USAGE RULES:

 Use in preference to SP method and to check catalog or DST values.

 Use to find RW@FT in a clean water bearing zone only. Use the result (RW@FT) to calculate
water saturation in nearby hydrocarbon zones.

 Use to help calibrate A and M if RW@FT is known from DST or produced water.

 Do not attempt to find RW@FT in low porosity (less than 5%) or where shale content is high
(> 20%).

 Do not attempt to find RW@FT in a hydrocarbon bearing zone.

 If zones are not "obviously" wet, calculate Rwa in many zones and scan for the minimum
value. This MAY be RW@FT, but remember, there may be NO water zones in the area of your
calculation, or the minimum value may be too far away to be useful.

 If there are no obvious water zones nearby, scan the well history cards or database for wells
that tested water from the zone in nearby wells. Analyze logs from these wells to find RW@FT.

 To find possible hydrocarbon zones, scan for zones with Rwa greater than three times the
minimum expected value.

 A shale corrected equation can be constructed by rearranging the Simandoux saturation

equation.

PARAMETERS:
for sandstone A = 0.62 M = 2.15 N = 2.00
for carbonates A = 1.00 M = 2.00 N = 2.00
NOTE: A, M, and N should be determined from special core analysis if possible.

WATER RESISTIVITY FROM SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

If a good SP log is available, it may be used to calculate RW@FT, as shown below.

STEP 1: Calculate constants

1: GRAD1 = (BHT – SUFT) / BHTDEP
2: FT1 = SUFT + GRAD1 * DEPTH
3: KSP = 60 + 0.122 * FT1

NOTE: FT1 is in Fahrenheit

STEP 2: Calculate resistivity values

4: RSP = 10 ^ ( – SSP / KSP)
5: IF RMF@FT > 0.1
6: THEN RMFE = 0.85 * RMF@FT
7: IF RMF@FT <= 0.1
8: THEN RMFE = (1.46 * RMF@FT – 5) / (337 * RMF@FT + 77)
9: RWE = RMFE / RSP
10: IF RWE > 0.12
11: THEN RW@FT = – (0.58 - 10 ^ (0.69 * RWE – 0.24))
12: IF RWE <= 0.12
13: THEN RW@FT = (77 * RWE + 5) / (146 – 337 * RWE)

USAGE RULES:

 Do not use SP method in low porosity (less than 5%) or where shale content is high (greater
than 20%).
 SP method may not work well in a hydrocarbon bearing zone.

 Do not use SP method in a carbonate or evaporite sequence.

WATER AND HYDROCARBON SATURATION

The fifth step in a log analysis is to find water saturation. Water saturation is the ratio of water
volume to pore volume. Water bound to the shale is not included, so shale corrections must be
performed if shale is present. We calculate water saturation from the effective porosity and the
resistivity log. Hydrocarbon saturation is 1 (one) minus the water saturation.

Reservoir at initial saturation conditions; black is hydrocarbon, white is irreducible water (left);
same
reservoir after depletion with residual oil and higher water saturation (right).

All methods rely on work originally done by Gus Archie in 1940-41. He found from laboratory
studies that, in a shale free, water filled rock, the Formation Factor (F) was a constant defined
by:
1: F = R0 / Rw

He also found that F varied with porosity:

2: F = A / (PHIt ^ M)

For a tank of water, R0 = Rw. Therefore F = 1. Since PHIt = 1, then A must also be 1.0 and M can
have any value. If porosity is zero, F is infinite and both A and M can have any value. However,
for real rocks, both A and M vary with grain size, sorting, and rock texture. The normal range
for A is 0.5 to 1.5 and for M is 1.7 to about 3.2. Archie used A = 1 and M = 2. In fine vuggy rock,
M can be as high as 7.0 with a correspondingly low value for A. In fractures, M can be as low as
1.1. Note that R0 is also spelled Ro in the literature.

