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Private drillingWPC,
WCS, , fluids,
CTSWBT,
S, TBT WBT, IT Modules, Interface,
Private drillingWPC,
WCS, , fluids,
CTSWBT,
S, TBT WBT, IT Modules, Interface,
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Drilling Fluids Properties / Legal Information
Legal Information
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without the express prior written permission of Schlumberger.
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1-i Drilling Fluids Properties / Objectives 1-i
1 Objectives
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1-1 Drilling Fluids Properties / Objectives 1-1
1 OBJECTIVES drilling,WPC,
WCS, fluids,CT
SWBT,
S, TBT
WBT, IT Modules , Interface,
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2-i Drilling Fluids Properties / Functions of a Drilling Fluid 2-i
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2-1 Drilling Fluids Properties / Functions of a Drilling Fluid 2-1
• lifting cuttings,
• controlling formation pressures,
• maintaining stable gauge hole,
• isolating the fluids from the formation,
• lubricating the drillstring and bit,
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Also, drilling fluids should not be ridiculously expensive because they will impact
the operator’s ability to recover his investment quickly.
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3-i Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-i
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3-1 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-1
The large number of functions that have to be performed by drilling fluids has
inevitably led to the formulation of complex fluid systems. At least some of
the complexity arises from the different environments encountered in various
geological situations.
Of all the different properties reported on the mud report, density, viscosity
(rheological properties), and fluid loss are the most important and are possessed
by all drilling fluids to some degree.
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All the other properties that are monitored and adjusted are in some way linked
to these three. These properties are typically specified by the client in his drilling
program.
Here are the four dominant properties of drilling fluids that should be controlled to
address the necessary functions in the various geological situations:
• density
• viscosity (rheological properties)
• fluid loss (filtration)
• inhibition
3.1 Density
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3-2 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-2
3.1.1
When drilling, zones of different pressures are found between casing points
downhole. Correct density of the drilling fluid plays a key role in balancing
formation pressures. The mud weight must be below the fracture point of the
weakest formation, but above the highest pore pressure observed.
In this example, we are able to drill safely to 10,000 ft. At 10,000 ft the ECD has
been increased to a level that will induce a fracture at 2000 ft.
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3-3 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-3
Pressure loss in the annulus is caused by the frictional forces on the mud as it
moves up the annulus and is dependent on the velocity, density, flow properties,
and hole geometry.
There should be at least 0.5 lbm/gal (0.0599 g/cm3) equivalent mud weight
between the equivalent circulating density and fracture pressure. Between the
pore pressure and ECD, a 0.2- to 0.5-ppg equivalent differential pressure should
be kept as a safety margin. However, the differential pressure should be kept as
low as possible to improve the rate of penetration.
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The lower the pressure, the faster the penetration. In fact, there are some
situations where a negative differential is used to drill, such as in hard formations,
some reservoirs, or lost circulation zones.
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3-4 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-4
Stuck pipe may occur due to differential pressure sticking. Differential pressure
sticking is defined as the force that holds pipe against the wall of the hole, due
to the differential between formation pressure and hydrostatic pressure. When
mud weight is excessive, the rate of penetration is slowed. As explained earlier,
a low differential pressure between formation and hydrostatic pressure increases
the rate of penetration.
In a reservoir sand, the potential for differential sticking increases as the thickness
of filter cake increases, and as the difference between the hydrostatic pressure
and pore pressure increases. Since the filter cake is thicker, more surface area
of the pipe is touching, thus increasing the likelihood of differential sticking.
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3-5 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-5
If the mud weight is insufficient, adverse effects may also occur. The hole not
filling correctly on trips is a sign of formation fluid being swabbed into the hole.
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When the drillstring is pulled from the hole, a pressure imbalance is created, and
fluid from the formation is pulled into the wellbore.
A gain in fluid level may also indicate that formation fluid is entering the wellbore
due to formation pore pressure exceeding the hydrostatic pressure. Increased
drag experienced on connections and trips may also indicate a problem. Salt or
plastic formations (shale) squeeze into the wellbore, effectively reducing the hole
diameter and increasing the drag on the drillstring.
Move the slider below the illustration to see the effect of changing mud weights
on the formation.
