS
To effectively carry out this study the following hypothesis was formulated:
“Precast concrete construction offers a better alternative to achieving cost, time and quality on a
housing development project.”

1.5 OBJECTIVES
To achieve the above hypothesis the following objectives were established:
1. To review existing literature and give an overview of concrete as a construction material.
2. To review existing literature and carry out a comparison of the two construction techniques;
in-situ concrete construction and precast concrete construction.
3. To investigate which of the two forms of construction offers the least cost per unit, shorter
construction time and better quality on a housing development project.
4. To make conclusions and recommendations based on the findings of the objectives.

1.6 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

The importance of this study is two-fold. First, its theoretical relevance lies in its contribution to
knowledge in the application of construction methods on housing projects. Thus in this case if
the hypothesis is confirmed, it will become part of the underlying theory concerning construction
methods applied on housing development projects. If on the other hand the hypothesis is not
confirmed, researchers will use this research as a basis to continue with the investigation as it is
the first of its kind to be conducted in Zambia. Second, the practical relevance of this research is

16
based on the fact that the results from this study can be usefully and adequately utilised by
society when choosing construction methods to be used on housing projects.

1.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

In this study various methods of data collection were used to evaluate the stated hypothetical
statement. These included both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected by
means of case studies, questionnaires and interviews. The aim of the secondary data was to
determine the practical aspects of the construction methods/ techniques under discussion based
on the Zambian case. Secondary data on the other hand was gathered through intensive
literature review of published and unpublished books, reports and journals. The purpose of this
background reading was to sharpen and deepen the theoretical framework of the research and
to be acquainted with latest developments in construction technology.

1.8 CHAPTER SYNTHESIS

The study was divided into five chapters. Chapter one introduces the research by providing a
background to the study; problem formulation; statement of the problem; hypothesis and
objectives; scope of the study; importance of the research; and the methodology that will be
employed in undertaking the research. Chapter two reviews the existing literature to examine
the concrete as a construction material by reviewing its basic principles and importance in
construction. Chapter three is another literature review which specifically looks at looks at two
forms of construction under study comparing their construction processes and importance in
construction as far as the traditional management maxims of cost, time and quality are
concerned.

The fourth chapter presents the findings collected from field surveys as regards the two forms of
construction under discussion. It also presents the analysis based on collected. Finally, chapter
five, the concluding part of the study, presents general conclusions and recommendations, and
also makes proposals for further research in areas deemed very important to complement this
study but which were not covered due to time limitations.

1.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study is the first of its kind to be conducted in Zambia to the best of the author’s knowledge.
Therefore there was no literature on precast concrete construction with reference to Zambia.
Such a limitation resulted in using literature based on developed countries only. Time limit
coupled with inadequate funding of the research, were other obstacles as far as the smooth

17
operation of this research was concerned. A study of this magnitude and where comparative
studies are conducted requires not a period of less than twelve months. Even more case studies
become representative when they are conducted in many different areas. However, due to
inadequate funds such ventures were not possible.

18
CHAPTER TWO CONCRETE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Building materials on a construction site constitute a very large portion (percentage)

proportionate to the total building/ construction costs. In his unpublished thesis Mubanga (1994)
estimates that the cost of building materials on a building project -accounted for about 60% of
the total cost. The high cost of building materials is compounded by many factors. Everett (1989)
argues that the total cost of building materials on a project site rises due to factors such as poor
handling and pilfering.

As regards the cost of concrete, it has been estimated that concrete frames (beams, columns,
floors, etc.) accounted only for ten percent (10%) of the total cost of building (Southcott, 1996).
However, serious cost implications can be encountered on the more expensive elements like
cladding. Since this study revolves round concrete construction, it is important to look at
concrete as a construction material and the role it plays in construction.

2.2 CONCRETE

The discovery of concrete by the Romans led to its use on construction projects. It remained in
use from that moment until the collapse of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, at the end of the
second half of the eighteenth century the knowledge of concrete construction was revived
(Allen, 1985). Since then concrete technology has evolved from plain in-situ to reinforced,
precast and pre-stressed concrete (Taylor, 1977).

Concrete1 is the most versatile and widely used construction material in the whole world. Its
universal availability lies in the fact that its major constituent materials are readily available in
nearly all parts of the world (Squires, 1994). Furthermore, concrete is a heterogeneous2 material
made up cement, aggregate, water and admixtures. Therefore concrete can be defined as a
construction material that is composed of aggregates chemically bonded together by means of
cement and water. As already mentioned above, concrete technology has evolved over the years
from plain in-situ to reinforced precast and pre-stressed. This evolution also means that the use
of concrete would keep on growing as long as the constituent materials are available and the
technology keeps advancing to higher levels.

1 A mixture of Portland cement, aggregates, and water. In some cases, additives known as admixtures are added to the concrete
to improve its properties.
2 It is made up of different constituent materials.

19
2.2.1 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

2.2.1.1 Cement

Cement3 bonds the aggregate in the concrete mix when it comes into contact with water.
However, the type and quality of cement is known to affect the strength and durability of
concrete. It is for this reason that the type of cement to be used on building/ construction
project ought to suit the environment in which it shall used. For instance, when building acid
plants in mine areas, cement with acid-resistant properties must be used. Furthermore, cements
are made from local raw materials in many parts of the world, and as a result there is a high
possibility that colours of cement will differ from region to region and from country to country.
Therefore, it imperative that cement intended for a building project is purchased from the same
manufacturer throughout the project (Monks, 1984). While seeking high early strength, it is also
worth noting that Portland cement with a high rate of hardening has a strong tendency to
effloresce and to crack under restraint at an early age (Taylor, 1977). Nonetheless, many of the
cements have been developed to ensure good durability of concrete. Though, it is not certain yet
as to whether the constitution of cement can provide a complete answer to the durability 4 of
concrete (Neville, 1988).

The most common type of cement used in construction works is Portland cement, which can be
classified into various categories (Shirley, 1987; Neville, 1988).

1. Ordinary Portland Cement

It has a medium rate of hardening, and is suitable for all kinds of construction works
except in under water construction (Monks, 1984).

2. Rapid Hardening Portland cement

RHPC is similar in composition to OPC but is more finely ground. Its fineness though does
not affect its setting time (Monks, 1984). In fact it increases the rate at which the
concrete gains strength and leads to early hardening (Shirley, 1987). It is used where
temperatures are extremely cold.

3. Ultra-rapid Hardening Portland cement

3
A binding material that bonds the aggregates together to form mortar or concrete
4
The ability of concrete the ability of concrete to serve its designed purpose structurally and aesthetically without
need for remedial action. Remedial action though does not include maintenance works (DeVries, 1993).

20
 UHPC has a chemical composition similar to that of OPC and RHPC but is much finer than
either of them. The fineness of the cement imparts an exceptional rate of early strength
development (Shirley, 1987).

4. Sulphate Resisting Portland cement

SRPC is used in areas that are susceptible to sulphate attacks such as in seas and oceans
(Barnbrook et al., 1979). It is darker than OPC but its properties are quite similar to those
of OPC (Shirley, 1987).

5. Low Heat Portland Cement

LHPC produces concrete that gains strength and evolves heat more slowly than the other
cements (Barnbrook et al., 1979). It is mostly used in massive concrete construction
where excessive heat may accumulate and rise to damaging levels (Allen, 1985).

6. White Portland Cement

WPC is used where concrete is required for visual effects or decorating purposes (Shirley,
1987). Particularly it is used in tropical countries for architectural purposes because it is
not liable to staining as it has a low content of soluble alkalis (Neville, 1988).

2.2.1.2 Aggregates

Aggregates constitute roughly about three-quarters of the volume of concrete and hence have a
huge effect on its strength and durability (Allen, 1985). Aggregates are non-cementitious
particles constituting between 50% and 80% of the volume of concrete (Shirley, 1987). Illston
(1994) describes them as inert fillers which occupy 70-80% of the total volume of concrete. In
either scenario, the volume of aggregates is quite phenomenal and likely to exert greater
influence on the properties of concrete. Therefore, considering such a large volume of concrete
being occupied by aggregates, it is imperative that the aggregates are free from impurities like
pyrites which would impair the appearance of concrete (Monks, 1984). Aggregates must also be
strong and durable (Taylor, 1977). Neville (1988) argues that the grading of aggregate affects the
strength and durability of concrete. The shape and texture of the aggregate affects the bond
between cement paste and aggregate, and so is the strength of concrete.

21
Aggregates are classified into two main groups, natural and artificial aggregates. Natural
aggregates come from natural rock such as granite, quartzite, quartz and limestone. These are
further divided into two categories of fine and course aggregates (Neville, 1988). Natural
aggregates are also known as normal-density aggregate whose density ranges from 1450 to 1750
kg per cu. metre (Shirley, 1987). Artificial aggregates are lightweight and may occur naturally as
clay or may be manufactured such as pulverised fuel ash (pfa) (Neville, 1988). These are
sometimes called high-density aggregates with densities up to 4800 kg cu. metre (Shirley, 1987).
As regards aggregates, it is important to note that variations that occur in grading, particle shape
and texture, moisture content and cleanliness of the aggregates all affect the workability of the
concrete (Monks, 1984).

2.2.1.3 Water

Water plays a very important role in the mixing and curing of concrete. Therefore, the proportion
and quality of water used is of paramount importance. Water only hydrates the cement but also
turns it into a paste thereby making concrete workable (Shirley, 1987). It is for this reason that
water used in concrete mixing must portable5 water (Taylor, 1977). Water with a pH value
ranging between 6.0 and 8.0 and is free from organic matter may also be considered for use
provided it does not contain salts such as potassium and sodium or other heavy metals like iron.
However, it must be noted that sometimes water of drinking quality may not be suitable for
concrete mixing because it may contain some sugars (carbon content) which may alter the rate
of hydration of cement. Moreover, too much chlorine found in drinking water may contribute to
chloride attacks on the concrete.

Although water is certainly a necessary ingredient in concrete mixing, only a small proportion is
required to hydrate cement. Based on the computations by Madderom (1980), only about 9
litres of water are really required to hydrate one 50kg-bag of cement. “Additional water, called
water of convenience, is required o make the concrete workable enough to be handled by the
contractor” (Madderom, 1980, p. no pape). For this reason, the amount of water in the concrete
must be adequately regulated because too much water would affect the workability of concrete
(Neville, 1988). Excess water causes segregation, settlement and porosity, low strength and
durability, poor bonding qualities, shrinkage and cracking (Taylor, 1977). Furthermore, excess
water may cause bleeding of concrete. Although, bleeding is not always bad as it helps to lower

5
Water of drinking quality and free from all impurities that may affect the rate of hardening, strength and durability of
concrete (Taylor, 1977).