For shale free rocks with both hydrocarbon and water in the pores, he also defined the term
Formation Resistivity Index ( I ) as:
3: I = Rt / R0
4: Sw = ( 1 / I ) ^ (1 / N)

Archie used an N of 2 and the usual range is from 1.3 to 2.6, depending on rock texture. It is
often taken to equal M, but this is not supported by core data in all cases. Rearrangement of
these four equations give the more usual Archie water saturation shown in the next section.

Shale corrections are applied by adding a shale conductivity term with an associated shale
porosity and shale formation factor relationship. Numerous authors have explored this
approach, leading to numerous potential solutions for water saturation. Two of the most
common are given in Section 8.03 and 8.04.
If you want to estimate moveable hydrocarbon, as opposed to hydrocarbons in place, you will
have to calculate water saturation in the invaded zone. Water cut is derived from the
differences between actual water saturation and irreducible water saturation.

Water saturation can be calibrated by comparing log analysis results with water saturation
from capillary pressure data on core samples, and in some cases from oil base cores.

DETERMINATION OF SATURATION PARAMETERS A, M, AND N

Archie initially proposed that A = 1.0, M = 2.0, and N = 2.0; later it was found that these values
varied with rock type. When electrical properties are available, they should be used, provided
they fall within reasonable ranges and the data set is large enough to be valid. Data is usually
presented in tabular as well as graphical form, as shown below.

The slope of the best fit line through the formation factor data is the cementation exponent, M.
The best fit line can be forced through the origin (a pinned line) which makes the tortuosity
factor A = 1.0 exactly. The intercept of the best fit (un-pinned) line will give A; in this example A
= 0.60. Data should be grouped by rock type, porosity type, or mineralogy before the best fit
lines are determined.
 Formation Factor versus Porosity plot to find saturation parameters A and M

The value for the saturation exponent N is usually found in the laboratory as shown below. It is
a plot of resistivity index ( I ) versus water saturation. Several partial saturations are taken on
each core plug and N is determined from the slope of the line through these points. N can be
varied by defining lithofacies for each core plug and relating this to some log signature. There
is no equivalent crossplot to find N from log data.
The best fit line on this plot is always pinned at the origin, since resistivity index must equal
1.0 when SW = 1.0 by definition.

Resistivity Index versus Water Saturation to determine saturation exponent N

The Pickett plot can be used to find A and M

from log data, instead of core data. In
hydrocarbon zones, we assume the flushed
zone is nearly 100% wet, and re-arrange the
Archie equations as follows:
1: log(RESS) = – M *
log(PHIe)+log(A*RMF@FT)
2: M = (log(A*RMF@FT) - log(RESS)) /
log(PHIe)
 A cross plot of the deep resistivity versus porosity on a log-log scale made in a clean
“obvious” water zone will provide the slope M. The intercept of the line at PHIe = 1.0 is A * RW.
This is called a Pickett Plot and is often a product of computerized log analysis. Shaly zones
should be excluded because the shale corrected water saturation equations correct
automatically for varying A and M.
Pickett plot (above) showing different slopes (M) for
dolomite (red) and limestone (blue) in a
single reservoir

The M value in fractured rock can be quite

low and compensates for the invasion of
drilling fluid into the fractures. These plots
are also made with shallow resistivity versus
porosity. All zones are assumed to be wet
due to invasion, but of course this is not
true. The slope M may still be valid but the
intercept is no longer A * RW, and is
generally meaningless.

Pickett plot showing low values of M in

fractured
reservoir and higher values in un-fractured intervals

M can be varied for every depth level by computing it from the position of the data point on the
Pickett plot. This is usually done in carbonates or fractured reservoirs, using shallow
resistivity. This “variable M” is then used with the deep resistivity to calculate water saturation.

WATER SATURATION FROM ARCHIE METHOD

The most common saturation method was developed by Gus Archie in 1941. It is widely used
in all parts of the world and is suitable for carbonates, clean sands, and shaly sands where
RSH is above 8 ohm-m. Where shale resistivity is low, the Archie method will be pessimistic in
shaly sands.

