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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY :
Definition, Scope and Tools

INTRODUCTION

Environmental geology is the interactions of human with the geological


environment, which encompasses all the physical constituents of the earth as
well as its surface landscape and the processes which change this surface over
time.

Environmental geology can be divided into three main areas :


1. The geology of resource management, including exploration, exploitation
and their consequences.
2. The geology of the built environment, including both the constraints of
ground conditions on development and the problems associated with the
disposal of waste generated by this development
3. The geology of natural hazards which threaten human life and
infrastructure.

The modern subject of environmental geology embraces all three of the


traditional applied earth science subject : applied geomorphology, economic
geology, engineering geology. The increasing interaction between these three
fields of applied research, and the greater environmental focus present with
them, is the product of three main trends :
1. Sustainable development
2. Seeking compromise between the interests of development/exploitation
and the conservation of the natural environment and its regulatory
system.
3. Conflict versus management of natural process
4. A shift from reactive to proactive involvement

Environmental geology is an applied subject driven for the most part by the
commercial reality of the marketplace, since most reserach in this field is
financed commercially.

The tools used by enviromental geologist can be grouped into :


1. Desk surveys
They can be obtained by recourse to archival data sources. Typical data
sources include : published and unpublished maps, published papers, books
and reports, unpublished papers and reports, local and national government
records, company records, and statistical records such as meteorological
data. In addition, remotely sensed images of all types, from traditional air
photographs to satellite images.
2. Field-based documentation or mapping

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

The following list gives some of the key points which must be considered in
collecting these data, and which reflect the principles of commercial reality :
scoping the task, types of field task, spatial scale, and observational versus
instrumental data.
3. Terrain analysis
1. Parametric terrain analysis, involves the derivation of a secondary map, or
series of maps. It is the basic tool by which all hazard maps, ground
classification maps, site-location maps and planning zone maps. There
are two broad approaches to parametric terrain analysis :
1. Interrogative approach
2. Cartographic summation
2. Physiographic terrain analysis
It uses the physical properties of the land surface to break it down into a
natural sequence of units known as landsystems. The idea of this type of
analysis is to recognise recurrent or repetitive patterns within the
landscape, which are referred to as landsystems.
4. Environmental monitoring
Two broad types of environmental monitoring can be identified :
1. Direct methods, involve the observation of a process or landform for a
period of time.
2. Indirect methods, provide information relatively quickly and are therefore
more commonly used in environmental geology. There are five broad
types of indirect or secondary method.
1. Inference from morphology or sediment volume.
2. Prediction from known location to an unknown location.
3. Physical and numerical simulation
4. Space-time transformation
5. Historical data
5. Data Presentation
In summarising their result, environmental geologists have to consider the
following points :
1. The nature of the brief
2. The nature of the audience
3. Map format
4. Internal and external audit

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

THE GEOLOGY OF RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

A geological resource is any naturally occurring solid, liquid or gas known or


thought to exist in or on the Earth's crust in concentrations which make
extraction economically feasible either at present or in the future. Aesthetic and
cultural associations of landscape and geology are also a valuable resource. A
reserve is a subset of a resources, and is that portion of an identified resource
which can be extracted economically using current technology. The size of the
available reserves relative to the total resource can be changed by such factors as
:
1. Commodity price or value
2. Exploration, which may increase the proportion of known resource
3. Technological developments, which may improve the efficiency of mineral
extraction thereby reducing the units cost of production
4. Changes in regulatory requirements

The economics of resources and their exploitation are controlled primarily by


supply and demand. Supply can be identified as the quantity of a commodity
that suppliers are prepared to sell at a given price. In contrast, demands is the
quantity of a commodity a consumer is prepared to buy at a given price. For
some commodities the interaction of supply and demand may help maintain a
stable or constant commodity price.

