Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over

millions of years in which new species are produced. Since, we are talking about living

organisms, so it is known as ‘organic evolution’. All the plants and animals which we see today

around us have evolved from some or the ancestors that lived on this earth long, long ago.

It will be clearer with the development of ‘pterosaur’ bird. It is an ancient flying reptile which

lived on the earth about 150 million years ago. It began life as a big lizard which could just crawl

on land. Over millions of years, small folds of skin developed between its feet which enabled it

to glide from tree to tree. Over many, many generations, spread over millions of years, the folds

of skin, and the bones and muscles supporting them grew to form wings which could make it fly.

In this way, an animal which crawled on ground evolved into a flying animal and led to the

formation of new species (of a flying reptile).

The development of ‘pterosaur’ from a big lizard is an example of evolution.

It is considered that they have evolved from the common ancestor. The more characteristics or

features two species have in common, the more closely they will be related. Some of the

important sources which provide evidences for evolution are:

(i) Homologous organs

(ii) Analogous organs and

(iii) Fossils.

(i) Homologous Organs: Those organs which have the same basic structure (or same basic

design) but different functions. For example, the forelimbs of a man, a lizard (reptile), a frog

(amphibian), a bird and a bat (mammal) seem to be built from the same basic design of bones,

but they form different functions. The forelimbs of a human are used for grasping, the forelimbs
of a lizard are used for running, the forelimb of a frog is used to prop up etc

(ii) Analogous Organs: Those organs which have different basic structure (or different basic

design) but have similar appearance and perform similar functions. For example, the wings of an

insect and a bird have different structures but they perform the same function of flying.

Wing of insect Wing of bird

(iii) Fossils: The remains or impressions of dead animals or plants that lived in the remote past.

For example, a fossil bird called Archaeopteryx looks like a bird but it has many other features
which are found in reptiles. Because Archaeopteryx has feathered wings like those of birds but

teeth and tail like those of reptiles. So, it is a connecting link between the reptiles and the birds

and hence suggested that the birds have evolved from the reptiles.

Archaeopteryx is a connecting link between reptiles and birds.Fossils are formed, when

organisms die, their bodies will decompose by the action of micro-organisms in the presence of

oxygen, moisture etc. Fossils are also obtained by digging into the earth.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Charles Robert Darwin gave the theory of evolution in his famous book ‘The Origin of Species’.

The theory of evolution proposed by Darwin is known as ’The Theory of Natural Selection’.

This theory is called the theory of Natural Selection because it suggests that the best adapted

organisms are selected by nature to pass on their characteristics (or traits) to the next generation.

It applies to plans as well as animals.

An example to illustrate Darwin’s theory of evolution (natural selection)

Darwin’s Theory postulates:

1. Within any population, there is natural variation. Some individuals have more favourable

variations than others.

2. Even though all species produce a large number of offsprings, populations remain fairly

constant naturally.

3. This is due to the struggle between members of the same species and different species for

food, space and mate.

4. The struggle for survival within populations eliminates the unfit individuals. The fit

individuals possessing favourable variations survive and reproduce. This is called natural

selection (or survival of fittest).

5. The individuals having favourable variations pass on these variations to their progeny from

generation to generation.
6. These variations when accumulated over a long period of time, lead to the origin of a new

species.

Though, Darwin’s theory was widely accepted, but it was criticised on the ground that it could

not explain ‘how the variations arise’. With the progress in genetics, the source of variations was

explained to be the ‘genes’. Genes vary in natural population. Therefore, Genetic material is the

raw material of evolution. So, the Darwin’s theory was modified accordingly. The most accepted

theory of evolution is the Synthetic Theory of Evolution in which the origin of species is based

on the interaction of ‘genetic variation’ and ‘natural selection’. Also, sometimes a species may

completely die out. It may become extinct. Dodo was a large flightless bird which has become

extinct. Once a species is extinct, its genes are lost forever. It cannot re-emerge at all.
EVOLUTION : THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The French biologist Lamarck proposed, in 1809, a hypothesis to account for the mechanism of

evolution, based on two conditions: the use and disuse of parts, and the inheritance of acquired

characteristics. So, according to Lamarckism, as the theory came to be known, the long neck and

legs of the modern giraffe were the result of generations of short-necked and short-legged

ancestors feeding on leaves at progressively higher levels of trees.

DARWIN’S THEORY

In November 1859, Darwin published the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,

proposing that natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise from pre-existing

species. The ‘struggle for existence’ described by Darwin was popularised by the coining of the

terms such as ‘survival of the fittest’.

MODERN VIEWS ON EVOLUTION

The theory of evolution, as proposed by Darwin and Wallace, has been modified in the light of

modern evidence from genetics, molecular biology, palaeontology, ecology, and ethology (the

study of behaviour) and is known as neo- Darwinism (neo or new). This may be defined as the

theory of organic evolution by the natural selection of inherited characteristics.

HUMAN EVOLUTION

Prehistoric People

Evidence of prehistoric people, such as fossils, tools, and other remains, is rare and often

fragmented.

Prehuman Ancestors

Most scientists believe that human beings and apes, such as chimpanzees and gorillas, share a
common ancestor. The ancestors of human beings probably began evolving separately from the

ancestors of apes, between about 10 million and 5 million years ago. This evolutionary split

marks the beginning of the development of hominids. Hominids are members of the scientific

family made up of human beings and early humanlike ancestors. Most anthropologists believe

the first hominids were humanlike creatures called australopithecines. The australopithecines

first appeared more than 4 million years ago in Africa.

Types of Australopithecines The australopithecines were members of the genus

Australopithecus (southern ape). According to differences in the shape of the creatures’ jaws and

teeth and the size of their brains, scientists have divided the genus Australopithecus into five

species: (1) A. ramidus, (2) A. afarensis, (3) A. africanus, (4) A. robusius, and (5) A. boisei.The

most complete australopithecine fossil scientists have found is a partial skeleton of a female A.

afarensis. It was found in Ethiopia. This creature, nicknamed “Lucy”, was probably more than

110 centimetres tall and weighed about 30 kilograms. By about 2.5 million years ago, A.

africanus replaced A. afarensis. Many scientists believe that an evolutionary split occurred

among the australopithecines during the time of A. africanus. This split resulted in the

appearance of an additional evolutionary line, separate from A. africanus, that led to A. robustus

and A. boisei. Scientists refer to these two species as the robust australopithecines.

The First Human Beings

Most anthropologists believe that the first human beings evolved from a gracile australopithecine

about 2 million years ago. Homo habilis is considered by anthropologists to be the oldest human

species. These prehistoric people lived in Africa about 2 million years ago. Homo erectus: Fossil

evidence indicates that about 1.5 million years ago Homo habilis had evolved into a more

advanced human species. Scientists call this species Homo erectus.

Early Homo Sapiens Between 400,000 and 300,000 years ago, Homo erectus evolved into a

new human species called Homo sapiens. The term Homo sapiens means ‘wise human being’.

All people living today belong to this species. But early Homo sapiens differed greatly from

modern people. Early Homo sapiens were about as tall as modern human beings. Neanderthals

were a type of early Homo sapiens who lived in parts of Europe and the Middle East about

130,000- 35,000 years ago. Neanderthals have become the most widely known of the early

Homo sapiens mainly because they were the first prehistoric people to be discovered.

Rise of Modern Human Beings

The first prehistoric people with modern human features appeared about 100,000 years ago in

either the Middle East or Africa. These people had a chin, a high forehead, and a smaller, less-

protruding face than the earlier Homo sapiens had.

Biology : The Science of Life

The aim of biology is to explain the living world in terms of scientific principles. Aristotle, the

great Greek philosopher and teacher, is known as the father of biology and the French naturalist,

Jean Baptiste-de Lamarck, was the first to used the word ‘biology’ in 1800. Biology today is

subdivided into numerous branches based on the molecule, the cell, the organism and the

population.

Living and Non-Living

There are seven characteristics that can be observed, more or less, in all living organisms. In

order to maintain themselves and prevent disintegration, organisms have an inbuilt self-

regulating system to ensure that there is no net energy loss. This control is referred to as

homeostasis and operates at all levels of biological organisation, from the molecular level to the

community level.
 Classification of Animal Kingdom

Animals are those organisms which are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic in their mode

of nutrition. Except few, most animals are mobile and do not have cell wall.

Multicellular animals are called Metazoa which have been divided into two branches: Parazoa

and Eumetazoa.
 In Parazoa, the body of animal is made up of loose cells, have poorly differentiated tissues and
have no organ or digestive cavity. E.g sponges.
 In Eumetazoa the cells are properly arranged into tissues and organs. It is further classified on
the basis of (a) the number of germ layers present in the embryo; (b) the symmetry of the body of
the organism; and (c) mode of origin of mouth. Those animals which have two germ layers in the
embryo are called diploblastic animals and those having three germ layers are called triploblastic
animals.

In diploblastic animals, the outer cell layer is called ectoderm, while the inner layer is called

endoderm and both of these germ layers enclose a non- cellular jelly-like layer, the mesoglea.

The triploblastic animals have three germ layers, namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

The two sides of the body are mirror images of one another. Such body symmetry type is called

bilateral symmetry. Some animals have radial body symmetry i.e having similar parts in a regular

pattern around a central axis.

Two types of animals have been recognised on the basis of origin of mouths: Protostomia

(mouth arising from or near the blastopore of gastrula; gastrula is an embryonic stage) and

Deuterostomia (mouth arising anteriorly at some distance from the blastopore).

Further, based on the presence or absence of body cavity or coelom, animals are groups into

acoelomata, pseudocoelomata and coelomata. The acoelomates do not have body cavity because

the space between the body wall and digestive tract is filled with parenchymatous tissue. Also,

these tissues have a cavity between the body wall and digestive tract but this does not arise from

the mesoderm and is not lined by epithelial cells. The Coelomates have true body cavity which

originates from mesoderm and is lined by epithelial cells of mesodermal origin.

 Examples of main phyla of kingdom Animalia are as follows:
 Phylum 1 Porifera (porus- pore, ferre- to bear; ‘organisms with holes’)E.g: Sycon, Euplectella
(Venu’s flower basket), Hyalonema (rope sponge), Spongillia, Euspongia ( Bath sponge) etc.
 Phylum 2 Cnidaria or Coelenterata ( koilos- hollow, enteron- gut)E.g: Hydra, Millepora
(coral), Aurelia (jelly- fish), Rhizostoma, Fungia (mushroom coral) etc.
 Phylum 3 Ctenophora (ktenos-comb, phora- carrying)E.g: Pleurobrachia (comb jelly), Cestum
(Venu’s girdle), etc.
 Phylum 4 Platyhelminthes (platys-flat, helmins- worm; Flatworms) E.g: Planaria,
Fasciola,Schistosoma (blood- fluke), Taenia solium (pork tape worm) etc.
 Phylum 5 Nematoda E.g: Ascaris (round- worm), Wucheria bancrofti (filarial worm),
Enterobius (pinworm of human) etc.
 Phylum 6 Annelida ( annelus- a ring; segmented worms ) E.g: Nereis (sand worm), Aphrodite
(sea mouse), Pheretima (earthworm), Hirudinaria (Indian cattle leech) etc.
 Phylum7 Arthropoda (arthros- jointed; podos- foot; jointed- legged animals) E.g: Peripatus,
Cancer (true cab), Scolopendra (Centipede), Anopheles (mosquito), Pieries (butterfly) etc.
 Phylum 8 Mollusca (molluscus- soft) E.g: Pila (apple nail), Helix (garden snail), Octopus
(devil-fish) etc.
 Phyllum 9 Echinodermata ( echinos- spiny or hedge hog, derma- skin; spiny skinned animals)
E.g: Antedon (feather star), Cucumaria (sea cucumber), Asterias (star- fish or sea star) etc.
 Phyllum 10 Chordata ( chorda- string) It is the most advanced goup. It consists of reptiles,
Amphibians, Aves, Mammalia etc.
Structure of Plant and Animal Cell

It is important to know the component of cell i.e Plasma Membrane, Cell Wall, Nucleus,

Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, Golgi bodies, Mitochondria, Lysosomes, and Plastids etc.

Image courtesy: www.image.slidesharecdn.com

Therefore, structure of Cell consists of:

1. Plasma Membrane: It is the outer covering of each cell. Present in cells of plants, animals

and microorganisms. It is living and quite thin, flexible and selectively permeable membrane.

Made up of lipids, proteins and small number of carbohydrates. Its major function is to hold

cellular contents and control passage of materials in and out of the cell.

2. Cell Wall: It occurs in plants and present outside the plasma membrane. It is nonliving, quite

thick and rigid but generally permeable. It is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin. Its

major function is to provide protection and strength to the cell.

3. Nucleus: It is a spherical cellular component, centrally located in the cell and filled with a

fluid namely cytoplasm. Bounded by two nuclear membranes forming a nuclear envelope. Space
between nuclear envelope is connected to Endoplasmic reticulum (ER).It also separates nucleus

from cytoplasm and its pores contains liquid known as nucleoplasm which is embedded with two

structures – the nucleolus and chromatin material. It is rich in protein and RNA (ribonucleic

acid). Also known as factory of Ribosomes because of the ribosome formation.

Nucleus Nucleolus
1. It represents the whole
1. It is a component
eukaryotic complex contains
of nucleus.
genetic information.
2. It does not have a
2. It is covered by a two
covering membrane.
membrane envelope.
3. It synthesizes
3. It controls the structure and
ribosomal subunits.
working of cells.

Inside the nucleus, chromatin material is present which is composed of a genetic substance DNA

and is responsible for the transmission of characteristic features from one generation to another.

4. Cytoplasm: The part of the cell which occurs between the plasma membrane and nuclear

envelope. The inner layer of it is known as endoplasm and outer is known as cell cortex or

ectoplasm. Cytoplasm consists of an aqueous substance cytosol in which variety of cell

organelles and other inclusions like insoluble waste and storage products (starch, lipid etc.) are

present.

(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Inside the cell there exists a membranous network enclosing

a fluid filled lumen which almost filled the intracellular cavity. It is of two types:
(a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): with ribosomes attached on its surface for

synthesising proteins.

(b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): which is without ribosomes and is meant for

secreting lipids.

ER forms supporting skeletal framework of the cell and also provides a pathway for distribution

of nuclear material from one cell to another.

(ii) Ribosomes: are dense, spherical and granular particles which occur freely in the matrix

(cytosol) or remain attached to the ER. It plays an important part in the synthesis of proteins.

(iii) Golgi apparatus: It consists if a set of membrane-bounded, fluid-filled vesicles, vacuoles

and flattened cisternae (closed sacs). It is absent in bacteria, blue-green algae, mature sperms

and red blood cells of mammals and other animals. Its main function is secretory. It packages

material synthesised inside the cell and dispatches them. It produces vacuoles or secretory

vesicles which contain cellular secretions like enzymes etc.It is also involved in the secretion of

cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.

(iv) Lysosomes: are simply tiny spherical sac-like structures evenly distributed in the cytoplasm.

Its cells digest foreign proteins, bacteria and viruses. So, it is a kind of garbage disposable

system of the cell. And also known as suicidal bags as when the cells get damaged, lysosomes

may burst and enzymes eat up their own cells.

(v) Mitochondria: are tiny bodies of varying shapes and size, distributed in the cytoplasm. It is

bounded by a double membrane envelope. Outer membrane is porous and inner membrane is
thrown in to folds known as cristae having some rounded bodies known as F1 particles or

oxysomes. Since, mitochondria synthesize energy rich compounds (ATP) so, known as power

house of the cell.

(vi) Plastids: Occurs in plant cell and absent in animal cell. They have their own genome and

have power to divide . They are of three types:

Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) which imparts various colours to flowers to attract insects for

pollination.

Chloroplasts (Green-coloured plastids) trap solar energy and utilises it to manufacture food for

the plant.

Leucoplasts (colourless plastids) store food in the form of carbohydrates (starch), fats and

proteins.

(vii) Chloroplasts: are present in green algae and higher plants. They have a green pigment

called chlorophyll and help in photosynthesis of food. So, known as “kitchens of the cell”.

(viii) Vacuoles: are fluid filled or solid filled membrane bound spaces. They are a kind of

storage sacs. In animal cell vacuoles if present are small and temporary as compared to plant cell.

It helps to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell and provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant

cells. They also store toxic metabolic by-products or end products of plant cells.(ix)

Peroxisomes: are small and spherical organelles containing powerful oxidative enzymes. They

carry out some oxidative reactions like detoxification or removal of toxic substances from the

cell.(x)

Centrosome: is found only in animal cell. As, it helps in cell division. In plant cells, polar caps

perform the function of centrioles.

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Difference between Plant and Animal Cell

Animal Cell
1. Generally small in size.
2. Cell wall is absent.
3. Plastids are absent except
euglena.
4. Vacuoles are small and
temporary.
5. Single highly complex and
prominent Golgi apparatus is
present.
6. Centrosome and Centrioles are 6. Centrosome and Centrioles are
present.
Plant Cell
1. Larger than animal cell.
2. A rigid cell wall of cellulose i.e
plasma membrane is present.
3. Plastids are present.
4. Mature plants have permanent
and large central sap vacuole.
5. Many simpler units of Golgi
apparatus called dictyosomes are
present.
absent.
The Five Kingdoms of Life

Living things are identified and categorized on the basis of their body design in relation to their

form and function. So, the classification of life forms is closely related to their evolution whereas

living organisms have been classified variously according to different criteria. In the same

Whittaker in 1959 classified living organisms into following five kingdoms or broad categories.

1. Kingdom Monera (Prokaryotic bacteria and blue green algae).

2. Kingdom Protista (Unicellular Eukaryotic organisms- protozoan’s, fungi and algae).

3. Kingdom Fungi (Multinucleate higher fungi).

4. Kingdom Plantae (Multicellular green plants and advanced algae).

5. Kingdom Animalia (Multicellular animals).

In 1982, Margulius and Schwartz revised the five kingdom classification. It includes one

prokaryote and four eukaryote kingdoms- the Protocista, the Fungi, the Plantae and the Animalia.

This Scheme is widely accepted.

1. Kingdom Monera (Prokaryote)

It is divided in to Archaebacteria (Archae) and Eubacteria (Bacteria). Out of the two Archae is

more ancient.

(i) Archaebacteria: Most of them are autotrophs and only a few photosynthesize. They derive

their energy for metabolic activities, from the oxidation of chemical energy sources like reduced

gases – Ammonia, methane or hydrogen sulphide. In the presence of these chemicals it can

manufacture their own amino acids acid proteins.

They are further divided in to three groups: Methanogens (manufacture methane),

Thermoacidophiles (Favour extremely hot and acidic environments), and Halophiles (grow in

very salty environment).

(ii) Eubacteria: They generally lack membrane-enclosed organelles like nucleus etc. Nucleoid

serves as a single chromosome. Electron transport and photosynthesis, takes place on plasma

membrane, which sometimes folds inwards into the cell’s interior.

2. Kingdom Protista (Protocista)

This group includes many kinds of unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as unicellular algae,

protozoans and unicellular fungi. Some of these organisms use appendages ie hair like structure

cilia like in paramecium or whip-like flagellum e.g euglena. Their mode of nutrition can be

autotrophic (Unicellular algae, diatoms) or heterotrophic (protozoans).

Examples: Unicellular algae, chlorella, Euglena, Trypanosoma (causes sleeping

sickness),Amoeba, Plasmodium, Paramecium, Chlamydomonas etc.

3. Kingdom Fungi

• Non-green plants which are not photosynthetic. They are heterotrophic and eukaryotic

organisms. Some fungi are parasites can draw nutrients from living cells of their host- plants like

Puccinia, Ustilago etc. Some are decomposers like Penicillium etc and saprophytes derive their

nourishment from dead remains of plants and animals.