STEP 1: Calculate water saturation:

1: PHIt = (PHID + PHIN) / 2
2: Rwa = (PHIt ^ M) * RESD / A
3: SWa = (RW@FT / Rwa) ^ (1 / N)

The term (1/N) is usually ½ or 0.5, which represents the square root. Hence:
3A: SWa = Sqrt (RW@FT / Rwa)

The water saturation from the Archie method (SWa) is called the effective water saturation, Sw.

To calculate Sxo, replace RESD with RESS and RW@FT with RMF@FT.

USAGE RULES:

 The Archie method should only be used when Vsh < 0.20 and RSH > 8.0. If Vsh is high or
RSH is low, then SWa is too high and a shale corrected method should be used.

 A quick look version of the Archie formula sets A = 1.0, M = 2.0 and N = 2.0.

3: SWa = (RW@FT / (PHIt ^ 2) / RESD) ^ 0.5

 This formula can be calculated by mental arithmetic or on a scratch pad when needed, and is
accurate enough for quick look work.
 Calibrate water saturation to core by preparing a porosity vs SW# graph from capillary
pressure data. Adjust RW, A, M, N, PHIe until a satisfactory match is achieved.

PARAMETERS:

for sandstone A = 0.62 M = 2.15 N = 2.00

for carbonates A = 1.00 M = 2.00 N = 2.00
for fractured zones M = 1.2 to 1.7

NOTE: A, M, and N should be determined from special core analysis if possible.

WATER SATURATION FROM SIMANDOUX METHOD

One of the first successful shale corrected methods is this one, proposed by P. Simandoux in
1963. It reduces to the Archie formula when Vsh = 0.

STEP 1: Calculate intermediate terms:

1: C = (1 – Vsh) * A * RW@FT / (PHIe ^ M)
2: D = C * Vsh / (2 * RSH)
3: E = C / RESD

STEP 2: Calculate quadratic solution for water saturation:

4: SWs = ((D ^ 2 + E) ^ 0.5 – D) ^ (2 / N)

The water saturation from the Simandoux method (SWs) is called the effective water saturation,
Sw. To calculate Sxo, replace RESD with RESS and RW@FT with RMF@FT.

USAGE RULES:

 Use Simandoux method when Vsh > 0.20 and RSH < 8.0. The dual water method may also be
used and the choice is usually a personal preference.

 The (2 / N) exponent in Equation 4 is an approximation and works when N is near 2. More

sophisticated iterative techniques are available when N is far from 2.

 Calibrate water saturation to core by preparing a porosity vs SW# graph from capillary
pressure data. Adjust RW, A, M, N, RSH, Vsh, PHIe until a satisfactory match is achieved.

PARAMETERS:
RSH read from log
for sandstone A = 0.62 M = 2.15 N = 2.00
for carbonates A = 1.00 M = 2.00 N = 2.00
for fractured zones M = 1.2 to 1.7

NOTE: A, M, and N should be determined from special core analysis if possible.

WATER SATURATION FROM DUAL WATER METHOD

Another common method, based on the cation exchange capacity equation proposed by
Waxman and Smits, is the Schlumberger dual water model.

STEP 1: Calculate the apparent water resistivity in shale:

0: BVWSH = (PHINSH + PHIDSH) / 2
1: RWSH = (BVWSH ^ M) * RSH / A

RWSH is a constant for each zone. Note that this is the Archie equation applied to the shale
zone.
 STEP 2: Calculate the resistivity of the zone as if it were 100% wet:
2: C = 1 + (BVWSH * Vsh / PHIt * (RW@FT – RWSH) / RWSH)
3: Ro = A * RW@FT / (PHIt ^ M) * C

C can be larger than 1.0 if RW@FT is greater than RWSH.

STEP 3: Calculate total and effective water saturation:

4: SWt = (Ro / RESD) ^ (1 / N)
5: SWd = (PHIt * SWt – Vsh * BVWSH) / PHIe

This equation reverts to Archie when Vsh = 0. Schlumberger uses a term called SWb, which is
the bound water expressed as a saturation, and is not the same as the SWd calculated above.