22
the water-cement ratio. In addition, it densifies the concrete. On the other hand, concrete that
bleeds too fast or too long can cause a number of problems among which are sand streaks in
walls, weak horizontal construction joints, and voids beneath reinforcement bars and aggregate
particles (Anon, 1988).

2.2.1.4 Admixtures

There are times when a property or properties of concrete have to be modified to suit the
conditions or environment in which it has to be used. These modifiers which are applied as an
aqueous solution are known as admixtures6 (Orchard, 1979). They are sometimes referred to as
additives though additives are chemicals normally added to cement during manufacturing
(Barnbrook et al., 1979). Admixtures are particularly added to concrete mixes to modify some of
its properties. Therefore it is important that these admixtures are proportionally and thoroughly
mixed to avoid undesired results. Since admixtures just help to modify concrete properties, even
small quantities of them are capable of producing significant changes to the workability or other
properties of concrete mix (Monks, 1984). Shirley (1987) identified these admixtures as air-
entrainers, accelerators, retarders and water-reducers.

Air-entrainers entrain a controlled quantity of air in the form of microscopic bubbles which are
distributed uniformly in the cement paste. Air-entraining admixtures are usually preferred in very
cold regions where they are added to the concrete to increase its workability by providing freeze-
thaw resistance to the concrete (Illston, 1994). In large quantities of concrete, air-entrainers are
used to create very lightweight non-structural concrete with thermal insulation properties (Allen,
1985).

Sometimes the rate of hydration of cement has to be increased in order to obtain an early
strength of concrete. In such cases an accelerator is used. Accelerators can only be used in areas
where temperatures are very low (Taylor, 1977). However, it is important to note that
accelerating strength development at an early age is likely to lessen the amount of strength gain
that can take place (Shirley, 1987).

Retarders on the other hand, are more used in hot weather when concrete may experience rapid
hardening due to rapid loss of water which in turn causes loss of workability (Shirley, 1987). In
this instance, retarders may be used to slow down the rate of setting and eventually the rate of

6
“Chemicals that are added to the concrete immediately before or during mixing and significantly change its fresh,
early age or hardened state to advantage” (Illston, 1994)

23
hardening of concrete, and ultimately enhance the strength and durability of concrete at an early
age (Neville, 1988; Illston, 1994).

Lastly, water-reducing admixtures also known as plasticisers are added to concrete to achieve a
certain level of workability at a lower water-cement ratio (Illston, 1994). These admixtures are
used to improve the quality of concrete and to obtain specified strength at lower water content.
In essence, water-reducers help to reduce the amount of mixing water in the concrete while
maintaining the same level of workability necessary to achieve high strength concrete (Shirley,
1987). Water-reducers are very vital where water is in limited quantities. The basic role of water-
reducers is thus to deflocculate cement particles agglomerated together and release the water
tied up in these agglomerations, producing more fluid paste at lower water contents. However, it
should be noted that too much water-reducers may lead to more water reduction in the
concrete. Furthermore, the setting time of the concrete may be retarded.

2.2.1.5 Reinforcing Steel

Plain concrete is said to have no useful strength of its own although it has very adequate
compressive strength (Allen, 1985). Fling (1987) explains that the tensile strength of plain
concrete lies between 10-15% that of its compressive strength. To create a balance between
these two forces concrete has to be reinforced with mild steel which is stronger in tension than
in compression. When reinforced, concrete makes the best use of the properties of plain
concrete and reinforcing steel while compensating for their less desirable features.

The cohesive and adhesive relationship between concrete and steel could not be better. Allen
(1985) therefore describes the compatibility between the two materials as a fortuitous accident.
This statement is supported by Fling (1987) who explains that the chemical bond and mechanical
anchorage prevent slippage of reinforcing steel relative to concrete. The other reason is that
concrete and steel nearly have the same thermal coefficients of expansion. Neville (1988)
explains the bond between concrete and steel as a result of friction and adhesion between
particles. This bond is affected by shrinkage of concrete relative to steel. Reinforcing steel can be
in form of bars or welded fabric wire. Because concrete is corrosive when it comes into contact
with moisture adequate cover must be provided to the concrete (Barnbrook et al., 1979).

24
2.2.2 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete has several properties which make it very a desirable construction material. These
include strength, capacity for volume changes, durability, deformation, thermal conductivity and
autogenous7 healing

The strength of concrete as tested in a cube test does not reflect its strength in performance in a
structure. Actually it is believed that its strength is in fact less than that indicated in a cube test
(Orchard, 1979). Even after more than a decade, Orchard’s observation is still echoed. Bamforth
and Price (1994) concluded on the strength of concrete that no matter how well concrete
performs in a cube strength test, it is the overall performance in a structure that determines its
service in life, and that this depends as much on its treatment during construction as on the mix
design. Variations in the moisture content and temperature cause volume changes in concrete.
When fresh concrete dries for the first time it shrinks by about 0.4 mm/M and expands on
subsequent wetting though it does not go back to its original linear dimensions. These volume
changes can be reduced by decreasing the amount of water per unit volume of fresh concrete
mix (Shirley, 1987). The permeability of concrete also affects the movement of moisture in
hardened concrete. The more porous the concrete the more permeable it is to moisture.

The durability of concrete is affected by such factors as weathering abrasion, chemical attacks
and permeability. The crushing strength of concrete alone does not guarantee its durability.
Therefore the type of mix, proportions of constituent materials and water-cement ratio must be
borne in mind (Barnbrook et al., 1979). There are certain types of cements which are susceptible
to sulphates and other chemical attacks and so are the concretes made from the same.
Aggregates and water that have impurities, vegetable matters or otherwise reduce the durability
of concrete by inducing chemical decomposition of the foreign matters in concrete (Shirley,
1987).

High permeability will induce a high rate of moisture content in concrete and so will the rate of
corrosion on steel. Corrosion weakens the bond and anchorage of steel onto concrete, and this
could result in cracking of concrete along the reinforcement. Therefore permeability in concrete
must be as low as possible, and to attain that concrete must be fully compacted and properly
cured. The lower the permeability of concrete the higher is its durability (Barnbrook et al., 1979).
However, the durability of a concrete structure cannot be easily and accurately determined. It

7
This is the ability of concrete for self-healing (Neville, 1988).

25
can only be speculated how long a good quality concrete would last (Waine & Long, 1990). These
give an example of Axmouth Bridge at Seaton in the southeast of Devon to illustrate the
durability of concrete. This concrete structure was built over a hundred years ago with what has
been proved to be relatively poor and badly mixed concrete made from a very coarse poor
quality cement. Therefore it means that if a low quality concrete structure could stand for over a
century, high quality concrete structures can last even many more centuries.

Concrete undergoes deformation when loaded or stressed. The immediate deformation that
occurs as a result of applied stress is called elastic deformation. There is also drying shrinkage
which occurs over a long period of time and is independent of applied stress. Another form of
deformation is creep which occurs as a result of slow recovery of concrete though it does not
entirely regain its original linear dimensions (Barnbrook et al., 1979). These deformations depend
largely on factors such as the age of concrete, its mix proportions and constituent materials
(Shirley, 1987).

Another important attribute of concrete is its resistance to fire. Concrete has a thermal
conductivity of about one-tenth that of steel; it is relatively low. This implies that a rise in surface
temperatures is not entirely transmitted to the interior (Shirley, 1987). However, the degree of
thermal conductivity varies with the composition of aggregates in the concrete (Neville, 1988).
Natural (mineral) aggregates are less resistant to temperature rises than artificial aggregates
which show no sudden changes in volume on heating thus giving concrete an excellent fire
resistance (Shirley, 1987).

Finally concrete has the ability to heal on its own. There are certain cracks that are caused by
sudden finite movements. If allowed to close up without tangential displacement, the cracks will
close up completely under moist conditions (Orchard, 1979). This ability of self-healing is known
as autogenous healing (Neville, 1988). This process is enhanced by hydration of unhydrated
cement paste in the concrete, and the rate depends on the age of concrete. The younger the
concrete the higher the strength regain through autogenous healing.

2.2.3 CHOOSING CONCRETE FOR CONSTRUCTION

The constituent materials of concrete are locally and readily available in almost all parts of the
world (Allen, 1985). This abundance of constituent materials makes concrete a universal and
widely used material. Its universality in a way shows that as a construction material concrete is
cheap. Though concrete may be cheap, its production can cause far-reaching repercussions on

26
the environment. Environmentalists have observed with concern that quarrying depletes the
earth of its natural rock strata. Moreover, quarries that are left unburied collect water into which
people sometimes drown. De Vries (1993) explains that the waste from concrete disposal is
another major problem as seen by environmentalists. However, concrete waste need not be an
environmental problem anymore because it can be crushed and, recycled and used as aggregate.
In fact crushed concrete can be used in place of hard-core as site-fill for building or engineering
purposes (Southcott, 1996).

Recently there has been an increased interest in the use of crushed reclaimed concrete as
aggregate, and so must be the use of cement replacements (Squires, 1994). The production of
cement is another hazardous operation to the environment as there is an emission of dust into
the atmosphere. Nevertheless cements can be replaced with such materials as pulverised fuel
ash (pfa), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (ggbs) and micro-silica. For instance pfa a by-
product of coal can be used as aggregate in its raw form and as a cementitious material in its
processed form.

Concrete is a durable material for construction and as a result concrete buildings last for a long
time (Everett, 1989). A good example of such durability of concrete is the Axmouth Bridge
(Waine & Long, 1990). However, the durability of concrete is affected by factors such as
corrosion of steel and chlorides attacks. Bamforth (1996) explains that reinforcing steel corrodes
when it comes into contact with moisture. Therefore adequate cover must be provided to the
steel. He adds that modern Portland cements affect durability to a certain extent because they
offer less resistance to chlorides than those used fifty years ago. Nevertheless, blended Portland
cement can be combined with cement replacements to offer great resistance to chloride attacks.

Concrete is a non-flammable material (Neville, 1988). However, its ability to resist fire largely
depends on the aggregate composition. For instance, natural aggregates heat up faster than
artificial ones (Shirley, 1987). Concrete is said to be a non-rotting material as compared to steel
and timber. Sometimes there could be a collection of organic matters in the concrete and these
could weaken the strength of concrete as they rot. It is for that reason that constituent materials
of concrete should be free from impurities of all kinds (Taylor, 1977).