• Fungus may be unicellular or filamentous. The body of multicellular and filamentous is called

mycelium and composed of several thread like structures called hyphae.

• The reserve food is glycogen in them.

Examples: Bread mold, Yeast, sponge, mushroom, rust, smut etc.

4. Kingdom Plantae

• Includes multicellular organisms except relatives of algae.

• They are eukaryotes.

• Cell wall is present.

• Possesses a single large central vacuole bounded by tonoplast (membrane).

• Reserve food for plants in the form of starch and lipids.

• Plastids are present also some have photosynthetic pigments called chloroplasts.

• Autotrophic nutrition.

• Growth of plants is indefinite.

• Irregular body due to presence of branches.

5. Kingdom Animalia

• Animals have wall less eukaryotic cells.

• Heterotrophic nutrition.

• Growth of animals is limited.

• Animals generally possess a definite shape, size and symmetry.

• Most animals are mobile.

• Animals have organisation of cellular, tissue, organs and organ system level.
Classification of Plant Kingdom

Taxonomy is the Science of classification which makes the study of wide variety of organisms

easy and helps us to understand the interrelationships among different groups of organisms. In

Plant Kingdom the first level of classification depends whether plant body is differentiated, have

special tissues for transportation, ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are enclosed within

fruits or not.

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Classification of Plant Kingdom

Plant Kingdom is divided in to:

(I) Thallophyta: Various types of microorganisms like algae, fungi and bacteria have been kept

under it. Algae are classified in to three categories: Red, Brown and Green algae.

Chief characteristics of algae are:

- Cell wall of algae is made up of cellulose.

- Sex organs of algae are unicellular.

- Algae store their food in the form of starch.

Reproduction: Vegetative, Asexual and Sexual reproduction.

Economic Utilities: It is useful in the form of food stuffs, agriculture, in trade and business, in

biological research, as the fodder of domestic animals, in the form of medicines and in the

formation of land. But there are many algae which act like pollutants and contaminate the

drinking water. Also, watery equipments are rottened by the algae. Celphaleuros algae produce a

disease called red rust in the tea plants.

(I) Bryophytta: Plants are found at land and water but are amphibians like Liver warts, Horn

warts, Moss etc. These plants are also autotrophic as chloroplasts are present.

Economic Utilities: These plants have good absorption capacity of water and thus can be used as

flood preventive measure. Also used in stopping soil erosion. Moss plant is used as a fuel called

peat energy and as antiseptics.

(II) Tracheophyta: These plants have well developed vascular tissues and divided in to xylem

and phloem. Further it is divided in to three subgroups: Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms and

Angiosperm.

(a) Pteridophyta: In these plants there are lack of seeds and flowers.
Examples: Club Mosses, horsetails, ferns etc.

Characteristics:

- These plants are sporophyte. As spores of these plants are produced in sporangia.

- The leaves in which sporangia produces is called sporophyll.

- On Gametophyte there exist male and female sex organ.

- Alternation of genes is also appeared.

- Zygospores are formed through zygote.

Utilities: This plant is used as fodders for the domestic animals, while the seed is used as

medicines.
Algae Fungi
1. They contain 1. Photosynthetic
photosynthetic pigments are absent.
pigments. 2. Heterotrophic.
2. Autotrophic. 3. Most of them are
3. Most of them are terrestrial.
aquatic in habitat. 4. The cell wall is made up
4. The cell wall is of chitin.
made up of Cellulose. 5. It contains glycogen and
5. It contains starch as oil as the stored food
a stored food material. material.

(b) Gymnosperm: The plants whose seeds are completely uncoated and there is complete lack

of ovary.

Examples: Cycas, Pinus (Pines), Cedrus (Deodar) etc.

Characteristics:
- These plants are perennial and xerophytic.

- Have clear cut annual rings.

- Undergo wind- pollination and have polyembryony- characteristics.

- One or more cotyledons in an embryo exists with radicle and plumule.

Economic Utilities: Used in the form of food, timber & medicine. For decorative and domestic

use. In making volatile oils & also used in the form of tanning and resin.

(c) Angiosperm: This is the most- important subgroup of plants, whose seeds are coated and

developed in an organ or ovary. Our major food, fibre, spice and beverage crops are flowering

plants (angiosperms). Also used as medicinal plants and the respondent flavour species, latex

products like rubber etc. These plants are also utilised in making perfumes, soaps and cosmetics

from their oils.

Characteristics:

- The reproductive organ of this plant is flower and double fertilization takes place.

- Are saprophytic, symbiotic and parasitic. Some are autotrophic also.

- Normally appear on land but few are aquatic.

- The vascular tissues are extremely well developed.

Further Angiosperm is classified into two categories:

(a) Monocotyledonae (monocot): Leaves of these plants are much longer rather than broad.

Stems of monocot lack cambium and hence they increase little in girth except palm tree.

Examples: Maize, wheat, rice, onion, sugarcane, barley, banana, coconut etc.

Characteristics:

- In the seed of these plants one cotyledon is found.

- Their leaves have parallel venation.

- The roots of these plants are not developed.

- The flowers are trimerous i.e have three or multiple of three petals.

- In the vascular part, cambium doesn’t exist.

(b) Dicotyledonae (Dicot): These plants have two seed leaves. Have veins forming a network in

their leaves. Almost have all the hardwood tree species, pulses, fruits, vegetables etc. Examples:

Pea, potato, sunflower, rose, banyan, apple, neem etc.

Characteristics:

- In the seed of these plants two cotyledons are found.

- In the vascular part cambium exists.

- The flower of the plant has multiples of four or five petals.

- These dicots plants have secondary growth.

The Cell: Foundation Of All Living Things

The Cell: Foundation Of All Living Things

Cells are the basic units of life. They are the smallest parts of a living organism that can lead an

independent existence. Singly, or in association with other cells, they make up the bodies of all

living things.

Structure of Cell

Every cell is surrounded by a membrane or a living covering. Within the membrane is the

protoplasm.

Parts of the Protoplasm: The nucleus controls and directs the activities of all the other parts of

the cell. The remainder is known as cytoplasm, where any vital activities of the cell take place.

Following are the parts of a Cell-(i) Cell Wall Found only in plant cells, it consists of non-living

substances, eg, linguin, pectin, cellulose etc., (ii) Cell membrane (Plasmalemma) This is the

outer membrane of the cytoplasm, found both in animals and plants. It consists of living

substances such as proteins, (iii) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) It is a network of tubes or

channels of membrane in the cytoplasm, which helps in protein synthesis and conduction of

material, (iv) Ribosomes They are extremely small, dense, granular, spherical bodies found in

free state in the cytoplasm, composed of RNA and proteins. They help in the synthesis of protein

from amino acids, (v) Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies) They are bag-like structures formed of

stacks of membrane. Their functions include secretion of various substances, secretion of pectic

material of cells wall in plants, and helping in the formation of cell during cell division, (vi)

Vacuoles Are fluidfilled sacs within a cell. In animals they are tiny. Their functions include

osmo-regulation and maintenance of cell turgidity, (vii) Mitochondria Rod-like or spherical

semi-solid structures containing DNA in its matrix along with some enzymes, which are found in
all cells. They synthesise ATP (energy storing molecules), (viii) Plastids Small bodies found in

the cells of higher plants. They are of two types, viz, Leucoplasts, which are colourless and store

starch, protein or lipids; and Chromoplasts, which are coloured and are of two varieties: (i) Non-

photosynthetic chromoplasts, which provide colour to flowers, fruits and leaves, (ii)

Photosynthetic chromoplasts, which manufacture food from carbon dioxide and water in the

presence of sunlight, in green plants, (ix) Nucleus Each nucleus is bound by the nuclear

membrane, which contains nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm consists of chromatin and nucleoli.

Chromatin consists of DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleus controls all cell activities and is

responsible for the transfer of heredity characters and also assists in cell division, (x)

Centrosome A rather dense area of protoplasm, it lies close to nucleus. It is usually found in

animal cells. In the middle of the centrosome are two small dot-like bodies called centroils. They

form a spindle during cell division and lower plants, (xi) Cilia and flagella These are fine

extensions of the cell surface and are similar in structure. Their functions are to help in

locomotion or movement, and in some animals they also help in feeding,

Animal Cell

An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane- bound organs, or organelles. The

nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to

generation. The mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured
Cell: Structure and Functions

The cell is the structural and functional unit of living organisms. It was discovered by Robert

Hooke in 1665. Cell in Latin means “little room”. Many organisms, such as bacteria, protozoa

and yeasts consist of single cell called Unicellular Organisms and complex organisms are known

as Multicellular Organisms made up of many cells.

Image courtesy: www.image.slidesharecdn.com

Structure of Cell

All cells have three major functional regions:

1. Cell membrane or plasma membrane and cell wall

2. The nucleus and

3. The cytoplasm

The outer boundary of cell is plasma membrane. Inside it lies the cytoplasm. Various cellular

or cell organelles and inclusions like mitochondria, chloroplasts etc. are suspended in the

cytoplasm.
Organs Organelles
1. They are found in multicellular 1. They are found in
organisms. all Eukaryotic cells.
2. They are large sized. 2. They are very small
3. They may be external or internal to sized.
the body of an organism. 3. They are mostly
4. The organs are formed of tissues, internal.
tissues comprise of cells and cells are 4. It is made up of
formed of organelles. micro and macro
5. Organs coordinate to form organ molecules.
system, while organ system forms the 5. Organelles
body of an organism. coordinate to produce
the cell.

Functions:

Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit of some materials in the cells. Therefore, plasma

membrane is known as selective permeable membrane.

(i) Diffusion: The spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to

one of lower concentration, until uniform concentration is finally achieved. It is faster in the

gaseous phase than in liquids and solids.

(j) Osmosis: The passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-

permeable membrane to a region of lower water concentration.

(k) Endocytosis: The ingestion of material by the cells through the plasma membrane.

(l) Exocytosis: In this process the membrane of a vesicle can fuse with the plasma membrane

and extrude its contents to the surrounding medium. This is also known as cell vomiting.
Mode of Nutrition in Animals

Nutrition is the process of taking food and using it for obtaining energy, growth and repair of the

body. Animals depend on other organisms for getting their food. They cannot make their own

food, so they are heterotrophs.

Animals Obtain their Food from Plants and other Animals

Animals need readymade food and therefore they depend on either plants or other animals which

they eat. For example, snake eats frogs, insects eat dead bodies of animals, birds eat worms and

insects etc.

Modes of Nutrition

The method of obtaining food by an organism is called modes of nutrition. There are two modes

of nutrition. They are:

1) Autotrophic

2) Heterotrophic
Heterotrophic Mode of Nutrition

All the animals cannot make their own food from simple inorganic material like carbon dioxide

and water. They depend on other organisms for food. This is called heterotrophic mode of

nutrition. The organisms which depend on other organisms for food are called heterotrophs. For

example, man, dog, cat, deer, tiger, cow, non-green plants like yeast are all heterotrophs. They

depend on plants or other organisms for their food.

Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

There are three types of heterotrophic mode of nutrition. They are:

i) Saprotrophic nutrition

ii) Parasitic nutrition

iii) Holozoic nutrition

Saprotrophic nutrition

Sapro means rotten. There are organisms which feed on dead and decaying organic matter for

obtaining their food. These organisms feed on rotting wood of dead and decaying trees, rotten

leaves, dead animals, rotten bread etc. Such organisms are called saprophytes.

Fungi and many bacteria are saprophytes. These saprophytes break down the complex organic

matter from the dead and decaying organic matter into simpler substances outside their body.

These simpler substances are then absorbed by saprophytes.

Parasitic Nutrition

It is that mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on other living organisms, called their host,

without killing them. The organisms which obtain food in a manner are called parasites.

Parasites harm the host, which may be a plant or an animal. Parasites cause diseases to mankind,

domestic animals, and crops. Fungi, bacteria, a few plants like cuscuta and some animals like

plasmodium and roundworms undergo parasitic mode of nutrition.

Holozoic Nutrition

Holozoic is a mode of nutrition in which organisms eat solid food. The food may be a plant

product or animal product. In this process, an organism ingests the complex organic food

material into its body and then digests the food which is then absorbed into the body cells. The

unabsorbed food is thrown out of the body of the organisms by the process of egestion. Man, cat,

dog, bear, giraffe, fog, fish, etc., have holozoic mode of nutrition.

On the basis of food habits animals can be divided into three groups. They are:

i) Herbivores

ii) Carnivores

iii) Omnivores

Herbivores

Herbivores are those animals which eat only plants like grass, leaves, fruits, bark etc. The

examples of herbivorous animals are cow, goat, sheep, horse, camel, deer, etc.
Carnivores

Those animals which eat only other animals are called carnivores. They do not eat plants. Lion,

tiger, frog, vulture, wolf, lizard, etc., are examples of carnivorous animals. Carnivores are meat

eaters.

Omnivores

Those animals which eat both plants and flesh of other animals are called omnivores. Dog, crow,

sparrow, bear, ant, etc., are examples of omnivorous animals.

This figure shows how all living things depend on sun for their food.

Different Steps in the Process of Nutrition in Animals

There are five steps in the process of nutrition in animals. They are:

1) Ingestion

2) Digestion

3) Absorption
4) Assimilation

5) Egestion

Ingestion

Ingestion means eating food so as to get energy and carry on the activities of life. Ingestion is the

process of taking food into the body.

Digestion

Food that animals eat consists of large insoluble molecule which cannot be absorbed by their

body. So the process which breaks down these insoluble food molecules into small, water soluble

molecules is called digestion.

Animals use physical and chemical methods for digestion. Physical method means chewing and

grinding food in mouth and chemical method means addition of digestive juices to food by the

body. After digestion food can be utilised by the animal body.

Absorption

After the food molecules become small they pass through the walls of intestine and go in to

blood. This process is called absorption.

Assimilation

The absorbed food is now carried to all parts of the body and to each and every cell so as to

produce energy and to make materials for the growth and repair of the body. This process is

called assimilation.
Egestion

The process through which undigested food is moved out of the body is called egestion.

In unicellular organisms the process of nutrition is performed by the single cell only.
Nutrition in Animals

Nutrition is the process of obtaining food and then using it for obtaining energy, growth and repair of the
body. There are five main processes concerned with the use of food by animals. As we know that Plants
produces their own food by the help of photosynthesis. But animals are heterotrophs and hence they
depend on other organisms for their food. This readymade food comes either from plants or from other
animals. We are also animals and obtain food from plants in the form of rice, pulses, vegetables etc. and
foods like milk; eggs, chicken, fish etc are obtained from other animals. Many other animals obtain their
f3

3ood by eating the flesh of other animals like fish, birds, snake etc. The big fish eat small fish,

the snake eats frog and the insects eat dead bodies of animals. The non- green plants also obtain

their food from other plants or animals e.g yeast plant. Also, plant eats insects like pitcher plant

and Venus fly- trap.

Animals are divided in to three groups on the basis of their food habits. These are: Herbivores,

Carnivores and Omnivores.

(i) Herbivores: are those animals which eat only plants like grasses, leaves, fruits etc. Examples

of herbivores are: Goat, Cow, Sheep, Horse, Ox, Elephant etc. Thus, herbivores are plant eaters

and also known as herbivorous animals.

(ii) Carnivores: are those animals which eat other animals as food or they eat meat or flesh of

other animals. Examples are: Lion, Tiger, Frog, Vulture, Lizard etc.Therefore, Carnivores are

meat eaters and known as carnivorous animals.

(iii) Omnivores: are those animals which eat both plants and animals. Examples are; Man

(Human Beings), Dog, Crow, Bear, Ant etc. Thus, Omnivores are plant eaters as well as meat

eaters and known as Omnivorous animals.

 As we know all the living things depend on sun for their own food. Plants use the energy of sun

and prepare food by photosynthesis. Plants are eaten by herbivores and omnivores as food. Meat

eaters or carnivores also eat other animals or other carnivores in the form of food and scavengers

eat dead and decaying plant and animal. So, it is the energy of sun which provides food for plants

and animals.
Five steps in the process of Nutrition in Animals

There are five steps in the process of Nutrition in animals. These are: Ingestion, Digestion,

Absorption, Assimilation and Egestion.

1. Ingestion: is the process of taking food in to the body or ‘eating of food’ by the animal. When
we put food in to our mouth with hands, we are ingesting it.
2. Digestion: is the process in which the food containing large, insoluble molecules is broken down
in to small, water soluble molecules which can be absorbed by the body or digestion is the
dissolving of the solid food. Most of the animals include both physical and chemical methods for
digesting the food. Physical method includes chewing and grinding the food in mouth and
chemical method include the addition of digestive juices (enzymes) to food by the body itself.
3. Absorption: is the process in which the digested food passes through the intestinal wall in to
blood stream. As, after the digestion, food molecules become small and soluble. This food passes
through the walls of our intestine and goes in to the blood.
4. Assimilation: is the process in which the absorbed food is taken in by the body cells and used
for energy, growth and repair. Blood carries the absorbed food to all the parts of the body.
5. Egestion: is the process in which the undigested food is removed from the body. The whole food
which we eat is not digested by our body, a part of the food remains undigested which cannot be
used by the body and so it is removed from the body in the form of faeces when we go to the
toilet.
Nutrition in Simple Animals

There are two very simple animals namely amoeba and paramecium. They are made up of single

cell and so known as unicellular animals. So, all the 5 processes of nutrition are performed by

single cell. The mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic. They eat tiny or microscopic plants and

animals as food which floats in water in which it lives. The process of obtaining food by Amoeba

is called phagocytosis means cell feeding.

(i) Ingestion: Amoeba has no mouth so food is ingested by using pseudopodia. When food comes

near amoeba, then amoeba ingests this food particle by forming temporary finger like projections

called pseudopodia around it. And the engulfed food with water formed a food vacuole which is

considered as ‘ Temporary stomach’ of Amoeba.

(ii) Digestion: In Amoeba food is digested in the food vacuole by digestive enzymes. These

enzymes break down the food in to small and soluble molecules by chemical reactions.

(iii) Absorption: The digested food present in the food vacuole of Amoeba is absorbed directly in

to the cytoplasm by diffusion. Due to the presence of one cell, blood is not required to carry the

digested food. The food just spreads out from the food vacuole in to the whole cell of Amoeba

and finally food vacuole disappears.

(iv) Assimilation: A part of the absorbed food is used to obtain energy through respiration and

the remaining part of the food leads to the growth in Amoeba. And then amoeba can reproduce

by dividing in to two daughter cells.

(v) Egestion: Amoeba has no fixed place for removing the undigested part of food.When a

considerable amount of undigested food collects inside amoeba, then its cell membrane suddenly

ruptures at any place and undigested food is thrown out of the body of Amoeba.
In case of Paramecium, hair like structures called cilia helps to sweep the food particles from

water and put them in to mouth. This step is known as ingestion which is followed by other steps

such as digestion, absorption etc.

Nutrition in complex multicellular Animals like man, fish, frog etc. all the processes involved in

nutrition are performed by a combination of digestive organs. And this combination of digestive

organs is called Digestive System which we will be discussing in our next article in details.
Mode of Nutrition in Plants

The process by which green plants make their own food from carbon dioxide and water by using

sunlight energy in the presence of chlorophyll is called photosynthesis. Green plants also need

foos to acquire energy. All living organisms need energy to perform various life prosesses. This

article deals with the modes of nutrition in plants. How plants prepare their own food, what all

factors are responsible for photosynthesis etc.

Plants make their own food in the presence of sunlight and hence they are autotrophs. Plants

convert sunlight energy into chemical energy. They use carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to

make their own food in the presence of chlorophyll.