In addition to flow rate, a fairly high viscosity is required to clean the hole. Top
holes can be drilled with water, for example, but cuttings fall back down the hole
when circulation is stopped. Ideally, the viscosity should be high enough to assist
in cuttings removal and to support weighting materials such as barite.
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3-6 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-6
• high pump pressures that may cause surge and swab pressures when
tripping in and out of the hole, and
• inability to use downhole tools and problems with solids removal.
Although shear stress and shear rate are somewhat abstract physical concepts,
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they each pertain to the deformation of matter and thus affect the flow properties
of a drilling fluid.
• Newtonian model,
• Bingham plastic model, and
• Power law model
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3-7 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-7
The Newtonian model applies to fluids such as water, glycerine, or oil where
flow occurs as soon as force is applied. Shear stress is proportional to shear
rate, and viscosity remains constant. Note that this equation predicts a constant
relationship between shear stress, shear rate, and viscosity.
As the majority of drilling fluids do not conform to the laws governing Newtonian
fluids, the Newtonian model has no value in predicting the behavior of a drilling
fluid.
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3-8 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-8
The power law model is considerably more complex than the Bingham plastic
model, but it provides for far greater accuracy in the determination of shear
stress at low shear rates. The power law model assumes that all fluids are
pseudo plastic in nature.
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3-9 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-9
A Marsh funnel produces results that are very temperature dependent and are
used to give trends. While drilling, the Derrickman should record results every
half hour.
Gel strength measurements should be made after 10 sec, 10 min, and 30 min
to determine increase in viscosity. A flat gel strength is desirable because it
maintains relatively constant values over time. A progressive gel strength is
less desirable because it demonstrates an increased viscosity over time, often
doubling between the 10-sec and 10-min interval.
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3-10 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-10
There is also
Water trapped in the pores of the formation often reduces permeability. Blocking
can also be caused by the swelling of clays, precipitation of salts, or fine solids
particles in the spurt loss. (The spurt loss is the fluid that passes through the
filtering medium prior to establishing a filter cake.)
If the solids cannot block the pores and/or fractures, then mud will flow into
the formation, causing lost circulation. The solids in the mud usually form a
filter cake, which prevents excessive fluid loss. Filter cake build-up should be
controlled, however, to reduce the chances of differential sticking. The filter cake
should therefore be thin, have a low permeability or correct solids distribution,
and have a low friction coefficient.
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3-11 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-11
• an API filter press, which is performed at 100 psi (7.03 kg/cm3) and ambient
temperatures, or
• an HTHP filter press that is performed at 500 psi (35.15 kg/in.3) and 200
to 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
Dynamic filtration occurs while circulating, or when there is flow inside the
wellbore. Typically, the filter cake builds until the rate of erosion equals the rate
of deposition. When the filter cake reaches a balanced thickness, the fluid
loss is constant.
Under dynamic conditions, the rate of erosion equals the rate of build-up of the
filter cake, maintaining a constant thickness of the cake. Darcy’s equation
governs the filtration rate under dynamic conditions.
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3-12 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-12
The equation demonstrates that the larger the area and differential pressure, the
more filtration will occur. It also shows that if you increase the thickness of the
cake and the viscosity of the fluid, the filtration rate will decrease.
Variables:
A = area (cm2)
Static filtration occurs when the pumps are turned off. The filter cake grows with
time, but the rate of filtration continues to decrease. The static cake is thicker
and less permeable than a dynamic cake and also provides a lower filtration rate.
All mud filtration tests are carried out under static conditions, although lab filter
press equipment can simulate dynamic conditions. Fluid loss control data should
be reviewed in light of current downhole conditions.
A simplified equation demonstrates this concept, taking into account the spurt
loss, which is the volume of fluid that gets through the filter paper before the
filter cake forms.
Variables:
k = constant
t = time (sec)
e = spurt loss
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Results indicate that the volume of filtrate is proportional to the length of time of
the test. However, it should be noted that the fluid loss volume is proportional to
the square root of the time recorded. Therefore, static filtration rates can possibly
be run at half the time specified by API (30 min), but they are only valid at high
filtrate volumes (greater than 5 mL).