The flexibility of concrete makes it easy to be moulded into any shape (Allen, 1985). Though its
flexibility permits a wider variety of forms, it can result in added design effort as different
construction options need to be investigated (Southcott, 1996). Despite the many attributes to

27
the choice of concrete as a construction material some critics have maintained that it is
colourless and functional. Ridout (1991) however, argues that concrete is not only functional but
also artistic and sculptural in various ways. Concrete need not continue being labelled a dull and
colourless material anymore because it can be coloured with pigments of various colouring
(Carter, 1996). However, these pigments are costly in terms of mixing because even a single
colour calls for a sophisticated formulation.

2.3 SUMMARY

Since its discovery in the Roman times concrete has continued to gain its universal acceptability.
Its properties of strength, durability, resistance to fire and chemical attacks, volume changes,
deformation due to loading and autogenous healing have made it a very important construction
material.

As a heterogeneous material, concrete constitutes a number of materials; cement, aggregates,

and water. Sometimes concrete properties require modification depending on the conditions in
which concrete is to be used. In such cases admixtures are added to concrete when mixing.
Reinforcing steel is also used in concrete to supplement the concrete with the tensile strength it
requires to perform adequately. These constituent materials, admixtures and reinforcing steel
are important because they affect the performance of both wet and hardened concrete. Thus
they must be treated and handled with care.

There are many factors that underlie the choice of concrete as a construction material. Its
constituent materials are locally and readily available hence making it cheap to obtain. Concrete
structures of various shapes can be built and can also last long before their life spans come to an
end. Lastly concrete does not burn nor rot.

However, at times the use of concrete has been overshadowed by prejudices such as it being
dull, colourless, lifeless and functional. Concrete production also has been branded as an
environmental hazard which if not checked would cause far-reaching ecological effects.
Nevertheless innovations in concrete technology have improved and are improving the image of
concrete in use and production.

28
CHAPTER THREE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at construction methods, which in this study shall mean the techniques used
in the construction of structures. These methods have therefore been divided into two and
include in-situ8 and precast9 concrete construction.

3.2 IN-SITU CONSTRUCTION.

In-situ concrete construction dates way back to the discovery of concrete by the Romans. It
involves the use of large quantities of water on a building site because fresh concrete cannot be
workable if it loses moisture (Allen, 1985). Concrete masonry construction (CMC) also falls under
this category of in-situ construction. Taylor (1977) describes concrete blocks as precast members
and goes on to say these can be factory manufactured or site-cast. Despite this argument
concrete masonry construction involves large quantities of water on site. Allen (1985) explains
that mortar is as much a part of masonry as the masonry units themselves. It accounts for 20% of
the masonry work and it can only be used when it is wet and fresh. This statement confirms that
CMC is a 'wet system’10.

Over the years in-situ concrete construction has evolved from plain and reinforced concrete in
the last half of the nineteenth century (Allen, 1985) to pre-stressed concrete in the first half of
the twentieth century (Taylor, 1977). Despite having undergone such an evolution in-situ
construction has had to adapt to various changes in order to compete with other systems of
construction such as steel and precast construction. There has been an extensive prefabrication
of reinforcing steel, mechanisation of finishing operations, reusable formwork and many other
techniques (Allen, 1985).

3.2.1 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The construction process of an in-situ concrete project starts the moment it is initiated to the
time it is completed; it begins the moment the contractor starts spending money on the project

8
A process where concrete is poured into forms or moulds in the actual position in which the concrete will
permanently remain after the forms have been removed (Allen, 1985).
9
Involves casting elements in positions other than those in which they will finally be erected (Allen, 1985).
10
A form of construction that involves the use of large quantities of water such as masonry and plastering (Allen,
1985).

29
until it is handed over as a finished product (Seeley, 1987). The process includes preliminary
works, site clearance, material and labour assembly, excavations and earthworks, and concreting
(Bentley, 1994).

Concreting on site takes a larger part of the construction process as it involves a number of
operations before raw materials are converted into a finished product. These operations include
batching, mixing, transporting, placing and compacting, curing and formwork (Barnbrook et al.,
1979). Batching refers to the measurement or calculation of the quantities of constituent
materials of concrete before they are mixed (Taylor, 1977). These mix proportions of materials
are determined either by volume or weight as the case may be with cement (Barnbrook et al.,
1979). In most cases aggregates are not completely dried and the moisture in them could
influence the volume of such aggregates in the mix. Therefore it is important to determine the
amount of moisture present in the aggregates so that adequate adjustments can be made
(Shirley, 1987).

The constituent materials of concrete need to be carefully and thoroughly mixed in order to
achieve consistent workability, water-tightness, control of quality and strength (Taylor, 1977).
Thorough mixing of concrete is essential to uniform colouring and consistency (Barnbrook et al.,
1979). Shirley (1987) adds that mixing can be done mechanically or manually, though mechanical
mixing is preferable on large projects to reduce on time and improve on efficiency. When
concrete has been thoroughly mixed it requires to be transferred from the point of mixing to
where it is needed for pouring (Shirley, 1987). Therefore it may require to be transported
vertically and horizontally, or horizontally using various equipment such as pumps, buckets and
wheelbarrows (Bentley, 1994). However, Taylor (1977) cautions that it is important to take
necessary precautions when transporting ready-mixed concrete to preserve its workability.
Barnbrook et al (1979) also emphasise on the importance of careful transportation of concrete to
avoid segregation. Furthermore, concrete may be contaminated with other matters which could
affect its performance. More importantly, wet concrete is not a liquid but slurry, an unstable
mixture of solids and liquid. It is for this reason that it should be handled and placed with
extreme care so as to avoid separation of aggregates and mortar (Allen, 1985).

Before concrete is poured, formwork must be erected. Since the appearance of cast-in-place
concrete is directly dependent upon the quality of formwork, it means that formwork must be
coated with release agents to avoid the concrete sticking to formwork (Monks, 1984). It is
important that when placing concrete the operation should be continuous for each section of the

30
work (Taylor, 1977; Monks, 1984). Once started, placing of concrete should not be delayed until
the formwork is completely filled. It is unquestionable that air bubbles are trapped in concrete
after it is placed in the formwork. If left uncompacted, the concrete would develop have voids
which would weaken the strength and durability of concrete (Neville, 1988). Thus, concrete must
be compacted using vibrators to dispel trapped air. If it is placed in layers, each layer must be
thoroughly compacted (Taylor, 1977). However, when vibrating concrete it should never be
moved or allowed to flow as this would cause segregation (Barnbrook et al., 1979).

Concrete must be placed continuously as earlier mentioned. However, if it is not possible to do

so, construction joints must be provided (Taylor, 1977). Construction joints are provided when
there is an interruption in concreting thus making it necessary for fresh concrete to be placed
against, and to bond an earlier portion which has already hardened (Shirley, 1987). The reaction
between cement and water causes concrete to harden, and in this reaction water is lost. The rate
at which moisture is lost from concrete affects the strength of concrete (Shirley, 1987). Therefore
it is important to ensure that water is retained in the concrete so that it attains the maximum
strength before formwork is stripped. This process of retaining the moisture content in concrete
is known as curing (Allen, 1985). When concrete has fully cured and is strong enough to support
its own weight and other loads, formwork can be stripped and reused elsewhere (Taylor, 1977).

3.2.2 IMPORTANCE OF IN-SITU CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

The importance of in-situ concrete construction can be well looked at by considering the effects
it has on a particular project. The fluidity of in-situ concrete offers unlimited sculptural
possibilities on site. Examples of such sculptural works are Le Corbusier’s Chapel of Notre Dame
at Ronchamp du Haut in France and the J.F. Kennedy airport in New York (Allen, 1985). However,
since concrete has to be cast in place it involves large volumes of formwork so that it stays in
place. There is also the cost of release agents to be considered. Release agents are coated to the
inner faces of formwork so that concrete does not stick to it (Monks, 1984). In fact formwork on
most construction projects costs more than concrete, and sometimes even more than concrete
and reinforcing steel combined together (Peurifoy, 1976). Hartland (1990) confirms that
formwork is one of the most expensive elements in concrete construction. However, latest
report statistics have shown that the cost of formwork varies between 35% and 38% that of
concrete (Pallett, 1994).

31
Structures built of in-situ concrete are said to offer a monolithic architectural character (Allen,
1985). The monolithic nature means there is an even distribution of loads in all directions. The
structures are also rigid and therefore need no extra structural resistance. However, because in-
situ structures are built without movement joints there is a likelihood of built-up stresses which
may cause failure of concrete. Movement joints are vital as they open and close up to relieve
stresses in the concrete (Shirley, 1987).

Longer-span portal frames can be cast in place using in-situ concrete. For instance the Romans
built long-span barrel vaults and domes with plain in-situ concrete. The Pantheon in Rome spans
about 46m in diameter. This was made possible because of the structural suitability of concrete
to work in compression (Allen, 1985). Working at high heights requires the use of scaffolding
whose cost is added to that of walling (Wainwright & Wood, 1981). The cost of scaffolding
includes hiring or purchasing charges per hour, erecting and dismantling (Chudley, 1991). Casting
long-spans elements may be one of the greatest achievements in in-situ concrete construction.
There are however, other problems associated with this kind of construction. Since each element
is cast in place and often by relatively ineffective methods and under variable weather
conditions, quality of the product is not guaranteed (Allen, 1985).

In in-situ concrete construction the production of concrete is carried out on site (Shirley, 1987)
and it means large volumes of plant and equipment are to be hired or purchased and operated.
The cost of plant and machinery contributes greatly to the total cost of the construction. The fact
that concrete production is done on site makes in-situ concrete construction relatively slow as
compared to precast or steel construction. This is so because each level must be formed (though
blockwork is not formed), reinforced, poured, cured and stripped of the formwork before the
building process can proceed (Allen, 1985).

3.3 PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

The emergency of concrete and in-situ construction played a very important role in the
development of the Roman Empire. With concrete many structures of varying lengths and
shapes could be developed. It was in the 1930s that precast concrete emerged as a construction
material (Coville, 1990). The knowledge of concrete construction had just been rediscovered
after the fall of the Roman Empire (Allen, 1985). What therefore could have led to the use of
precast concrete at the beginning of the twentieth century? Richardson (undated) answers this
question when he writes that precast concrete construction removes the restraints encountered

32
in in-situ construction. However, the use of precast construction came to a temporary stop
during the Second World War because precast concrete factories could not operate.
Nonetheless, after the war was over Europe embarked on a reconstruction programme to
replace the many houses that had been destroyed during the war. This reconstruction
programme had to be started and finished quickly, and in such a case precast concrete was
recommended.