There are two types of modes of nutrition in plants. They are:

1) Autotrophic

2) Heterotrophic

Since we are learning about mode of nutrition in plants we will discuss only about autotrophic

mode of nutrition.

Autotrophic mode of nutrition

In autotrophic mode of nutrition organisms make their own food with the help of simple

inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of sunlight. Also in this

nutrition organic food is made from inorganic materials.

Green plants have autotrophic mode of nutrition. These organisms are called autotrophs. The

autotrophs have green pigments called chlorophyll which help in trapping sunlight energy. They
use the sunlight to make food by the process of photosynthesis. The food produced by autotrophs

is used by human beings and animals as well.

Nutrition in Plants

Green plants synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis. Photo means light and

synthesis means to build, so photosynthesis means ‘building up by light. It is in the presence of

chlorophyll that plants use energy of sunlight to make food from inorganic materials like carbon

dioxide and water.

Green plants make their own food by photosynthesis

Chlorophyll is present in green coloured bodies called chloroplast. The leaves of a plant are

green due to the presence of chlorophyll in them.

In the process of photosynthesis a lot of oxygen gas is released. Let us understand with the help

of equation:

Food is prepared in the green leaves of the plant. Plant requires carbon dioxide to make food

which it takes from air. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves through tiny pores in them called

stomata. Water required to make food is taken from soil. This water is transported to the leaves

through roots and stem. The sunlight provides energy to carry out chemical reactions and

chlorophyll present in green leaves help in absorbing this energy. Oxygen produced as a by-

product in this process which goes out in the air.

The food prepared by the leaves is in the form of simple sugar called glucose. This glucose is

then sent to other parts of the plant. The extra glucose is stored in the leaves of the plant in the

form of starch. Glucose and starch belong to a category called carbohydrates. Thus green plants

convert sunlight energy into chemical energy.

The steps for photosynthesis are:

i) Sunlight energy is absorbed by chlorophyll.

ii) Sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy and water is split into hydrogen and

oxygen.

iii) Carbon dioxide is reduced to hydrogen so that carbohydrate like glucose is formed.

It is not necessary that these steps of photosynthesis take place one after the other.
 Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis

Following are the conditions necessary for photosynthesis:

1) Sunlight

2) Chlorophyll

3) Carbon Dioxide

4) Water

Let us discuss some experiments to prove that sunlight, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water

are necessary for photosynthesis. This can be proven by getting the result that green leaves make

starch as food and starch gives blue-black colour with iodine solution.

Experiment to Show that Sunlight is Necessary for Photosynthesis

 Take a potted plant with green leaves and keep it in a completely dark place for three days. In
this way all the starch stored in the leaves will be consumed by the plant and leaves will get
destarch.
 Now wrap an aluminium foil tightly in the middle part of one leaf in such a way that a small part
of a leaf is covered and remaining part is exposed to sunlight. The aluminium foil must fixed
tightly using paper clips so that sunlight cannot enter from the sides.
 Keep the potted plant in sunlight for three to four days.
 Pluck the partially covered leaf and remove aluminium foil. Now immerse this leaf in boiling
water so that cell membranes of the leaf cell are broken down. This will make the leaf more
permeable in iodine solution.
 Before testing the leaf for the presence of starch chlorophyll has to be removed from the leaf.
This is because chlorophyll interferes in the test for starch.
 Now put this leaf in a beaker containing alcohol and place this beaker in water bath.
 Heat this water bath and in this way alcohol in the small beaker will also be heated and start
boiling. This boiling alcohol will remove chlorophyll from the green leaf.
 After the green colour is removed from the leaf it will become colourless.
 Remove the colourless leaf from alcohol and wash it with hot water.
 Place this leaf in a petri-dish and drop iodine solution over it. You will notice a change in colour.
 The middle part of the leaf which was covered with iodine solution will not turn blue-black on
adding iodine solution. This shows that no starch is present in this part of the leaf. This is
because sunlight could not reach over the covered part of the leaf and it could not do
photosynthesis to make starch.
 The uncovered part of the leaf which was exposed to sunlight turns blue-black on adding iodine
solution. This is because it could do photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight and make starch.
 Therefore, we conclude that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis and leaves make starch as
food by photosynthesis

There are certain plants that have partially white and partially green leaves. Such leaves are

called variegated leaves. Croton and coleus have variegated leaves.

Experiment to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

What is Phototropism in Plants?

Experiment to Show that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis

 Take a potted plant croton, as its leaves are partially white and partially green.
 Place this plant in a completely dark place for three days to destarch its leaves.
 Now take out the potted plant and place in sunshine for three to four days.
 Pluck the variegated leaf and boil it in water for a few minutes. Remove this leaf and boil it in
alcohol so as to remove its green colour.
 Wash the decolourised leaf with hot water.
 Pour iodine solution over decolourised leaf and notice the change in colour.
 We will notice that the part of leaf which was originally white will not turn blue-black. This
shows that no starch is present in this part of the leaf. Also it shows that photosynthesis to make
starch does not take place without chlorophyll.
 The inner part of leaf which was originally green turns blue-black on adding iodine solution.
This shows that this part of leaf contains starch. Thus, photosynthesis to make starch takes place
in the presence of chlorophyll. From this we conclude that chlorophyll is necessary for the
process of photosynthesis to take place.

Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Experiment to Show that Carbon Dioxide is Necessary for Photosynthesis

 Take a potted plant with long and narrow leaves and place it in a dark place for three days to
destarch its leaves.
 Take a glass bottle having wide mouth and put some potassium hydroxide solution in it. This
solution will absorb all the carbon dioxide gas from the air present in glass bottle.
 Take a rubber cork which fits nicely into the mouth of the glass bottle and make a slit or cut into
it.
 Put the destarched leaf while it still attached to the plant in-between the slit of the cork. The leaf
should be put in the cork in such a way that upper half of the leaf remains outside the bottle. Fix
this cork to the bottle. Now half of the leaf is inside the bottle and half outside it.
 Now keep this potted plant in sunlight for three to four days. Now the upper part of the leaf gets
carbon dioxide from air and the lower part which is inside glass bottle does not get any carbon
dioxide.
 Pluck the leaf from the plant and take it out from the glass bottle. Remove green colour of the
leaf by boiling it in alcohol.
 Wash the decolourised leaf with water.
 Pour iodine solution over the colourless leaf. There is a change in the colour of the leaf.
 We will notice that lower part of the leaf which was inside glass bottle does not turn blue-black.
This shows that no starch is present in this part of the leaf. Thus, we conclude that carbon
dioxide is necessary for the plant to make starch in the process of photosynthesis.
 The upper part of the leaf which was outside bottle turns blue-black. This shows that this part of
leaf has starch in it. Thus, we conclude that carbon dioxide is necessary for the process of
photosynthesis to take place.

Experiment to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

How Plants Obtain Water for Photosynthesis?

Plants obtain water for the process of photosynthesis from soil. Roots of a plant absorb water

from the soil which transported upward to the leaves through xylem vessel and utilised for

photosynthesis.

Plants use carbon dioxide and water as raw materials to prepare energy food called

carbohydrates. Other material like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium which are required

by the plant are taken from soil.

Site of Photosynthesis: Chloroplasts

The cell organelles of green plants which contain chlorophyll are called chloroplasts. It is here

that the photosynthesis takes place. Chloroplasts are just below the upper epidermis of the leaf in

palisade tissue.
The structure of a leaf to show chloroplasts in it (the small circles in above diagram are all

chloroplasts).

From the article we have seen that how plants prepare theor own food.
Control and Coordination in Humans

The control and coordination in human beings take place through nervous system and hormonal

system which is called endocrine system.

The five sense organs in our body, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin are called receptors. This is

because they receive information from the environment around us. Therefore, a receptor is a

group of cells in sense organ which is sensitive to a particular type of stimulus like light, sound,

smell, taste, heat, etc.

All the receptors send message in the form of electrical impulses to spinal cord and brain through

sensory nerves. Another type of nerves called motor nerves then transmits response from brain

and spinal cord to effectors. An effector is a part of the body which responds to a stimulus

according to the instructions sent from the nervous system. The muscles and glands are effectors

of the body.
Human Nervous System

Nervous system coordinates the activities of our body. It controls all our behaviour, thinking and

actions. It is through nervous system only that all other systems of our body work. It passes

information from one internal system to another. For example, when we put food in mouth, it

causes release of saliva from the salivary glands.

The Unit of Nervous System: Neurons

A neuron (or nerve cell)

The cells that make up the nervous system are called neurons. Neuron is the largest cell in the

body. The structure of neuron is such that it can carry messages in the body quickly. These

messages are in the form of electrical impulses or nerve impulses. There are three components of

neurons. They are:

i) Cell body

ii) Dendrites

iii) Axon
The cell body of a neuron contains cytoplasm and a nucleus. There are many long and thin fibres

coming out of the cell body of a neuron. The short fibres are called dendrites and the long fibre is

called axon. The axon is covered with an insulating and protective sheath called myelin. It is

made of fat and proteins.

The messages transmit through nervous system is in the form of electrical impulses called nerve

impulses. The dendrites pick nerve impulses or messages from receptors and send them to cell

body and then to axon. The axon sends these impulses to another neuron through a junction

called synapse. There are three types of neurons, sensory neurons, motor neurons and relay

neurons.

i) Sensory neurons transmit messages from receptors towards the central nervous system that is

the spinal cord and brain.

ii) The function of motor neurons is to transmit messages from central nervous system towards

the muscle cells or effectors.

iii) Relay neurons serve as link between other neurons. They are present in central nervous

system.

The small gap between the two neurons is called synapse. The nerve impulses are carried over

this small gap through a chemical substance called neurotransmitter.

The sensory cells or receptors are in contact with dendrite of sense organs. When there is a

stimulus which acts on the receptor a chemical reaction occurs which produces an electrical

impulse in it. This impulse travels from dendrite of sensory neuron to its cell body and then

along the axon. At the end of axon electrical impulse release tiny amount of chemical substance

in synapse and similar electrical impulse is started in the dendrite of next neuron. In this way the
electrical impulse is carried in neurons till it reaches the relay neurons in spinal cord and brain.

The relay neurons and motor neurons are connected in the similar way and helps bring electrical

impulses from brain and spinal cord to the effectors like muscles and glands. Synapse ensures

that electrical impulse travel in one direction only. This is because the chemical substance is

present on one side of the gap only.

Organs of Human Nervous System

The main organs of human nervous system are:

• Brain

• Spinal cord

• Nerves

The brain is located inside the skull of the head. The spinal cord is a thick nerve which is located

in the cavity of backbone. The upper end of spinal cord is attached to the brain. The nerves are

distributed in all parts of the body. They are like wires.

The brain and spinal cord are connected to all the sense organs and other parts of the body

through nerves.

The three types of nerves in our body are:

• Cranial nerves

• Spinal nerves

• Visceral nerves
The cranial nerves connect all parts of the head to brain, spinal nerves connect all the remaining

parts of the body to spinal cord and visceral nerves connect internal organs of the body to spinal

cord and some to brain.

The cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral nerves are of two types, sensory nerves and motor

nerves. Sensory nerves are those which carry message from body to brain and spinal cord and

motor nerves are those which carry message from brain and spinal cord to the body parts for

action.

Working of Nervous System

When any sense organ of our body is affected it sends message to the brain in the form of

electrical impulses. This message is send through sensory neurons. The brain analyses the

message and decides the action to be taken. The brain then sends instructions for that body part

through motor nerves.

Both brain and spinal cord are involved in complicated responses which require thinking and in

simple responses which don’t require thinking only spinal cord is involved.

Parts of the Nervous System

The two main parts of nervous system are:

1) Central nervous system (consisting of brain and spinal cord)

2) Peripheral nervous system (consisting of all nerves of the body)

Peripheral nerves can further be divided into two parts.

i) Voluntary nervous system

ii) Autonomic nervous system

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nerves system is made of all the nerves of the body. There are three types of

nerves which make the peripheral nervous system, cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral

nerves. All these nerves enter or leave the central nervous system.

Reflex Action and Reflex Arcs

This diagram shows the reflex action and its path (which is called reflex arc)

Reflex action is the one which we perform automatically and is not under the voluntary control

of the brain. Under reflex action same stimulus produces same kind of response every time. Knee
jerk, movement of diaphragm, coughing, sneezing, yawning, blinking of eyes, immediately

moving hand away on unknowingly touching hot plate, etc., are examples of reflex action.

These are the actions which we do without thinking to protect ourselves. Reflex action is an

automatic response to a stimulus.

The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc. The reflexes which

involve only spinal cord are called spinal reflexes. The reflexes which involve brain are called

cerebral reflexes.

Cerebral reflexes occur in the organs present in the head. These organs are directly connected to

the brain. For example, when we are in dim light the pupil of our eye is big so that more light can

enter into our eyes and when we are in bright light then the pupil of our eye automatically gets

small. This automatic expansion and contraction of pupil is an example of cerebral reflexes.

How Effectors Cause Action or Movement

The effected muscles cause action because motor nerve impulses sent by the spinal cord or brain

reach the effector organ.

A reflex Arc (This is actually a spinal reflex arc)

The muscles are able to move or act in response to electrical nerve impulse because muscles are

made of muscle cells. These cells contain special protein which can change their shape and

contract. So when the muscle cells contract, muscles also contract. And when the muscles

contract they pull on the bones of that body part and thus, make it move.

A reflex arc showing cerebral reflex action

Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral nervous system. It controls the activities of the

organs inside our body automatically. This specific network of nerves controls the processes like

breathing, heartbeat, digestion, sweating, etc. The nerves of autonomic nervous system are

attaches with the smooth muscles of various internal organs of a body like head, heart, blood

vessels, alimentary canal, lungs, kidneys, glands, skin, etc.

Voluntary Nervous System

Those actions which are performed by humans knowingly and need thinking are called voluntary

actions. For example, writing, dancing, cycling, etc. Therefore, voluntary nervous system helps

us take voluntary actions which are under the conscious control of brain.

Central Nervous System

Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for the control and

coordination of the activities of nervous system. The function of a central nervous system is to

respond to the messages it receives. It directs the motor neurons that are connected to the part of

the body which will respond to the stimulus.

The central nervous system collects information from all the receptors in our body.

Brain

The highest coordinating centre in our body is brain which is located inside the skull. Brain is

protected by a bony structure in the skull called cranium. The three membranes called meninges

surround the brain and protect it. The space between meninges is filled with a cerebro spinal

fluid which helps the brain from mechanical shocks. Cranial nerves arise from the brain.
Brain is divided into three parts, forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The forebrain consists

mainly of cerebrum, midbrain doesn’t have any further division and hindbrain consists of pons,

cerebellum and medulla.

The main thinking part of the brain is cerebrum. It is a place for faculties such as learning,

reasoning, intelligence, personality, etc. All our thoughts and actions are controlled by the

cerebrum. The association area of cerebrum controls thinking and memory and stores

information and experiences. The sensory area of cerebrum receives information from sense

organs and gives sensation. The motor area of the cerebrum sends instructions to various muscles

to perform different function. All the voluntary actions are coordinated by the cerebrum.

The function of hindbrain is to control reflex movements of head, neck and trunk in response to

visual and auditory stimuli. It also controls the reflex movements of the eye muscles.
Pons helps in regulating respiration, cerebellum helps in maintaining posture and balance of the

body and medulla controls various involuntary actions such as heart beat, breathing, blood

pressure, coughing, sneezing, secretion of saliva, etc.

Spinal Cord

Spinal cord begins from medulla and extends downwards. Spinal cord is enclosed in bony

structure called vertebral column. There are 31 pairs of nerves that arise from spinal cord. It is

also surrounded by membranes called meninges. Spinal cord is concerned with the spinal

reflexes and conducts nerve impulses to and from the brain.

Functions of Brain

• Brain receives nerve impulses which carry information from the sense organs of the body.

• Brain responds to these impulses by sending instructions to muscles and glands which function

accordingly.

• Brain correlates stimuli from different sense organs and produce appropriate and intelligent

response.

• It coordinates the activities of the body.

• It stores information.
Control and Coordination in Plants

Despite not having sense organs plants can also sense things and respond to them. Plants respond

to things like light, gravity, touch, water etc. These are environmental stimuli for a plant. Plants

coordinate their behavior by using their hormones and respond to the environmental changes.

This they do by affecting the growth of a plant.

Therefore, pants use only hormones to coordinate their behaviour. They respond to the stimuli

very slowly because they have no nervous system. Plant hormones are called phytohormones.

Dormancy: The inactive condition of a part of a plant in which metabolism almost stops is

called dormancy. For example, seed, bud etc.

Plant Hormones

The control and coordination system in plants is done by plant hormones. They affect the growth

of a plant in one or the other aspect. The growth of a plant is divided in three stages:

i) Cell division

ii) Cell enlargement

iii) Cell differentiation

So, a plant hormone not only controls these stages of plant growth but also promotion of

breaking of dormancy, falling of leaves, fruit growth, ripening of fruits, ageing of plants etc.

The four types of plant hormones responsible for control and coordination in plants are:

1) Auxins

2) Gibberellins

3) Cytokinins

4) Abscisic acid (ABA)

While auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins promote the growth of a plant, abscisic acid prevents

or hampers the growth of a plant.

Auxins

Auxins hormone controls a plant response to light and gravity. It is made by the cells present at

the tip of a stem and roots. This hormone moves the plant away from light and towards gravity. It

speeds up the growth of stem and slows down the growth of roots.
This diagram explains the bending of a plant stem or shoot towards light by the action of ‘auxin

hormone’.

Auxins promote cell enlargement, cell differentiation and fruit growth.

Gibberellins

Gibberellins hormone works in the presence of auxin hormone and promotes cell enlargement

and cell differentiation. It also promotes fruit growth, elongation of shoots and in breaking the

dormancy in seeds and buds.

Cytokinins

This hormone promotes cells division in plants and breaks dormancy in seeds and buds. They

also delay ageing in leaves and promotes the opening of stomata.

Abscisic acid

This hormone inhibits the growth of a plant. Therefore abscisic acid promotes dormancy in seeds

and buds. It promotes closing of stomata, wilting and falling of leave and detachment of fruit and

flower from the plant.

Plant Movement

Plants are fixed at one place and cannot physically move from one place to another. But plants

still show movement by using hormones under the influence of stimuli. This movement is

noticed in the unequal growth of the two regions of a plant.

 For example, auxin hormone speeds up the growth of a stem. So if one side of a stem has more

auxin hormone than the other, then the side of stem which has more hormones will bend. This

shows movement of a plant.

Plant movement due to external stimuli are of two types: tropism and nasties.

Tropisms

When the direction of external stimulus decides the direction of response in the form of growth it

is called tropism. Thus, tropism is the directional growth movement of a plant part. It can be in

the direction of the stimulus or away from the stimulus. Therefore,

 If the growth of a plant is in the direction of stimulus, it is called positive tropism.
 If the growth of a plant is in the opposite direction or away from that of a stimulus, it is called
negative stimulus.

Types of tropism

There are five stimuli in the environment. They are light, gravity, chemical, water and touch.

These stimuli give five types of tropism. They are phototropism, geotropism, chemotropism,

hydrotropism and thigmotropism.

 Phototropism

When a plant part moves in response to light, it is called phototropism. If the stem of a growing

plant moves or bends towards light, it is positive phototropism and if the root of a plant moves

away from light, this means the roots of a plant shows negative phototropism.
 Geotropism

When a plant part moves in response to gravity, it is called geotropism. For example, roots of a

plant moves in a downward direction, so they show positive geotropism and stem moves in the

upward direction, so it shows negative geotropism.

 Chemotropism

When a plant part moves in response to chemical stimulus, it is called chemotropism. Here the

stimulus is chemical. For example, the growth of pollen tube towards the ovule during

fertilisation in a flower is called positive chemotropism.