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3-14 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-14
Higher differential pressure affects the amount of fluid loss, because compressing
the filter cake reduces permeability. In general though, the filtration rate changes
only slightly with an increase in pressure.
On the other hand, increasing the temperature increases the filtration rate
significantly. It reduces the viscosity of the filtrate and changes the flocculation
and aggregation equilibrium.
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Polymeric fluid loss additives may also degrade under increased temperatures,
and a lignite/gilsonite type of derivative becomes more malleable.
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3-15 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-15
The filtration rate must be adjusted to deal with all the formations encountered
in the interval. If rates are too low, a slight reduction in the rate of penetration
will occur, and in turn, excessive costs will be realized because adding more
product will be required.
If filter rates are too high, the formation may be damaged, or a thick filter cake
will form, which can lead to differential sticking and excessive drag.
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3-16 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-16
3.4 Inhibition
When a hole is drilled, there is contact between the drilling fluid and the formation.
Ideally, the mechanical properties of the formation should be unchanged so that
the hole will be as stable as possible.
However, in shales where the formation contains clay minerals, there is a very
powerful interaction with water. These are cross sections of wellbore, which
demonstrate water interaction with shale formation over an extended period. The
clays become hydrated after exposure to water for more than 17 hr.
require some degree of inhibition. Generally, the type of drilling fluid used is
based on the level of inhibition required.
Clay swelling increases torque and drag on the drillstring. It can also increase
trip time, produce mud rings, and cause stuck pipe or casing. Clay swelling and
succeeding dispersion or disintegration can lead to excessive erosion of the
wellbore and a washed-out hole section.
Also, if the cuttings disperse in the drilling fluid, increased viscosity and difficulties
in directional control will occur. The cuttings cannot be removed by solids
removal equipment on the surface. These factors result in increased costs.
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3-17 Drilling Fluids Properties / Main Drilling Fluid Properties 3-17
3.5 Exercise
Main Drilling Fluid Properties Exercise
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4-i Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-i
4 Additional Properties
4.1 Solids Control __________________________________________________ 4-1
4.1.1 Solids Content Measurement _________________________________ 4-2
4.1.2 Solids Effects on Main Properties _____________________________ 4-3
4.2 Sand Content __________________________________________________ 4-4
4.3 Chemical Properties ____________________________________________ 4-4
4.3.1 Water Base __________________________________________________ 4-4
4.3.2 Water Base __________________________________________________ 4-5
4.3.3 Oil Base _____________________________________________________ 4-6
4.4 Exercise ________________________________________________________ 4-7
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4-1 Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-1
Besides the four dominant properties of drilling fluids that should be controlled to
address the necessary functions in the various geological situations, there are
additional drilling fluids properties that must be considered.
• solids control
• sand content
• chemical properties
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The majority of mud problems are related to solids control, making it probably
the most important parameter in running mud. The tolerance that a fluid has for
drill solids will vary depending on the makeup of the system, but it is generally
recognized that a drilled solids content above 6% will likely create problems.
The solids generated while drilling are processed by the solids control equipment.
The mud is first run through a shaker, which removes the largest particles. It then
flows through a de-sander and de-silter, where a hydrocyclone is used to remove
sand and silt-sized particles. A mud cleaner, which is a unit similar to a de-silter,
but which contains a vibrating screen to process liquid waste, is then used.
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4-2 Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-2
Dilution requires that a portion of the solids-laden fluid be discarded and replaced
by clean fluids with no solids.
Low-gravity solids, which are any solid particles with a specific gravity of
less than 3, are monitored to optimize the drilling operation. Low-gravity solids
include polymers, bentonite, and drill solids. The Methylene Blue Test (MBT),
introduces a dye to measure the amount of reactive clays in the drill solids.
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4-3 Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-3
Non-reactive or inert clays can also cause problems, such as excessive filter
cake buildup and erosion. They are controlled by maintaining the total volume of
low-gravity solids. For a non-dispersed polymer system, this will be around 6%.
For a dispersed system, it may be as high as 10%.
