A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH TO HIGHWAYS

AND AIRFIELDS PAVEMENT DESIGN

BY

Engr. Bode Oluniyi, B. Eng (Civil), M.Sc, MNSE, MNICE, COREN

GSM: 08026492565

E-mail: bsd2100@yahoo.com
 HIGHWAY PAVEMENT DESIGN

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of a highway pavement is to provide a wearing surface for traffic and
spread the stresses due to wheel load without overstressing any part of the entire
structure including the subgrade itself.
Highway pavement consists of a series of structural emplacement over the subgrade.
These emplacements may consist of sub base, base and surfacing. Hence, the total
thickness of a pavement includes the aforementioned layers of the road structure lying
on the subgrade of the road.
Usually, the stress on a pavement decreases with depth according to the spread of the
wheel load; however the total thickness of the pavement must be such that the
subgrade is not overstressed.
Pavement design therefore involves the study of the properties of soil along the road
alignment, identification and selection of construction materials for the various layers
and the determination of the thickness of various layers for the traffic loadings and
environmental conditions expected to prevail during the design life of the pavement.
Pavement design is aimed at providing adequate cover to the subgrade so that the
stresses at the subgrade level are low enough to prevent excessive deformation in
addition to providing pavement materials which are strong enough to resist the stress
and strain imposed by wheel load.

2.0 PAVEMENT
A pavement is a highway structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed material whose primary function is to distribute the load to the subgrade. The
ultimate aim is that the stresses transmitted to the subgrade are within its bearing
capacity.
2.1 Types of Pavement
There are three types of pavement; they are the flexible, rigid and composite
pavements. In this course, the flexible and rigid pavements are considered elaborately.
2.1.1 Flexible Pavement
A flexible pavement is a pavement structure which maintains contact with and
distribute load to the subgrade, it depends upon aggregate interlock, particle friction,
and cohesion for stability.
The strength of a flexible pavement is derived from the composite effects of the various
layers of the pavement. These layers are thus arranged in such a way that the layer
 strength increases from the subgrade upwards with the strongest material being placed
on the surface.

Surfacing

Base

Subbase

 Fig 1: Typical section through a flexible pavement

2.1.2 Rigid Pavement

A rigid pavement is a pavement structure which distributes loads to the subgrade
having as one course a Portland cement of concrete slab of relatively high bending
resistance.
Surfacing

Optional base course

 Fig 2: Typical section through a rigid pavement

A flexible pavement differs from a rigid pavement both in design and method of construction.
The features that distinguish a flexible pavement from a rigid pavement lie mostly in their
structural mechanics and they are set out in the table below.

S/No Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

The pressure is transmitted to Load transference is by beam action and tends

subgrade through lateral distribution of
1 applied with depth rather than by
beam and slab action as with a
concrete slab.
The strength of the subgrade is the
main factor controlling the design.
2 When the subgrade deflects, the
overlying flexible pavement is expected
to be more uniform than the flexible
pavement.
When the subgrade deflects beneath a rigid
pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge
over localized failures and areas of inadequate
support because of its structural capabilities.
 to deform to a similar shape and
extent.

The basic design criterion is the depth The basic design criterion is governed by the
of pavement required to distribute the modulus of elasticity and compressive
3 applied surface load to the subgrade. strength of concrete. The concrete slab has a
high degree of rigidity, hence wheel load
applied to concrete slab are distributed over a
large area, so deflections are small and
pressure on the subgrade are low.

Cannot resist tensile stresses. Can resist tensile stresses as a result of

reinforced slab.
4

Load carrying capacity is supplied by Load carrying capacity is supplied by the slab
the stress distributing characteristics of and beam action.
5 the layered system.

Table 1: distinguishing features between flexible and rigid pavement

2.1.3 Functions of Each Course of the Pavement Layer

2.1.3.1 Surfacing
Its primary function is to provide a safe and comfortable riding surface for the traffic. In
addition it protects the underlying layers from adverse environmental effects as well as from
disintegrating effects caused by vehicle skidding and breaking on roadway.
At times, the surface course may be divided into Wearing Course which provides the actual
surface on which the traffic runs and Binder Course which acts as a regulating layer to provide
the wearing course with a better riding quality as well as adding to the structural integrity of
the pavement.
2.1.3.2 Road Base
The road base is the main load carrying structural component in a flexible pavement. It resists
and distributes stresses induced by vehicles to the underlying layer and also ensuring that the
bearing capacity of the subgrade is not exceeded.
2.1.3.3 Subbase
The inclusion of subbase in a pavement structure normally depends on the bearing strength of
the subgrade. Its role is to help in distributing induced stresses onto the subgrade in addition to
protection the base layer from adverse soil condition that may prevail in the subgrade.
2.1.3.4 Subgrade
The subgrade is the natural or improved ground on which the pavement structure is
constructed.

2.1.4 Factors Affecting the Determination of Type of Pavement

The determination of pavement type is of major importance in development of plans for new
highway scheme or paving improvement. The main factors considered in determination of
pavement types are;
(a) Traffic
The volume and character of traffic expressed as the traffic index has a direct effect on
the structural design of the pavement. Both flexible and rigid pavement can be designed
to meet most traffic requirements under given conditions.