The question that ought to be asked next is, 'where and when can precast concrete construction
be applied?' Reynolds (1971) explains that precast construction can be used where erection of
false work is not required and where the working periods are limited. Taylor (1977) recommends
the use of precast construction where speed of construction and efficient economy is to be
achieved when he writes, "It is a current theory that for quick service and economy,
superstructure should not be built but should be assembled from precast structural elements..."
Precast construction is also sought after where there is a repetitive production of modular and
standardised prefabricated and standardised building elements.

Site production and assembly takes large space on site. In-situ concrete and in-situ steel
construction operate in a similar way, and hence have similar problems associated with these
methods of construction. It is for this reason that Clapson (1994) argues that there is an urgent
need to transfer a major proportion of production from the site to the more favourable
environmental conditions of the factory, subject to a substantial degree of standardisation,
automatic and semi-automatic numerically controlled machines can be put into service to
produce prefabricated assemblies for site delivery. This in a way applies to precast concrete
construction as it operates in a similar way as prefabricated steel construction.

3.3.1 USES OF PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Richardson (undated) writes that precast concrete elements can be made to serve two important
purposes, and these are structural and structural/visual. Structural elements are those that make
up the structural frame and transmit loads directly to the foundations, whereas structural/visual
elements are those meant for structural as well as architectural (decorative) purposes such as
cladding.

Architectural precast cladding could bring to a project a variety of design and functional abilities
(Coville, 1990). The dual functions of cladding are echoed by Gregerson (1992) as he contends

33
that other than serve its architectural purpose, cladding can also assume the function of load
bearing wall panel. When such a case happens there is no need for separate structural element.

3.3.2 INNOVATIONS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Precast concrete construction has undergone various advances and innovations over the years.
To ask what is new in precast concrete technology one has to look at what is new in architecture.
The technology of precast concrete has over the years responded to architectural styles, moved
from classicism to post modernism (Coville, 1990). For instance precast cladding was known only
for its diversity of expression, thermal, acoustical and fire resistance properties. However, what
was not considered were its structural capabilities. It has been proved that cladding can as well
be used for structural functions as load bearing wall panels, thus eliminating or reducing on the
need for structural cores (Gregerson, 1992).

For many years precast concrete has been overshadowed by prejudice. It has been branded as
unstylish and aesthetically unpleasant. However, recent developments have added to its
capabilities other than the functional ones. Precast panels can be finished with stone veneers
(Coville, 1990). They can also be produced using a variety of textures and colours at reasonable
costs. By varying the proportions of aggregates and types of pigments in the concrete mix or by
using mould impressions to replicate textures, the casting process lends itself to simulating
natural stone. In fact when precast panels are used to simulate stone the process can
significantly reduce project costs (Anon., 1995).

3.3.3 TYPES OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

The technology of precasting can be looked at in two ways depending on how elements are cast.
The first method is the off-site casting. In this category literally all members are cast in the
factory under controlled weather conditions. Even the necessary connections are cast into the
concrete. This therefore means there is no need for grouting (Allen, 1985).

The second type is the on-site casting which includes tilt-up and lift-slab construction. Tilt-up
involves the casting of all elements such as wall panels, beams, columns and slabs on the ground
(in moulds) before they are lifted into position and grouted (Taylor, 1977). This method of
construction is speedy and less costly as it dispenses much of factory overhead costs. Where
weather conditions are unfavourable casting can be done in shelters (Richardson, undated).

34
Tilt-up construction has long been cost effective and time saving method of constructing
industrial and warehouse shells. With improvements in window and surface treatments there
has been an increased use of tilt-up construction for office buildings. Though, the surface quality
of tilt-up buildings is not as good as that of architectural precast. Nonetheless, it can be achieved
by using plastic form-liners in the moulds (Anon., 1989). Tilt-up construction is in fact growing
increasingly in the UK today because of the many advantages derived there from. These include
speed of erection, efficiency and economies, inherent fire resistance, good sound insulation and
greater thermal inertia (Southcott, 1996).

3.3.4 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

To a larger extent the success of precast construction depends on the degree of professional
interaction involving the designer, contractor and manufacturer (Coville, 1990). The designer
makes detailed drawings which he sends to the manufacturer who in turn makes shop drawings.
Before the precasting process commences the shop drawings are sent back to the designer for
checking if they conform to the specifications. When everything is all right the manufacturer
goes ahead with production (Allen, 1985).

The construction process on a precast concrete project differs from that on in-situ concrete only
when it comes to production and erection of elements. In precast construction process
production is the manufacturer's primary responsibility. The contractor though can be allowed to
monitor the production. After all he is the one to assemble the elements. In short one can say
the construction process includes preliminary works, site clearance, earthworks and excavations,
concreting and erection.

The erection of precast elements depends largely on connections. These must be as simple to
make as possible considering the safety and stability of the structure (Monks, 1984). The speed
and efficiency of the erection process depend on the skilled design and careful manufacture. The
performance of a precast structure though is a function of careful assessment of loads and the
capacity of precast elements to sustain these loads.

3.3.5 IMPORTANCE OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

The fact that precast concrete emerged barely a century after the rediscovery of the knowledge
of concrete, is evidence enough that it is important in construction. As earlier discussed, precast

35
was introduced to remove the restraints encountered in in-situ construction (Richardson,
undated).

Repetitive production of modular standardised elements associated with precast concrete

construction reduces the costs through the use of permanent moulds (Chudley, 1991). It is
argued however, that capital costs of the precision moulds and factory overheads are high.
Taylor (1977) dispels that claim and explains that these costs are apportioned over a number of
units cast repetitively. Besides, repetitive production assures planned continuity of output and
fast assembly without any delays. Allen (1985) in fact equates the speed of construction to that
of steel construction as there is no formwork to be erected and stripped. Richardson (undated)
stresses the importance of connections which he says can cause delays that are unfathomed.
Despite the connections, precast concrete construction loses the structural rigidity due to the
absence of monolithic construction, and this may result in extra costs (Reynolds, 1971).

The standardised nature of precast construction makes it unsuitable for odd-shaped structures,
and thus they lose the three-dimensional sculptural possibilities (Allen, 1985). Chudley (1991:95)
concurs that systems building is less flexible in its design concept than in purpose-made
structures. One sculptor, Page, disagrees with such claims that precast concrete lacks the three-
dimensional sculptural possibilities. In fact he believes that now precast concrete has become
more sculptural and artistic than ever before. It is capable of producing a variety of textures and
colours at reasonable costs. To achieve desired finishes on precast concrete elements, moulds
with specific impressions can be used and hence there is no need for extra time and cost to get
that desired texture (Anon., 1995).

Production of precast concrete elements is conveniently done at ground level and thus
eliminating the use of scaffolding (Chudley, 1991). Despite the fact that precast concrete
structures are lightweight, the elements are heavy and bulky to transport over roads, and even
to hoist in place/ position. As a result their sizes and proportions are restricted (Allen, 1985).
Nonetheless, since production is done away from the construction site it means there is enough
space on site (Chudley, 1991).

Factory production assures better quality control of precast concrete elements and finally that of
the whole product as compared to that of in-situ concrete (Taylor, 1977). As precast concrete is
cast in smooth moulds, it usually has excellent surface properties. The result of such excellence
in surface finish is the reduction in the amount of plastering (Allen, 1985: 468). Some people

36
though, have claimed that precast concrete generally has a dull finished texture. However, this is
not absolutely true because latest innovations in precast concrete technology have added to its
capabilities. Wall panels can be finished in stone veneers (Coville, 1990). Ellis et al (1996: 38-40)
writes that pigmented precast units can be sandblasted or etched to produce a pleasant textured
finish.

Precast elements produced in the factory are steam cured and therefore are ready in 24 hours.
The result is speed of erection (Allen, 1985). Preliminary and full load tests of these precast
elements are also carried out to determine the actual strength dimensional stability,
impermeability and deflection of the members (Taylor, 1977). As earlier mentioned in chapter
two it is not the performance of concrete in a cube strength test that determines its service in
life but its performance in a structure (Bamforth & Price, 1994)

There is a possibility of reusing precast members a number of times if they are dismantled
carefully and without any breakage. As a result formwork costs per unit area are reduced (Allen,
1985). The possibility to reuse precast concrete though depends on their durability which also
depends on how concrete was treated in the factory. Precast elements are said to be more
durable than in-situ elements. However, the experience in London’s Bristol city council would
prove otherwise. During the post war period 1948-58 Britain embarked on a reconstruction
project involving 1.5 million housing units, and precast concrete was used. By 1987, practically
39-49 years later 200,000 of these houses needed immediate repair. It was discovered that the
cause of the problem was with the way concrete had been treated. There had been inadequate
cover to reinforcing steel so that when it came into contact with moisture it started corroding
thus affecting the concrete. Due to the cold weather chlorides had been used to speed up setting
of concrete during manufacture. The chlorides had weakened the strength of concrete because it
became permeable to moisture which affected the steel (Webb, 1987).

3.4 SUMMARY

The technology of concrete construction is practically looked at in two ways, in-situ or precast.
In-situ construction begun with the discovery of concrete, whereas precast construction was
introduced barely a century after the rediscovery of concrete knowledge to remove the
restraints caused by in-situ construction.

In-situ construction rather has a very long construction process as compared to precast
construction whose construction process is shortened by the fact that production of elements is

37
done in factories and just assembled on site. Another significant difference between these two
methods is the nature of their construction process. In-situ construction is a ‘wet’ system
whereas precast is a ‘dry’ systems building.

In-situ construction is known for its flexibility which enables it to enjoy quite a number of
advantages. However, there are some disadvantages too associated with the nature of in-situ
concrete and these add up to the increased costs, delayed production and times as well as
compromised quality. Precast construction embarks on the advantages offered by its repetitive
production of factory modular standardised and prefabricated elements. These include reduced
costs of production and erection, guaranteed quality of building elements and speed of
construction. Nonetheless, not all is green for precast concrete because it is not as flexible as in-
situ concrete construction hence resulting only in standardised structures. Structures also lose
their structural rigidity due to the absence of monolithic construction.

38
CHAPTER FOUR AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGIES USED ON HOUSING PROJECTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This is the research chapter based on the third research objective which seeks to investigate
which of the two forms of construction offers the least cost per unit, shorter construction time
and better quality on a housing development project. In the previous chapter a great deal has
been said about the construction technologies on the three traditional maxims of management;
cost, time and quality.

