ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
tough, fibrous membrane: the outer layer forms the
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System- consists of brain and spinal
cord.
 Brain in the skull, which carries out the higher,
more complex mental and behavioral activities.
 Spinal cord running down the middle of the
vertebral column ("backbone"), which carries
out the simpler levels of behavioral
organization.
Peripheral Nervous System- it gets all information into
the brain and controls directly all responses that is
made. This system can be classified into 2 parts: 12
pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
(a) Afferent or sensory nerves which carry the
information from inside and on the surface of the
individual and relay the same to the central nervous
system where it is evaluated,
(b) Efferent or motor nerves relay the
information from central nervous system to muscles
and glands in various parts of the body to regulate
activity of those structures,
(c) Mixed nerves perform both afferent and
efferent functions. Though there is difference in
functions, structure of all the nerves remain the same.
 Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
The ANS is also known as the visceral nervous
system or involuntary nervous system. It
controls involuntary actions like breathing,
heart rate, digestion and so on.
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
The SNS is the part of the PNS that provides
sensory feedback - it is made up of nerves that
connect to the skin and other sensory muscles.
If you touch a hot object, the SNS will send
information to the brain and the brain will
return instructions to the hand muscles to pull
away.
MENINGES
The meninges are membranes which protect the whole
of the central nervous system. There are three different
layers
• Dura mater, or outer membrane: a double layer of
periosteum ('skin') of the skull while the inner layer, the
first protective covering of the brain, continues as the
spinal dura mater as far down as the sacrum.
• Arachnoid mater: a delicate membrane positioned
immediately under the dura and above the pia mater. It
merges with the dura mater and thus covers the spinal
cord as far as the sacrum. It connects to the sub-
arachnoid space, situated between the arachnoid mater
and the pia mater and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
• Pia mater: a thin, vascular membrane which closely
covers the brain, dipping into the various surface folds
of the cerebrum and cerebellum, and continues along
the length of the spinal cord. It supplies blood to the
brain and spinal cord.
VENTRICLES AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) - it also protects the Central
Nervous System (CNS). CSF fills the subarachnoid space,
the central canal of the spinal cord, and the cerebral
ventricles of the brain.
Give me a meaning:
•subarachnoid space –
•central canal –
•cerebral ventricles –
Choroid plexuses - this is the small blood vessels that
protrude into the ventricles from the pia meter. And
according to the traditional view, cerebrospinal fluid is
produced by Choroid plexuses.
Clinical Implication:
•Hydrocephalus (water head) –
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIERS (BBB)
This is a consequence of the special structure of
cerebral blood vessels.
CELL OF THE NEURONS
Anatomy of Neurons
Major External Featured of a Nervous System
 a. Cell body or Soma – soma is the metabolic
center of neurons
b. Dendrites – the short processes emanating
from the cell, which receives most of the
synaptic contacts from other neurons.
c. Axon – the long, narrow process that
projects from the cell body
d. Axon Hillock – the cone-shaped region at
the junction between the axon and the cell
body
e. Myelin – the fatty insulation around many
axons
f. Nodes of Ranvier – the gaps between
sections of myelin
g. Buttons – the button like endings of the
axon branches, which release chemicals
into synapses
h. Synapses – the gaps between adjacent
neurons across which chemical signal are
transmitted
Major Internal Features of the Nervous System
a. Nucleus – the spherical DNA-containing
structure of the cell body
b. Mitochondria – is the site of aerobic a very
active cell that requires a lot of energy
c. Golgi Bodies – a connected system of
membranes that packages molecules in
vesicles
d. Endoplasmic Reticulum – the one that
synthesis of proteins and in synthesis of fats
e. Cytoplasm – the clear internal fluid of the
cells
f. Ribosome – cell structures that makes
proteins
g. Microtubules – tubules responsible for the
rapid transport of material throughout
neurons
h. Synaptic Vesicles – neurotransmitter
molecules ready for release near synapses
i. Neurotransmitter – molecules that are
released from active neurons and influence
the activity of cell.
GLIAL: THE FORGOTTEN CELL
Glia or Glial – is a supportive cell in the central Nervous
System, unlike neurons, Glial cells do not conduct
electrical impulses.
Types:
A. Oligodendrocytes - this type are rich in myelin
a fatty insulating substances
B. Astrocytes – allows the passage of some
chemicals from the blood into central Nervous
System, neurons and blocking the other
chemicals
C. Schwann cells – guide axonal regeneration
(regrowth) after damage.
D. Microglia – respond to injury or disease by
multiplying, equating cellular debris or even
entire cells.
Classes of Neurons
1. Unipolar neuron - a neuron with one process
extending from its cell body
2. Bipolar Neuron – two processes extending from
its cell
3. Multipolar Neuron - a neuron with more than
two processes extending from each cell body.
4. Multipolar interneuron – a neuron with short
axon or no axon at all.
NEUROANATOMICAL TECHNIQUES AND
DIRECTIONS
 Golgi stain: is a silver staining technique that is
used to visualize nervous tissue under light
microscopy discovered by Camillo Golgi.
 Nissl stain: is a classic nucleic acid staining
method traditionally used on nervous tissue
sections developed by Franz Nissl.
 Electon Microscopy: The electron microscope is
a type of microscope that uses a beam of
electrons to create an image of the specimen.
*Two Types of Neuroanatomical Tracing Techniques
1. Anterograde Method (forward) used when tracing
the paths of axon away from cell bodies located in a
particular area
2. Retrograde Method (backward) used in tracing the
paths of axons projecting in to a particular area.
DIRECTIONS IN THE VERTEBRATE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Anterior: In front of, front
Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the rear
Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back
Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly
Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the
side
Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line
Proximal: situated nearer to the center of the body or
the point of attachment.
Distal: situated away from the center of the body or
from the point of attachment.
SPINAL CORD
SPINAL CORD - bundles of neurons that extend from
the base of the skull to just below the waist, and act as