(b) Cost Comparison

If cost comparison between alternative pavement types is to be of value, the structural
design compared must have equal load carrying capacity for the comparison to be
meaningful in terms of economy, it must include not only cost of original investment but
cost of succeeding overlay necessary to extend the life of the pavement to its full design
period.

Data on the pavement type in present use is sufficient to permit reasonable accurate
estimates of first cost and future repaving cost. However, many assumptions must still
be made regarding pavement durability and service life under various climatic and
service conditions.

(c) Soil Characteristics

The characteristics of native soils directly affect not only the pavement structure design
but may even dictate the type of pavement best suited for a given location. A careful
evaluation of soil characteristics is a basic requirement for each individual pavement
structure design.
 (d) Weather
Rainfall can seasonally influence the bearing capacity of subgrade material. Moisture
has a direct effect on pavement wearing surfaces which will be reflected in the cost of
maintenance and repairs.

(e) Secondary factors

 Traffic Safety
 Availability of local materials
 Adjacent existing pavements
 Stage construction
 Conservation of aggregate

2.2 Pavement Design

Pavement design as said earlier involves the study of properties of soil along selected
road alignment, design of mix material and pavement thicknesses for the traffic loading
and environmental conditions expected to prevail during the design life of the
pavement.

The aim of pavement design is to provide a safe, smooth and comfortable ride, low
rolling resistance for economic operation, rapid drainage of water off the road surface,
good friction to facilitate safe stopping, structurally adequate and show little distress
throughout its design life.

2.3 Factors Affecting the Design of Pavements

The major factors which are considered during the process of design of pavements are
as follows:

 Climate;
 Geometry;
 Pavement materials;
 Subgrade soil; and
 Traffic.

2.4 Methods of Design

Many design methods have been developed to suit different climatic and traffic
conditions. For historical reasons, most of the design methods used in tropical countries
were adapted from those developed from the European temperate climate.
 Flexible pavement design method can be divided broadly into empirical and analytical
methods. The development of computers has made analytical method to gain
popularity; however because of the accumulated experience in use of empirical and
semi-empirical methods, empirical methods are still in use and will continue into the
foreseeable future.

The methods of design are broadly categorized under the following:

 Empirical method with no soil strength test;
 Empirical method with soil strength test;
 Methods partly based on theory and partly on experience;
 Purely theoretical method.

2.4.1 Empirical Method with no Soil Strength Test (Group Index Method)
This method relies mainly on soil classification for design. It relates thickness of subbase
to subgrade characteristics. Thus, within the HRB classification system, groups of soil are
differentiated according to particle analysis, liquid limit and plasticity index. Soils within
each group are differentiated by means of a qualifying group index No. obtained from
the following formula;

G.I = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd

Where;
a = that portion of the % passing the No. 200 sieve which is greater 35 and which
does not exceed 75 expressed as a positive whole No. (1-40)

b = that portion of the % passing the No. 200 sieve which is greater than 15 and which
does not exceed 55 expressed as a positive whole No. (1-40)

c = that portion of the % passing the No. 200 sieve which is greater than 40 and which
is not greater than 60 expressed as a positive whole No. (1-20)

d = that portion of the % passing the No. 200 sieve which is greater than 10 and which
does not exceed 30 expressed as a positive whole No. (1-20)

G.I ranges between 0 and 20; G.I = 0, implies excellent material, G.I = 1 - 4, implies good
material and G.I = 5 - 20, implies fair to poor - very poor material.

The group index design chart (see appendix) provides the pavement layer thickness for values
of G.I corresponding to different traffic loading levels.
Worked Example 1
A soil sample from a proposed highway site was tested in a laboratory and the following
parameters were obtained.
 Soil passing sieve No. 200 (BS) = 55%
 Liquid limit = 40%
 Plasticity index = 20%
It was further revealed that a traffic volume comprising 200 trucks and buses per day will be
using the facility when opened. Design the pavement using the group index method of design.

Procedure
 Estimate the group index of the subgrade
 Classify the expected traffic on the road
 Read the thicknesses of pavement layer on the chart
 Draw the pavement layers

Solution
a = 55-35 =20
b = 55-15 = 4
c = 40-40 = 0
d = 20-10 = 10

Therefore G.I = (0.20 × 20) + (0.005 × 20 × 0) + (0.01 × 40 × 10) = 8.0

Using the group index chart with G.I = 8.0, and a 200 Vehicles per day of trucks and buses,
reading the pavement thicknesses from the chart, (curve A) see appendix, we have;

Bituminous Surfacing = 7.50cm (3.0”)

Granular base = 10.0cm (2.0”)
Selected material subbase = 20.0cm (8.0”)

Bituminous surfacing 3.0”

Selected material subbase 8.0”

Subgrade

Worked Example 2
(a) For a subgrade with G.I = 12, design the thickness of pavement which will be adequate
to sustain an expected traffic of 250cu/day.
(b) Provide an alternative design assuming that additional base may be substituted for
Subbase

(c) Give a comparative sketch of question 1 and 2, what does this indicate about the
formation levels of the two pavements. Suggest suitable material for base and subbase.

