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intermolecular *#"4%() K%&;%%.) (#,-&%)
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:0%)+#,-&'#.)!"#4%(()
The water H-bonds have to be
interrupted,
NaCl dissociates into Na+ Cl-,
______________
ion dipoles forces form:

Na+ «į-OH2 and Cl- «į+H2O.

If water is the solvent,

We say the ions are ___________.
solvated
OR
We say the ions are ___________.
hydrated
X$
Hydration can only occur with water; softdrinks only do solvation
 +#,-&'#.)L#"91&'#.)

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls the solute particles apart and
Y$
surrounds or solvates them
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M.(1&-"1&%B)
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encourages crystillization
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soluble

>?19$,%() >?19$,%()
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0M$
Exercise)
Predict whether each of the following substances is
more likely to dissolve in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
or water (H2O)? C7H16, Na2SO4, HCl, I2.$
Step 1: Analyze the given molecules wether non-polar or polar
Polar Solvent: h2o (H-bond predominate)
Non-polar solvent: CCl4 (london dispersion)
Polar solutes: NaSO4 (ionic interaction predominate) and
HCl (dipole-dipole interaction predominate)

0:$
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?.$+).)&'@A$3B)$
"6@,-/@/3G$6>$+'")"$/.$
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2/3B$<<<<<<<<<<<<<<$
increasing mass
<<<<<<<<<<<#$
Q'&+)&$76@)(,@)"$
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stronger
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<#$
dispersion forces
0V$
How Soluble could CO2 be in comparsion to CO?
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liquids
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$

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gas
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directly proportional
$
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higher pressure
9#,%4-,%($6>$E1($'&)$4,#(%$36$3B)$(#,=%.&$
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76@)(,@)$(&"'G'.E$3B)$(-"*14%$'.F$%.&%"'.E$
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ƒ IB)&)>6&)A$3B)$888888888$3B)$888888888$A$3B)$
higher pressure
greater
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ƒ IB)$888888888$3B)$888888888$A$3B)$>)2)&$
lower pressure
76@)(,@)"$6>$+'"$'&)$(@6")$36$3B)$"6@K).3$
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,'A-'B)(#,=%.&)'.4"%1(%()'.)
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$1"&'1,)$"%((-"%)#*)&0%)E1()
1K#=%)&0%)(#,-&'#.7)
Sg = kPg
Carbonated beverages are bottled with a
Where,
partial pressure of CO2 >1 atm.
Sg is the solubility of the gas; As bottle is is opened the partial pressure
k LVWKH+HQU\¶VODZFRQVWDQW of CO2 decreases the solubility of CO2
for that gas in that solvent; decreases.
Pg is the partial pressure of the Therefore the bubbles of CO2 escape from
gas above the liquid. Solutiom
0X$
 Example)
Calculate the concentration of carbon dioxide in a soft
drink that is bottled with a partial pressure of CO2 of
0.41Mpa over the liquid at 25o&7KH+HQU\¶VODZ
constant for CO2 in water at this temperature is 3.4 x 10-4
mol/m3Pa-1.

Step 1: Write down the equation involved

Sg=kPg
Step 2: write down the given values for the equation
k= 3.4x10-4 mol/ m3 Pa-1, Pg = 0,41 MPa, Sg=?
Step 3. Substitute the given values into the equation
Sg= (3.4 x 10^-4 mol/ m^3 Pa^-1) (0.41MPa) = ).14M
:%9$%"1&-"%)>**%4&()

¾Generally, the
solubility of
_____________
solid solutes
in liquid solvents
increases with
increasing
temperature.
0\$
 :%9$%"1&-"%)>**%4&()

• The opposite is true of gases:

• Experience tells us
_____________________________
that carbonated beverages go flat as
_____________________________.
they get warm
• Therefore, gases get __________
______________________________.
less soluble as temperature increases
• Thermal pollution: if lakes get too
warm, CO2 and O2 become less
soluble and are not available for
plants or animals.$
H9$
Exercise)
Calculate the concentration of carbon dioxide in a soft
drink after the bottle is opened and equilibrates at 25oC
under carbon dioxide partial pressure of 3.0 x 10-4 atm.