There are two issues concerning geological resource management :


1. The sustainability of the resource
2. The environmental impact associated with its exploitation

Resources may be sustainable (renewable) or non-sustainable (finite). With the


exception of water, most geological resources are non-sustainable. The future
availability of mineral resources can be viewed either optimistically via a
Ricardian paradigm, in which technology holds the key to the exploitation of
increasingly disseminated mineral deposits, or alternatively via a more
pessimistic Malthusian paradigm, in which mineral resources will simply run
out. Both these visions may be modified by the conservation of mineral reserves,
by the use of substitute products, and by recycling.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

ECONOMIC MINERAL RESOURCES

The three main mineral groups, which form in a variety of geological


environments, are mineral flues, industrial and metal minerals, and construction
minerals also known as geomaterials.

Mineral Flues
There are three main mineral fuels : (1) coal and peat; (2) petroleum; (3)
uranium. Coal and peat are traditional mineral fuels which, at their simplest,
are extracted, transported and burned to produce energy without recourse to
processing. Both materials are products of the accumulation of organic matter,
mostly land plants, in a humid environment. Peat is composed of partially
decomposed and compressed plant matter and forms extensive surface deposits
today in many mid-to high-latitude countries. Coal is derived from peat, but has
been buried and matured, and is therefore mostly a geologically older deposit.
There are two main requirements for coal and peat formation :
1. Land plants, which restrict the age of coal and peat formation to post
formation
2. An anaerobic depositional environment such as swamps and bogs in
which organic decomposition occurs in the absence of free oxygen.

Since coal requires compaction for its maturation, two other factors are
important in the formation of economic deposits :
1. Subsidence of the peat swamps in order to accumulate sufficient organic
matter
2. Burial under a great thickness of sediment.

Petroleum is used here to cover a broad spectrum of natural hydrocarbons,


including crude oil, natural gas, and solid hydrocarbons such as asphalt. The
formation of hydrocarbons is the product of four components : (1) the nature of
the source, (2) maturation, (3) migration to a reservoir, and (4) the provision of a
suitable trap and associated cap-rock seal.

Uranium is a mineral fuel not by virtue of combustion, but through its


radioactivity. The principal locations in which uranium ore occurs can be
divided into two broad categories :
1. Veins, either magmatic or hydrothermal in origin, which are often
concentrated beneath impermeable unconformities
2. Placer deposits

Construction Minerals
Minerals, aggregates and stones which are used in building are known
collectively as construction minerals, and these represent the most widely used
of all geological materials. In this case the term mineral is used in an industrial
sense, referring to any geological material of economic value, rather than the

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

strict geological definition of minerals as the components of rocks. The


extraction and processing of construction minerals give the geomaterials from
which the fabric of our urban environment is built.

Industrial, Metallic and Precious Minerals


Industrial minerals are any minerals valued for their chemical or physical
properties and which are used in the manufacture of a wide range of products
and materials. Metallic minerals, known as ores, are exploited for their metal
content which is used in the primary manufacture of metal products. Precious
minerals are by definition rare and hard to come by, and are valued for their
aesthetic beauty as well as for their application in specialist tasks.

Mineral exploration is a high-risk enterprise which involves seven stages :


1. Conceptual planning. The aim here is to anticipate market demand for a
particular commodity and to initiate exploration so that future demands can be
met. The end products at this stage are : (1) a decision to explore for a specific
commodity within a defined region, the size of which will varry depending on the
commodity; (2) a definition of the broad search parameters; (3) a timescale for
that exploration; and (4) a budget or cost envelope for the project.
2. Geological models. It is to establish an exploration model. An exploration
model links the occurrence of a mineral to its geological setting and at its
simplest is a list of search parameters. It is based on a combination of geological
experience and geological theory. An exploration model can have a variety of
forms, and may be either empirical or generic. Empirical models are based on a
synthesis of the geological description of a particular type of mineral-bearing site.
Generic models are based on an understanding of how a particular mineral is
formed. Without a list of search parameters, which essentially is all that an
exploration model is, exploration cannot be proceed.
3. Reconnaissance and detailed planning. The next stage is to find mineral
targets worthy of detailed exploration. This involves a combination of desk work
and field reconnaissance. The use of remote sensing and airborne geophysics is
of particular importance here. Seismic survey are a vital part of the exploration
for oil and gas. The end product of this stage of exploration is a number of
identified land parcels of varying size in which further exploration effort is to be
concentrated.
4. Land acquisition. The aim here is to acquire the rights, preferably exclusive,
to explore and potentially to extract a deposit from the land parcels identified in
the previous stage. The end product at this stage is to obtain the rights to
explore some or all of the identified target areas.
5. Target location and appraisal. The aim here is to locate all the potential
mineral reserves within the target area and define the extent of the mineral
bodies present. Ideally, the end product of this stage in the exploration process
is an identified target or site at which mineral deposits of sufficient grade and
volume occur to justify the expense of extraction. In practise, however, all