Solution
From curve A, thickness of subbase = 25.0cm (10.0”)
From curve C, total pavement thickness = 47.50cm (19.0”)
Thickness of surfacing (assumed) = 4.0cm (1.60”)
Thickness of base = 47.50 - 4.0 - 25.0 = 18.50cm (7.30”)

Surfacing 4.0cm
. Base 18.50cm

Subbase

25.0cm

Subgrade

From curve E, thickness of additional base which may be substituted for subbase

= 5.0 inches = 5.0 × 2.50cm = 12.50cm

Hence new base = 18.50 + 12.50 = 31.0cm

Surfacing 4.0cm

New base 31.0cm

Subgrade
 4.0cm Surfacing Surfacing 4.0cm

18.50cm 31.0cm

25.0 cm

Subgrade
Comparative Sketch

Worked Example 3
Design a road pavement to be built on an excellent gravel subgrade A-1-A, group index = 0.
Assume that the pavement is expected to sustain a traffic of 40cu/day.

Solution
In this case, G.I = 0 means the subgrade is composed of an excellent material, so addition of
road base will be unnecessary. For this traffic condition expected, it will be quite sufficient to
cover the subgrade with a 50mm bituminous surface course.

Bituminous Surfacing 50mm

Excellent subgrade

2.4.1.1 Merit and Demerits of the Group Index Method

The group index method has the advantage that it is the most simple design procedure;
however the shortcomings are that uneconomical pavement thickness may often be
constructed if clayey soils are encountered. Again, it does not take into account the load
spreading ability of the pavement materials. The method is entirely dependent on
particular conditions of subgrade moisture and compactions; hence if these conditions
are not met in the field the design curves are not applicable.

2.4.2 Empirical Method with Soil Strength Test (CBR Method)

The CBR is a property of the subgrade soil which is measured by empirical test. It was
developed by O. J. Porter during the 2 nd World War and modified by US Corp of
Engineers to cover Airfield pavements.
The test is made on a sample of the subgrade soil in a standard loading device which
measures the load required to cause 2.5mm penetration of a plunger having cross
sectional area of 1960mm2. The plunger is made to penetrate the sample at the rate of
 1.25mm per minute until penetrations of 0.63mm, 1.27mm, 1.91mm, 2.54mm, 3.81mm,
5.08mm, 6.35mm, and 7.62mm are recorded.
The applied loads causing the above penetrations are also recorded and graph of load
against penetration is plotted.

See the appendix section for the graph and CBR curve.

Worked Example 4
The data taken from a CBR test on a subgrade of a proposed Dual Carriageway is a follows:

Penetration Load on Piston

(mm) (MN/m2)
1.27 0.06895
2.54 0.20685
3.81 0.44875
5.08 0.68950
7.62 0.97679
10.16 1.20660
12.7 1.37900

(a) Estimate the CBR of the subgrade

(b) Design an adequate pavement assuming that the cumulative No. of standard axle in the
direction is 0.75 × 106
If (i) Surface dressing is to be used;
(ii) If bituminous surfacing is to be used.
Design using Road Note 31.
See the appendix section for worked example 4
Worked Example 5
The table below shows the traffic study for a proposed Dual Carriageway.

Axle Load 8160 kg Equivalent No of Axles per day

(Kg) Factor in direction of heavier
traffic

Single Axle
910 0.00030 680
1810 0.0020 400
2720 0.010 360
3630 0.040 220
4540 0.090 120
Tandem Axle
5440 0.020 300
6350 0.030 250
7260 0.050 225
8160 0.080 150
9070 0.120 100

A CBR test on the prospective pavement material yielded the following results.

S/No Soil Sample / Pavement Material CBR Value

1 Natural silty sand subgrade 5%

2 Laterite subbase 30%

3 Sandy gravel base 100%

Assuming an average of 2axles per vehicles in the single axle category and 21/2 axles per
vehicles in the tandem axle category, design a suitable pavement structure for the highway
using FMW&H, CBR and British Road Note 31 procedure. Take traffic growth as 8 1/2% per
annum and design life as 15 years.

Solution
British Road Note 31

The cumulative standard axle during the 15years design life at 81/2% growth rate is given by:
F = [P (1+r)n / r] - 1
Where: r = Future traffic,
p = Present traffic
r = growth rate per annum
n = design life of pavement

Therefore, F = [26,480.46 (1+0.085)15 / 0.085] - 1 = 1.059 × 106 Standard axles

From the pavement design chart (Road Note 31)

Pavement thicknesses
Surfacing = 50mm Bituminous surfacing
Base = 150mm
Subbase = 225mm