 Hydrotropism

When a plant part moves in response to water, it is called hydrotropism. Here the stimulus is

water. Roots of a plant moves towards water, so they show positive hydrotropism.
 Thigmotropism

When a plant part shows directional movement in response to the touch of an object, it is called

thigmotropism. For example, tendrils of a plant climb towards any support which they touch.

Response of plants to light: Phototropism

The stem and leaves of a plant moves in the direction of sunlight. So, when a plant is grown in an

open ground where sunlight is coming from above then the stem of a plant grows straight in an

upward direction. If, however, a plant is kept at a place where sunlight is coming from only one

direction then the stem of a plant bends in that direction only. On the other hand roots of a plant

bend away from the direction of sunlight.

We will perform an experiment to show this. A potted plant is kept in the open ground where

sunlight is coming from above. So the stem of a plant grows straight up and roots also grow

straight but in downward direction. Now, we keep this pot having straight stem and roots is kept

in a dark room near a window with sunlight coming from only one side (right). After a few days

we observe that stem of a plant responds to light and move towards right side and roots of the

plant move towards left side that is away from sunlight.

 To show the response of a plant to light (Phototropism)

This happens because of the action of auxin hormone.

 When the sunlight is coming from top, then the auxin hormone present at the tip of the stem
spreads uniformly down the stem making it grow straight up.
 When the sunlight falls only on right side then the auxin hormone prefers to stay in shade and
collects on left side.
 Since there is more auxin hormone on the left side of the stem, it makes left side grow faster than
the right side. Thus, the stem bends towards right.
 Auxin hormone has opposite effect on the roots of a plant. That is why when sunlight falls on the
right side of the roots, auxin hormone collects on the left side and hampers their growth from that
side. That is why, roots bend towards left.

Response of plants to gravity: Geotropism

Roots of the plant grow towards the earth which shows positive geotropism and stem grows

upward away from the pull of gravity which shows negative geotropism. This can be shown

through an experiment.
 Keep a potted plant in a normal position. We see that the roots are growing downwards and stem
is growing upwards.
 Now tilt the potted plant and keep it horizontally on the surface.
 After a few days we notice that roots of the potted plant grow toward the earth and stem of the
plant bends upwards away from the pull of gravity.
This diagram shows the response of a plant to gravity or geotropism.

Response of plants to chemicals: Chemotropism

Sugary substance acts as a stimulus for the growth of pollen tube towards the ovule. This

happens because ripe stigma in the carpel of a flower secrets a chemical substance into the style

towards the ovary. This sugary substance acts as a stimulus for the pollen grain which responds

by growing a pollen tube in the downward direction into the style of a carpel and reaches the

ovule of the flower for fertilisation.

This diagram shows the response of a plant part ‘pollen’to chemical secreted by stigma or

chemotropism.

Response of plants to water: Hydrotropism

Roots always grow in the direction of water, even if they have to grow against the pull of gravity

or sideways. This can be shown through an experiment.

Let’s take two glass troughs and fill two-third of them with soil. In both the troughs we plant a

tiny seedling. In the second trough we place a small clay pot inside the soil. Let’s water the soil

in the first trough daily and put water in the clay pot placed inside the soil in second trough.

An experiment to show the response of a plant to water or hydrotropism.

After a few days, dig up the seedling from both troughs. We will notice that roots of the seedling

of first trough are straight and that of the second trough in which clay pot filled with water was

placed have bent towards the side at which clay pot was placed.

This shows that roots of a plant grow towards water.

Directional response of a plant to the touch of an object: Thigmotropism

There are some plants which cannot stand upright on their own and need support. These plants

are called climbing plants and have organs called tendrils. Tendrils are the thin thread-like

growth on the stems and leaves of the climbing plants. Tendrils are sensitive to the touch of other

object. When tendrils come in contact with other object, it bends towards the object by growing

towards it, wind around the object and cling to it. This winding movement of a climbing plant is

called thigmotropism.
This diagram shows the response of a plant part ‘tendril’to the touch of an object here a bamboo

stick.

For example, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, grape vine etc., have stem tendrils and peas, glory lily

etc., have leaf tendrils.

The Usefulness of Tropic Movements

Tropic movements help the plant to survive. For example, roots of the plant are positively

geotropic and that is the reason that they will always downward into the earth even if they are

planted upside down. Also the root will grow towards water as it is positively hydrotropic. Also

the shoot will grow upward as it is negatively geotropic.

Nasties or Nastic Movements

When the direction of response in a plant is not determined by the direction of stimulus, it is

called nastic movement. Nastic movement is not the directional movement of the plant part.

In nastic movement, whatever be the direction of stimulus, all the parts of the plant equally move

in the same direction. This type of movement is generally seen in leaves, flower petals etc.
 This diagram shows the nastic movements in the leaves of sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica)

caused by ‘touch’.

Following are the examples of nastic movement:

 When we touch the leaves of a sensitive plant like mimosa pudica, they fold.
 It is due to the stimulus of light that the petals of dandelion flower open in the morning and close
in the evening.
 It is due to the stimulus of light that the petals of moonflower close in the morning and open in
dark at night.

Nastic movement may or may not be a growth movement.

Thigmonasty

The movement of a plant part in response to the touch of an object is called thigmonasty. In this

case the movement of a plant part is non-directional. The stimulus for thigmonasty is touch.

The sensitive plant mimosa pudica which is also known as touch-me-not is an example of

thigmonasty. If we touch the leaves of this plant they fold up immediately and droop.

The sensitive plant has pulvini at the base of each leaf. This pulvini contains a lot of water in

their cells and due to internal pressure of water they are firm and keep the leaf upright. So, as

soon as we touch the leaves there is sudden loss of water from pad-like swellings (pulvini). This

is why pulvini lose its firmness and leaves droop.

 When we touch the sensitive place electric impulses travel through the cells of the plant and act

on plant hormone. The plant hormone migrate water from the cells of the pulvinus to the

intercellular spaces of the other half of pulvinus. This loss of water makes pulvini lose firmness

and thus its leaves droop.

After 15 to 30 minutes water comes back to the cells and leaf gets back to its original shape.

The leaves of sensitive plant fold due to the loss of water from pulvinus at their base.

Photonasty

The movement of a plant part, usually flower petals, in response to light is called photonasty.

The movement is non-directional. The stimulus in photonasty is light. Dandelion and

moonflower are examples of photonasty.

The opening and closing of flower petals in response to light are growth movements. This is

because petals open when their outer surface grows and petals close when their outer surface

grows.

Function of Plant Hormones

 Germination of seeds
 Growth of roots, stem and leaves
 Movement of stomata
 Flowering of plants
 Ripening of fruits
 Tropism and nastic movements
 Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Sexual reproduction is the production of a new organism from two parents by making use of

their sex cells or gametes. The humans, fish, frogs, cats and dogs, all reproduce by the method of

sexual reproduction.

It is important to know the meaning of some important terms like male sex, female sex, gametes,

sperms, ova or eggs, fertilization, zygote and embryo which are involved in sexual reproduction.
 An animal having male sex cells called ‘sperms’ in its body is called male and an animal having
female sex cells called ‘ova’ or ‘eggs’ in its body is called female.
 Gametes: The cells involved in sexual reproduction or we can say that they are sexual
reproductive cells. They are of two types: male gametes and female gametes. The male gamete in
animal is called ‘sperm’ and the female gamete in animals is called ‘ovum’ or ‘egg’. Also female
gamete or female sex cell is known by two names: ovum and egg both are same. The plural of
ovum is ova. The ovum or egg contains water and stored food. Nucleus is the important part of
ovum. Sperm cells are hundreds or thousands time smaller than ovum or egg and have a long
tail. The sperm are motile which can move independently with the help of their tails.

 Fertilization: The fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete to form a zygote during the
sexual reproduction i.e. the fusion of a sperm with an ovum or egg to form zygote is called
fertilization. The zygote is also known as ‘fertilized egg’ or ‘fertilized ovum’. This zygote grows
and develops to form a new baby. The stage of development between the zygote or fertilized egg
and the newly formed baby is called embryo.
 Internal and external fertilization: The fertilization which occurs inside the female body is
called internal fertilization i.e. it takes place in mammals including human beings, birds and
reptiles. The fertilization which occurs outside the female body is called external fertilization i.e.
it takes place in amphibians like frogs, toads and fishes.
 The method in which a zygote grows and develops in to a full organism also varies in different

animals. As in humans zygote grows and develops in to a baby inside female body and gives

birth to a young ones, in animals like cats, dogs etc also gives birth to young ones but in birds it

is entirely different which lay eggs. For example: Hen sits on its egg to give warmth so that

zygote grows and develops to form a complete chick. This chick then comes out from egg by

breaking its shell. So, all the organisms do not give birth to individuals like humans do.
 It is important to understand that why the amount of DNA does not get doubled during sexual
reproduction?

Gametes are also known as reproductive cells which contains only half the amount of DNA or

half number of chromosomes as compared to the normal body cells of an organism. So, when

male gamete combines with female gamete during sexual reproduction, then the new cell

‘zygote’ will have the normal amount of DNA. Human sperm has 23 chromosomes and human

egg has also 23 chromosomes, after fusion 23 + 23 = 46 chromosomes, which is the normal

number of chromosomes.

How Sexual reproduction in Animals takes place?

It occurs in following steps:

 Sperms or male gametes are produced by male parent and sperm contains long tail i.e. flagellum
for movement.
 Ova, eggs or female gametes are produced by female parent which is a bigger cell than the sperm
having a lot of cytoplasm.
 The sperm enters in to the ovum or egg and fuses to form a new cell called ‘zygote’. This process
is known as fertilisation. So, the zygote is fertilized ovum.
 The zygote then divides again and again to form a large number of cells, ultimately grows and
develops to form a new baby.

Fertilization of an ovum or egg by a sperm to form a zygote.

Advantages of Sexual reproduction:

The Sexual reproduction has many advantages over asexual reproduction. In asexual

reproduction, the offspring produced is almost identical to their parent because of same genes.

So, much genetic variation is not possible. This is a disadvantage as it inhibits the further

evolution of the organism.

In Sexual reproduction the offsprings although similar to their parents, are not identical to them

or to one another. Because the offsprings receive some genes from the mother and some from the

father. So, mixing of genes makes various different combinations and so all the offsprings have

genetic variations. In this way sexual reproduction leads to a greater variety in population i.e.

species can adapt more quickly to changes in its surroundings or environment.

We can say that sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the offsprings by

providing genetic variation. Sexual reproduction plays an important role in the origin of new

species having different characteristics. This genetic variation continuous leads to the evolution

of species to form a better and still better organism which is not possible in asexual reproduction.
Human Reproductive System: Male

The humans use sexual mode of reproduction. The reproductive systems in human beings

become functional or start functioning at a definite age called puberty. In complex multicellular

organisms like human beings there are special reproductive organs to make sperms and eggs; to

bring together sperms and eggs for fertilization; and for the growth and development of zygote in

to a baby.

But before describing all this in human reproductive system, we will first understand the

meaning of the term ‘puberty’.

Puberty

Sometimes it becomes difficult to tell from appearance that whether the child is male or female

having the same body shape in small age. A time of rapid growth and body changes starts in the

early teens which make the girl appear different and also behave differently. These changes start

earlier in girls than in boys. Time between childhood and adulthood is called ‘adolescence’. At

this age production of male and female ‘sex hormones’ in the bodies of boys and girls increases

and causes wide ranging changes in their bodies. The testes in boys and ovaries in girls make

different hormones. So, they develop in different ways. Ultimately boys and girls become

sexually mature and their reproductive system start functioning.

The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be produced and the boy and girl

become sexually mature or able to reproduce is called puberty.

Generally boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years while girls from 10 to 12 years. On

attaining puberty, the male gonads testes start producing male gametes called sperms and the
female gonads ovaries start producing female gametes called ova or eggs. With this male and

female gonads also secrete sex hormones with the onset of puberty.

The testes produce the male sex hormone called testosterone, and the ovaries produce two female

sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. The sex hormones plays important role in the process

of reproduction because they make the reproductive organs to mature and start functioning.

Puberty is the age at which the reproductive organs reach maturity and secondary sexual

characteristics develop.

The various changes that occur in boys at puberty are: Hair grows under armpits and in pubic

regions (genital area) between the thighs. Hairs also grow on other parts of the body like chest

and face (moustache, beard etc.). Body becomes more muscular due to the development of

muscles. The voice deepens or cracks. Chest and shoulders broaden. The penis and testes

become larger. The testes start to make sperms. Feelings and sexual drives associated with

adulthood begin to develop. All these changes in boys are brought about by the male sex

hormones ‘testosterone’ made in testes.

The various changes which occur in girls at puberty are: Hair grows under armpits and pubic

region (This change is same as in boys). Mammary glands or breasts develop and enlarge. The

hips broaden. Extra fat is deposited in various parts of the body like hips and thighs. Fallopian

tubes, uterus and vagina enlarge. Ovaries start to release eggs. Menstruation start. Feelings and

sexual drives associated with adulthood begin to develop. All these changes in girls are brought

about by the female sex hormones ‘oestrogen’ and ‘progesterone’ made in ovaries.

The Male Reproductive System

The human male reproductive system consists of the following organs: Testes, Scrotum,

Epididymis, Vas deferens or Sperm duct, Seminal Vesicles, Prostrate gland and Penis.
The male reproductive system in humans

Testes are the oval shaped organs which lie outside the abdominal cavity of a man. A man has

two testes. Testes are the primary reproductive organs in man or males. The function of testes is

to make the male sex cells or male gametes called sperms and also to make the male sex

hormone called testosterone. The testes of a man make the sex gametes or sperms from the

puberty onwards, throughout his life. The testes of a man lie in small muscular pouch called

scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity. The testes are outside the abdominal cavity of the body

and not deep inside the body because the sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the

normal body temperature. Being, outside the abdominal cavity, the temperature of scrotum is

about 3 degree Celsius lower than the temperature inside the body. In this way, the testes provide

an optimal temperature for the formation of sperms.

The sperms from the testes come out and go in to a coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms get

stored temporarily in epididymis. From epididymis, the sperms are carried by a long tube called
Vas Deferens or sperm duct which joins with another tube called urethra coming from the

bladder. Along the path of vas deferens, the glands called seminal vesicles and prostrate gland

add their secretions to sperms so that the sperms are now in a liquid. This liquid plus the sperms

it contains is called semen which is a thick liquid. The secretions of seminal vesicles and

prostrate gland provide nutrition to the sperms and also make their further transport easier.

Urethra forms a common passage for sperms and urine. Urethra carries the sperms to an organ

called penis which opens outside the body. The penis passes the sperms from the man’s body in

to vagina in the woman’s body during mating for the purpose of reproduction.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Sexual reproduction is the production of a new organism from two parents by making use of

their gametes or sex cells. Plants also have male and female sex organs. These sex organs in

plants are carried within the flower and the seeds which are inside a fruit. Such plants are called

angiosperms or flowering plants as they reproduce by sexual reproduction method.

Most of the plants contain reproductive organs of both male and female in the flowers. The same

flower has both male and female reproductive organs. Such flowers make male and female

gametes and ensure that fertilisation takes place so that new seeds are formed for the

reproduction of plant.

Parts of a Flower

Steps for sexual reproduction in plants

 The male organ of a flower is called stamen. It helps in making male gametes of the plant and is
present in pollen grains.
 The female organ of a flower is called carpel. It helps in making female gametes or egg cells of
the plant and is present in ovules.
 The male gametes fertilise the female gametes.
 The fertilised egg cells grow in ovules and become seeds.
 When germinated, these seeds become new plants.
 Various Parts of a Flower
 Receptacle: It is a base of a flower above the flower stem. It is at receptacle that all other parts
of a flower are attached.
 Sepals: These are the green leaf-like parts which are present on the outer most part of the flower.
Sepals help in protecting the flower when it is in the form of a bud. All sepals of a flower
together are called calyx.
 Petals: Petals are the colourful leaves of a flower. All the leaves of a flower together are called
corolla. The petals of a flower have fragrance and they attract insects for pollination. Their
function is to protect the reproductive organs present in the centre of a flower.
 Stamen: Stamens are the male reproductive organ of a plant. They are present inside the ring of
petals and are little stalk with swollen tops. Stamen is made of two parts, anther and filament.
The stalk of stamen is called filament and swollen top is called an anther. The anther of a stamen
produced pollen grains and stores them. These pollen grains contain male gametes of the plant. A
flower has a lot of stamens in it.

Stamen: Male reproductive organ of a plant.

 Carpel: Carpel is the female reproductive organ and is present in the centre of a plant. The shape
of carpel is like a flask. Carpel is made of three parts, stigma, style and ovary. The top part of
carpel is called stigma. The stigma is sticky and receives pollen from anther of stamen. The
pollen grains sticks to the stigma. The centre part of carpel is called style. Style is a tube which
connects stigma to ovary. The bottom part of carpel which is swollen is called ovary. It is here
that the ovules are made and stored. There are many ovules in the ovary and each ovule contains
one female gamete of the plant. The female gamete of the plant which is present inside the ovule
is called egg or ovum. Therefore, female gametes are made in the ovary of carpel. The female
organ of a plant is also called pistil. Also the carpel is surrounded by a number of stamens.
 Carpel: Female reproductive organ of a Plant. Carpel is also known as Pistil.

There are flowers which are called unisexual. This is because they have either stamens or

carpels. Flowers of papaya and watermelon are examples of unisexual flowers. And the flowers

which have both male and female sex organs are called bisexual. Flowers of hibiscus and

mustard plant are called bisexual flowers.

In order to make a new seed male gamete present in a pollen grain units with the female gamete

present in the ovule. This process takes place in two steps.

 Pollination
 Fertilisation

Pollination

When pollen grains from the anther are transferred to the stigma of a carpel, it is called

pollination. This is important because it is due to pollination that male gametes are able to

combine with female gametes. Pollination is done by insects like bees, butterflies and birds, wind

and water.

There are two types of pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination. When pollen grains

from one flower carried to the stigma of the same flower or to another flower of the same plant,
it is called self-pollination. And when pollen grains from a flower of one plant are carried to the

stigma of a flower of another similar plant, it is called cross-pollination.

Pollination

Insects help in pollination. This happens when an insect sits on a flower of one plant to suck

nectar then the pollen grains from anther stick to its body. Now, when this insect flies and sits on

the flower of another similar plant then the pollen grains are transferred and they stick to the

stigma of the flower of another plant. This way insects help cause cross-pollination. Wind too

helps in cross-pollination.

Fertilisation

After pollination, next step is fertilisation. In this step, male gametes present in pollen grains

joins with the female gametes present in ovule.

When the pollen grain falls on stigma it bursts open and a pollen tube grown which moves

through the style towards the ovary and enters ovule. Male gamete moves down through the

pollen tube. The tip of pollen tube bursts open in the ovule and the male gamete come out. In the

ovule, male gamete combines with the nucleus of female gamete and fertilised egg is formed.

This fertilised egg is called zygote.

 Fertilisation in a Flower.

Formation of fruits and seeds

In the ovule, the fertilised egg divides several times to form an embryo. A tough coat is

developed around the ovule and it gradually develops into a seed. The ovary of flower develops

to become a fruit which contains seeds inside it. Other parts of the flower like sepal, stamen,

stigma and style become dry and fall off. Fruit takes place of the flower. Seed is protected by the

fruit. Some fruits are soft and juicy while the other fruits are hard and dry.

A fruit contains seed of the plant inside it.