information link between the brain and the rest of the
body.
(2) MAIN STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
WHITE MATTER
- White matter is composed of bundles, which connect
various gray matter areas (the locations of nerve cell
bodies) of the brain to each other, and carry nerve
impulses between neurons.
- forms inner layer of the brain.
- white matter are myelinated fiber tracts.
GREY MATTER
- The other main component of the brain is grey matter
(actually pinkish tan due to blood capillaries), which is
composed of neurons.
- Gray matter are cell bodies
- forms outer layer of the brain.
(4) COLUMNS OF SPINAL CORD GREY MATTER
•DORSAL HORN
•VENTRAL HORN
•LATERAL HORN
The Hindbrain is composed of 2 regions: the
Metencephalon and Myelencephalon. It is the most
posterior region of the brain.
MYELENCEPHALON
 The myelencephalon, also referred to as the
medulla, is the most posterior division of the
brain (Pinel, 2009). It plays a role in arousal and
is responsible for functions such as sleep,
movement, attention, the maintenance of
muscle tone, and various cardiac, circulatory,
and respiratory reflexes (Pinel, 2009).
 Medulla oblongata – Located between the pons
and brain stem, the medulla is responsible for
basic life support functions like respiration and
heart rate.
METENCEPHALON
 Pons – The part of the metencephalon located on
the brain stem that forms a bulge on the brain
stem’s ventral surface. It is involved in motor
control and sensory analysis, acting as the
sensory/motor relay center.
 Cerebellum – The “cauliflower” piece in the back
of the brain that is responsible for sensorimotor
function (the part that helps regulate posture,
balance, and coordination). Think of the “practice
makes perfect” theory of sports, for example.
 Reticular formation – The reticular formation is
comprised of 2 columns of neuronal nuclei with
ill-defined boundaries, which go up through the
medulla and into the mesencephalon.
MESENCEPHALON
- Also known as Midbrain
- To aid in movement as well as visual and
auditory processing.
Location:
- Dorsal of the Brainstem between Forebrain and
the Hindbrain.
Two Divisions:
1. Tectum - is in the dorsal part of the midbrain.
- consist of 2 pairs of rounded bulges called
Colliculi.
The superior colliculi are a part of the visual
system and are involved in visual reflexes and
reactions to moving stimuli.
 The inferior colliculi appear as four bumps on
the dorsal surface of the brain stem and are a
part of the auditory system.
2. Tegmentum - sits beneath the Tectum.
Three Divisions:
1. Periaqueductal grey - matter is mostly cell bodies
(hence 'grey matter'). It controls basic animal
sequences of movement such as for fighting and
mating.
- Opiates that stimulate receptors in this region
decrease pain sensation.
2. Red nucleus - The red nucleus is involved in motor
coordination, particularly the shoulder and upper
arm.
3. Substantia nigra ('black substance') - is so called
because of the higher levels of melanin in its
dopaminergic neurons.
-Plays an important role in eye movement, reward
seeking, addiction and movement planning.
DIENCEPHALON
-Composed of two structures: Thalamus and
Hypothalamus.
Thalamus – large two-lobed structures that
constitutes the top of the brain stem
- is critically involved in a number of functions
including relaying sensory and motor signals to the
cerebral cortex and regulating consciousness, sleep,
and alertness.
Hypothalamus – Hypo means “Below” the Thalamus.
-has important role in the regulation of several
motivated behavior.
TELENCEPHALON
-The telencephalon is also known as the cerebrum, and
it consists of the largest part of the brain (it makes up
about 85% of the total weight of the brain).
-It plays a role in most of our brain activity and thus is
more analogous to an entire division of the nervous
system than to a particular delimited brain structure.
Cerebral Cortex – The cerebral cortex is the “gray
matter” of your brain. Most information processing
occurs in the cerebral cortex.
*Lissencephaly (meaning 'smooth brain'), a rare genetic
disorder in which brain cells do not move into their
correct locations during embryonic development, and
the brain does not develop a normal wrinkled surface.
There are 4 lobes in the cerebral cortex:
1. Frontal lobe – The frontal lobe is associated with
personality, conscience
(right/wrong/consequences), planning and is the
source of inhibitions
2. Parietal lobe – The parietal lobe is in charge of
somatosensory processing (touch).
3. Occipital lobe – The occipital lobe processes visual
memory, and is associated with migraine
headaches.
4. Temporal lobe – Auditory and language processing
occurs in the temporal lobe; about 90% on the left
side.
Corpus callosum – The white matter in the brain that
connects the left and right hemispheres. Split
brain occurs when the connection in the corpus
callosum is severed.
LIMBIC SYSTEM AND THE BASAL GANGLIA
Limbic system – The limbic system is the collective
name for the parts of the brain that control emotion,
motivation, and emotional association with memory,
and includes the hippocampus, cingulate cortex,
amygdala, fornix, septum and mammillary bodies.
1. Hippocampus – It’s easy to remember where the
hippocampus is because it’s shaped like a seahorse. The
hippocampus is associated with short and long term
memory indexing (moves memories in and out), and is
one of the first parts of the brain affected in
Alzheimer’s. Damage to the hippocampus can cause
amnesia, preventing the formation of new memories
(anterograde amnesia), as well as recollection of old
ones (retrograde amnesia). Elderly people with
shrinkage of the hippocampus tend to have memory
problems (episodic and working memory).
Abnormalities in development of the hippocampus are
associated with schizophrenia.
2. Cingulate Cortex – (cingulate means encircling) It is
an integral part of the limbic system, which is involved
with emotion formation and processing, learning, and
memory.
*Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) – not surprisingly
given its involvement in cognitive and affective
processes—has been implicated in a number of
psychiatric disorders. In PTSD, there is lower activity
and fewer neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex.
Activity is elevated in this region in obsessive–
compulsive disorder, tic disorder, and depression, and
normalization of activity in this region occurs with
behavioral and pharmacological treatment of these
disorders in some cases.
Basal Ganglia
Group of nuclei (clusters of neurons) in the brain that
are located deep beneath the cerebral cortex. The
basal ganglia specialize in processing information on
movement and in fine-tuning the activity of brain
circuits that determine the best possible response in a
given situation (e.g., using the hands to catch a ball or
using the feet to run). Thus, they play an important role
in planning actions that are required to achieve a
particular goal, in executing well-practiced habitual
actions, and in learning new actions in novel situations.