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

potential targets may turn out to be uneconomic, putting the exploration


programme back to the reconnaissance stage.
6. Site assessment/feasibility studies. The aim here is to establish the
feasibility and economic viability of a proposed mine, quarry or oil/gas field. This
is determined by a very wide range of factors, which can be broadly grouped into
geology, economics and socio-political factors.
7. Prospect development. Having obtained the necessary financial support for
the project, planning permission or any extraction licence required must be
sought, and if successful, the next stage is to let the contracts for construction of
the basic site infrastructure.

Methods of extracting mineral wealth from the ground can be summarised as :


(1) fluid removal using wells; (2) underground mining; and (3) surface mining or
quarrying.
1. Fluid removal. The removal of fluids via wells is usual practice for most oil
and gas operatios, and is also employed for a variety of soluble minerals such as
salt.
2. Underground mining. Methods of underground mining depend largely upon
the geometry of the exploration target. Five principal methods of underground
mining are identified : (1) longwall mining; (2) pillar-and-stall working; (3) bell
pits; (4) adit mines; and (5) deep cavern mining.
3. Quarrying. Surface working or quarrying is used to obtain a wide variety of
minerals, particularly bulk minerals such as construction stone and aggregates,
as well as gold and copper deposits and, increasingly, coal. There are five basic
methods of surface working : (1) deep open-cut excavations; (2) shallow open-cut
excavations; (3) area strip mining; (4) contour strip mining; and (5) dredging.

All mineral extraction will have some degree of environmental impact prior to,
during and after mineral extraction. The aim of the environmental geologist is to
minimise and manage this impact. In developing countries, where for economic
or other reasons environmental control is less stringent, the impact of current
mineral extraction may be more marked. There are a variety of different types of
environmental impact depending on the mining/quarrying operation involved.
The key impacts commonly encountered both during and after the cessation of
mineral extraction include :
1. Mining subsidence
2. Problem associated with the disposal and management of mine spoil and
tailings
3. Environmental impact of mine operations such as blasting, land loss,
noise, traffic problems and problems of water quality
4. Quarry/mine restoration
Each of these management problems is dealt with in turn.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

CONSTRUCTION RESOURCES : GEOMATERIALS

Geomaterials are those construction materials which are recognisable as being


fundamentally geological in origin. This definition includes all stone-and
aggregate-based materials used in construction, but excludes such thing as
metals which have undergone an extensive and complex process of smelting in
order to liberate the metals from their ores. There are six basic types of
geomaterials :
1. Construction stone, comprising quarried blocks of natural stone which are
either left in a rough state or worked to produce a finished building stone. Three
main types of construction stone can be identified : (1) dimension stone, which is
shaped and dressed into regular sizes and shapes as architectural stone; (2)
decorative stone, which is similar dimension stone in that cut and shaped, but
differs in that it is intended only for decoration or non-load bearing use, although
it may still have to be durable; and (3) armourstone and rip-rip, which are
irregular but durable stone blocks or coarse aggregates intended to provide
protection in sea walls, breakwater and similar structures. In choosing
dimension stone the following properties need to be considered : structural
strength, durability, appearance, ease of working and availability.

2. Aggregates, are the most important of all geomaterials and may be either
derived from natural sand and gravel deposits or processed from crushed rock.
Classification of aggregates is important as it provides the potential user with the
basic information needed to make a judgement on the suitability of an aggregate
for a specific purpose. Typical classifications employ three important
characteristics, namely type, physical characteristics and petrology.