Bituminous surfacing 50mm

Base 150mm

Subbase 225mm

Subgrade
Nigerian FMW&H design Method
No of axles per day No.
vehicles
Axle Load 8140kg Equivalent In direction of heavier Conversion to
Per day
(Kg) factor flow 1axles/vehs./day
Single Axle
910 0.00030 680 680 / 2 340
1810 0.0020 400 400 / 2 200
2720 0.01 360 360 / 2 180
3630 0.040 220 220 / 2 110
4540 0.09 120 120 / 2 60
Tandem Axle
5440 0.020 300 300 / 2.5 120
6350 0.030 250 250 / 2.5 100
7260 0.050 225 225 / 2.5 90
8160 0.080 150 150 / 2.5 60
9070 0.120 100 100 / 2.5 40
1300

The No. of vehicles (axle load) using the road in 1year is C t = Cumulative traffic
Future traffic, Ft = Ct (1+r)n
Where; r = traffic growth rate, and
n = pavement design life
Ft = 1300 (1+0.085)15
= 4420
Lane distribution 100% of (4420) = 4420
From the FMW&H design chart, (see appendix) the traffic estimates falls within curve F
Pavement thickness
Surfacing = 100mm Asphalt concrete surfacing
Base = 75mm Sandy gravel base
Subbase = 165mm Laterite subbase

Asphalt concrete surfacing 100mm

Sandy gravel base 75mm

Laterite subbase 165mm

Subgrade

2.5 Stresses in Flexible Pavement

The stresses in flexible pavement can be determined through the Boussinesq and Burmister
equations.
The effect of layer and purpose of evaluating the stresses on layered pavement is to reduce as
much as possible the stresses and deflection on the subgrade.

Boussinesq theory deals with stresses in homogeneous mass. It obeys the Hooke’s law, i.e.

Б is directly proportional to ε
Б=Eε

y Б max at top decreases as depth y increases till

it becomes 0
0
 Considering an homogeneous mass

Бz Z

1
Бz = 3P/ 2πZ [1 + (r/z)5/2]
2
- - - - - - - - (1)
Бz is the vertical stress

By integrating equation 1, we have

1
Бz = P [1- (a2+z2)3/2] - - - - - - - - - - (2)

For horizontal radial stress Бr, µ = Poisson ratio = 0.50

p a

p = p/a
Бz Z A = πa2 (radius of circular contact area)
Бr Max Б occurs beneath loaded area
r

Бr = P/2 [1-2µ-2(1+µ) z + z3 ]
2 2 1/2 2 2 1/2
(a +z ) (a +z ) - - - - - - - (3)

The vertical elastic strain, δ at depth Z beneath centre of the loaded area is

δ = 1/E (Бz - 2µ Бr) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4)

Substituting eqn. 2 & 3 into 4, we have

 ∆ = P/E [(2-2µ2) (a2 + z2)1/2 - (1+ µ) z2 + (µ+2µ2 -1)2]
(a2 + z2)1/2 - - - - - (5)
Where;
∆ = Vertical displacement at centre of loaded area
P = Applied load
a = Radius of circular area of loading
Ε = Modulus of Elasticity of subgrade (Between 0.15-0.80)

Substituting μ = 0.50 in eqn. 5,

∆ = 3P a2 / 2 Ε (a2 + z2)1/2

F= 3/2 [(1+ (z/a) 2] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6)

F= displacement factor which depends on the thickness of the top layer and ratio E1/E2 which
ranges from 0.02 to 1.0

Therefore ∆ = P a/ Ε. F (Boussinesq settlement eqn. for

deflection at centre of flexible pavement)

The deflection is elastic and due to yielding subgrade under a base course layer

P = applied pressure

Base course or Subbase

From Z to infinity Z

Subgrade

For deformation at the surface when load is at the surface of subgrade, i.e. Z = 0, deflection
equation becomes
∆ = 1.5 P a/ Ε. F - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7)

Attempts have been made to modify Boussinesq analysis to take into account elasticity of the
pavement; this gave rise to the Burmister theory.
Burmister obtained solution for 2 layers in his theory of stress distribution by using strain
continuity equations where the vertical stress is dependent on the modular ratio E1/E2.

Reinforcing layer
1 E1

2 E2
The assumptions he made are:
 The materials are homogeneous, isotropic and elastic
 Surface layer infinite in extent laterally but finite in depth
 Underlie layer infinite in extent laterally and vertically
 Boundary and continuity conditions require the layers are in continuous contact and
surface layer is free of shearing under normal stress outside the loaded area.

The vertical stress decreases with increase in modular ratio, stress and deflection values
obtained by Burmister are dependent upon the stress ratio of the layers E1/E2, where;
E1 = Elastic modulus of top layer (pavement structure)
E2 = Elastic modulus of subgrade layer

The Burmister chart for computing vertical surface deflection is available at the appendix
section.

Worked Example 6
Use the Burmister theory to calculate the stress and surface deflection for a 300mm stabilized
gravel pavement structure lying on a murram subgrade of infinite depth. Assume the average
modulus of elasticity of the stabilized gravel is 344500kN/m 2 and that of the murram subgrade
is 68900kN/m2. Assume a uniform surface loading of 689kN/m2 distributed over a circular area
of radius 150mm.