3. Amygdala – The amygdala is shaped like an almond,

and located on the fatter end of the hippocampus.
It is responsible for emotional processing, and
associated with conditioned learning, especially
fear/anger/rage. Dysfunction of the amygdala is
linked to anxiety, autism, depression, post-
traumatic stress disorder, phobias and binge
drinking.

*Olfactory bulb – Sense of smell, connected to the

amygdala, which is why smells are strong sources of
memories.

4. Fornix – The fornix acts as the primary outgoing

pathway from the hippocampus, and thus its most
recognized function is its involvement in
memory. Damage to the fornix has been associated
with anterograde amnesia, which involves the
inability to create new memories. Fornix damage is
primarily linked to deficits in declarative memories,
or memories for factual information

5. Septum – (Latin for something that encloses) It is a

thin, almost transparent membrane that runs down
the middle of the brain from the corpus callosum to
the area of a large fiber bundle called the fornix.

6. Mammillary bodies – They get their name

because they were thought by early anatomists to
have a breast-like shape. The mammillary bodies
are best known for their role in memory, and as
being involved in other functions like maintaining a
sense of direction. Damage to the mammillary
bodies is associated with memory deficits. Several
cases of brain damage involving the mammillary
bodies as well as cases of tumor-related damage to
the area of the mammillary bodies suggests that
mammillary body damage is linked to anterograde
amnesia.