3. Cement and concrete. Cement ia a geomaterial which may be used on its


own in the production of thin floor (screed) and wall (render) covering materials,
mixed with sand to produce the mortar needed to construct brick buildings, and,
most importantly, mixed with aggregates to produce concrete. Cement is made
from the combination of crushed limestone and clay, which when fired in a kiln
produces a substance capable of setting under water. Concrete is effectively a
synthetic rock which is composed of a mineral filler or aggregate bound together
with a cement binder.

4. Structural clay, which is fired to make , which are among the commonest of
all geomaterials because of their low unit cost. There are five basic process
involved in the formation of a typical bricks : (1) clay extraction; (2) clay
processing; (3) brick forming; (4) brick drying; (5) brick firing. In all of these
stages the geology of the brick clay is of utmost importance.

5. Gypsum, are important geomaterials worked across the world, which is


calcined or heated at between 150 and 165 oC in order to produce the plaster. It
is high purity sand and used in glass manufacture.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

6. Glass sand. Glass is manufactured through a process of melting quartz-


based sand and some other vital mineral ingredients and cooling them in such a
way that they are prevented from crystallising. Suitable sand for the
manufacture of glass is less common than the sand deposits commonly used for
aggregates. Glass production relies on mixing of quartz glass sand with
appropriate amounts of other minerals. Typical minerals include : sodium
carbonate and boron, mostly derived from lacustrine evaporite deposits.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

WATER RESOURCES

Water is essential to life, used not only for domestic consumption, but for
agriculture, industry, power generation and waste disposal. It varies widely in
availability from one location to the next, both globally and regionally. Principal
problems are the storage and transfer of water from areas where it is abundant
to meet the demand in those areas where it is not. Water resource management,
in the context of human use, therefore involves three components : (1) resource
acquisition; (2) redistribution; and (3) water treatment and disposal.

The rate at which water is delivered from a drainage basin either to stream flow
or to groundwater depends on the topography and land use within catchment,
both of which can be changed by human action.

Principal water sources are artificial reservoirs, river abstraction, groundwater


withdrawal and desalination. Water storage within the supply system is
essential to buffer variability in supply from variability in demand. Reservoirs
are essential in this respect.

Artificial Reservoirs
Reservoirs are constructed for a wide range of uses including water supply,
power generation, irrigation and flood control, and vary from local structures to
store treated water, to large reservoirs on major continental rivers. In designing
and planning reservoirs, the following factors need to be considered : (1) water
availability in relation to short-term and long-term demand; (2) reservoir location
and geometry; (3) hydrogeology of the reservoir floor and walls; (4) engineering
geology of the dam site; (5) reservoir lifetime; (6) hazards to the integrity of the
reservoir; (7) capital cost and operational costs; and (8) environmental impacts.

River Abstraction
River abstraction involves the direct removal of water from rivers by either
diversion or pumping. The consequences of abstraction may be considerable on
a river which is deprived of its natural discharge, although this depends on the
amount and timing of the abstraction. Impacts of water abstraction include : (1)
channel sedimentation and reduction in channel size due to decreased transport
capacity; (2) encroachment of vegetation into channel; (3) effects on the river
ecology and river bank habitats; (4) an increased concentration of solutes and
pollutants due to a decrease in dilution; (5) adverse aesthetic impacts; (6)
downstream impacts on fisheries, navigation and other river-based activities.

Groundwater Abstraction
Groundwater may be obtained either directly from springs or by pumping from
saturated aquifers. In the case of springs the rate of supply is limited by rate of
spring discharge. Removal groundwater by pumping causes a draw-down in the
water table in the vicinity of the well; this has the potential to cause settlement

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

and in coastal areas may lead to contamination of the aquifer by saline


groundwater. Large-scale removal of groundwater in excess of recharge may
cause regional subsidence.

Desalination
In areas with a surplus of cheap fuel, desalination of seawater to produce fresh
water is a practical option. Seawater is evaporated and condensed on a large
scale to produce fresh water. This is clearly a fuel-intensive process, but is
economic in the oil-rich regions of the Middle East where oil is more easily
obtained than water.