Solution
E1=344500kN/m2, E2=68900kN/m2, P=689kN/m2, h=300mm = 2a= thickness of pavement,
a= 150mm = radius of loaded area.

E1/E2 = 344500/68900 = 5.0

Z/a = 300/150 = 2.0

From the Burmister chart, Бz/p = 0.21

Бz = 0.21 × 689 = 145kN/m2
h/a = 300/150 = 2.0, from chart F2 = 0.42
Therefore, vertical displacement of the road surface from eqn. 7
∆ = 1.5 × 689 × 0.15/68900 (0.42)
= 0.000945m
= 0.95mm

3.0 RIGID PAVEMENT

Rigid pavements are those which contain sufficient beam strength to be able to bridge
over localized subgrade failures and areas of inadequate support. Thus, in contrast with
flexible pavements, depressions which occur beneath properly designed and
constructed rigid pavement are not reflected in their running surfaces.

3.1 Types of Rigid Pavement

The design of cement concrete pavement is influenced by the properties of materials
and the effect of environment on these properties, by intended road use and traffic, and
by cost. The following are the basic types of rigid pavement:

(a) Plain Concrete

This is the least costly pavement to construct and it is carried out with short slabs. This
pavement has being used most frequently to save cost on lightly travelled roads and
residential streets and also at places where foundation bearing is excellent.

(b) Reinforced Concrete

This pavement contains steel mesh and such pavements are most widely used as they
are adaptive to most of the traffic and climatic conditions.

(c) Continuously Reinforced Concrete

This pavement contains heavier steel-tapped or welded steel to extend the reinforcing
action over a long length and such pavement are useful on urban expressways where
traffic delay due to joint maintenance would cause lane crossing and peak traffic delays.

(d) Pre-stressed Concrete

This pavement is in form of long lengths which are pre-compressed by jacks or tendons.
Such pavements are costly and they are intended to completely eliminate random
transverse cracks by keeping the concrete pre-compressed.

3.2 Functions of Subgrade and Subbase in Rigid Pavement

3.2.1 Subgrade
The most important property of the subgrade in relation to rigid pavement is whether or not it
will provide uniform support for the slab. If the subgrade can be relied on to provide uniform
support throughout the life of the pavement, then the slab can be laid directly on the prepared
in-situ soil and there will be no need to construct a subbase. If the subgrade conditions are
poor, then it will be necessary to interpose a subbase between the slab and subgrade.

The table below shows the relationship between subgrades and thickness of subbase.

Class of Subgrades for Rigid Pavement and Minimum thickness of

Type Subbase (mm)
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Weak All subgrade of CBR < 2% 150

Subgrades other than those defined by the other

Normal categories 80

Very All subgrades of CBR > 15% include undisturbed 0

stable foundation of old road

Table 2: CBR of subgrade and thickness of subbase

3.2.2 Subbase
The function of the subbase is to counteract or correct unsatisfactory subgrade conditions
which could lead to non uniform support for the slab. Particular instances where subbases are
used to provide uniform, stable and permanent support for concrete slabs are when damage is
anticipated from poor drainage, mud-pumping, swell and shrinkage of high volume-change soils
and construction traffic.

3.3 Factors Affecting the Design of Rigid Pavement

The factors affecting the design of rigid pavements are:
(a) Wheel load
This is taken as the maximum wheel load of the predominant heavy vehicle likely to use
the pavement. In addition to wheel load, maximum tyre pressure for the vehicles is also
taken into account to determine the load transmitted to the pavement.
(b) Traffic intensity
For heavy traffic, fatigue effects of concrete should be included in the con due to
continuous loading of traffic on the pavement while there are less effect in case of low
 traffic intensities. In the initial stages, the traffic intensities will be much less than that at
the end of design life which is considered as 20years after construction.

For traffic prediction on main highway, the following equation is adopted;

T = P (1+r) n+20
Where;

T = design traffic intensity in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day

P= traffic intensity at last traffic count
r= annual rate of increase of traffic intensity
n= number of years since last traffic count and commissioning of the new concrete
pavement

(c) Temperature differential

The difference in top and bottom of concrete pavement surfaces is due to solar
radiation received by the pavement. Hence, the value of actually anticipated
temperature differentials at the location of the pavement is adopted for the design.

(d) Foundation strength

The strength of the subgrade is expressed in terms of modulus of subgrade reaction, K
which is the pressure per unit deflection of the foundation as determined by plate
loading test. The subgrade soil and strength of foundation as a whole is affected by
moisture content.

(e) Foundation surface characteristics

Smoothness, roughness etc determine the resistance of slab to movement during the
expansion and contraction which affects the joint spacing.

(f) Characteristics of concrete

The design of concrete pavement slab is dependent on the strength of the concrete.
Crushing strength is the most commonly used property of concrete to measure the
strength. Concrete has a very high crushing strength and rarely fails in compression in a
pavement. Modulus of rupture, MR may be in the order of 4900kN/m 2. The flexural
strength is evaluated as the modulus of rupture.