Two case studies were identified one for each construction technique. These were Masala-
Chinese and Mushili-Chinese Projects, both low cost housing development projects in Ndola. The
Masala-Chinese project was at the time of research an on-going project built using in-situ
concrete construction (concrete blocks). The Mushili-Chinese project on the other hand, though
originally meant to be a precast concrete project, was built using prefabricated aluminium
insulated panels. Despite the lack of a genuine precast concrete construction project at that
time, the Mushili-Chinese project was settled for to be included in the research and provide a
basis for comparison against the in-situ concrete construction project.

Further comparative studies were made between precast concrete and prefabricated modular
construction. It was found that prefabs (building materials) were 40-50% cheaper than precast
concrete. Such prefabricated materials had never been used in Zambia before, and as such their
use presented a challenge to construction technologies applied on housing development
projects. The technology presented was thus adopted and put on a trial basis. Because of the
challenges presented by this technology to the construction industry as a whole, the author
decided to adopt it for the study.

4.2 RESEARCH DATA PRESENTATION

Before adopting the areas of field research quite a number of factors were taken into
consideration. These included proximity of project sites which meant that they could have similar
problems, accessibility to offices of information, and convenience in visiting sites and monitoring
progress of development. Besides the above mentioned reasons location was deemed to be very
important if the research was to be representative of Zambia. The areas of study had to be
centrally located and geographically accessible to all other provinces. Considering all those

39
factors, Lusaka and Copperbelt provinces were adopted as areas of study particularly in the
towns of Kafue, Kitwe, Lusaka, Mufulira and Ndola.

4.2.1 CASE STUDIES

The two projects identified as case studies were both in Ndola. It was important to have these
case studies in the same town and near each other because it was easy to visit them at almost
the same time. Besides visiting time, it was important that similar factors prevail such as distance
from the centre of the town.

These case studies concentrated on examining the three traditional maxims of management
(cost, time and quality), and in some cases look at the factors which contribute to the
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of these maxims. Most importantly the site observations were
meant to determine quality which is not quantified. Hence quality in this case was to be
determined by the differences in workmanship between similar products or works.

4.2.2 QUESTIONNAIRES

Four types of questionnaires were designed for four sets of respondents. These included project
designers, developers, occupants (tenants) and architects (designers). The questionnaires for the
project designers and developers were actually meant to find out more about the costs of the
projects, the duration and the perceived quality of the buildings. As for occupants, these were
mainly from Kwacha townships of Kitwe and were randomly selected from both precast concrete
and in-situ concrete houses. These houses were built at almost the same time, and it was
important to use such houses because time is a very influential factor as far as performance of
building structures is concerned. From the occupants the author intended to establish quality of
the houses in relation to their period of existence, which they lived as affected by their periods of
existence, building materials used, weather conditions and other factors.

The inclusion of Architects was motivated by the fact that in many cases they prescribe the
method of construction. Most often than not the client is not even consulted or educated on the
method to be adopted. Therefore to find out how much consultations are made with clients
when choosing construction method to be used on a housing project, a questionnaire was
specifically designed for architects. It was the author’s intention to find out whether or not they
specified the use of precast concrete construction on housing projects more than they did in-situ

40
concrete, and also to find out the underlying reasons for the specification of the technology
methods.

4.2.3 INTERVIEWS

In the traditional methods of tendering contractors have no part in determining the method of
construction to be used on a construction project it be housing. However, in the design and build
set up a contractor is involved from the very beginning, and thus takes part in choosing the
method of construction to be used on the project. Nevertheless, the contractor’s performance is
ultimately affected by the type of construction technology to be used on a project. Therefore the
aim of the interviews with contractors was generally to find out the construction technology they
were most familiar with, the benefits and problems they experienced if they had used precast
concrete construction before.

4.3 RESEARCH RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.3.1 CASE STUDIES

The two projects identified as case studies were both Chinese donor funded. The Masala-Chinese
project was constructed on behalf of Ndola City Council, whereas the Mushili-Chinese project
was jointly done by the Chinese Army and the Zambian Army.

Case study one in this case was Masala-Chinese project, a low cost housing development project
for the Ndola City Council. The materials used for construction were concrete blocks and the
construction method employed falls under in-situ concrete construction. A total number of 118
housing units were to be built in a total period of fourteen (14) months. At the time of the
research almost 80% of the works were completed and only 60% service works had been done.

The second and last case study was the Mushili-Chinese project, another low cost housing
development project with 13 semi-detached houses with a total number of 26 housing units for
the Defence Forces. As earlier mentioned the project was to have been constructed using precast
concrete. However, due to financial restraints prefabricated materials were chosen instead.
Nevertheless the total construction period was expected to last six (6) months. During the time
of the research about 90% of all construction and services works had been completed. Below is
the table showing important information concerning the two case studies:

41
Table 1: Findings from Case Studies

VARIABLES CASE STUDY ONE CASE STUDY TWO

Masala Mushili
Housing units (number) 118 26
Project duration (months) 14 6
Duration covered (months) 9 14
Estimated cost (Kwacha) 4 Billion 300 Million
Actual cost (Kwacha) 4.22 Billion 291 Million
Cost per unit (Kwacha) 35,762,796.61 11,192,307.69
Unit area (square metres) 60 120
Projected life span 70-100 40-50

A. Construction costs

The cost per unit of an in-situ house as shown from the table above is K 35,762,796.61 and
each unit covers a floor area of 60 square metres, whereas a prefabricated house unit
covering 120 square metres costs K 11,192,307.63. Since a prefabricated house was said to
be 40-50% cheaper than a precast concrete house therefore the latter costs between K22.4
M and K27.99 M (Project manager, Mushili).

There seems to be quite a big difference in the costs per unit of the two types of houses.
This could be due to number of elements as far as the methods of construction are
concerned. Although neither of the project managers provided a breakdown of the
elemental costs there is no doubt that a number of elements cost much more on the in-situ
concrete project than on the other project. For instance:

i) Substructure

The type of foundation used on the in-situ concrete project was strip foundation
whereas the other project had thickened slabs. Therefore it is possible that a large sum
of money was absorbed into the substructure of the in-situ concrete project as
compared to that which was spent on thickened slabs.

ii) Blockwork/ Brickwork

200mm and 100mm concrete blocks were used on load bearing and partition walls
respectively on the in-situ project. The prefabricated houses however, had 100mm thick
panels for both load bearing and non-load bearing panels. The cost of such building
materials definitely had an effect on the total construction costs per unit because
concrete blocks cost per cost whereas prefabs cost per metre square.

42
 iii) Roofing

Purlins and rafters from local timber were used for roof structure and asbestos as
roofing sheets on the in-situ concrete project. Meanwhile steel trusses and steel sheets
made form containers were used as roofing structure and sheets respectively on the
prefabricated project.

iv) Labour

The main contractor and entire site management team for the in-situ project were
contracted from China. Their contract allowed for fluctuations in time, prices of
materials and costs of operations. As for skilled and unskilled-skilled labour operatives
were employed on an individual and casual basis.

The prefabricated project on the other hand was manned by the Zambia Army though
assisted by specialists from the Chinese Army Force on a non-contractual basis. Labour
was provided for by soldiers who were paid from their salaries.

From the information gathered in the case studies, the cost per unit of a prefabricated house
is 31.3% that of an in-situ concrete house. Considering also the floor areas covered by both
types of houses, precast/prefabricated unit is cheaper than an in-situ house.

B. Construction time

The Masala-Chinese housing project was said to be right on time. At the time of this research
nine (9) months had already passed, about 80% of construction work had been completed
and 60% services installed. All-in-all the project is expected to last fourteen (14) months. The
Mushili-Chinese project took a total of fourteen (14) months that is eight (8) months more
than scheduled. The main reason behind such an unfathomed delay was lack of funding by
the Zambian government for a period for six (6) months. This caused all construction works
to come to a complete stop for a period of six months. However, despite the extension in
time the total construction sum remained unchanged.

C. Quality

Although it is quite difficult to determine quality during the construction process

observations were made on how much remedial work was done on each project. The
Masala-Chinese project (in-situ) had a total of 16.95% remedial works representing a total of

43
 twenty (20) houses out of 118 housing units. The Mushili-Chinese (prefabricated) project on
the other hand, had 11.54% remedial works representing only two (2) houses.

The percentages relating to remedial works are very misleading. Although there is a very
small difference between 11.54% and 16.95% in the actual fact it appears prefabricated
construction gives better quality during construction.

D. General Observations

From the information gathered from the case studies above show that a precast
concrete/prefabricated house unit is relatively cheaper than an in-situ concrete unit. It also
appears that the floor areas are far too large to be considered on a low cost level (they range
from medium to high cost). In the defence of construction time, it is not easy to compare
these two projects because one project certainly took longer than was expected whereas the
other one was not finished at the time of the research. Even though there was an extension
in the construction period for the prefabricated project the total construction sum of the
whole project was not affected. On the matter of quality of the building product, it was
evident that prefabricated modular construction offered better quality during construction.
This is because there were only two houses on which remedial works were done as
compared to twenty on the other project.

4.3.2 QUESTIONNAIRES

Four types of questionnaires were administered to various groups of people in order to get their
perceptions as far as the cost, time and quality of construction is concerned. These represented a
100% response each.

Project Designers

The questionnaire for project designers mainly concentrated on three things: cost, time and
quality. Asked on the efficiency of construction methods, below were the responses:

Table 2: Responses from Project Designers

NUMBER OF RESPONSES TO
INDICATE EFFICIENCY
VARIABLE IN-SITU PRECAST
COST 1 1
TIME _ 2
QUALITY 1 1

44
A. Cost of construction

The question on which construction method was more cost effective than the other had the
following responses: those who worked on the in-situ concrete project said it was cheaper
than precast/prefabricated construction. Meanwhile those that worked on prefabricated
construction project said it was cheaper than in-situ construction.

B. Construction time

When asked which method of construction gives shorter construction time on a housing
project, both said precast/prefabricated modular construction was faster than in-situ
because there was no waiting period for concrete to cure and thus erection of
precast/prefabricated elements continues without delays.

C. Quality

The question on which construction method gives better quality during construction and in
the long run had the following responses: those who worked on the in-situ project said in-
situ concrete construction gives better quality than precast/prefabricated modular
construction, and the designers of the prefabricated project said vice versa.

Developers

It should be noted that the questions for developers are similar to those for the project
designers. This was made deliberately because it is obvious that designers and developers
worked together to consider the cost, time and quality factors. However, despite working
together and reaching a consensus developers could have their own opinions concerning the
cost, time and quality of construction.