The seed is the reproductive unit of a plant. With this seed new plant can be grown as the seed

contains baby plant and food for the baby plant inside it. The part of the baby plant in seed which

grown into leaves is called plumule and the part which develops into roots is called radicle. The

part of the seed which stores food for the baby plant is called cotyledon. The baby plant inside a

seed is in a dormant state. It is only when we provide it with suitable environment like water, air,
light, etc., it germinates and a new plant grows. Wheat grains, gram, corn, peas, beans etc., are

examples of seeds.

Parts of a Seed

Germination of seeds

The seeds obtained from a plat are in dry and dormant state. It is only when they get water, air,

soil, etc., that they begin to grow into a new plant. The beginning of the growth of a seed is

called germination of seeds.

The germination of a seed begins when it absorbs water, swells and bursts through the seed coat.

It is with the help of water that enzymes function in the seed. The enzymes digest stored food

and make it soluble. With the help of soluble food radicle and plumule grow.

Seeds germinate under suitable conditions to produce new plants. These pictures show the

germination of a bean seed to form a new bean plant.

First the radicle of the seed grows to form roots. These roots grow inside soil and absorb water

and minerals from the soil. After this plumule grows upwards and shoots are formed. These

shoots develop green leaves. The leaves begin to make food with the process of photosynthesis

and gradually a whole new plant is developed.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Asexual reproduction is a process in which new organism is produced from a single parent

without the involvement of gametes or sex cells. Many unicellular and multicellular organisms

reproduce asexually. In this process, parent organism either splits or a part of parent organism

separates to form a new organism. In this reproduction, certain cells of the parent undergo

mitotic cell division so that two or more new organisms are formed.

There are six types of asexual reproduction. They are:

1) Fission

2) Budding

3) Spore formation

4) Regeneration

5) Fragmentation

6) Vegetative propagation
 Fission

In fission, unicellular organism splits to form new organisms. It is a process of reproduction in

organisms such as protozoa and many bacteria. There are two types of fission:
 Binary Fission

In binary fission, the parent cell divides into two after reaching a point where it has fully grown.

In this process, after splitting parent cell do not exist and two new organisms are formed.

Examples of unicellular organisms that undergo binary fission are amoeba, paramecium,

Leishmania etc.

Amoeba reproducing by binary fission.

 Multiple Fission

Multiple fission is also a process of asexual reproduction in which parent cell splits to form many

new organisms. This happens when cyst is formed around a unicellular organism. Inside this cyst

the nucleus of an organism breaks in many smaller nuclei. When the favourable conditions come,

the cyst breaks and the many daughter cells inside it are released.

Plasmodium undergoes the process of multiple fission.

 Reproduction by multiple fission.

Budding

The word bud means small outgrowth. In the process of budding, a small bud grows on the body

of parent organism and when the time comes it detaches itself to form a new organism. Hydra

and yeast undergoes the process of budding.

Hydra reproducing by the method of budding.

Yeast reproducing by the method of budding.

Spore formation

The method of spore formation occurs in both unicellular and multi-cellular organisms. This

process takes place in plants. In spore formation, the parent plant produces hundreds of

reproductive units called spores in its spore case. When this spore case of the plant bursts, these

spores travel in air and land on food or soil. Here they germinate and produce new plants.

Fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor, etc., are examples of spore formation.

This is a common bread mould plant or rhizopus fungus. It reproduces by forming spores.

Regeneration

Regeneration is an asexual method of reproduction. In this process, if the body of a parent

organism gets cut, then each cut part can regenerate and form a whole new organism from its

body parts. This happens because when the body of an organism that can undergo regeneration

gets cut then the cells of cut body part divide rapidly and form a ball of cells. These cells then

move to their proper places to form organs and body parts.

Regeneration occurs in both plants and animals. Hydra and planaria undergo regeneration.
 Regeneration in Planeria.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation occurs in multicellular organisms, be it plants or animals. In this process the

multicellular organism breaks into two or more pieces on maturation. Each piece than grows into

a new organism. Spirogyra which is a plant and sea anemones which is a sea animal undergoes

the process of fragmentation.

Spirogyra, a filament type algae plant reproduces by the method of fragmentation.

Vegetative Propagation

This form of asexual reproduction occurs in plants only. In vegetative propagation, parts of old

plant like stems, roots and leaves are used to grow a new plant. The buds which are present in
dormant state in old plant are provided with suitable conditions like moisture and warmth so that

they grow and develop to form a new plant.

Plants that undergo vegetative propagation are green grass, Bryophyllum, money plant, potato

plant, onion, banana, etc.

Vegetative propagation of potato plant from a Potato tuber. Plantlets growing in the margin

of bryophyllum leaf.

Artificial Propagation of Plants

When many plants are grown from one plant using man-made methods, it is called artificial

propagation. There are three common methods of artificial propagation of plants. They are:

i) Cuttings

ii) Layering

iii) Grafting

Cuttings
A new plant is grown by cutting a small part of a plant which can be a stem or a leaf that has a

bud on it. This part is then grown into soil and watered. After a few days one can notice a new

plant growing.

Plants like bougainvillea, chrysanthemum, grapes, etc., can be grown by cutting.

The propagation of plants by ‘cuttings’ method.

Layering

In layering the branches of the parent plant are allowed to go inside the soil in such a way that a

part of the branch comes out of the soil. The part of the branch which is inside the soil develops

roots and is later cut from the parent plant. In this way a new plant is formed from the buried

branch.

The layering method is used for the plants like Jasmine, Strawberry, raspberry, etc.
 The propagation of Jasmine plant (Chameli) by the layering method.

Grafting

In grafting stems of two different plants is cut and joined in such a way that they grow as on

plant. Of the two cut stems, one stem is with the roots and is called stock. The other stem is cut

without roots and is called scion. Stock is the lower part of the plant and scion is the upper part

of the plant. A slanting cut is made in both the stems.

The cut surfaces of scion and stock are fitted and tied together with a piece of cloth and covered

with polythene sheet. This protects the stem from infections and other problems.

Soon the stock and scion combine and a new plant grow. The fruits of this new plant have the

characteristics of both the plants. Examples of fruit which are grafted are apple, peach, apricot

etc.
 The grafting method for the artifical propagation of plants or trees.

Advantages of artificial vegetative propagation

 The new plant will have exact features as that of parent plant.
 Fruit trees grown by grafting bear fruit much earlier.
 Plants need less attention in their early years.
 Many plants can be grown from just one parent.
 Can get seedless plants.
Excretory System in Humans

Excretion is the process of removal of toxic wastes from the body of an organism. The major

wastes produced by us are: Carbon dioxide and Urea. Carbon dioxide is produced by the process

of respiration and urea is produced by the decomposition of unused proteins in the liver. It is

necessary to remove these wastes from our body as their accumulation is poisonous and harm us.

There are different organs which removes waste from the body. These are lungs and kidneys.

Our lungs excrete carbon dioxide and kidneys urea. So, the kidney is the main excretory organs

of the human body.

First we will see how carbon dioxide is removed through lungs: Carbon dioxide is produces as a

waste product in the body by the oxidation of food during respiration. This carbon dioxide enters

from the body tissues in to the blood stream by diffusion. Blood carries this carbon dioxide to the

lungs. When we breathe out, then the lungs excrete carbon dioxide which goes in to the air

through nostrils.
The excretory system of human beings collects the liquid wastes of the body and helps it get rid

of them. It consists of the following main organs: Two kidneys, two ureters, Bladder and

Urethra. The kidneys are bean shaped organs towards the back of our body just above the waist.

Everyone has two kidneys. Blood constantly passes through our kidneys. The renal artery or

kidney artery brings in the dirty blood containing waste substances in to the kidneys. So, the

function of kidney is to remove the poisonous substance urea, other waste salts and excess water

from the blood and excrete them in the form of yellowish liquid called urine. The cleaned blood

is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein or kidney vein.

The ureter, one from each kidney, opens in to urinary bladder. Ureters are the tubes which carry

urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Here urine is stored. The bladder is big it store urine till

the time we go to toilet. A tube called urethra which is connected with the bladder, urine is

passed from the body through it.

Now, we will discuss about kidney and its function in detail

In the structure of kidney it is shown that each kidney is made up of a large number of excretory

units called nephrons. The nephron has a cup shaped bag at its upper end which is called

Bowman’s capsule. The lower end of Bowman’s capsule tube shaped called tubule. And these

together form nephron. One end of a tube is connected to the Bowman’s capsule and other is

connected to a urine- collecting duct of the kidney. The Bowman’s capsule contains a bundle of

blood capillaries which is called glomerulus. One end of glomerulus is attached to the renal

artery which brings the dirty blood containing the urea waste in to it and the other end is joined

with renal vein for putting urea clean blood in to it.

The function of glomerulus is to filter the blood passing through it. Only the small molecules of

substances present in blood like glucose, amino acids, salts, urea and water etc. passes through it

and collects as filtrate in Bowman’s capsule. The large molecules like proteins and blood cells

cannot pass through glomerulus capillaries and remain behind in the blood. The nephron tubule
allow the selective reabsorption of the useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts and

water in to blood capillaries. But urea remains behind the tubule and does not get reabsorbed in

to blood capillaries.

Working of the excretory system

As discussed above the dirty blood containing waste like urea enters the glomerulus and blood is

filtered here. During filtration substances like glucose, amino acids, salts, water, urea etc. present

in blood pass in to Bowman’s capsule and then enters the tubule of nephron. Here

useful substances are reabsorbed in to the blood through blood capillaries surrounding the tubule.

The liquid left behind the tubule of nephron is urine. The nephron carries this urine in to the

collecting duct of the kidney from where it is carried to the ureter. And from here urine passes to

the urinary bladder. And after some time urine is passed out of the body through urethra.

What is Kidney failure or Renal failure?

Due to an infection in the kidney, an injury to kidney or restricted blood flow to the kidney’s,

may stop working and complete failure of kidney’s allows urea and other waste products to build

up in the blood. Even the amount of water in the body is not regulated which may cause death if
the patient is not given proper treatment. The best solution is kidney transplant. In this the

damaged kidney is removed and from healthy person matching kidney is transplanted by a

surgical operation. If, this is not possible then periodically patient is kept on a kidney machine

by a procedure called dialysis. The kidney machine is also known as artificial kidney which

removes waste products from the blood through dialysis.

So, dialysis is the procedure used for cleaning the blood of a person by separating the waste

substance urea from it. The blood from an artery in the patient’s arm is made to flow in to the

dialyser of a dialysis machine made of long tubes of selectively permeable membrane which are

coiled in a tank containing dialysis solution. The dialysis solution contains water, glucose and

salts in similar concentrations to those in normal blood. As the patient’s blood passes through the

dialyzing solution, most of the wastes like urea present in it pass through the selectively

permeable membrane cellulose tubes in to the dialyzing solution. The cleaned blood is pumped

back in to a vein of the patient’s arm.

Facts about excretion in animals:
Transport system in plants

Transport system in plants

Transport in biology means carrying substance absorbed or made in the body of an organism to

all other parts of its body.

In plants, it is only water and minerals that need to be transported to its other parts. Another thing

that needs to be transported to other parts of the plants is the food prepared in leaves. This is

because a plant has a branching shape so it gets carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen

for respiration from air directly through diffusion.

The two types of conducting tissues that perform the function of transport system in plants are:

1) Xylem

2) Phloem
Transport of water and minerals

Plants need water to make food through the process of photosynthesis and minerals for making

proteins. Thus, a plant absorbs water and minerals from soil through roots and transport it other

parts like stem, leaves, flowers etc. It is through two kinds of elements of xylem tissue called,

xylem vessels and tracheid that water and minerals move from roots of a plant to its leaves.

Xylem vessels

Xylem vessel is a long tube made up of dead cells joined end to end. It is a non-living tube which

runs from roots of the plants and runs through the stem and reaches every leaf. The end walls of

the cells are broken so that an open tube is formed.

Xylem vessels do not have cytoplasm or nuclei and the walls of the vessels are made of cellulose

or lignin. Other than transporting water and minerals, xylem vessel also provides strength to the

stem and keeps it upright. This is because lignin is very hard and strong. Wood is made of

lignified xylem vessels. Xylem vessels have pits in their cell walls where lignin is not deposited.

Either xylem vessel or both xylem vessel and tracheid transport water in flowering plants.

Tracheids

In non-flowering plants tracheids are the only water conducting tissues. Tracheids are dead cells

with lignified walls with no open ends. They are long, thin and spindle shaped cells. They have

pits in them and it is through pits only that water flows from one tracheid to another. All the

plants have tracheid in them.

Before understanding the mechanism of transport of water and minerals in a plant it is necessary

to know the meaning of some important terms:

Epidermis: The outer layer of the cells in the root of a plant is called epidermis. The thickness

of epidermis is equal to one cell.

Endodermis: It is the layer of cells around the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) in the root of

a plant. Endodermis is the innermost layer of cortex.

Root cortex: It is the part of root between the epidermis and endodermis.

Root xylem: It is the xylem tissue present in the roots. It is present at the centre of the root.

Epidermis, root cortex and endodermis are present between the root hair and root xylem. So, the

water which is absorbed by the root hairs from soil first passes through epidermis, root cortex

and endodermis and then finally reaches to root xylem.

Also, minerals are present in soil. Plants take these minerals from soil in inorganic form such as

nitrates and phosphates. Minerals from soil gets dissolve in water to form an aqueous solution.

So, when water is transported from roots to leaves, minerals dissolved in water is also

transported.

Mechanism of transport of water and minerals in a plant

Root hair absorbs the water containing dissolved minerals from the soil. Root hair is directly in

contact with the film of water present in-between the soil particles. Water containing minerals

gets into the root hair and passes from cell to cell through the process of osmosis and reaches

epidermis, root cortex, endodermis and root xylem.

Xylem vessels of the root are connected with the xylem vessel of the stem of a plant. So the

water enters from root xylem vessel to the stem xylem vessel and further reaches into the leaves

of the plant from petiole. The plant uses only one or two per cent of the water in photosynthesis.

The remaining water is lost in air as water vapour.

Water is sucked up by the xylem vessel

The pressure at the top of the plant (in the leaves) is low whereas pressure at the bottom of the

plant is high. It is due to transpiration that the pressure is low at the top of a plant. And it is

because of low pressure at the top of the plant that water flows up the xylem vessel into the

leaves of a plant.

The continuous evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant is called transpiration. The leaves

of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. It is through them that the water evaporates into the air.

This reduces the pressure at the top of xylem vessels and thus water flows up into them.

Transport of food and other substances

The food which is prepared by the process of photosynthesis in the leaves of a plant has to be

transported to other parts like stem, roots, branches etc. Therefore this food is transported to
 other parts of the plant through a kind of tubes called phloem. The transport of food from leaves

to other parts of a plant is called translocation. The food made by the leaves is in the form of

simple sugar.

Phloem is present in all the parts of a plant.

Phloem contains Sieve Tubes

Phloem is a long tube made of many living cells joined end to end. The living cells of phloem are

called sieve tubes. The end walls of cells in the phloem have sieve plates which have tiny holes

in them. It is through these holes that the food passes along the phloem tubes. Sieve tubes

contain cytoplasm in them but have no nucleus. Each sieve tube cell has a companion cell which

has a nucleus and many other organelles. The cell wall of sieve tubes contains cellulose but no

lignin.

The food is made by the mesophyll cells of a leaf and from there it enters into the sieve tubes of

the phloem. These phloem tubes are interconnected and once the food reaches the phloem tube of

a leaf, it is then transported to all other parts of a plant.

The transport of food is necessary because every part of a plant needs food for:
 Energy
 Building its parts
 Maintaining its life

Other substance like hormones made in the tips of roots and shoots are also transported through

phloem tubes.
Mechanism of transport of food in a plant

It is by using the energy from ATP that the food made in the leaves of a plant is loaded in sieve

tubes of phloem tissue. Then by the process of osmosis water enters into sieve tubes that contain

sugar. This raises pressure in phloem tissue. This high pressure produced in phloem tissue moves

the food to all other parts of a plant having less pressure. In this way food is transported to all

parts of a plant through phloem tissue.

Respiratory System in Humans

Respiration is the process by which energy is released from food in our body. The function of

respiratory system is to breathe in oxygen for respiration producing energy from food, and to

breathe out carbon dioxide. With the help of lungs gases are exchanged between the blood and

the air. Gases exchanged are oxygen and carbon dioxide. We can live without food and water for

many days but we cannot live for more than a few minutes without air, as it is necessary for

breathing. So, before discussing the human respiratory system, it is necessary to know the

process of breathing which is an important part of respiration.

Process of Breathing:

During breathing we take air in to our lungs through the nose, and then expel it. The taking in of

air rich in oxygen in to the body during breathing is called inhalation and giving out of the air

rich in carbon dioxide is called exhalation. Both the process takes place regularly during

breathing. Therefore, a breath means ‘one inhalation plus one exhalation’.

Mechanism of breathing is as follows:

In this we will learn how air from outside is sucked in to our lungs during inhalation and how air

from lungs is pushed out during exhalation and this happens with the help of lungs. Lungs are

connected to our nostrils (holes in the nose) through nasal passage and wind pipe. When we

inhale air, it enters our nostrils, passes through nasal passage and windpipe, and reaches our

lungs. Our two lungs hang in an airtight space in our body called ‘chest cavity’. Around the side

of the chest cavity is the rib cage with sheets of muscles between the ribs which encloses the

lungs in it. At the bottom of the chest cavity is a curved sheet of muscle called diaphragm.

Therefore, it forms the floor of the chest cavity. So, breathing involves the movement of the rib

cage and the diaphragm.

This happens as follows:

(a) Breathing in: When we breathe in or inhale, two things happen at the same time:

(i) The muscles between the ribs contract causing the rib cage to move upward and outward.

(ii) The diaphragm contracts and moves downward.

All these movement increases the space in the chest cavity and make it larger and air is sucked in

from outside in to the lungs. As a result, the lungs filled up with air and expand.
(b) Breathing out: When we exhale or breathe out two things happen simultaneously:

(i) The muscles between the ribs relax causing the rib cage to move downward and inward.

(ii) The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward.

Due to these movements the space in our chest cavity decreases and makes it smaller, which

pushes air out from the lungs.

Respiratory System

Many organs take part in the process of respiration in Humans. Various organs are: Nose, Nasal

passage or Nasal cavity, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs and Diaphragm.

Respiratory system begins from the nose. Our nose has two holes known as nostrils and the

passage behind the nostrils are called nasal passage or nasal cavity. The air for respiration is

drawn in to our body through the nostrils present in the nose. This air goes in to the nasal

passage. It is separated from the mouth cavity or buccal cavity or oral cavity by a hard, bony

palate so that we can breathe in air even when we are eating food. The nasal passage is lined with

fine hair and mucus. Mucus is secreted by the glands inside the nasal passage. When air passes

through the nasal passage, the dust particles and other impurities present in are trapped by nasal
hair and mucus so that clean air goes in to the lungs. Pharynx is the part of throat between the

mouth and wind pipe. So, air enters from nasal passage to pharynx and then goes in to the wind

pipe (trachea).

Now air passes through trachea, it does not collapse even when there is no air in it because it is

supported by rings of soft bones called cartilage. The upper end of the trachea has a voice box

called larynx. The trachea runs down the neck and divides in to two smaller tubes called

‘bronchi’ at its lower end and these are connected with the lungs. The lungs lie in the chest

cavity or thoracic cavity which is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called

diaphragm. The lungs are covered by two thin membranes called pleura. The lungs are also

enclosed in a ‘rib cage’ made of bones called ‘ribs’.

The singular of bronchi is bronchus and they divide in the lungs to form a large number of still

smaller tubes called ‘bronchioles’. They have tiny pouch like air sacs at their ends called

‘alveoli’ (singular alveolus). Walls of alveoli are very thin and surrounded by blood capillaries.
From alveoli oxygen is taken in to the body and carbon dioxide is eliminated. So, in alveoli

gaseous exchange takes place.