(g) Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s ratio

Modulus of Elasticity, E increases with increase in strength and Poisson’s ratio, μ
decrease with increase in Modulus of Elasticity. For design purposes, E = 2.76×107 and
μ = 0.15 may be adopted.
(h) Coefficient of thermal expansion
Coefficient of thermal expansion varies with type of aggregate. For design purposes, the
value α = 10×10-6/0c may be used.

3.4 Design of Rigid Pavement

Pavements are subjected to stresses due to traffic load producing tensile, compressive
and flexural stress as well as temperature variations. Under repeated action of loading,
maximum stress is induced in the corner, as it is discontinuous only in one direction; it
has lower stress, while the least stress is induced in the interior where the slab is
continuous in all directions.

To produce an economical pavement design for a known combination of traffic and

subgrade conditions, we determine the stresses that will be set up in the pavement by
the moving wheel load.

3.5 Westaargard Analysis and Method of Design

Stresses in edge region is given as Бe= 0.572P/h2 [4log10 (L/b) +0.359]
‘’ interior region Бi = 0.316P/h2 [4log10 (L/b) +1.069]
‘’ centre region Бc= 3P/h2 [1-(a/L) 0.6]

Where;
Бe, Бi and Бc are load stresses in edge, interior and centre region
P = Design wheel load
h = Pavement slab thickness
μ = Poisson’s ratio for concrete
E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete slab
K = Modulus of subgrade reaction
b = Radius of equivalent distribution of pressure
L = Radius of relative stiffness

L = [Eh3/12 (1- μ2) K]1/4 (depends on the properties of the slab and
foundation)

b approximates to a if a > 1.724h

If a < 1.724h, then b = (1.6a2+h2-0.675h)1/2

The temperature stress is obtained as per Westergaard’s analysis using Bradbury’s

coefficient;
Бte = E α ∆t /2. C

Where:
Бte = temperature stress in edge region
∆t = max temp differential during day between top and bottom of slab
α = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
C = Bradbury’s coefficient
ι = slab length
W = slab width

The Bradbury coefficient and other design tables are available at the appendix section

Worked Example 7
Design the rigid pavement on a proposed 2 lane single carriageway road for a design life
of 20years with the following data; using Westergaard’s Method of Design.

Design wheel load = 5100kg

Present traffic intensity = 300vehs/day
Design tyre pressure = 7.2kg/cm2
Foundation strength, K = 6.0kg/cm2
Flexural strength, M = 40kg/cm2
E = 3×105kg/cm2
μ = 0.15
α = 10×10-6 per o/c
∆t = 13.5 o/c

Solution
Choose a tentative slab thickness of L = 22cm
From table A1, contraction joint spacing, L = 4.50cm
Lane width = 3.65m

Radius of relative stiffness, L = [3×105×223/12 (1- 0.152) 6]1/4

= 81.89cm
W/L = 365/81.89 = 4.50

From Bradbury’s coefficient, table A2, C = 0.720

Бte = 3×105 × 10×10-6 × 13.5/2× 0.720

= 14.60kg/cm2
 Residual concrete stress for supporting loads
FL = FR - Бte
= 40-14.60
= 25.40kg/cm2

a < 1.724 × 22 = 37.93, a = 11

b = [1.6 (37.93)2+222-0.675 (22)]1/2

= 52.64

Бe = 0.572 × 5100/222 × [4log10 (81.89/52.64) +0.359]

= 6.80kg/cm2

Available factor of safety = 25.40/6.80

= 3.74 Fs >1 or slightly greater than 1

Бc = 3 × 5100/222 [1-(11/81.89) 0.6]

= 22.0 < 40kg/cm2 (flexural strength okay)

Adjustment for traffic intensity

T = 300 (1+0.975)20
= 1275 (falls under traffic classification E)

Adjusted design thickness, h = hs + ht

= 22 + 0
= 22cm
3.6 FMW&H Method of Design
Studies are usually made to determine the most economical strength of concrete for use
under an existing condition. The relative cost of cement, aggregate, labour and
equipment determines whether a concrete having modulus of rupture of 800psi
(5515kN/m2) would be more economical than a concrete having modulus of rupture of
600psi (4134kN/m2).

Under average conditions, concrete having modulus of rupture of between 600 and
750psi (5170kN/m2) at 28days is found to be the most economical.

Usually, provisions are made to transfer 20% of the load from one slab corner to the
other by some adequate mechanical device or by aggregate interlock, these corners are
said to be “protected”. Where there is no adequate provision for load transference and
one corner must carry over 80% of the load, the corners at such location are said to be
“unprotected”. Therefore, a separate formula has been developed for the
determination of the flexural stress in a concrete pavement for each of these cases.

Case 1 Protected Corners

(a/I) 1/2
Flexural stress, S = 3.36 P/d2 [1 - ] - - - - - - - - - -(1)
0.925+0.22(a/I)

Case 2 Unprotected Corners

(a/I) 1/2
Flexural stress, S = 4.2 P/d2 [1 - ] - - - - - - - - - (2)
0.925+0.22(a/I)

Where;

S = maximum tensile stress (psi) at the top of the slab in a direction parallel to the
bisector of the corner angle, due to wheel load of P.