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HV97Q$K6@,7)3&/($>@'"U#$
$ n= C. V = 1.0 mol/L x 0.250 L = 0.250 mol
m= n. Mr= 0.250 mol x 159.61 g/mol = 39.9 g
There foe the weigh out 39.9g of CuSO4 and add 250ml of
H2O to make a 1 M solution of CuSO4

HM$
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>6&7$('@@)F$#####################$
Stock Solution.
;R,)6,"$"6@,3/6."$6>$@62)&$(6.().3&'3/6.$('.$
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(6.().3&'3)F$6.)g$
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"6@,3/6.$-G$F/@,3/.+$'$0#99!$8,NL:$"36(U$"6@,3/6.#$
Moles of Solute before = moles of solute after solution
Known formation: volume (250.0ml) and concentration
(0.100mol/L) of th dilute solution.
Therefore from the 1.00M CuSo4 stock solution, we would
withdraw, 25,00mL into a 250,0mL flask with water.

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A solution contains 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) and 225 g of benzene and has a
density of 0.876 g/ml. Calculate the molarity and molality of the solution.

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A solution containing equal masses of glycerol (C3H8O3)
and water has a density of 1.10 g/ml.
Calculate (a) the molality of glycerol (b) the mole fraction of
glycerol (c) molarity of glycerol

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molarity
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volume
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1. A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62% by mass
of NaOCl in water. Calculate (a) the mole fraction and (b)
the molality of NaOCl in the solution.

2. Maple syrup has a density of 1.325 g/mL, and 100.00 g

of maple syrup contains 67 mg of calcium in the form of
Ca2+ ions. What is the molarity of calcium in maple syrup?

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A Colligative Property ± is a physical property of a solution
that depends on _________________________________
the number of solute particles present
regardless of the nature of the solute.

Colligative properties depend on quantity of solute molecules.

(E.g. freezing point depression and melting point elevation.)

Changes in colligative properties depend only on ____

number of solute particles present
____________________________________, not on the
identity of the solute particles.

Among colligative properties are: Vapor pressure lowering;

Boiling point elevation; Melting point depression; Osmotic
pressure
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Vapor Pressure ± is the pressure exerted by the vapor
when it is at equilibrium with the liquid (i.e. when the rate of
vaporization equals the rate of condensation).
volatile
______________ substance have measurable vapor
pressure while _______________
non-volatile substance has
non-measureable
______________________ vapor pressure.

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Definition: quantitfies the extent to which non-volatile
solute lowers the vapor pressure of the solvent.
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ܺ஺ ൌ ݉‫!݈݊݋ݏ݄݁ݐ݊݅ݐ݊݁ݒ݈݋ݏ݄݁ݐ݂݋݊݋݅ݐܿܽݎ݂݈݁݋‬
ܲι஺ ൌ ‫ݐ݊݁ݒ݈݋ݏ݁ݎݑ݌݄݁ݐ݂݋݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎ݌ݎ݋݌ܽݒ‬$
Ideal solution: one that obeys 5DRXOW¶V law.
5DRXOW¶V law breaks down when the solvent-solvent and solute-solute
intermolecular forces are greater than solute-solvent intermolecular forces.
NOTE: This is one of those times when you want to make sure you have the
vapor pressure of the solvent.

For two components that are volatile:

P total = PA+ PB = XAPoA + XB PoB
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Component that is more volatile will have higher partial pressure
 >?19$,%)
Glycerin (C3H8O3) is a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte with a density of 1.26
g/ml at 25oC. Calculate the vapour pressure at 25oC of a solution
made by adding 50.0 ml of glycerin to 500.0ml of water. The vapour
pressure of water at 25 o C is 23.8 torr.

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!01(%)O'1E"19) ¾Nonvolatile solute-solvent

interactions also cause
solutions to have higher
boiling points and lower
freezing points than the pure
solvent.
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interpret the phase
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diagram for a solution
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The change in boiling point
is proportional to the molality
of the solution:
ǻTb = Kb x m
where Kb is the molal
boiling point elevation
constant, a property of the
solvent. m is the molality;
ǻTb change in bpt

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¾The change in freezing point can be found similarly:

Kf
¾Here ____ is the molal freezing point depression
constant of the solvent.
deltaTf is subtracted from the normal freezing point of
¾______
the solvent.

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‡ At 1 atm (normal boiling point of pure liquid) there is no
depression by definition
‡ When a solution freezes, almost pure solvent is formed
first.
± Therefore, the sublimation curve for the pure solvent is
the same as for the solution.
± Therefore, the triple point occurs at a lower temperature
because of the lower vapor pressure for the solution.
‡ The melting-point (freezing-point) curve is a vertical line
from the triple point.
‡ The solution freezes at a lower temperature (ǻTf) than the
pure solvent.
‡ Decrease in freezing point (ǻTf) is directly proportional to
molality (Kf is the molal freezing-point-depression
constant) V:$
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‡ The number of fragments that a solute breaks up into for
a particular solvent.