• increases in density
• increases in fluid loss
• increases in viscosity
• a reduction in inhibition for water-based muds
Density increases because the drill solids have a higher density than water;
therefore, as the concentration of the drill solids increases, the density of the fluid
increases. As the density of the mud increases, and the rate of penetration
decreases, there is greater potential for lost circulation. There is also a greater
risk of causing formation damage because the solids will be forced farther into
the reservoir.
Fluid loss increases because the solids content is higher, which, in turn, tends
to absorb the fluid loss materials, making them less effective at controlling fluid
loss. The higher solids content also causes the filter cake to become thicker.
This, along with fluid loss increases, can lead to stuck pipe, due to borehole
restrictions caused by the filter cake, or to differential sticking. Formation damage
and poor cement jobs are also products of fluid loss increases.
Viscosity increases because of the higher surface area presented by the solids,
particularly if they are reactive solids. As the viscosity increases, increased
circulating pressures occur. Less effective solids removal will also take place,
and the rate of penetration will slow down due to lower hydraulic horsepower
at the bit and more pressure loss in the drillstring.
The inhibitive properties of the mud are reduced because the increased solids
content of the mud adsorbs the inhibiting additives, effectively reducing the
concentration available to inhibit additional solids entering the mud system.
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4-4 Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-4
Mud is poured through the mesh sieve and funnel, then washed with water to
render the volume percentage of sand particles greater than 74 microns in size.
Maintaining the sand content below 1% by volume reduces the damage to
pumps and hoses, as well as other surface and downhole equipment.
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4-5 Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-5
• alkalinity,
• hardness,
• salinity,
• inhibition, and
• dissolved gases.
corrosion of drill rig components and is optimum for most mud components.
tests. The relationship between the two values gives information about the
nature of the alkalinity, which can affect the rheological and fluid loss properties
of the system.
The alkalinity of the whole mud is measured by Pm. By comparing this number
with Pf, an estimate can be made of the concentration of lime in the mud system.
Lime may be added to provide inhibition, or it could be a contaminant from
drilling cement.
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4-6 Drilling Fluids Properties / Additional Properties 4-6
Dissolved gases must be monitored to make sure they are controlled before
damage occurs. Gases, such as CO2 and oxygen, can lead to increased rates of
corrosion as well as to degradation of polymer additives. H2S is a severe health
hazard, and if released at the surface in large quantities, may even kill.
As the solids content of the mud is increased, the water content should be
reduced and the oil content increased. In addition, the water droplets behave in
a similar way to colloidal solids, resulting in increased viscosity.
As the water content increases, the viscosity of the mud will increase, and
the emulsion stability, which is a measure of the strength of the water-in-oil
emulsion, will decrease.
There will be more demand for emulsifiers. However, since water is inexpensive,
the barrel cost can be reduced by running a high water content fluid. In many
countries, the amount of oil discarded along with the drill cutting is regulated. A
high water content mud can be used to minimize the amount of oil discharged.
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4.4 Exercise
Additional Propeties Exercise
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5-i Drilling Fluids Properties / Mud Property Guidelines 5-i
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5-1 Drilling Fluids Properties / Mud Property Guidelines 5-1
Property Top Hole* 17 1/2 in. 12 1/4 in. 8 1/4 in. 6 in.
Flow rate A.F.A.P. 900+ 500 to 700 300 to 400 200 to 300
2
YP (lbm/100 ft ) 30+ 25+ 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20
3-rpm Fann 25 15 10 5 5
3
Fluid loss (cm per 30 n/c 15 to 20 10 to 15 5 to 10 3 to 5
min)**
10-min gels 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max.
This chart indicates mud property guidelines for top to 6-in. holes.
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6-i Drilling Fluids Properties / Summary 6-i
6 Summary
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6-1 Drilling Fluids Properties / Summary 6-1
6 SUMMARY drilling,WPC,
WCS, fluids,CT
SWBT,
S, TBT
WBT, IT Modules , Interface,
In this module, you learned about the functions of a drilling fluid and the main
drilling fluid properties, including
• density,
• viscosity (rheological properties),
• fluid loss (filtration),
• inhibition,
WS Training\WS Training\SWBT, Drilling F\3\Release Date:30-Aug-2003\EDMS UID: 274762196\Produced: 12-Dec-2005 14:16:12
• solids content,
• sand content, and
• chemical properties.
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