P = Wheel load placed on the slab corner, P is the static wheel load increased by a factor
or provide adequate allowance for the impact of moving load.

d = Thickness of uniform concrete slab at a corner for equivalent thickness of a

thickened-edge slab.

a = radius of the circular area equivalent to the contact of the tyre with pavement

I = radius of relative stiffness

Equations 1 & 2 permits the engineer to vary basic factors as may be desirable under
special conditions and to take into account unusual wheel loadings and corresponding
larger tyre contact areas. Therefore the flexural stress, S for any combination of wheel
load, subgrade support and concrete strength are readily determined from equations 1
and 2.

For convenience in determining values of d or s, design charts 1-306.4 to 1-306.7 (see

appendix) are available that permits a direct solution of formulas for gross wheel loads P
of 27 to 107 kN and for K ranging from 13.5 to 136 kN/m2.
In using the design chart, P the gross wheel load includes an impact allowance of 20%
which is common for wheel load on pneumatic tyres. Thus, if the static wheel load is
107kN and 20% is allowed for impact, P would be 1.2 × 107 = 128kN.
E is taken as 27,577kN/m2, a = radius of area calculated for each load.

For single tyre, ‘a’ is taken as radius of circle having an area equal to average area of
contact. For dual tyres, a is taken as radius of circle having area equal to sum of the area
of contact of the two tyres and the area between them.

Worked Example 8
Calculate the stresses set up in a cement concrete pavement having
(1) Protected corners
(2) Unprotected corners using the following data:
Dual Tyres Wheel load, P = 4100kg
Slab thickness, h = 15cm
Radius of wheel load, a = 15cm
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, E = 2.1×105 kg/cm2
Poisson ratio of concrete, μ = 0.15
Modulus of subgrade reaction, K = 3.0 kg/cm2

Base your design on FMW Method

Solution
Note: g= 10 m/s2, 200 psi = 14.06 kg/cm2, 1psi = 6.8948 kN/m2
Wheel load, P = 4100×10 = 41000/1000 = 41.0kN
Slab thickness, d = 15.0×10 = 150 mm
Modulus of subgrade reaction, K = 3.0 kg/cm2 = 42.67kN/m2
(1) Reading P. d and K from chart 1.306.4 in the appendix section,
Stress, Б = 2.80 N/mm2
(2) Similarly, from chart 1.306.5
Б = 2.30 N/mm2
4.0 AIRFIELD PAVEMENT DESIGN
Airfield pavements design is part of overall airport engineering which involves the
design and construction of a wide variety of facilities for the landing; take off,
movement on the ground and parking of airplanes, fuel storage and handling of
passengers, baggage and freights. Thus at a typical airport, there are terminal buildings
and hangers, pavement for airplane runways, taxiways and aprons, roads and bridges
and tunnels for automobile and walkway for pedestrians, automobile parking areas,
drainage structures and underground storage tanks.

4.1 Runway
A paved strip located in the central portion of landing strip, provided specifically for
landing and taking off.

4.2 Taxiway
Taxiways are laid out to connect the terminal area with ends of runways for takeoff and
to tap the runways at several points to provide exit for landing aircraft
It also connects the runaway with one another and the aircraft parking apron.

4.3 Aprons
Apron or ramp is adjacent to the terminal for loading and unloading airplanes, fueling
and minor servicing.

4.4 Hanger
This is where repairs, maintenance operations are conducted.

Runway

Taxiway

Taxiway

Terminal Area
4.5 Types of Landing Gears

Nose Wheel

Twin-tandem gear Twin-twin gear

Main single tyre gear

4.6 Factors Affecting the Design of Airfield Pavement
The factors affecting the design of airfield pavement are:
 Properties of concrete
 Supporting strength of the subgrade or subbase-subgrade combination
 Type of aircraft and load anticipated on the pavement
 Approximate frequency of operation e.g. (for a Boeing 747 how many times will
it land within a year)
 Type of pavement being designed such as runway, taxiway or apron

4.6.1 Properties of Concrete

(1) Flexural strength
One of the properties of concrete is its flexural strength which is determined by
Modulus of rupture (MR) test.
The test is carried out by the third point loading of a 150×150×750mm beam
(ASTM C78)

3rd point loading

MR is obtained from Б / y = M/I

Бmax = M y / I (Бmax is the modulus of rupture)

MR test are normally made at 7, 14, 28 and 90 days. The 7 and 14 days test results are
for job control for airfield pavements. The 90 days strength is adopted as the design
strength. Also 110% - 114% of the 28days can be used in lieu of 90days test.

The approximate relationship for Modulus of rupture is MR = K (F’c) 1/2

Where; K is a constant and F’c = compressive strength.

4.6.2 Fatigue
Failure of concrete is as a result of repeated stresses less than flexural strength of
concrete. Fatigue effects are taken into account by selecting a conservative factor of
safety.