Millions of alveoli are there in lungs which provide a large area for the exchange of gases.

Availability of large area maximises the exchange of gases. Diaphragm helps in ‘breathe in’ and

‘breathe out’ .The muscles of chest also help in breathing in and out. Now, we will see How

Respiratory System works:

When we breathe in air, the diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs contract due to which

our chest cavity expands. This movement increases the volume inside the chest cavity. Due to

this, the air pressure decreases inside the chest cavity and air from outside being at high pressure

rushes in to the lungs through the nostrils, trachea and bronchi.

In this way, during the process of ‘breathing in’ the air sacs or alveoli of the lungs get filled with

air containing oxygen. And alveoli are surrounded by blood capillaries due to which oxygen of

air diffuses out from the alveoli walls in to the blood. The oxygen is carried by a red pigment

called haemoglobin present in blood to all the parts of the body. As the blood passes through the

tissues of the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses in to the cells due to its higher concentration

in the blood. This oxygen combines with the digested food or glucose present in the cells to

release energy. Carbon dioxide is produced as a waste and diffuses in to the blood due to its

higher concentration in body tissues. Blood carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it

diffuses in to the alveoli. When we breathe out air, the diaphragm and the muscles attached to the

ribs relax due to which our chest cavity contracts and become smaller. This contraction

movement of the chest pushes out carbon dioxide from the alveoli of the lungs in to the trachea,

nostrils and then out of the body in to air. The process of gaseous exchange is completed in this

way.
We should know that during the breathing cycle, when air is taken in or inhaled and let out or

exhaled, the lungs always contain a certain residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time

‘for the oxygen to be absorbed’ in to the blood and ‘for carbon dioxide to be released’ from the

blood.
Rate of Breathing

Breathing occurs involuntarily but the rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory system of

brain. The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per minute.

During physical exercise breathing rate increases which supplies more oxygen to body cells for

producing more energy.

The deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of

blood resulting in breathing problems, tiredness and lack of energy. The person looks pale and

loses weight. During carbon monoxide poisoning carbon monoxide binds very strongly with

haemoglobin in the blood and prevents it from carrying oxygen to the brain and other parts of the

body. If carbon monoxide is inhaled for a long time, then the person becomes unconscious and

can even die due to oxygen starvation. The persons having breathing problems are given oxygen

masks to facilitate breathing. In serious case, the patient is put on a machine called ‘ventilator’ in

which a tube is inserted directly in to the trachea or wind pipe of the patient to help him in

breathing comfortably.
Respiration in Animals

Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food and this takes place inside the cells of

the body. The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into cells, using it for

releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and

water) from the body. Respiration is an essential for life because it provides energy for carrying

out all the life processes which are necessary to keep the organisms alive.

Breathing and Respiration:

The mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide is

called breathing. But on the other hand respiration is a complex process it includes breathing as

well as the oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to release energy. Breathing is a

physical process whereas respiration is a biochemical process of oxidation of food. Breathing

process involves lungs of the organism whereas respiration involves the mitochondria in the cells

where food is oxidised to release energy.

Procedure of how energy is released during respiration:

The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri- Phosphate)

molecules in the cells of the body and used by the organism as when required. To understand this

we should know the meaning of ADP, ATP and Inorganic Phosphate. ADP is Adenosine Di-

Phosphate; ATP is Adenosine Tri- Phosphate and Inorganic Phosphate is a substance which

contains a phosphate group made up of phosphorous and oxygen.

(i) The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules from ADP and

inorganic phosphate.

This energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP.

(ii) When the cells need energy, then ATP can be broken down using water to release energy.

The released energy by ATP is equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mole and is used to carry out all the

endodermic reactions taking place in the cells and so, ATP is known as the currency of cells.
Types of Respiration:

• Aerobic Respiration: The respiration which uses oxygen. In this process, the glucose food is

completely broken down in to carbon dioxide and water by oxidation and this energy gets stored

in the ATP molecules.

Thus, mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cells.

• Anaerobic Respiration: The respiration which takes place without oxygen. In this, the

microorganisms like yeast break down glucose (food) in to ethanol, carbon dioxide and releases

energy.

Therefore, whole process of anaerobic respiration takes place in the cytoplasm of cells. So, we

can say that all the cells do not use oxygen to produce energy. Fermentation of sugar can also be

done by using anaerobic respiration of yeast.

Human beings obtain energy by aerobic respiration but sometimes anaerobic respiration takes

place in our muscles during vigorous physical exercise when oxygen gets used up faster in the

muscle cells than can be supplied by the human body.

The accumulation of lactic Acid in the muscles causes muscle cramps.

• There is one similarity between aerobic and anaerobic respiration and that is energy is produced

by the breakdown of food like glucose. The main differences between them are explained

below:
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

1. It takes place in the 1. It takes place in the absence of

presence of oxygen. oxygen.

2. Complete breakdown
2. Partial breakdown of food occurs.
of food occurs.

3. The end products in 3. The end products in anaerobic

aerobic respiration are respiration may be ethanol and
carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide (as in yeast plant) or
water. lactic acid (as in animal muscles).

4. In this considerable
amount of energy is 4. Much less energy is produced.
produced.

Various Modes of respiration in animals:

• In simple unicellular animals like Amoeba, respiration takes place by the simple diffusion of

gases through the cell membrane. Most of the animals have, however, specific organs for

respiration.

• The animals like earthworms which live in the soil use their skin to absorb oxygen from air and

remove carbon dioxide. So, the respiratory organ in the earthworm is the skin.

• The aquatic animals like fish, prawns and mussels have gills as the respiratory organs which

extract oxygen dissolved in water and take away carbon dioxide from the body.
• In the insects like grasshopper, cockroach, housefly and a mosquito, the tiny holes called

spiracles on their body and the air tubes called tracheae are the respiratory organs.

• The respiratory organs of the land animals such as man (humans), birds, lizard, dog and frog

etc. are the lungs. However, Frogs breathe both by lungs and skin.

Therefore, we can say that all the respiratory organs whether skin, gills, trachea or lungs have

three common features:

• All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.

• All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.

• All the respiratory organs like skin, lungs and gills have a rich blood supply for transporting

gases. But only in tracheal system of respiration, air reaches the cells directly.
 Respiration and Excretion in plants

Respiration in Plants

Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food. Like human beings and other animals,

plants also need oxygen from the environment and release carbon dioxide. This shows that even

plants undergo the process of respiration. So, Oxygen and carbon dioxide are also called

respiratory gases.

The respiration is plants differ from human beings and other animals in the following aspects:
 Respiration takes place individually in all parts of the plants like stem, roots, leaves etc. In
human beings and animals respiration takes place through one part only.
 In plants, respiratory gases are hardly transported from part to another part. On the other hand, in
animals and human beings respiratory gases are transported to all parts of the body.
 The rate of respiration is slow in plants whereas it is faster in humans and animals.

Plants get oxygen by diffusion

Diffusion is the only process through which much needed oxygen is supplied to all the cells of

the plants. Diffusion occurs in roots, stems and leaves.

Respiration in roots:

Roots of the plant take oxygen from the air that is present in-between the particles of soil. Root-

hair, which is an extension of the epidermal cells of a root, is in direct contact with the soil.

Oxygen diffuses in root hair and reaches all the other cells of the roots. It is through root hairs

that only carbon dioxide gets diffused into them and is expelled from the roots of a plant. Thus,

respiration in roots of the plant occurs by diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through root

hairs.

Also, many a times we have noticed that plants die if they are waterlogged for long. This is

because due to water logging air is expelled from in-between the particles of soil and thus,

oxygen becomes unavailable to the roots of the plants. Under such condition plant respire

anaerobically which produces alcohol and kills them.

Respiration in stems

The soft stems of small herbaceous plants have stomata in them and hard stem of big plants and

trees have lenticels in them. Lenticels are in the small area of a bark. These cells are loosely

placed and therefore allow the gaseous exchange of respiratory gases between air and living cells

of the woody stem.

Stomata help in the gaseous exchange of respiratory gases between stems of herbaceous plants

and air. It is through stomata that oxygen from air diffuses into the stem and goes to all the cells

of a stem for respiration.

Similarly, carbon dioxide produced in the stems diffuses into stomata of herbaceous plants and

lenticels of trees or large plants and goes out into the air.

Respiration in leaves

Respiration in leaves takes place through stomata that is present as tiny pores in the leaves of a

plant. Oxygen gets diffused in stomata and reaches other cells of the leaves. The carbon dioxide

produced in the process of respiration also gets diffused with stomata and moves out of the

leaves.
 Also, respiration in leaves takes places at both day and night time. But photosynthesis occurs

only during day time. Because of this, net gaseous exchange in the leaves of a plant is:
 During day time, oxygen is produced in the leaves. This is because photosynthesis occurs during
the day. So leaves use some of this oxygen for respiration and rest of it is diffused out in the air.
The carbon dioxide produced during respiration in the leaves is also used up in photosynthesis.
Rather more carbon dioxide is required from the air. Therefore, net gaseous exchange during day
time is, oxygen diffuses out and carbon dioxide diffuses in.
 During night time no photosynthesis occurs in the leaves. Therefore, in the process of respiration
oxygen diffuses into leaves from the air and carbon dioxide diffuses out in the air. So, the net
gaseous exchange in leaves at night is oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Excretion in Plants

Excretion is the removal of waste from the body. Plants also produce waste products but very

slowly and in very small amounts. They do not have any special organ for the removal of their

waste product.

The waste products of a plant are carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxygen. While carbon

dioxide and water vapour are waste products of respiration, oxygen is a waste product of

photosynthesis. These waste products are removed through stomata in leaves and lenticels in

stems and are released into the air.

Some of the waste products are stored in the leaves, bark and fruits of a plant or a tree. Trees get

rid of them when dead leaves bark and ripe fruits fall off from them. Some plants store waste in

their fruits in the form of solid bodies called raphides. For example, fruit yam has needle-shaped
 raphides on its surface. Plants also secrete waste in the form of gum and resins from their stem

and branches.

Therefore, various methods used by plants to get rid of their waste products are:
 Gaseous waste through stomata and lenticels.
 Stored solid and liquid waste by shedding leaves, peeling of bark and falling of fruits.
 By secreting waste in the form of gum and resins.
 Excrete waste into the soil around them.
Human Circulatory System

The Circulatory System is the system of organs in the human beings and other animals which is

responsible for transport of materials inside the body. It consists of heart, arteries, veins,

capillaries and blood. The heart acts as a pump to push out blood. The arteries, veins and

capillaries act as pipes or tubes through which the blood flows. These tubes carries blood are

called blood vessels. So, there are three types of blood vessels in the human body: arteries, veins

and capillaries. Now in detail we will understand all the parts of the circulatory system.

Roughly the shape of the heart is triangular and is made up of special muscle called cardiac

muscle. The heart has four compartments known as ‘chambers’ inside it. The upper two

chambers of heart are known as atria (in singular atrium) and the lower two chambers of heart

are called ventricles. From two main veins these two atria receives blood. And the two ventricles

transport blood to the entire body and the lungs. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle
 through a valve V1. Similarly, the right atrium is connected to the right ventricle through another

valve V2. These valves prevent the back flow of blood in to atria when ventricles contract to

pump blood out of the heart to the rest of the body. This is because when the ventricles contract,

the valves V1 and V2 close automatically so that the blood may not go back to atria. So, heart

pumps blood around our body. All the atria and veins contract and relax and make heart to pump

blood. Since ventricles have to pump blood in to various organs with high pressure, they have

thicker walls than atria.

A sheath of tissue called ‘pericardium’ protects the muscular heart and the chambers of the heart

are separated by a partition called septum. Now, before describing the circulation of blood in the

human body it is necessary to know more about arteries, veins and capillaries.
 Arteries are thick walled blood vessels which carry blood from the heart to all the parts of the
body. They are thick because blood emerges from the heart under high pressure. Arteries are
found in whole of our body. The main artery called aorta is connected to the left ventricle of the
heart through a valve V3. The function of main artery is to carry oxygenated blood from left
ventricle to all the parts of the body except lungs. Another artery called pulmonary artery is
connected to the right ventricle of the heart through another valve V4. The pulmonary artery
carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
 The Capillaries are thin walled and extremely narrow tubes or blood vessels which connect
arteries to veins. Thus, the exchange of various materials like oxygen, food, carbon dioxide etc
between the blood and the body cells takes place through capillaries only. The other end of
capillaries is joined to some wider tubes called veins. The deoxygenated blood or dirty blood
coming from the capillaries enters in to veins.
 Veins are the thin walled blood vessels which carry blood from all parts of the body back to the
heart. Veins do not need thick walls because the blood flowing through them is no longer under
high pressure. Veins have valves in them which allow the blood to flow in only one direction
towards the heart.

The main difference between artery and vein is that an artery carries blood from the heart to the

body organs whereas a vein carries blood from the body organs back to the heart. The blood

which carries oxygen is called oxygenated blood and the blood which does not carry oxygen is

called deoxygenated blood, however carries carbon dioxide in it.

 Also when blood circulates in our body it supplies oxygen, digested food and other chemicals

like hormones to all the cells of the body. It also carries back waste products like carbon dioxide

etc. from the body cells.

Process of blood circulation in humans

 The pulmonary vein brings the oxygenated blood from the lungs in to the left atrium of the heart,
when the muscles of all the four chambers of the heart are relaxed.
 When the left atrium contracts, the oxygenated blood is pushed in to the left ventricle through the
valve V1.
 When the left ventricle contracts, the oxygenated blood is forced in to the main artery called
‘aorta’. These arteries are in branched form and goes in to the different body organs. The smaller
arteries called arterioles further branch in to capillaries.
 The main artery carries blood to all the organs of the body like head, chest, arms, stomach,
intestines etc. In this way the cells of the body gets oxygen from capillaries and then blood
becomes deoxygenated by loosing oxygen. Now the deoxygenated blood from the body organs
enters in to the main vein called vena cava. The main vein carries the deoxygenated blood to the
right atrium of the heart.
 When the right atrium contracts, deoxygenated blood is pushed in to the right ventricle through
the valve V2.
 And when the right ventricle contract, the deoxygenated blood is pumped in to the lungs through
the pulmonary artery. In the lungs, deoxygenated blood releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs
fresh oxygen from air. So, the blood becomes oxygenated again. This oxygenated blood is again
sent to the left atrium of heart by pulmonary vein for circulation in the body.
This whole process is repeated continuously.

So, now we can say that a circulatory system is that in which the blood travels twice through the

heart in one complete cycle of the body called double circulation. In human circulatory system

the pathway of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart is called pulmonary

circulation and the pathway of blood from the heart to rest of the body and back to the heart is

called systemic circulation. And these two together make double circulation.

Heart Beats:

One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a heart beat. The heart beat

usually beats about 70 to 72 times in a minute when we are resting. A stethoscope is an apparatus

due to which doctors listens our heart beat. The heart beat faster during and after exercise

because the body needs more energy under these conditions.

Blood Pressure:

The pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by the heart is called blood pressure.

The maximum pressure at which the blood leaves the heart through the main artery during

contraction phase is called the systolic pressure and the minimum pressure in the arteries during

the relaxation phase of heart is called diastolic pressure.

Systolic pressure: 120 mm Hg

Diastolic pressure: 80 mm Hg

So, the normal blood pressure is 120/80 and is measured by an instrument called

sphygmomanometer.
Note:
The Heart

Its average weight is about 340 grams in men and 255 grams in women. The left half and the

right half of the heart is divided by a wall called septum. Each half, in turn, is divided into an

upper chamber called the auricle and a lower chamber called the ventricle. The auricle receives

blood from the veins and the ventricle pumps blood into the arteries.

Heartbeats In a normal, healthy adult, the contraction and relaxation mechanism of the

ventricles results in a heartbeat of about 70-72/min in males and 78-82/min in females.

Functions The functions of the heart are:

(i) to supply pure blood to all parts of the body; (through arteries)

(ii) to collect impure blood from organs/tissues; (through veins)

(iii) to pump impure blood into the lungs for purification; and

(iv) to collect pure blood from the lungs.

Composition of the blood:
Blood consists of a faintly yellow fluid, the plasma or liquor sanguinis, in which are suspended
numerous minute particles, the blood corpuscles, the majority of which are coloured and give the
blood its red tint.

Functions of Blood

(i) Carries oxygen and essential nourishment through arteries to every living tissue in the body.

(ii) Carbon dioxide and waste products generated in the body by metabolism (Metabolism are all

chemical processes which govern living organisms), such as urea, are removed by the blood

through veins. (iii) Controls body temperature. (iv) Defends against infections.

Constituents of Blood: There are two main constituents of blood, viz., the solid or cellular part

called blood cells (35 per cent) and fluid or humoral part called plasma (65 per cent). Blood

cells, called corpuscles, are of three types. (i) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) RBCs, which are

called erythrocytes, are disc-shaped cells. They have no nucleus and contain a pigment called

haemoglobin which gives blood its red colour. RBCs are produced in the spleen. The life of an

RBC is about 100-120 days.

(ii) White Blood Corpuscles (WBC) WBCs are the ‘soldiers’ of the body’s defence system. They

are a little larger than RBCs.

Blood grouping K. Landsteiner, in 1900-02, classified human blood into four groups, A, B, AB,

and O. The cells of these groups contain the corresponding antigens—A, B, AB, except O cells

which contain neither antigen A nor B.

Blood Pressure It is the force exerted by the blood beating against artery walls. The highest

point in the pressure range is called systolic pressure (upper reading) and lowest point in the

pressure is called diastolic pressure (lower reading). 120/80 is the normal blood pressure.
 Composition and Functions of Blood

Blood is a red coloured liquid which circulates in our body. It is red in colour because it contains

a red pigment called haemoglobin in its red cells. Blood is a connective tissue, consists of four

things namely Plasma, Red blood corpuscles (Red blood cells or RBCs), White blood corpuscles

(White blood cells or WBCs) and platelets.

Plasma is a liquid also known as Fluid matrix consist of three types of cells which keep floating

in it i.e red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Source: www.4f20lz3r4bii3yfqutfxz0o17ou.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com
Functions of Blood

Blood has three main functions in the human body i.e Transport of substances from one part of

the body to the other like respiratory gases, waste products, enzymes etc, Protect against diseases

and Regulation of body temperature.

 Blood regulates body temperature.
 It carries oxygen from lungs to different parts of the body.
 It carries carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for breathing out.
 It carries digested food from the small intestine to all parts of the body.
 It carries hormones from the endocrine glands to different organs of the body.
 It carries waste product urea from the liver to the kidneys for excretion.
 Defends against infection.

On an average, a healthy man has about 5 litres of blood in the body, while woman has about

500ml less than man. So, total blood is about 60-80 ml/kg of body weight.
Plasma

The fluid or liquid part of blood is called plasma. It is a colourless liquid which contains 90%

water, protein and inorganic salts. It also contains some organic substances in dissolved form like

glucose, amino-acids, fats, urea, hormones; enzymes etc.It carries these dissolved substances

from one part to another part in the body. The protein in plasma includes antibodies to assist in

the body’s defence system against disease and infection.

Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC)

Also known as erythrocytes are disc- shaped cells concave in the middle and visible under a

microscope. RBC carries oxygen from the lungs to all the cells of the body. They have no

nucleus and contain a pigment called haemoglobin which is made up of an iron containing

pigment known as haema and a protein called globin. RBCs are produced in the spleen and the

bone marrow and live for about four months because they lack nucleus. So, when we donate

blood to save the life of a person, then the loss of blood from our body is recovered within a day

because red blood cells are made very fast in the bone marrow. Life of the RBC is about 100-120

days.