The water saturation from the Dual Water method (SWd) is called the effective water saturation,
Sw. To calculate Sxo, replace RESD with RESS and RW@FT with RMF@FT.

USAGE RULES:

 Use Dual Water method when Vsh > 0.20 and RSH < 8.0. The Simandoux method may also be
used and the choice is usually a personal preference. Dual Water may be better than
Simandoux when shale resistivity is very low, eg. less than 2 ohm-m.

 The method is called the dual water method since there are two water resistivities being
considered - the water in the pore space and the water bound to the shale. This is technically
true of all shale corrected water saturation equations, but here the two terms are very explicitly
exposed.

 The term RWSH is the apparent water resistivity (Rwa) calculated from the resistivity and the
apparent porosity of the shale. It is also inverted and referred to as the conductivity of bound
water (Cwb) in some technical papers.

 Exploration and development geologists often need to know how high the resistivity of a
zone needs to be in order for it to be considered a potential hydrocarbon zone. The best way is
to calculate the water zone resistivity (Ro) as shown above. Potential pay is indicated when
RESD > 3 * Ro, water when RESD <= 2 * Ro.

 Calibrate water saturation to core by preparing a porosity vs SW# graph from capillary
pressure data. Adjust RW, A, M, N, RSH, Vsh, PHIe until a satisfactory match is achieved.

PARAMETERS:
RSH read from log
for sandstone A = 0.62 M = 2.15 N = 2.00
for carbonates A = 1.00 M = 2.00 N = 2.00
for fractured zones M = 1.2 to 1.7
NOTE: A, M, and N should be determined from special core analysis if possible.

WATER SATURATION FROM BUCKLES NUMBER

Most methods for calculating water saturation require the use of the resistivity log and a value
for the formation water resistivity. In many cases, this latter value cannot easily be obtained
from the logs directly, so for many purposes we recommend a simpler approach, namely a
handy rule of thumb. The rule is based on the observation that the product of porosity and
water saturation is constant for a particular zone, provided rock texture remains unchanged.
The constant is called Buckles Number (KBUCKL) or the irreducible bulk volume water
(BVWir).

STEP 1: Find Buckles number from special core analysis or from log analysis in a known clean
pay zone that produces with zero initial water cut:
 1: KBUCKL = PHIe * Sw (in a CLEAN zone which produces no initial water, or from capillary
pressure data)

KBUCKL is a constant derived as above and used in the balance of the zone.

STEP 2: Solve for water saturation in each layer, but only if it is known to be a hydrocarbon
zone:
2: IF Zone is hydrocarbon bearing
3: THEN SWp = KBUCKL / PHIe / (1 – Vsh)
4: OTHERWISE SWp = 1.00
5: IF SWp > 1.0
6: THEN SWp = 1.0

The water saturation from Buckles Number (SWp) is called the effective water saturation, Sw.

USAGE RULES:
 Use only in pay zones at irreducible water saturation.

 If zone is water bearing, set SWp to 1.00.

 Use where RW@FT is not known.

 Do not use in heterogeneous reservoirs unless KBUCKL is also varied to match rock
description.

 Buckles Number can be found by observing the porosity times water saturation product in
pay zones where RW@FT is known, or where a water zone can be used to calibrate RW@FT.

 KBUCKL can also be found from capillary pressure data by averaging the product of
minimum wetting phase saturation and core plug porosity for a number of samples.

 The (1 – Vsh) term can be replaced by (1 – Vsh^2) if needed.

 Calibrate water saturation to core by preparing a porosity vs SW graph from capillary

pressure data. Adjust KBUCKL, Vsh, PHIe until a satisfactory match is achieved.

PARAMETERS:
Sandstones Carbonates KBUCKL
Very fine grain Chalky 0.120
Fine grain Cryptocrystalline 0.060
Medium grain Intercrystalline 0.040
Coarse grain Sucrosic 0.020
Conglomerate Fine vuggy 0.010
Unconsolidated Coarse vuggy 0.005
Fractured Fractured 0.001
Use these parameters only if no other source exists.