Factor of safety, Fs = design MR / working stresses

4.6.3 Elastic Properties

Modulus of elasticity, E = 4×106 Psi (2.76×107 kN/m2)
Poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.15

4.6.4 Subgrade strength (In-situ test)

The subgrade strength is a function of the modulus of subgrade reaction, K which is
obtained by the plate loading test.

Reaction
Pressure guage
hydraulic jack

750mm diameter stacked plates

∆

750mm

Load P is applied to the plates by means of hydraulic jack fitted with pressure gauges.
The deflection of the plates is measured to the nearest 0.001 inch by means of the
deflection dial. The test is repeated for series of P. A plot of P is made against ∆.

P
P=K∆
K = P/∆ (kN/m3)

∆
4.7 Design Procedure
 Determine K by plate loading test or by correlation i.e. (modulus of subgrade
reaction / CBR chart).
 Estimate present and future operating loading conditions and select appropriate
conservative safety factor.
 Estimate the working stress, F = MR / Fs.
 From design chart for specific aircraft, read the pavement thickness, using the
value of the working stress.
 Repeat the process for other aircraft of critical loads again selecting a factor of
safety.

Worked Example 9
The following aircraft models are to be operated on an airport pavement for the
following conditions

Aircraft Model Gear Load Operation

B 727 80,000 lb Frequent
DC 10 190,000 lb Frequent
DC 8 165,000 lb Occasional

Installation Factor of Safety

Critical Areas
Aprons, taxiways,
runways, hangers 1.7 - 2.0

Non Critical Areas

Critical portion of
runways, some high 1.4 - 1.70
speed taxiways

Given that the K on subgrade = 170 Pci (46,148kN/m3) and Modulus of rupture for the
concrete pavement, MR = 700 Psi (4826kN/m2) and that the subbase is granular
material of 150mm (6.0inches) thick. Design the thicknesses for the pavement facility.
Solution

Pavement Facility
Aircraft Gear
Model Load Operation Taxiway / runway ends Central portion of runway
(lbf)
Fs f (Psi) t (in) Fs f (Psi) t (in)

B-727 80,000 Frequent 2.0 350 14.0 1.70 412 12.5

DC-10 190,000 Frequent 2.0 350 14.4 1.70 412 12.7

DC- 8 165,000 Occasional 1.80 389 14.1 1.50 467 12.4

14.4 12.7

Worked Example 10
A Boeing 747 aircraft weighing 81.7 Mg is expected to be landing on frequent basis on the
newly constructed runway of an airport. The airfield pavement has a slab thickness of 400mm
over a 150mm granular subbase and well compacted subgrade. The design K-value is
54,300kN/m3. Estimate the minimum 90days modulus of rupture value of concrete, if the
aircraft is to land and take off safely?

Solution
K = 54,300 kN/m3, Pavement thickness = 400 + 150 =550 mm (15.7 inches)
Gear Load = 81.7×103 / 0.454 = 179,960, approx. 180,000 lbs

Using a Gear Load of 180,000 lbs, K of 200 and Pavement thickness of 15.7 inches
From chart, Flexural stress, F = 340 Psi (2344 kN/m2
MR = 2344×2.0 = 4688 kN/m2
APPENDIX
Empirical Formula with no Soil Strength Test (CBR Method)

Pressure @ 2.54mm = Load causing penetration / Area of plunger

= 6,895 / 0.196
= 35.20 MN/m2

CBR @ 2.54 = 35.20 / 689.5 × 100 % = 5.0 %

Pressure @ 5.08mm = 10,343 / 0.196

= 52.80 MN/m2

CBR @ 5.08mm = 52.80 / 1034.3 × 100 % = 5.10 %

The higher value of the CBR is used for the design.

Worked Example 4

Solution
a) Pressure @ 2.54mm = 0.20 / 0.196
= 1.02 MN/m2

CBR @ 2.54 = 1.02 / 20.0 × 100 % = 5.1 %

Pressure @ 5.08mm = 0.690 / 0.196

= 3.52 MN/m2

CBR @ 5.08mm = 3.52 / 68.90. × 100 % = 5.0 %

We adopt a CBR of 5.0% and reading from the pavement design chart above;
i) Subbase = 8.5 inches (216mm)
Base = 8.0 inches (200mm)

ii) Subbase = 8.5 inches (216mm)

Base = 6.0 inches (150mm)
Bituminous Surfacing = 2.0 inches (50mm)
 Weight of reinforcement
Slab thickness Max. contraction In welded fabric
(cm) Joint spacing (cm) (Kg/cm2)
Unreinforced slab

10cm 4.5

15cm 4.5

20cm 4.5

Reinforced slab

10 7.5 2.2

15 13.0 2.7

20 14.0 3.8

 Table A1

Traffic Classification A B C D E F G

ht (cm) -5 -5 -2 -2 +0 +0 +2

 Table A3

Values of Coefficient ‘C’ Based on Bradley’s Chart

 L/l or W/L C

1 0.000
2 0.040
3 0.175
4 0.440
5 0.720
6 0.920
7 1.030
8 1.075
9 1.080
10 1.075
11 1.050
12 and above 1.000

 Table A2