Water can be transferred from one location to the next by use of pipes, canals
and tunnels, natural rivers, and recharge of groundwater. The aim is to deliver a
constant supply of water sufficient to meet the demand in a specific location and
to minimise leakage or other loss. The more complex the methods of water
transfer and the greater the travel distances involved, the more costly and
wasteful the scheme may become.

Water resources are sustainable and should ideally be managed accordingly.


The environmental consequences of excessive groundwater abstraction are of
particular note.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

AESTHETIC AND SCIENTIFIC GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Earth heritage conservation is based on four convictions : (1) that rocks and
landforms should be conserved for their own sake; (2) that they provide a basis
for economic exploitation; (3) that they form a basis for research, training and
education; and (4) that they have aesthetic or cultural value. The scientific and
aesthetic earth science resource is varied, but typically comprises surface
landforms and processes, rock exposures created by human activity or natural
processes, and the unusual or rare rock, mineral or fossils deposits.

Landforms and Landscape


Landforms are the physical expressions of internal (endogenic) and external
(exogenic) processes which have operated to shape the surface of the earth.
These landforms make up the landscape which is effectively a collection of both
active and static landforms. Landforms and landscape provide an important
resource for aesthetic, cultural and scientific reasons.

Aesthetically, landscape can be defined on the basis of a series of criteria which


seek to determine relative worth in terms of landscape perception. Landscape
perception is a way of determining landscape value in terms of beauty, taste,
regional association and other subjective values.

Culturally, landscape is important for at least three reasons : (1) as an icon


which reflects national character; (2) because of an association with a specific
historical event; and (3) as an inspiration for writers, artists and musicians.

Scientifically, landforms and landscape are the subject matter of geomorphology,


which seeks to explain the processes which are acting or have acted in order to
create the earth’s surface.

Rock Outcrops
Rock outcrops, by strict definition, are those rock units which come to the
surface of the earth and may be marked on a geological map, which are exposed
as visible rock breaking the surface of the landscape in a variety of settings, and
those which are obscured, the outcrop being covered by surface deposits, soils,
or human developments such as towns and cities.

Aesthetically and culturally, the main value of rock outcrops lies in their
contribution to the formation of specific landforms.

The Built Environment and Urban Landscape


The built environment of our towns and cities is a reflection of the earth science
resource. It has two basic components : (1) remnants of the primary
geomorphology of the region prior to construction ; and (2) the buildings, roads
and other constructions which are composed primarily of materials derived from

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

the geological resource, in the form of building stones and other construction
materials.

In many cases, the original siting of towns or city was controlled by nature of the
geomorphology.

Educationally, the built environment offers a great challenge, in displaying a


wide range of geological materials which are subjected to stringent weathering
effects of the often hostile urban atmosphere.

Effective management of the geological and geomorphological aesthetic/scientific


resource is necessary in order to protect vulnerable sites and enhance the value.
Effective management is primarily a function of five processes : assessment,
awareness, enhancement, protection and management.

Assessment of Value
Assessment of value is primarily subjective and is a function of the comparison of
selected areas of the earth with others. The process of selecting conservation
sites, whatever their size and nature (aesthetic or scientific), is a critical
component in the conservation process.

Promotion of Awareness
Awareness is in most cases the most important aspect of successful
conservation. The successful conservation of wildlife and the promotion of the
green movement over the last 20 years is a function of the increase in awareness
of the need for protection of fragile habitats. Awareness can also be enhanced
through an appropriate use of signage and of interpretative boards, guided tours,
leaflets and other litarature.

Site Enhancement
Effective management and conservation of a site also needs the development of
site enhancemet techniques. These can vary from the promotion of a greater
awareness of a site through better access, to physical actions such as, for
example, the clearance of unwanted vegetation or dumped rubbish.