‡ We have been assuming that the YDQ¶W Hoff factor (݅) is

equal to the number of ions per formula unit of the
electrolyte.

‡ The true value of ݅ is given by the ratio of the measured

value of a colligative property to the value calculated
when the substance is assumed to be a non-electrolyte.

i= delta Tf (measured)
delta Tf (non-electrolyte)
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+-991"D)
equations,
ǻT does not depend on ǻTb = Kb x m
what the solute is,
but only on
how many particles are ǻTf = Kf x m
dissolved.

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$ - Tb(solv) = iKbm
delta Tb= Tb(soin)

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delta Tf = Tc(soin) -VW$Tf (solv) = iKfm
 >?19$,%)
Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 0.600 kg of CHCl3
and 42.0 g of eucalyptol (C10H18O), a fragrant substance found in the
leaves of eucalyptus leaves. Use Table 13.4 in text book to get Kf.

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Estimate the freezing point of a 0.010 m aqueous
solution of aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3. Assume the
value of i based on the formula of the compound.

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Which of the following solutes will produce the largest increase
in boiling point upon addition of 1 kg of water: 1 mol of Co
(NO3)2, 2 mol of KCl, 3 mol of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2)?
Remember: colligative properties depend on quantity of solute molecules
(E.g. freezing point depression, melting point elevation and vapour pressure).
 C(9#('()
¾ Some substances form semi-permeable membranes,
allowing some smaller particles to pass through, but
blocking other larger particles.
¾ In biological systems, most semi-permeable membranes
allow water to pass through, but not solutes.

Definition: In osmosis,
there is net movement
of solvent from the
area of higher solvent
concentration (lower
solute concentration) to
the are of lower
solvent concentration
(higher solute
concentration).
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¾ The pressure required to stop osmosis, known as
osmotic pressure, ʌ, is

n
Ǒ=( )RT = MRT
V
where M is the molarity of the solution

If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides

of a membrane (i.e., the concentrations are the
same), the solutions are isotonic.
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}If the solute concentration
outside the cell is greater than
that inside the cell, the solution
is _______________.
hypertonic

}Water will flow out of the cell,

crenation
and _______________ results.
‡ If the solute concentration
outside the cell is less than that
inside the cell, the solution is
hypotonic
_______________.

‡ Water will flow into the cell, and

hemolysis
_______________ results.
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}What is the osmotic pressure at 20oC of a 0.0020 M
sucrose (C12H22O11) solution?

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Osmosis !#.B%")#.)&0'()
‒Cucumber placed in NaCl solution loses water to
shrivel up and become a pickle.

‒Limp carrot placed in water becomes firm because

water enters via osmosis.

‒Salty food causes retention of water and swelling of

tissues (edema).

‒Water moves into plants through osmosis.

‒Salt added to meat or sugar to fruit prevents bacterial

infection (a bacterium placed on the salt will lose water
through osmosis and die).W:$
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We can use the effects of a colligative property such as
osmotic pressure to determine the molar mass of a
compound.

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The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution of a certain
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mass. The solution contained 3.50mg of protein dissolved
in sufficient water to form 5.00mL of solution. The osmotic
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Treating the protein as a nonelectrolyte, calculate its molar
mass. WV$
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Step 1: Write the known/given values & do conversions

Step 2: Determine Molarity.

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Step 3: Determine the moles.

Step 4: Determine Molar Mass (M).

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125 mg of an alkaline earth metal chloride (XCl2) dissolved in
enough water to make 50.0 mL of solution at 298Û&KDVDQ
osmotic pressure of 1.16 atm. Identify the alkaline earth metal.

Step1:

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Step 3:

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Step 5:

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™ Describe the Solution Process.
™ Distinguish among solvent, solute, solution.
™ Explain the meaning of saturated solutions and solubility.
™ Describe the factors affecting solubility, including solute-
solvent interactions, pressure and temperature effects.
™ Express concentrations in mass percent (m/m %), m/v
%, ppm and ppb, mole fraction, molarity, molality and
osmolality and convert between them.
™ Explain what is meant by standard solution.
™ Calculate how to prepare a specified volume of solution
having a specified concentration starting with either a
solid solute or a solution ofX0$known concentration.
/HDUQLQJ*RDOV«)
™ Define the composition of a mixture in terms of its
osmolarity.
™ Explain the phenomena of colligative properties
including vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression and osmotic
pressure, and do calculations including molar mass
determinations.
™ Explain gas solubility. State and apply Henry s Law.
™ Calculate partial pressure of gases in solution.

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