Table 3: Responses from Developers

NUMBER OF RESPONSES TO
INDICATE EFFICIENCY
VARIABLES IN-SITU PRECAST/
COST 1 1
TIME _ 2
QUALITY _ 2
A. Cost of construction

On the question of total construction costs developers of case study one indicated that in-
situ was cheaper than precast/prefabricated modular construction. The other developers

45
 said vice versa because from their comparative studies of the two methods precast concrete
construction was 20-30% cheaper than in-situ construction. Further comparisons proved
that prefabricated modular construction was 40-50% cheaper than precast concrete
construction.

B. Construction time

The question on which method was time efficient both developers said
precast/prefabricated modular construction gives shorter construction time than in-situ
construction. This response corresponds with what the project designers said.

C. Quality

Asked which method offered better quality on housing development projects both
developers indicated that precast/prefabricated modular construction gives better quality
than in-situ construction both during construction and in the long run.

This response is in contrast to that by project designers who both that the methods they had
used on their respective projects offers better quality than the other method.

Architects

The questionnaires were administered to designers in Lusaka, Ndola and Kitwe. The questions
mainly emphasised on were the methods of construction usually specified, most economical
method, the method that takes reasonable construction time, and the method that gives value
for money.

Table 4: Responses from Architects

NUMBER OF RESPONSES
CONSIDERATION IN-SITU PRECAST COMPOSITE
METHOD 6 2 2
COST 3 5 2
TIME 3 7 _
QUALITY 4 5 1

A. Method of construction

Asked which method of construction they usually specified, 60% of designers said they
specify the use of in-situ construction on housing projects with or without consultations with

46
 the clients. 20% usually specify precast construction while the other 20% specifies a
combination of the two above.

B. Cost of construction

On the question about which of the above mentioned methods was most economical on
housing projects, 50% said precast construction is more economic than either in-situ or
composite construction. 30% said in-situ construction is cheaper than the other two
methods whereas only 20% said composite construction is cheaper.

Most professional architects perceive precast construction to be cheaper than in-situ

construction. The project designers of the two projects on the other hand, each said the
method employed on their project was cheaper than the other. Even though, the indicators
from the case studies show that precast/prefabricated construction is relatively cheaper
than in-situ concrete construction.

However, in spite of the fact that architects perceive precast concrete construction to be
cheaper than in-situ construction most of them do not specify its use on housing projects
because of the following reasons:

i) There are very few precast concrete manufacturing firms

ii) The few firms that are there are mainly located on the Copperbelt and Lusaka provinces
so that transportation costs are very high to other provinces.
iii) Precast concrete construction is of specialist nature, and there are no such specialist
contractors that are known.
iv) It is very difficult and expensive to obtain the machinery used in the assembly of precast
elements.
C. Construction time

Which construction method gives shorter construction time? 70% said precast construction
takes shorter total construction time than the other methods, and the remaining 30% said
in-situ construction gives shorter construction. A majority of professional architects said that
precast/prefabricated construction took shorter construction time than in-situ construction,
and so did the project designers and developers.

47
D. Quality

Which construction method gives better quality? 50% said precast construction gives better
quality than in-situ or composite construction, while 40% said in-situ gives better quality and
10% said composite construction offers better quality than the other two methods. These
results show that precast concrete construction gives better quality than in-situ or
composite construction both during the construction process and in the long run.

Occupants (tenants)

As earlier said the occupants of precast concrete and in-situ concrete houses were involved in
this research in order to establish the quality of the houses after a period of time in existence.
Therefore the questions asked were quality related.

Table 5: Responses from Occupants

VARIABLE
Poor thermal insulation
Poor sound insulation
Cracked walls
Cracked floor slabs
Efflorescence of concrete
Moisture permeability
NUMBER OF RESPONSES
IN-SITU HOUSE PRECAST HOUSE
3 2
5 3
5 _
5 2
6 _
2 _

From the responses above it is evident that precast concrete construction gives better quality
houses than in-situ construction. As observed from the responses 30% in-situ houses as
compared to 20% precast ones have poor thermal insulation. 50% in-situ houses have poor
sound insulation whereas only 30% of precast concrete houses have such a problem. Concerning
the structural stability of the houses, 50% in-situ houses viz. 20% precast houses have cracked
floor slabs, and 50% in-situ houses have cracked walls. Furthermore, 60% in-situ houses have
their plaster peeling off and the concrete efflorescing. Finally 20% in-situ houses have a high
permeability to ground moisture.

From the observations above precast concrete houses would appear to be of better quality than
in-situ houses.

4.3.3 INTERVIEWS

A sample size of ten contractors was interviewed in Ndola, Kitwe, Kafue and Mufulira. The
questions asked concerned the methods of construction they were most familiar with;, which

48
method they thought was most economical, gave shorter construction time and which one
offered better quality. Below were the responses:

Table 6: Responses from Building Contactors

NUMBER OF RESPONSES TO
INDICATE
CONSIDERATION IN-SITU PRECAST
METHOD (FAMILIAR WITH) 6 4
COST (MOST EFFICIENT) _ 4
TIME (SHORTER) 2 8
QUALITY (BETTER) 4 6

A. Construction method

On the question of whether they had used precast concrete construction before, 60% of
contractors have always used in-situ construction whereas only 40% have used precast
concrete construction. This shows that designers’ choice of construction methods contribute
to the contractors’ application of various construction technology methods.

B. Cost of construction

The question about which of the method they had used was cheaper, 40% of contractors are
convinced that precast concrete construction is cheaper than in-situ concrete construction.
The other 60% could not make comparisons between the two methods since they had only
used in-situ construction.

C. Construction Time

Which method gives shorter construction time? 80% said precast construction gives shorter
construction time than in-situ construction, whereas the remaining 20% said in-situ
construction takes less construction time than precast concrete construction. According to
the findings above it is indisputable that precast construction takes shorter construction
time than in-situ concrete construction.

D. Quality

On which method gives better quality both during construction and in the long run, 60%
indicated that precast concrete construction gives better quality than in-situ construction.
40% however, said it was vice versa. The results show that precast concrete construction
gives better quality than in-situ concrete construction.

49
4.4 LIMITATIONS

1. Non-availability of a proper precast concrete project

At the time of the research, there were no proper precast concrete projects anywhere in
the two provinces chosen for the study. This made the study to shift the real basis on this
aspect alone. However, a prefabricated construction project was identified in Ndola’s
Mushili area. This is very similar in methods and techniques as to those used in precast
concrete construction, and offered a good basis for comparison.

2. Abstract cost comparisons

The project designers and developers of Mushili prefabricated project said that
comparative studies had been made between in-situ and precast construction where it
was discovered that the latter was 20-30% cheaper than the former. There was no way of
verifying this as there was no documentation of the cost comparisons. Thus, having no
basis to calculate the cost per unit of a precast concrete house, approximate costs had be
estimated using the above statistics in relation to a prefabricated house as well as an in-
situ house. As a result conclusive remarks on the cost effectiveness of precast concrete
versus in-situ concrete construction could not be made based on abstract information.

3. Inadequate housing construction projects

There were inadequate housing development projects at the time of the research, and as
such only two live projects could be found. As earlier mentioned one of the two projects
was not what had been anticipated to be. A research of this nature which deals with
actual or approximate figures needs more than two case studies to come up with
representative conclusions. Because of such a limitation it was not easy to make
conclusive remarks as regards the effectiveness of the construction technologies used.

4. Non-representation of case studies

Both case studies dealt with were donor funded and as a result contractors were part of
the “package deal”. In other words there was no tendering for the jobs. The contract
sums were of a fixed nature for the prefabricated project whereas that for the in-situ
project allowed for fluctuations. Being donor-funded projects it was difficult to tell which
part of the donor funds was a grant or a loan. It must be noted that not all housing

50
 development projects are or shall be donor funded, because others are embarked on by
private individual developers and institutions. In such a situation contracts are tendered
for with varying tender sums. Therefore if there had been a wider variety of projects the
research would have been inclusive of donor-funded, private and public projects and thus
be representative of the construction situation.

5. Sensitive nature of projects

Being donor funded both the projects dealt with in this research were said to be very
sensitive to both the donor and the recipient countries. Because of such sensitivity
managers of both projects were very reluctant to release information especially
concerning the costs of the projects. When information about costs was given it was in
bits which sometimes did not even make sense. For that reason it took a while to gather
information concerning the costs of the projects. Even though the authenticity of such
information was doubtful because the project managers could neither confirm nor deny.

6. Lack of objectivity

About 22.2% of the respondents lacked objectivity in answering questions especially

concerning cost and quality of construction. Each project designer and developer said the
construction method used on his project was more cost and quality effective than the
other. This lack of objectivity created a bias in responses, and as such accurate
conclusions cannot be drawn from such responses.

7. Degree of reliability

To some extent the cost per unit of an in-situ house as shown in the case study represents
the current situation in Zambia if and only if the type of houses dealt with said to be
medium cost and not low cost because their floor areas are far too big. If a number of
repeated trials were to be conducted for instance the cost per unit of an in-situ house
would probably range from plus or minus a few million Kwacha. As for the prefabricated
project all materials used in the construction process except for plant and equipment,
were foreign. If local materials had been used the case would be different altogether. For
this reason if a number of trials were conducted based on similar projects constructed
using local materials the costs per unit would vary greatly, and thus distorting the results
of the research.

51
4.5 SUMMARY

Chapter four was mainly concerned with interpreting and analysing the data collected through
case studies, questionnaires and interviews. The case studies were both Chinese donor funded
projects at Masala and Mushili. These projects were in-situ concrete and prefabricated
respectively. The aim of case studies was mainly to give a detailed and accurate account of the
two projects under study.

Questionnaires were also used as another source of information, and there were particularly
four sets of questionnaires for project designers and developers, professional designers, and
occupants. These were designed to get respondents’ perceptions as regards cost, time and
quality of construction depending on the methods of construction in question. Last but not least
another form of data collection was interviews. These were based on non-scheduled structured
questions for a variety of contractors. The main objective of the interviews was to find out the
method of construction with which most contractors were familiar. The author also intended to
get their views on which method of construction was cost, time and quality effective.

In carrying out this study two provinces of Lusaka and Copperbelt were chosen particularly the
towns of Kafue, Kitwe, Lusaka, Mufulira and Ndola. The choice of these areas was dependent
upon various factors such as proximity to project sites, accessibility to offices of information,
convenience in visiting project sites in order to monitor progress, and finally the central locality
of the two provinces to be representative of the research.