Water saturation is usually trimmed between 0.02 and 1.00. Results from a number of different
methods are shown below.
 Comparison of various water saturation methods

IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION

Hydrocarbon zones with water saturation (Sw) above irreducible saturation (SWir) will produce
some water along with hydrocarbons. This can occur in transition zones between the oil and
water leg, or after water influx into a reservoir due to production of oil or gas.
 Capillary pressure curves define irreducible water saturation SWir (vertical dashed line near
left edge of graph). Irreducible water saturation varies inversely with porosity: Sw = Constant /
Porosity, but the Constant can vary with pore geometry. A reservoir with Sw > SWir will
produce some water with the hydrocarbons.

The difference between Sw and SWir, and relative permeability of water and hydrocarbon,
determine the water cut. These concepts are best described by the capillary pressure curve
and relative permeability curves illustrated above.

Irreducible water saturation is a necessary value for water cut and permeability calculations.

STEP 1: Find Buckles number from special core analysis or from log analysis in a known clean
pay zone that produced initially with zero water cut.
1: KBUCKL = PHIe * Sw (in a CLEAN zone that produced initially with no water, or from
core data)

STEP 2: Solve for irreducible water saturation in each zone.

2: IF zone is obviously hydrocarbon bearing
3: THEN SWir = Sw
4: OTHERWISE SWir = KBUCKL / PHIe / (1 – Vsh)
5: IF SWir > Sw
6: THEN SWir = Sw

An easier, but equivalent, model is:

7: SWir = Min (1.0, Sw, KBUCKL / PHIe / (1 – Vsh))

USAGE RULES:

 Use always in preparation for permeability calculations.

 Buckles Number can be found by observing the porosity times water saturation product in
pay zones where RW@FT is known, or where a water zone can be used to calibrate RW@FT.
Data can also be found from capillary pressure data.

 If Sw is greater than SWir, then the zone will produce with some water cut (if it produces
anything at all).

 If Sw is less than SWir, then the Buckles number for the layer is wrong.

 The (1 – Vsh) term can be replaced by (1 – Vsh^2) if needed.

 Calibrate water saturation to core by preparing a porosity vs SWir graph from capillary
pressure data. Adjust KBUCKL, Vsh, PHIe until a satisfactory match is achieved.

PARAMETERS:
Sandstones Carbonates KBUCKL
Very fine grain Chalky 0.120
Fine grain Cryptocrystalline 0.060
Medium grain Intercrystalline 0.030
Coarse grain Sucrosic 0.020
Conglomerate Fine vuggy 0.010
Unconsolidated Coarse vuggy 0.005
Fractured Fractured 0.001
 MOVEABLE HYDROCARBONS
The process of drilling fluid invasion into the formation displaces oil or gas much the same as
water influx from an aquifer or a waterflood. The oil or gas that is swept ahead of the invasion
is called moveable hydrocarbons. That left behind is called residual oil or residual gas.

Because we record resistivity logs at different depths of investigation, we can calculate water
saturation close to the borehole as well as in the undisturbed formation. The difference
between the shallow and deep saturation tells us how much oil has moved. The shallow water
saturation, called Sxo, is obtained from the same equation as used for Sw but RW @ FT is
replaced by RMF @ FT and RESD is replaced by RESS. Then:
1: Smo = Sxo – Sw
2: Sro = 1 – Sxo

USAGE RULES:

 Invasion must be deeper than the zone investigated by the shallow resistivity.

 Invasion must not be too deep and affect the deep resistivity.

 These conditions are rare so Smo is not accurate in many cases.

 Verify that Sxo = Sw = 1.0 in water zones; adjust RMF and/or RW to achieve a reasonable
result.

 Set RMF = 10 to kill Smo and Sro calculations in computer programs that insist on presenting
this answer even when the answer is wrong.