Functions
 Haemoglobin in RBC picks up oxygen in the lung tissues by forming a chemical compound with
it.
 This oxygen is carried to the tissues where it is used in the chemical reactions to produce energy.
 It then combines with carbon dioxide which is produced in these reactions and returns to the
lungs with the heart where the cycle starts again.
 What is Bombay Blood Group and how it is discovered?
White Blood Corpuscles (WBC)

WBC is also known as leukocytes. They fights with infection and protect us from diseases

because they eat up the germs which causes diseases. That is why they are also known as

‘soldiers’ of the body’s defence system. They are round or irregular, semi- transparent cells

containing a nucleus and visible under a microscope. They are little larger than RBC. Some

White blood cells make chemicals called ‘antibodies’ to fight against infection i.e why they

provide immunity in our body. WBC in the blood is much smaller in number then red blood

cells.

Functions
 Broadly, WBC acts as a defence system in the body.
 There are several varieties of WBC performing specific functions such as, Neutrophils (65 to
70% of the total WBC) attack the invading bacteria and engulf them. Lymphocytes (25% of
WBC) produces antibodies which protect the body against antigen and thus provide immunity
against infection. Basophils secrete anticoagulant called heparin which prevents clot within the
blood cells. Eosinophils and monocytes also assist in defence mechanism of the body by
becoming active against specific antigens.
Blood platelets

Blood Platelets are also known as thrombocytes. They are tiny, circular or oval colourless cells

formed in the bone marrow. They lack nucleus and help in the coagulation of blood (clotting of

blood) in a cut or wound, due to which bleeding stops. All the blood cells are made in the bone

marrow from the cells called stem cells.

Blood clotting is a body’s defence system to combat bleeding. Plasma contains a soluble protein

fibrinogen of the blood which produces the insoluble protein called fibrin essential for blood

coagulation which is formed in the liver.

Process of clotting

In an injury blood platelets break down and release an enzyme which helps in the formation of

fibrin from fibrinogen. This fibrin forms clot in the form of mass of fibres which stops bleeding

from blood vessels. After clotting, a straw- coloured fluid called serum is left.
Blood Grouping

In 1900-1902, K. Landsteiner classified human blood in to four groups A, B, AB and O. The

cells of these group contains corresponding antigens – A, B and AB except O. That is why O is

donated to any of the groups and so is known as Universal donor. AB group is known as

Universal recipient because it can receive A, B, AB and O blood groups.

Blood Group Can donate Can receive

blood to blood from

A A, AB A and O

B B, AB B and O

AB Only AB AB, A, B and O

O AB, A, B and O Only O

Rh factor

Is a blood antigen discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and A.S Weiner and played an important

role during blood transfusion. The Rh factor is an agglutinogen found in RBC of most people

called Rh+. It was initially found in the rhesus monkey and later in man. People who do not have

this antigen in their blood are called Rh-. The Rh- blood does not carry anti- Rh antibodies

naturally but could synthesize them if synthesized through blood transfusion of Rh+ blood. If
Rh+ blood is transfused in to an Rh- patient, the serum will produce anti-Rh agglutinin. If

another dose of Rh+ blood is given, the anti-Rh agglutinin will cause clumping of RBC of the

donor’s blood as soon as it enters the patient receiving it.

Erythroblastosis Foetalis: If the father's blood is Rh+ and the mother's blood is Rh- then the

child to be born dies at the pregnancy or short span of time after birth. Basically, this happens in

the case of second issue.

Blood Transfusion

This technique was first developed by James Blundell in 1825. The injection of blood from one

person (donor) in to the circulatory system of another is called blood transfusion. It is done after

proper matching of blood groups and the Rh factor.

What is Blood Pressure and how it is measured?

Blood Pressure

Is the force exerted by the blood beating against artery walls. The highest point in the pressure

range is called systolic pressure (upper reading) and lowest point is called diastolic pressure

(lower reading). It is measured by an instrument called sphygmomanometer. The diastolic

pressure is always lower than the systolic pressure. The average systolic pressure of a healthy

young man is about 120 mm Hg and the diastolic pressure is about 80 mm Hg that is, 120/80 is

the normal blood pressure. High blood pressure is known as hypertension and low blood

pressure is known as hypotension.

Transport in Humans

‘Circulatory system’ or ‘Blood circulatory system’ is the main transport system in human beings.

In this blood carries oxygen, digested food and other chemicals like hormones and enzymes to all

parts of the body and take away waste products like carbon dioxide and urea. Therefore, Human
blood circulatory system consists of the heart which pumps and receives blood and the blood

vessels through which blood flows in the body.

In the circulatory system, blood flows through three types of blood vessels: Arteries, veins and

capillaries. The blood vessels are present in all parts of the human body so, that blood reaches

everywhere in the body.

There is another system with the blood circulatory system for the transport in human beings is

Lymphatic System. Lymph is the liquid which circulates and carries materials in the lymphatic

system. Thus, we can conclude that in Human beings, the various substances are transported

through two liquids called ‘blood ‘and ‘lymph’.

Haemolymph: Body fluid of arthropoda is a colourless made of plasma and haemocytes. It

donot contain any respiratory pigment like cockroach.

Human Digestive System

The nutrition in human beings takes place through human digestive system. It consists of

alimentary canal and its associated glands. Various organs of Human digestive system in

sequence are: Mouth, Oesophagus (or Food Pipe), Stomach, Small Intestine and Large Intestine.

The glands which are associated with this system are: Salivary glands, Liver and Pancreas. The

human alimentary canal runs from mouth to anus and is about 9 metres long tube. The ducts of

various glands open in to the alimentary canal and pour the secretions of the digestive juices in to

the alimentary canal.

Now we will understand the various steps involved in the nutrition of human digestive system of

human beings:

1. Ingestion: Food is ingested in human beings through the mouth and it is put in to the mouth

with the help of hands.

2. Digestion: In the mouth itself the digestion of food begins in the mouth itself. Process of

digestion is as follows: The mouth cavity or buccal cavity contains teeth, tongue and salivary
glands. The teeth cut the food in to small pieces, chew and grind it. So, teeth help in the physical

digestion. The salivary glands present in our mouth produce saliva and with the help of tongue

saliva is mixed with food. As, we know that saliva is a watery liquid so it wets the food in our

mouth and helps to swallow it easily. Many a times we have observed that when we see or eat a

delicious food our mouth ‘waters’. This is due to the saliva produce by the salivary glands. The

salivary glands help in chemical digestion by secreting enzymes. Human saliva contains an

enzyme known as salivary amylase which digests the starch present in food in to sugar. Thus, the

digestion of starch or carbohydrate begins in the mouth itself. But food remains for very short

time in mouth so, digestion of food remains incomplete in mouth.

Now, the slightly digested food goes to stomach through food pipe i.e oesophagus. This happens

as follows: The walls of food pipe have muscles which can contract and expand alternately.

When slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls started movements of contraction and

expansion and this movement is known as peristaltic movement. And this peristaltic movement

pushes food inside the stomach.

The Human Digestive System

The stomach is J- shaped organ present on the left side of the abdomen. The food is churned in

the stomach for about three hours. During this time, the food breaks down in to still smaller
pieces and forms a semi-solid paste. The glands present in the stomach walls secrete gastric juice

and it contains three substances: hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin and mucus. Due to the

presence of hydrochloric acid food is acidic in nature and the enzyme pepsin begins the

digestion of proteins present in food to form smaller molecules. Thus, the protein digestion

begins in the stomach.

Function of Hydrochloric acid is:

(i) It makes pepsin enzyme active.

(ii) It kills any bacteria which may enter in stomach with food.

Mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric acid otherwise

it may cause ulcers in the stomach. The partially digested food goes from the stomach to small

intestine. The exit of food from stomach is regulated by ‘sphincter muscle’ which release it in

small amounts in to the small intestine.

The small intestine is the largest part of the alimentary canal. It is about 6.5 metres long in an

adult man. It is known as small intestine because it is very narrow. The small intestine is

arranged in the form of a coil in our belly. The small intestine in human beings is the site of

complete digestion of food like carbohydrates, proteins and fats. This happen as follows:

(i) The small intestine receives the secretions of two glands: Liver and pancreas. Liver secretes

bile. Bile is a greenish yellow liquid made in the liver which is normally stored in the gall

bladder. Bile is alkaline and contains salts which help to emulsify or break the fats or lipids

present in the food. It makes the acidic food alkaline which comes from stomach so that pancreas

can act on it and it also break the fats present in the food in to small globules making it easy for
the enzymes to act and digest them. Pancreas is a large leaf like gland which lies parallel to and

beneath the stomach. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains digestive enzymes like

pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase. Amylase breaks down the starch, trypsin digests the

proteins and lipase breaks down the emulsified fats.

(ii) The walls of small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The intestinal juice

contains a number of enzymes which complete the digestion of complex carbohydrates in to

glucose, proteins in to amino acids and fats in to fatty acids and glycerol. Glucose, amino acids,

fatty acids and glycerol are small, water soluble molecules. In this way, the process of digestion

converts the large and small insoluble food molecules in to small, water soluble molecules. The

chemical digestion of food is brought about by biological catalysts called enzymes.

3. Absorption: After digestion the molecules of food becomes small and passes through small

intestine and goes in to our blood. So, we can say that small intestine is the main region for the

absorption of digested food. The inner surface of small intestine has millions of tiny, finger like

projections called villi which gives large surface area for absorption and the absorbed food goes

in to our blood.

4. Assimilation: The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts of the body where

it becomes assimilated as part of the cell. This assimilated food is used by the body cells for

obtaining energy as well as for growth and repair of the body. The undigested food stored in the

liver in the form of carbohydrate called ‘glycogen’ and can be used by the body during

requirement.

5. Egestion: A part of the food which we eat cannot be digested by our body. This undigested

food cannot be absorbed in the small intestine. So, undigested food passes from small intestine to
large intestine. The walls of large intestine absorb most of the water from this food and become

solid. Last part of the large intestine called ‘rectum’ stores this undigested food for some time

and finally, egested from our body through anus as faeces or ‘stool’. This process is known as

egestion or defecation.

Dental Caries:

The formation of small cavities or holes in the teeth is due to the action of acid-forming bacteria

and improper dental care is called dental caries. If the teeth are not cleaned regularly, they

become covered with a sticky, yellowish layer of food particles and bacteria cells called ‘Dental

Plaque’.
List of Human Diseases

The word disease implies that dis-ease (not easy). In other words malfunctioning or improper

functioning of various body parts like genetic disorder, hormonal imbalance, malfunctioning of

immune system of body are some factors which affects the human health. The diseases caused by

intrinsic sources are called organic or metabolic diseases like cardiac failure, kidney failure,

diabetes, allergies, cancer etc and the diseases caused by extrinsic factors are Kwashiorkor,

obesity, Night blindness, scurvy etc. Some diseases are also caused by micro-organisms due to

unbalanced diet such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, protozoan’s, helminthes, worms, etc.;

environmental pollutants, tobacco, alcohol and narcotic drugs are also an important extrinsic

factors which upset human health.

Types of Diseases: On the basis of its nature, character and causes of its spreadness is of two

types:

1. Congenital Disease is the diseases which are present since birth. These are caused due to

genetic abnormality or due to metabolic disorders or malfunctioning of any organ. They are

basically permanent, generally not easily curable and may be inherited to the children like

Harelip, Cleft Palate, Club foot etc. Also due to imbalance in the chromosomes the appearance of

Mongalism, to born the blue baby due to cardiac disorder etc are also some examples of it.

2. Acquired Disease is those defects or disorders which are not present by birth but appear due to

the various causes and factors. These may be further categorized into following heads:
(i) Communicable or infectious diseases: These are caused by a variety of pathogenic viruses,

bacteria, protozoa, fungi and worms. The pathogens are generally carried with the help of a

vector.

(ii) Non-communicable or non-infectious or degenerative diseases: These occur due to the

malfunctioning of some organ or organ system in the body. It may be of various types like

Deficiency diseases: These occur due to the deficiency of some nutrients, minerals or vitamins,

Cancerous diseases, Allergy, Genetic diseases.

Diseases Spread through Blood Transfusion

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome): It destroys immune system of the body & is

caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV).There are two types of HIV namely HIV-1

and HIV-2. The most common virus currently associated with AIDS is HIV-1. A virus found in

the blood of wild African green monkey called the Simian Immuno deficiency Virus (SIV) is

similar to HIV-2. HIV is a retrovirus. It can synthesize DNA from RNA. The major cell infected

by HIV is the helper T-Iymphocyte that bears the CD-4 receptor site. HIV progressively destroys

T-Iymphocytes. The patient occasionally will suffer from swollen lymph nodes, mild prolonged

fever, diarrhoea or other non-specific symptoms.

Important facts about AIDS: AIDS in India was first reported in 1986 and is the end stage of

the disease. HIV antibodies can be detected by the ELISA test (Enzyme-Linked Immuno

Sorbent Assay). World AIDS Day is celebrated on 1st December.

OTHER DISEASES

Cancer: They are characterized by the uncontrolled growth and division of cells which leads to a

mass of cells known as neoplasm. Abnormal and persistent cell division localized in a particular

region is called benign tumor.

Gout: It results from accumulation of uric acid crystals in the synovial joints. It is a disease

associated with an inborn error of uric acid metabolism that increases production or interferes

with the excretion of uric acid.

Haemophilia is called bleeder's disease. It is a disorder which is sex-linked and is a recessive

condition. In a patient of haemophilia, blood clotting is deficient.

Haemophilia A, is characterized by lack of anti- haemophilia globulin factor VIII. About four-

fifths of the cases of haemophilia are of this type.

Haemophilia B or Christmas disease results from a defect in plasma thromboplastic component.

Hepatitis : It is a viral disease, causes hepatic anorexia resulting in liver damage (liver cancer)

or jaundice. It is transmitted by the faecal-oral route. Children and young adults are susceptible

to it and no vaccines are acceptable.

Various Deficiency Diseases

VIRAL DISEASES OF HUMANS

Parts of
Name of Method of Type of
Caused by body
disease spread Vaccination
affected

Respiratory
passages:
A myxovirus epithelial Droplet
Influenza Killed virus
(RNA virus) lining of Infection
trachea and
bronchi.

Large variety
Common of viruses, Respiratory Droplet Intramuscular
cold commonly passages Infection injection.
rhino-virus
 (RNA Virus)

Living
Droplet atteneuated
Respiratory
Variola virus Infection virus applied
Smallpox passages,
(DNA virus) (Wounds in by scratching
then skin
skin) skin, no
longer carried

Living
Varicella- Blistering Air-borne
Chickenpox attenuated
zoster Skin rash droplets
virus

Respiratory
passages,
infection via
A Living
blood, Droplet
Mumps paramyxovirus attenuated
salivary infection
(RNA virus) virus
glands,
testes in
adult males

Respiratory
A passages, Living
Droplet
Measles paramyxovirus spreading to attenuated
infection
(RNA virus) skin and virus
intestines.

Living
attenuated
Respiratory
virus, more
passages,
German essential for
lymph Droplet
measles Rubella virus girls because
nodes in infection
(Rubella) disease
neck, eyes
causes
and skin.
complication
in pregnancy.

Pharynx and
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Droplet Living
intestines,
(polio) (RNA Virus) then blood; infection or attenuated
via human virus given
occasionally
 motor faeces orally
neurons in
spinal cord,
paralysis
may occur.

An arbovirus Lining of Vector-

Living
i.e arthropod- blood arthropods
Yellow fever attenuated
borne virus vessels and e.g ticks,
virus
(RNA Virus) liver mosquitoes

Sexual
Retrovirus intercourse
AIDS Skin Cancer Not available
(RNA virus) homo- and
hetrosexuals

It is
transmitted
to people
from wild
animals and No licensed
Ebola Fatal Illness
Ebola Virus spreads in Ebola
haemorrhagic in Humans,
disease (EVD) the human vaccine is
fever Fever
population available
through
human-to-
human
transmission.

Basically
Infection in
Causes mild pregnant
Zika Virus illness in women is
No vaccine
Zika disease (mosquito the people linked to
available
borne disease) like dengue, abnormally
yellow fever small heads
in their
babies.
Bacterial Diseases of Humans

Name of Caused by Parts of Method of Type of

disease body spread vaccination or

affected antibodies

Diphtheria Corynebacterium Upper Droplet Toxoid

diphtheria respiratory infection

tract, mainly

throat also

toxin affects

heart.

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Mainly lungs Droplet BCG living

(TB) tuberculosis infection, attenuated

Drinking milk bacteria.

from infected Antibiotics e.g.

cattle. streptomycin.

Whooping Bordetella Upper Droplet Killed bacteria

cough pertussis respiratory infection

(Pertussis) tract,

inducing

violent

coughing
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Reproductive Contagion by Antibiotics, e.g.

gonorrhoeae organs: sexual contact penicillin,

mainly streptomycin

mucous

membranes

of

urinogenital

tract.

Newborn

infants may

acquire

serious eye

infections if

they pass

through

infected birth

canal.

Syphilis Treponema Reproductive Contagion by Antibiotics. e.g.

pallidum organs, then sexual contact penicillin

eyes, bones,

joints,

central

nervous
 system, heart

and skin.

Tetanus Clostridium Blood. Wound Toxoid

tetani infection
Toxin

produced

which affects

motor nerves

of spinal

cord and

hence

muscles,

causing

lockjaw and

spreading to

the muscles.

Cholera Vibrio cholera Alimentary Faecal Killed bacteria:

canal: contamination short-lived

mainly small protection and

(a) food - or
intestine. not always
water borne
effective
of material
Antibiotics e.g.
contaminated
tetracyclines,
with faeces
 from infected chloramphenicol.

person.

(b) handling

of

contaminated

Objects.

(c) vector,

e,g. flies

moving from

human faeces

to food.

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Alimentary Same as Killed bacteria

canal, then cholera (TAB vaccine)

spreading to

lymph and

blood, lungs,

bone

marrow,

spleen.

Bacterial Shigella Alimentary Same as No vaccine.

dysentery dysenteriae canal, mainly cholera

ileum and
 colon

Bacterial food Salmonella spp. Alimentary Mainly Antibiotic. e.g.

poisoning canal foodborne tetracyclines.

(gastro meat from

enteritis or infected

salmonellosis) animals from

poultry and

pigs. Also via

faecal

contamination

as cholera

Diseases Caused By Worms

Disease Pathogen Mode of Main

responsible transmission symptoms

and its habitat

Ancylostomiasis Ancylostoma Transmission Dermatitis;

or 'Hook-worm duobenale, from person to reddish, severe

disease' small intestine person, anaemia;

(jejunum) of filariform duodenal

man larvae passed ulcer,

out in faeces, constipation.

 man picks up Patient pale,

infection face puffy with

walking swelling of

barefoot on lower eyelids.

faecally-

contaminated

soil.

Ascariasis Ascaris Transmission Larvae in lung

Lumbricoides; from person to cause

small intestine person, ripe pneumonia.

(jejunum) of eggs passed May give rise

man out in faeces, to typhoid-like

infection fever, causes

affected by protein and

swallowing Vitamin A

ripe Ascaris deficiencies

eggs with raw resulting in

vegetables. protein-calorie

malnutrition

and night

blindness

respectively.

Can cause
 appendicitis,

jaundice.

Enterobiasis or Enterobius Transmission Eczematous

'Pinworm disease' vermicularis, from one condition

caecum and person to round the

vermiform another by anus, bed

appendix ingestion of wetting at

eggs in night,

contaminated inflammation

food or drink. of vermiform

appendix.