As far as construction costs per unit are concerned, the indicators from the case studies show
that a prefabricated modular house is cheaper than an in-situ house. Although the prefabricated
construction project took longer time to complete than was expected inconsistency in funding, it
appears that it gave better quality at construction than the in-situ project. The in-situ concrete
construction project though unfinished at the time of research, was right on time. However,
though the Mushili-Chinese project lasted a total construction period of two more than
scheduled its total construction cost was within limit.

Project designers and developers of each project said the method used on their respective
project was more cost effective than the other, and so it was with quality of the products.
However, both groups perceived precast concrete construction to take shorter total construction
time than in-situ construction as there is no waiting period for concrete to cure.

52
Although a majority of professional architects (designers) perceive precast concrete construction
to be cheaper than in-situ construction they do not usually specify it for use on housing projects.
The reasons cited were that there are few precast concrete manufacturing firms, great distances
from the few firms that exist, lack of specialist contractors in the field of precast construction
and, finally inadequate machinery. Despite the fact that they did not usually recommend the use
of precast construction on housing projects, they still perceive it to give shorter total
construction time and better quality both at construction and in the long run.

From the number of in-situ concrete houses that were inspected almost all of them had
problems such as cracked walls and floors, poor sound and thermal insulation and efflorescence
of concrete. As for the same number of precast houses only two had problems of cracked floors.
It appears therefore that precast concrete houses are of better quality than in-situ concrete
houses.

In spite of the fact that most contractors have only been exposed to in-situ concrete construction
they perceived precast concrete construction to be cheaper than in-situ construction. They also
said it gives shorter construction time and better quality than in-situ concrete construction.

There were quite a number of limitations encountered during the research. These include non-
availability of proper precast concrete projects, abstract cost comparisons, inadequate housing
projects, non-representation of case studies, sensitive nature of projects, unreliability of
responses and lack of objectivity by some respondents.

53
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter five is the final chapter of this study whose main aim is to make conclusions and
recommendations based on the research findings.

5.2 RECAPITULATION

The main aim of this study as shown in chapter one is to evaluate which method of construction
between in-situ and precast is cost, time and quality effective on residential projects. Chapters
two and three are based on the objective which intends to review the literature by other
authors. Chapter two specifically looks at concrete as the construction material to be dealt with
in regard to the methods under study. The two construction methods were discussed in the third
chapter.

Chapter four, the core of this study, concentrated on interpreting the data collected through
various methods, and analysing research results and findings. In this chapter the hypothesis was
evaluated to determine the extent to which the objectives had been achieved; the research
findings partially supported the hypothesis. Chapter five therefore draws together the whole
research by considering both the theoretical and empirical aspects of this subject.

5.3 HYPOTHESIS EVALUATION

The hypothesis which stated that ‘precast concrete construction on a housing development
project offers a better alternative to achieving cost, time and quality effectiveness’ could not
conclusively be drawn from the research. It was neither true nor false. However, the precepts
that it is time efficient and quality effective cannot be ignored. The aspect of cost proved rather
challenging to draw conclusions as these two projects used were first of all donor funded. There
was a problem with disclosure of important information which would have been very useful for
this study. Secondly, the conditions under which the two projects operated were not the same.
For instance, the Zambia Army project excluded labour costs as these were in form of salaries
paid to soldiers who worked on the project. Already there was a distortion in the total cost of the
project. What was perceived as the total cost was actually not correct. Finally, the Zambia Arm
project was not a precast concrete project but of prefabricated non-concrete materials.
However, although not a perfect substitute, it offered a good case of constructing with factory-
made building units.

54
5.4 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

The following general conclusions can be drawn from this whole research:

1. One of the objectives of the study was to investigate which method of construction gives
the least cost per unit on a housing project. The literature reviewed showed that precast
concrete construction gives the least cost per unit than in-situ concrete construction. The
research findings also indicate that professional architects and contractors perceive that to
be the case. They said precast concrete construction is cheaper than in-situ concrete
construction because there is no formwork to be erected and stripped. The cost of
formwork and that of labour contributes a considerable amount to the total cost of
construction even though the percentages vary greatly.
2. The research also indicated that precast concrete construction gives shorter total
construction time on a housing project than in-situ concrete construction. This was shown
by the overwhelming responses by project designers, developers, professional architects
and contractors. This research finding supports the authors of the literature reviewed who
say that precast construction is faster than in-situ concrete construction because elements
are assembled on site without any waiting period for concrete to cure.
3. Quality of construction is measured by determining the durability, reliability, precision,
stability and appearance of the building structure. However, at a practical level quality is
concerned with workmanship. The research results have shown that precast concrete gives
better quality than in-situ concrete. Professional architects and contractors perceive
precast concrete to give better quality than in-situ concrete construction. The survey of
some precast and in-situ concrete houses support the fact that precast concrete gives
better quality in terms of durability, stability and reliability among others.
4. Professional architects do not specify precast concrete construction even though they
perceive it to be more cost, time and quality effective than in-situ construction. The
reasons given are that there are very few precast concrete factories in the country thus
making precast concrete elements not readily available; the few factories that exist are
mainly on the Copperbelt and Lusaka provinces hence transportation costs are very
because of long distances; and finally there are no specialist contractors to carry out
precast concrete construction.
5. The majority of contractors interviewed indicated that they are ready to specialise in
precast concrete construction provided the architects specified it on any project. Those
who have used and are using precast concrete construction said it becomes a problem

55
 when loads and connections are wrongly calculated. This revelation supports what some
authors said was the problem most encountered in erecting perkiest elements. Such a
problem they said causes unfathomed delays and extra costs

5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS

Generally it appears that perkiest concrete construction could be a better alternative to the
research problem earlier mentioned in chapter one. However, there are various problems that
impede its application on residential projects. These include those that have been said to be the
reasons why professional architects do not specify the use of precast concrete construction on
residential projects. Other reasons are that developers lack knowledge of perkiest concrete
construction, and that crane is very difficult and expensive to hire or purchase.

Therefore having considered the problems above the following recommendations were made in
the hope of trying to change the trend as far as the application of precast concrete construction
is concerned.

1. Both individuals and companies should invest into precast concrete manufacturing in the
various provincial centres throughout the country. This will help solve the problem
caused by having few precasting plants and long distances.
2. Setting up crane hire schemes in provincial centres would also give a solution to the
problems encountered in hiring such machinery. Individuals and companies should be
encouraged to undertake such ventures.
3. In a situation where crane hiring schemes are not possible, contractors can combine
resources in joint ventures. A joint venture is a contracting system in which two or more
contractors combine resources to achieve a common goal. Thus in this case those who
have the necessary equipment can combine forces and carry out precast concrete
projects.
4. Professional architects should educate developers on the benefits of using precast
concrete construction on residential projects. If they do, contractors concerned will
ensure they get the required equipment. When developers and would-be developers
know the benefits of using precast concrete they request that designers specified it on
their projects. This will create a demand for precast concrete elements, and
manufacturers will be forced to develop and expand their markets.

56
 5. Concrete precasters should write about precast concrete construction in journals or any
other publications to educate the public about the same. They can also do this by holding
seminars and workshops for contractors and designers. This can be done in conjunction
with professional bodies such as Zambia Institute of Architects (ZIA).
6. Trade institutes should introduce and teach in detail the techniques and methods
involved in precast concrete construction in the same as way brick or block laying. Such
training would enable specialisation in precast concrete construction. This training can be
done in conjunction with ZIA and the Copperbelt University (CBU), and it should also be
extended to CBU built environment students.

5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Due to the limitations mentioned in chapters one and four, this study merely touches on the
surface of the object of this study. Therefore there is need to carry out further research into the
comparative investigation of the effectiveness of precast versus concrete construction on
residential projects. The following areas have been suggested:

1. There is need to carry out this study again using proper precast concrete projects and not
substitutes such as prefabricated modular projects as was the case in this study. The
research would be more representative if more than two pairs of in-situ and precast
projects were used as case studies.
2. The cost of formwork is said to be more than that of concrete and sometimes more than
concrete and reinforcing steel combined together on an in-situ concrete project. Other
authors argue that it is between 35-38% the cost of concrete. There seems to be a
vacuum between theory and reality as far as the cost of formwork is concerned. It is for
this reason therefore that an investigation should be carried out to determine the actual
cost of formwork on an in-situ concrete project and how it affects the total construction
cost of such a project.
3. The efficiency and effectiveness of precast concrete construction in comparison to in-situ
construction has to be tested on all types of projects. Therefore it would be of great
interest to both researchers and developers to embark on this study based on commercial
properties.
4. A study should be carried out on how to set up a concrete precasting plant. This plant
should be made in such a way as to minimise production costs so that precast concrete

57
elements will be affordable to all prospecting developers. If they are unaffordable
markets for such would be difficult to establish.