Site Protection and Management Principles


The effective protection of spatial areas which encompass geological or
geomorphological features of importance (geotopes) is dependent on the definition
of an appropriate management strategy. In some cases this is a parallel to the
difference in strategy between preservation, protection in an unchanged state or
moth balling, and conservation, protection with a recognition that the resource
is bound by nature to evolve and change with time. Area selected on the basis of
their scenic beauty and cultural associations are mostly managed using both
preservation and conservation principles.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

There are two approaches to conservation : (1) conflict, and (2) compromise.
Conflict deals in direct opposition to any form of development and is a high-risk
strategy. Compromise is often viewed as being inconsistent with conservation,
but is the strategy most commonly used by statutory conservation agencies.

Effective conservation involves : (1) raising public awareness and commitment to


conservation; and (2) seeking a compromise between developers and
conservationists which recognises the need for development while at the same
time recognising the scientific value of a site.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering geology is an important part of environmental geology and involves


the application of geological knowledge to the design, construction and
performance of civil engineering works. Its focus is the behaviour of geological
materials during and after construction, that are : (1) evaluating the strength and
stability of soil and rock; (2) identifying areas susceptible to failure; (3)
recognising potentially difficult ground conditions; and (4) designing remedial
measures to combat these problems. The aim here is to : (1) provide an overview
of the tools used in the investigation of potential construction sites (site
investigation); (2) illustrate the types of engineering problems associated with
different types of terrain; and (3) discuss two major engineering tasks in which
geology has an important influence – rock excavations and tunnelling.

The single most important tasks of the engineering geologist is site investigation.
This task involves the pre-development identification of difficult ground
conditions and other building hazards. It may take many different forms, from
regional land-use planning surveys, to site selection and site specific analysis.
Within site investigation, four main stages, not always present, can be identified :
(1) regional reconnaissance to identify the most problem-free location or route
corridor; (2) site documentation; (3) material testing; and (4) data presentation
either as engineering geology maps or in detailed site reports.

Regional-or Reconnaissance-scale Site Investigation


This scale of exercise is conducted essentially to identify the relative merits, in
engineering terms, of alternative sites, and is especially important in the choice
of route corridors for roads and railways. Regional-scale investigation is
essentially an exercise in terrain evaluation and involves the use of published
maps and remote sensing.

Site Documentation
Site documentation involves two complementary phases : (1) the desk study, and
(2) the field survey.
Desk study, usually includes : (1) published and unpublished material; (2)
historical maps; (3) topographic maps; (4) air photographs and satellite
images; (5) miscellaneous maps; (6) borehole logs; (7) national surveys or
databases; (8) mining records.
Field survey may involves : (1) geological mapping; (2) geomorphological
mapping; (3) geophysical surveys; (4) trial pits and trenches; (5) boreholes.
Consequently, through a combination of deskwork and targeted fieldwork, the
principal engineering problem on a site can be identified, located and in many
cases quantified.

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Lecture Note : Environmental Geology, edited by : Agus Hendratno

Material Testing
Testing of rock and soils taken from boreholes and trial pits can be divided into
three types of activity : (1) hard rock testing; (2) rock mass strength
determinations; and (3) soil testing.

Hard rock testing involving laboratory analysis of the intact strength of the
lithologies present is rare, since most have sufficient bearing capacity and the
strength envelope is well known for most common rock types. In practise, the
effective rock mass strength is determined by a combination of the fracture
pattern and the weathering state. Soil testing is a routine part of site
investigation. Engineering soils are defined as any unlithified sediment and may
include both soil as studied by pedologists, and unlithified rocks as studied by
geologists. The aim of testing is to determine not only the strength of a soil, but
also its sensitivity to failure.

In engineering terms one can recognise three types of geological terrain, each
with its own engineering hazards : (1) ancient hard rock terrain; (2) soft rock
terrain; and (3) superficial sediments and landforms. Of particular note in a
country such as Britain are the problems associated with the glacial and
periglacial landforms and sediments which cover much of the surface.

Of the range of engineering geology tasks, rock excavation and tunnelling involve
more geological input than any other. Choice of excavation techniques is
controlled by rock mass strength, as is the method of tunnel stabilisation used.

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