Filariasis Wuchereria Part of the life Elephantiasis

Bancrofti, cycle in i.e. enormous

lymphatic mosquito in enlargement of

vessels and which larvae certain parts

lymph nodes. develop and such as that of

become leg, scrotum,

infectious to penis, labia,

man, with clitoris, breast,

mosquito bite forearm.

larvae

deposited on
 skin which

enter through

puncture

wound and

reach

lymphatic

channels

Diseases Caused By Worms

Diseases caused by Fungi

Disease Pathogen Mode of Main

responsible transmission symptoms

Ringworm Microsporum, Direct contact Contain one or

(tinea) Trichophyton from unbathed more blistered

cats and dogs or areas on skin

objects handled and scalp.

by infected Cause partial

individuals and temporary

baldness in

children.

Athlete's foot Trichophyton Bad foot Painful itching

hygiene where or burning

 skin remains sensation in the

warm and moist infected areas.

for long periods. Crack appears

in the skin,

mass of loose

dead skin

clings between

toes.

Madura foot Maurella Fungi gain entry Produce a

Mycetomi through some chronic,

minor injury to granulating

the skin. infection of the

lower

extremities,

affected part

becomes

enlarged and

develops many

deep sores,

extensive bone

destruction

leading to

crippling
 deformities.

Dhobie itch Several Direct contact A type of

Different Fungi through Objects ringworm

handled by infection

infected person. usually located

in the groin

and inner

surfaces of

thighs, red rash

which itches

intensely.
How Genetics define the hereditary characteristics of human?

The fundamental characters which easily transmit generation to generation from their parents are

called genetic character and the processes of transmission of such heredity and the studies of

their causes are called Genetics. Gregor John Mendel is known as ‘Father of Genetics’ who made

the scientific study of heredity and genetic theory. His method was based on cross breeding of

various kinds of the garden peas that had the opposing pairs of obvious traits. He established the

principles of segregation, dominance and independent assortment which became the most

fundamental basis of the science of genetics. Gene (factor by Mendel) is the core component of

chromosome which carries heredity characteristics.

Mendel’s Experiment

Gregor J. Mendel studied the various pea plants through the cross breeding and propounded a

comprehensive theory on the basis of genetic heredity which is called Mendel’s law of

Inheritance. He had randomly selected seven pairs of pea’s species in which it was seen the

inheritant characteristic of the one pair suppressed the inheritant characteristic of another pair in

his experiment. The first pair he called as Dominant written with a capital letter like for tallness
‘T’ and another pair as Recessive written with small letter as for Dwarfnes ‘t’ which are

responsible for the heredity as genetic symbol.

Dominant Recessive
Characters
Characters Characters
Spherical smooth
Shape of the seed. Wrinkled seed.
seed.
Colour of the cotyledon. Yellow cotyledon. Green cotyledon
Colour of the flower. Red White
Shrinked or
Shape of the fruit. Smooth
Wrinkled
Colour of the fruit. Green Yellow
Position of the flower. Closed Farthest
Length or height of the
Tall Dwarf
plant.

According to Mendel there are two factors to express the same inheritant characteristic in every

reproductive cell and whenever these two factors are same then it is called Homozygous but

when these two are opposite then it is called Heterozygous. He studied one or two pair species of

opposite characteristic to diagonise the hereditary characteristics of the cross breeded species.

So, one pair cross is Monohybrid Cross and two pair is Dihybrid Cross.

1. Monohybrid Cross and law of segregation

Inheritance is the transmission of genetically controlled characteristics from one generation to

the next. In this we will discuss about the inheritance of single characteristic or trait such as plant

height.

(i) Mendel first crossed pure-breed tall pea plants with pure-breed dwarf pea plant and found that

only tall plants were produced in the first generation or F1 generation. No dwarf pea plants were

obtained in the first progeny.

(ii) Mendel then crossed the tall pea plant of F1 generation and found that tall and dwarf plants

were obtained in the second generation ie F2 generation in the ratio of 3:1.

The ratio 3:1 is known as Monohybrid ratios i.e. 3 (tall) and 1(dwarf).

According to Mendel’s first law of inheritance is the characteristic of an organism are

determined by internal ‘factors’ which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be

present in a single gamete.

2. Dihybrid Cross and Law of Independent Assortment

This involves the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characteristics chosen by Mendel were

shape and colour of seeds: round-yellow seeds, and wrinkled – green seeds.

(i) He first crossed pure-breed pea plants having round-yellow seeds with wrinkled-green seeds

and found that only round- yellow seeds were produced in F1 generation. No wrinkled green

seeds were obtained.

(ii) When F1 generation having round- yellow seeds were cross breed by self pollination then

four types of seeds having different combinations of shape and colour were obtained in F2

generation as explained below in the form of table.

The ratio of each phenotype (appearance) of the seeds in the F2 generation is 9:3:3:1. This is

known as dihybrid ratio.

According to Mendel’s second law of inheritance: In the Inheritance of more than one pair of

traits in a cross simultaneously, the factors responsible for each pair of traits are distributed

independently to the gametes.

How are characteristics or traits transmitted to Progeny?

The characteristics or traits of parents are transmitted to their progeny (offsprings) through genes

present on their chromosomes during the process of sexual reproduction. As genes work in pairs

one is dominant and other one is recessive and each parent possesses a pair of genes for each
characteristic on a pair of chromosomes. Thus, the male and female gamete carries one gene for

each characteristic from the gene pairs of parents. But when male and female gamete fuses

during fertilization zygote is formed, which grows and develops to form a new organism having

characteristics from both parents which it has inherited through genes.

Please note that though the progeny inherits two genes or a pair of genes for each trait from its

parents but the trait shown by the progeny depends on which inherited gene is dominant of the

two.

How do genes control the characteristics or Traits?

A gene is the section of DNA on a chromosome which codes for the formation of a protein

controlling a specific characteristic of the organism. Suppose a plant progeny has gene for the

characteristic called ‘tallness’. Now, the gene for tallness will give instructions to the plant cells

to make a lot of plant growth hormones. And due to this, the plant will grow too much and hence

become tall and if the plant has a set of gene for dwarfness, then less plant growth hormone will

be produced and remain short and become dwarf. Just like plants the characteristics in animals
are also transmitted from the parents through genes by the process of sexual reproduction.

How Blood groups are inherited?

There are four Blood Groups in a person: A, B, AB or O. This blood group system is controlled

by a gene which has three different forms denoted by the symbols IA, IB and IO. The genes IA

and IB show no dominance over each other. So, they are co-dominant, but dominant over the

gene IO. In other words, the blood gene I0 is recessive in relation to genes IA and IB.

Although there are three gene forms (called alleles) for blood, but a person can have only two of

them. So, the blood group of a person depends on which two forms of the genes he possesses.

(i) If the genotype (gene combination) is IAIA, then the blood group of the person is A. And if

the genotype is IA I0 even then the blood group is A (because I0 is a recessive gene).

(ii) If the genotype is IBIB, then the blood group of the person is B. And if the genotype is IB IO

even then the blood group is B (because IO is a recessive gene).

(iii) If the genotype is IAIB, then the blood group of the person is AB.

(iv) If the genotype is IOIO, then the blood group of the person is O.
Cell Division, Mitosis and Meiosis

According to the theory old cells split into new cells and the formation of new cells is known as

cell division or cell production. This was firstly observed by Flemming in 1882 but an extensive

in details was given by Belar in 1920.

Usually cell division is of three types:

(i) Amitosis (ii) Mitosis (iii) Meiosis

Amitosis: This cell division takes place in less developed cell of unicellular organism and firstly

nucleus of the cell is divided and then later cytoplasm, ultimately two new cells are formed. In

bacteria, blue-green algae, yeast, amoeba, protozoa etc this type of cell division takes place.

Mitosis: This cell division is also known as Somatic cell division in which two identical cells are

produced. Although cell is divided but number of chromosomes remains the same and mitosis is

a continuous process. Various phases like prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

occur and cell divides itself stage by stage.

Prophase: First stage of mitosis.

- In all animal cells and in some plants like fungi and some algae.

- The centriole duplicates itself and divides two new centrioles (centrosomes) move to opposite

ends of the cell (poles).

- The spindle fibres or series of fibres radiates from vicinity of each centriole towards the

nucleus.

- Except fungi and some algae the spindle fibres develop without the presence of centrioles.
- The chromosomes which are already duplicated become shorten and thicken.

- Chromatids are the duplicated halves of each chromosome which are held together by the

centromere.

- The nucleus and the nuclear membrane begin to disintegrate in the late prophase.

Metaphase:

- The pairs of chromosomes align themselves in such a way that the centre of the cell and each

centromere becomes attached to one spindle fibre from each pole.

- The centromere divides and the separated chromatids become independent daughter

chromosomes.

Anaphase:
- Spindle Fibres begin to shorten.

- This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart.

- Spindle fibres continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles.

- This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes.

Telophase:

- The chromosomes decondense.

- The nuclear envelope forms i.e nuclear membrane forms around each new group of

chromosomes.

- Daughter chromosomes reach the poles.

- Spindle fibres totally disappear.

Cytokinesis:

- After the division of nucleus, cytoplasm starts to divide.

- The original large cell becomes two smaller identical cells and each daughter cells take food,

grows, being divided and the process continues.

- It maintains the continuity of metabolism by transmitting to the daughter cells.

- Plays significant role in wound healing, regeneration of damaged parts (like tail of lizard), the

replacement of cells (the skin surface), and it may give rise to tumours or cancerous growth if

uncontrolled process be occur.

*In mitosis it is also ensured that two daughter cells inherit the same number of chromosomes

and hence have the same characteristics as the parent cell.

Meiosis: It is a special type of cell division that occurs in Sexually Reproducing organisms and

thus gametes (sex cells) are produced. It consists two successive cell division that resembles like

mitosis but chromosomes are duplicated only once. Thus, gametes have half the number of

chromosomes normally found in the body cells. Two sub stages – meiosis I and meiosis II occur.

• Meiosis I: Can be broken down into four sub stages: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and

Telophase I.

• Meiosis II: Can be broken down into four substages: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II

and Telophase II.

Meiosis I:

Prophase I: Most of the significant processes of Meiosis occur during Prophase I

- The chromosomes condense and become visible.

- The centrioles form and move toward the poles.

- The nuclear membrane begins to dissolve

- The homologous pair up, forming a tetrad

- Each tetrad is comprised of four chromotids.

- Homologous chromosomes will swap genetic material in a process known as crossing over

which increase genetic diversity by creating four unique chromatids.

Metaphase I:

- Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres where tetrads line up

along the cell equator.

Anaphase I:

- The centromeres break, cytokinesis begins and homologous chromosomes separated but the

sister chromatids are still attached.

Telophase I:

- Depend upon species the chromosomes may decondense and cytokinesis reches to its

completion by creating two haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II:

Prophase II:

- The nuclear membrane dissolves, centrioles form and move toward the poles.
Metaphase II:

- Microtubules attach to the centromeres and grow from the centrioles and the sister chromatids

line up along the cell equator.

Anaphase II:

- Cytokinesis begins, centromeres break and sister chromatids separate.

Telophase II:

- Depends upon species chromosomes may decondense, Cytokinesis reaches completion creating

four haploid daughter cells.

Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis

Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

A physical reaction which causes change in the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear reaction and

the energy released during this reaction is called nuclear energy.

The mass of nucleus serves as the source of nuclear energy which is released mainly in the form

of heat. There are two types of nuclear reaction. They are:

i) Nuclear Fission

ii) Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fission

The heavy nucleus of radioactive atoms like uranium, plutonium or thorium is bombarded with

low energy neutrons which split the nucleus into smaller nuclei. This process is called nuclear

fission. For example when uranium-235 atoms are bombarded with neutrons then the heavy

uranium nucleus splits to produce barium-139 and krypton-94 with the emission of three

neutrons. A lot of energy is also produced in this reaction because mass is converted into energy.

Also, in a nuclear fission reaction neutrons are used up and produced as well. The neutrons

produced in the nuclear fission reaction leads to further fission of heavy nuclei and cause chain

reaction. If all the neutrons produced during fission of uranium-235 produce further fission, then

so much energy will be produced that it will not be controlled and leads to explosion called atom

bomb. However, nuclear fission reaction can be controlled by using boron rods as boron can

absorb neutrons.

Nuclear fission reactions are done to generate electricity at nuclear power plants.

Nuclear power plant

Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission reaction to generate electricity and the fuel used for this

purpose is uranium-235.

In a nuclear power plant fission reaction is carried out in a steel pressure vessel and inside is a

nuclear reactor. In a nuclear reactor uranium-235 rods are inserted in graphite core. Graphite is

called the moderator as it helps in slowing down the speed of neutrons so that a proper fission
reaction takes place. In between the uranium-235 rods are placed boron rods as they help in

absorbing excess neutrons and prevent nuclear fission reaction to of out of control. Boron rods

are called control rods. The nuclear rods can be raised inside or pulled outside the reactor as the

demand is. The nuclear reactor is enclosed in a concrete chamber which has thick wall so that it

can absorb the nuclear radiations.

A Nuclear power plant or Atomic power plant

Now the heat produced due to fission reaction in the reactor is cooled by using liquid sodium or

carbon dioxide gas which also helps it transfer to heat exchanger. Here with the help of a coolant

water is converted into steam. The steam produced is used to turn turbines and run generator.

Tremendous amount of heat energy is produced when controlled fission reaction takes place in

nuclear reactor. That is why liquid sodium is pumped continuously through the pipes attached to

the reactor. Sodium helps in absorbing the heat produced in the reactor. Then through pipes

extremely hot sodium is passed through water in the heat exchanger. Water absorbs heat from

hot sodium and boils to form steam. This steam is then passed at high pressure into turbine
chamber having turbine. This steam then rotates the turbine which is further attached to its shaft

and the generator. So, when turbine rotates, its shaft also rotates and drives generator. This

generator helps in generating electricity.

The spent steam coming out of turbine chamber is passed through condenser which contains

water and this water helps in cooling the steam. This steam then converts into water and through

pipes is again sent to heat exchanger. The waste material produced in the nuclear fission reaction

of uranium-235 is radioactive and extremely harmful for the environment.

Nuclear power plants in India

At there are seven nuclear power plants in India. They are:

i) Tarapur Atomic Power Station, Maharashtra

ii) Rajasthan Atomic Power Station, Rajasthan

iii) Madras Atomic Power Station, Tamil Nadu

iv) Kaiga Atomic Power Station, Karnataka

v) Kudankulam Atomic Power Station, Tamil Nadu

vi) Narora Atomic Power Station, Uttar Pradesh

vii) Kakrapar Atomic Power Station, Gujarat

Nuclear Bomb

Nuclear bomb is based on the nuclear fission reaction of uranium-235 and plutonium-239. The

fission reaction is deliberately allowed to go out of control so as to produce large amount of

energy in a very short while.

The atom bombs based on nuclear fission of uranium-235 ad plutonium-239 were dropped on

Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 during the Second World War. This caused

tremendous loss of human life.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation

According to Einstein mass is equal to energy.

E = mc2

E is the amount of energy produced

M is mass destroyed

C is the speed of light in vacuum

Since the speed of light is large so an extremely large amount of energy is produced even if small

amount of mass is destroyed. Also, if mass is taken in kilograms (kg) and speed of light in meters

per second (m/s) then energy will come in joules (J).

Therefore, if one kg of mass of any matter is destroyed in nuclear reaction than the amount of

energy produced is:

E = mc2

E = 1 * (3 * 108)2

E = 9 * 1016 J

Energy units for expressing nuclear energy

The SI unit of energy released in nuclear reactions is electron volt (eV) or million electron volt

(MeV). And,

1 electron volt = 1.602 * 10-19 joules

And,

1 million electron volt = 1.602 * 10-19 * 106 joules

1 MeV = 1.602 * 10-13 J

Value of atomic mass unit in terms of energy

Since absolute mass of atomic mass unit is 1.66 * 10-27 kg and the exact value of speed of light is

2.998 * 108m/s. When we put these values in Einstein’s equation we get,

1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.492 * 10-10 J

Also,

1 atomic mass unit (u) = 931 MeV

Nuclear Fusion

The meaning of fusion is to join or to combine. Therefore, the process in which two nuclei of

light electrons are combined to form a heavy nucleus is nuclear fusion. In the process of nuclear

fusion also tremendous amount of energy is released.

The nuclei of atoms are positively charged and thus they repel each other. So in order to combine

or fuse these two nuclei to form one heavy nucleus a lot of heat energy and high pressure is

required. This shows that nuclear fusion is carried out by heating lighter atoms to an extremely

high temperature at high pressure. Some mass is also lost in this process which gives tremendous

amount of energy.

For example, when deuterium atoms are heated to an extremely high temperature under high

pressure than two deuterium nuclei combine to form helium which has a heavy nucleus, a

neutron is emitted and a lot of energy is liberated.

Nuclear fusion reaction is opposite of nuclear fission reaction. The energy produced in nuclear

fusion reaction has not been controlled yet and is much more than nuclear fission reaction.

Hydrogen bomb

Nuclear reactions which occur at extremely high temperature are called thermonuclear reactions.

This reaction is used in producing hydrogen bomb which causes mass destruction. Isotopes of

hydrogen, deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H), along with an element lithium-6 is used in making a
 hydrogen bomb. The explosion of hydrogen bomb is done by using an atom bomb. This is

because when atom bomb is exploded then its fission reaction produced a lot of heat which raises

the temperature of deuterium and tritium in a few microseconds. Thus the fusion reaction takes

place and hydrogen bomb is exploded producing enormous energy. Hydrogen bomb causes

destruction of life.

Advantages of nuclear energy

 It produced tremendous energy from a small amount of fuel (Uranium-235).
 There is no need to put the fuel again and again in nuclear reactor. One the fuel (Uranium-235) is
put in the reactor it can function for two to three years at a stretch.
 It does not produce gases like carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide.

Disadvantages of nuclear energy

 The waste products of nuclear reactors are radioactive and keep on emitting harmful radiations.
 Risk of an accident in nuclear reactors which may cause leakage of radioactive material.
 The availability of fuel uranium is limited.
 High installation cost of nuclear power plant.
Classification of Humans

Classification of Humans

Linnaeus classified humans as animals. He recognised that people belonged with monkeys and

apes in the taxonomic order Anthropomorpha, which he later renamed Primates. Linnaeus also

recognised all humans as belonging to a common genus, Homo, and species, sapiens.

The Five Kingdoms

In 1969 R H Whittakar classified all living organisms into five main kingdoms. According to the

system the five kingdoms are:

(i) Monera (true-bacteria, bluegreen algae)

(ii) Protista (golden algae, yellow- green algae)

(iii) Fungi (slime molds, bread molds, sac fungi)

(iv) Plantae (plants)

(v) Animalae (animals)

Bacteria

Bacteria are the most ancient group of organisms, having appeared about 3500 million years ago,

and are the smallest organisms with a cellular structure. Bacteria range between the lengths of

0.1 to 10 micro metre. They occupy many environments such as soil, dust, water, air, in and on

plants and animals. On the basis of their importance bacteria can be divided into two parts:

(i) Helpful Bacteria : Certain types of bacteria live in the intestines of human beings and other

animals. These bacteria help in digestion and also produce vitamins for the body. Bacteria that
 live in soil and water play a vital role in recycling carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and other chemical

elements used by living beings.

(ii) Harmful Bacteria: Some bacteria cause diseases in humans preventing the body from

functioning properly by destroying healthy cells.

Virus

Viruses are the smallest living organisms, ranging from sizes of 20-300 m m; on an average they

are about 50 times smaller than bacteria.

Characteristics of Virus
 They are the smallest living organisms.
 They do not have a cellular structure.
 They can only reproduce by invading living cells, therefore, they are all parasitic.
 Most viruses cause disease.