58
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Anon. (1990). “Precast Floorers in Promotion Push” Concrete, Vol. 24(12).
Anon. (1990). “Structural Versality” Concrete, Vol. 24(8).
Anon. (1989). “Special Treatment Widen Appeal of Tilt-up” Building Design and Construction.
Cahners
Anon. (1988). “Concrete Bleeding: Causes, Effects, and Control” PUBLICATION# C880935. The
Aberdeen Group.
Bamforth, F. (1996). “Materially Affecting Durability” Concrete, Vol. 30(1). pp. 21-22.
Bamforth, P. and Price, B. (1994). “Concrete in the Oceans” Concrete, Vol. 28(3).
Barnbrook et al. (1979). Concrete Practice, Great Britain: CECA.
Bentley, J.I.W. (1994). Construction Tendering and Estimating Great Britain: E & FN Spon.
Carter, S. (1996). "Colour Vision". Concrete, Vol. 30(1).
Chudley, R. (1991). Construction Technology Volume 2. Second Edition. Singapore: ELBS.
Clapson, J. (1994). “Prefabrication and Productivity” Concrete, Vol. 28(1), pp. 9-10.
Coville, J.D. (1990). “New Developments Widen Capabilities of Precast Concrete: Its Plasticity
Allows it to Respond to a Variety of Architectural Styles” Building Design & Construction, Vol.
31(4).
CSO (1990). Digest : Population Census. Lusaka : Government Printers.
De Vries, P. (1993). "Concrete Re-cycled” Concrete, Vol. 27(3).
Everett, A. (1989). Materials. Fourth edition. London: Mitchell.
Fling, R.S. (1987). Practical Design of Reinforced Concrete. USA: Wiley.
Gibbs, A.G.S. (1994). “Prefabricated Modules in Construction” Construction Papers, Issue No. 30.
Gregerson, J. (1995). “Formed Finishes” Building Design and Construction. Cahners
Gregerson, J. (1992). “Architectural can Play a Structural Role” Building Design and Construction.
Cahners
GRZ (1996). National Housing Policy, Lusaka: Government Printers.
Hartland, B. (1990). “Take Pride in Concrete” Concrete, Vol. 24(4).
Illston, J.M. (ed.) (1994). Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour, 2nd Edition.
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Madderom, F.W. (1980). “Excess water can be a costly ingredient in concrete” Publication
#C800339. The Aberdeen Group.
Monks, W. (1984). Visual Concrete: Design and Production. London. CECA
Mubanga, C. (1994). Towards reducing delays on construction projects in Zambia. Unpublished
Bachelor of Science Thesis. Kitwe: The Copperbelt University.
National Housing Authority (NHA). (1994). National Housing Authority Estimates, Lusaka:
Government Printers.
Neville, A.M. (1988). Properties of Concrete. Third Edition. USA: Prentice Hall.
Orchard, D.F. (1979). Concrete Technology. Fourth Edition. London: ASP.
Pallett, P.F. (1994). “Introduction to the formwork scene”. Concrete, Vol. 28(2).
Peurifoy, R. L. (1976). Formwork for Concrete Structures. Second Edition. USA, McGraw Hill.
Reynolds, C.E. (1971). Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook. Seventh Edition. London, C.C.A.
Richardson, J.D. (undated). Precast Concrete: Its Production, Transport and Erection
Ridout, G. (1991). "Layman's Guide". Building.
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Shirley, D.E. (1987). Introduction to Concrete. Third Edition. Wexham Springs: CECA.
Southcott, M. (1996). “Reinforcing Links”. British Research Establishment.
Squires, R. (1994). “Better Concrete, Better Environment with pfa". Concrete, Vol. 28(4), pp. 17-
18.
Taylor, W.H. (1977). Concrete Technology and Practice. Fourth Edition. Australia: McGraw Hill.
Waine and Long (1990). “Bringing Colour to Concrete”. Concrete, Vol. 30(1).
Wainwright, W.H. and Wood, A.A.B. (1981). Practical Builder’s Estimating. Fourth Edition.
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60
APENDICES

QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE A) FOR PROJECT DESIGNERS

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick the answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required spaces have been provided.
_____________________________________________________________________
GENERAL
1. What form of construction are you using on this housing development project?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) composite(combination of both)

2. Why did you choose this form of construction?

(i) construction costs are relatively low
(ii) it offers shorter construction time
(iii) it gives better quality
(iv) any other variables
_________________________________________________________

3. Indicate the level of importance in achieving the following aspects in this form of construction.
DEGREE OF IMPORTANCE
FACTOR LEAST QUITE VERY
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
COST
TIME
QUALITY

COST
4. What are the estimated construction costs for the following (State the amount):
(i)preliminary works ______________________________________________
(ii) earthworks and excavations _____________________________________
(iii) concreteworks _______________________________________________
(iv) formwork ___________________________________________________
(v) blockwork ___________________________________________________
(vi) external works _______________________________________________
(vii) other works _________________________________________________

5. Were comparative studies done between in-situ and precast construction?

(a) Yes
(b) No

6 If in-situ/precast construction had been used what could have been the cost of concrete for the
project?

State amount: ___________________________________________________

7. If such studies were not conducted what do you think would be the cost of in-situ/precast
construction?

61
 (a) less
(b) more
(c) same

8. What could be the reasons for the difference? State the reasons:
(i) ___________________________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________________________
(iii) __________________________________________________________
(iv) _____________________________________________________

9. Is formwork going to be used on this project?

(a) Yes
(b) No

10. If YES on what elements is it going to be used?

(a) lintels and sills
(b) slabs or floors
(c) walls
(d) column and beams
(e) none

11. What is the cost of formwork in relation to the total cost of concrete? State
(i) cost of timber ________________________________________
(ii) cost of labour (erecting and stripping) ____________________________
(iii) cost of release agents (oil) _____________________________________
(iv) cost of transport _____________________________________________

TIME
12. What is the expected duration of the project?
State: _______________________________________________________

13. According to your programme is the project

(a) on time
(b) delayed
(c) ahead of schedule

14. If not on time, by how many weeks?

State: ________________________________________________________

15. What could be the reasons not being on time? Indicate the reasons:
(i) quick /delayed delivery of materials
(ii) short/long waiting period for concrete to cure
(iii) less/more remedial works
(iv) efficient/inefficient plant and equipment
(v) quick/slow construction
(iv) any other: _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

16. If in-situ/precast construction had been used, how long would the project take?
State duration: _________________________________________________

62
17. Give reasons for the difference.
(I) ___________________________________________________________
(ii) ___________________________________________________________
(iii) __________________________________________________________
(iv) ___________________________________________________________

QUALITY
18. What is the projected life span of these houses?
(a) below 50 years
(b) 50 to 70 years
(c) 70 to 100 years
(d) over 100 years

19. Give reasons for such a projection in (21) above.

(i) strength of concrete
(ii) durability of concrete
(iii) good workmanship
(iv) any other reasons
______________________________________________________________

20. Why is the expected rate of sound insulation of these houses?

(a) low
(b) medium
(c) high

21. What is the expected level of thermal insulation?

(a) low
(b) medium
(c) high

22. How often have remedial works been done?

(a) once a week
(b) twice a week
(c) once a month
(d) none at all

23. What are the reasons for such remedial works?

(i) structural failures
(ii) change of design specifications
(iii) non-availability of specific materials
(iv) change in taste by client
(v) any other reasons
______________________________________________________________

24. What are the expected annual maintenance costs for the houses?
State amount: __________________________________________________

63
QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE B) FOR DEVELOPERS

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick your answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required space shall be provided.
___________________________________________________________________________

GENERAL
1. What do you call this form of construction being used on this housing development
project?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) composite(combination of both)
2. What do you think are the benefits to be gained by the use of such form of construction?
(i) low construction costs
(ii) quick construction
(iii) strong and durable structures are achieved
(iv) good appearance of structures
(v) any other reasons:
_______________________________________________________________

3. How many houses are to be constructed in this project?

State number: ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

COST
4. What are the projected costs for the following (state the amounts):
(i) preliminaries ________________________________________________
(ii) earthworks and excavations ____________________________________
(iii) concretework _______________________________________________
(iv) formwork __________________________________________________
(v) blockwork __________________________________________________
(vi) external works _______________________________________________
(v) other works __________________________________________________

5. How much work has been done so for?

(a) below 20%
(b) 20 to 30%
(c) 30 to 50%
(d) over 50%

6. How much has been spent so far?

State amount: ___________________________________________________

7. Was this the amount budgeted for that amount of work?

(a) YES
(b) NO

8. What are the reasons if the answer is NO?

64
 (i) ____________________________________________________________
(ii) ___________________________________________________________
(iii) ___________________________________________________________
(iv) ___________________________________________________________

9. What do you think the total construction costs would have been had in-situ/precast
construction been used on this project?
State amount: __________________________________________________

10. Give reasons for the answer in (9).

(i) __________________________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________________________
(iii) __________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

TIME
11. How long is the project expected to last?
State duration: __________________________________________________

12. According to the programme is the project

(a) on time
(b) delayed
(c) ahead of schedule

13. If not on time, what is the margin?

State the number of weeks: _______________________________________

14. What are the reasons in (12) above? Indicate reasons

(i) quick/slow construction
(ii) quick/delayed delivery of materials
(iii) long/no curing periods
(iv) less/more remedial works
(v) efficient/inefficient plant and equipment
(vi) any other reasons _____________________________________________

15. What would have been the duration of the project if in-situ/precast construction had been
used?
State duration: _________________________________________________

16. What could be the margin?

State: _________________________________________________________

17. Give reasons for the answer in (16) above.

(i) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

QUALITY

65
18. What is the life expectancy of these houses?
(a) below 50 years
(b) 50 to 70 years
(c) 70 to 100 years
(d) over 100 years

19. Give reasons for the answer in (18) above.

(i) high quality concrete used
(ii) good workmanship
(iii) better form of construction used
(iv) high strength concrete used
(v) any other reasons _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

20. Would you like the houses to be

(a) plastered
(b) unplastered

21. Give reasons for the answer in (20).

(I) ________________________________________________________
(ii) ________________________________________________________
(iii) _______________________________________________________
(iv) _______________________________________________________

66
QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE C) FOR OCCUPANTS

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick your answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required spaces have been provided.
___________________________________________________________________________
QUALITY
1. What kind of house are you living in?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) any other

2. How long have you lived in this house?

(a) under 10 years
(b) 10 to 15 years
(c) 15 to 20 years
(d) over 20 years

3. What problems do you face in this house?

(a) too much internal noises
(b) too much external noises
(c) extreme hot and cold temperatures
(d) fire breakouts
(e) any other: __________________________________________________

4. How often do you experience major problems?

(a) every month
(b) twice a year
(c) once a year
(d) rarely
(e) none at all

5. What are these maintenance problems?

(a) cracked walls
(b) cracked floors
(c) exfoliating plaster
(d) efflorescence of concrete
(e) none at all
6. What kind of a house did you live in before moving into this house?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) any other

7. What problems did you experience there?

(a) cracking walls
(b) cracking floors
(c) exfoliating plaster
(d) efflorescence of concrete
(e) none at all

67
QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE D) FOR DESIGNERS GENERALLY

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick the answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required spaces have been provided.
___________________________________________________________________________

GENERAL
1. What is the most prevalent form of construction that you usually specify on housing
development projects?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) combination of both

2. State reasons for your answer in (1)

(I) ________________________________________________________
(ii) ________________________________________________________
(iii) _______________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

3. If you have used precast construction before, what are the major problems associated with it?
(I) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

4. In terms of construction costs which of the three in (1) above is relatively cheaper?
State: _______________________________________________________

5. Give reasons for your answer in (4)

(i) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________

6. Based on the answer in (4), what would be the margin?

(a) below 10%
(b) 10 to 20%
(c) 20 to 50%
(d) over 50%

7. Do you think precast construction is cost effective on a single house project?

(a) Yes
(b) No

8. Give reasons for the answer in (7)

(i) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) _________________________________________________________
(iv) _________________________________________________________

68
9. Does precast construction offer quick construction time as compared to in-situ on a housing
project?
(a) Yes
(b) No

10. If it does, by what margin?

State percentage: ________________________________________

11. Quality is defined by durability, strength, appearance, ease of maintenance and practicality of
the structure. Does precast meet all these aspects of quality?
(a) Yes
(b) No

12. If it does what are the major reasons you do not specify its use?
(i) __________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

69