254085

T.C.
MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ
SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNGİLİZCE İŞLETME ANABİLİMDALI
ÜRETİM YÖNETİMİ VE PAZARLAMA (İNGİLİZCE) BİLİM DALI
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION PROCESS FOR ISTANBUL’S

BEING THE 2010 EUROPEAN CAPITAL OF CULTURE- A PLACE
MARKETING STUDY WITH ISTANBUL CITIZENS
Yüksek Lisans Tezi
AYŞE BETÜL DEDE
Istanbul, 2010
T.C.
MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ
SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNGİLİZCE İŞLETME ANABİLİMDALI
ÜRETİM YÖNETİMİ VE PAZARLAMA (İNGİLİZCE) BİLİM DALI
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION PROCESS FOR ISTANBUL’S

BEING THE 2010 EUROPEAN CAPITAL OF CULTURE – A PLACE
MARKETING STUDY WITH ISTANBUL CITIZENS
Yüksek Lisans Tezi
AYŞE BETÜL DEDE
Danışmanı: Prof. Dr. F.ZEYNEP BİLGİN
Istanbul, 2010
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my heart-felt thanks to my dearest advisor

Prof. Dr. F. Zeynep Bilgin for her priceless guidance, support and most of all
her friendship during this research. I would have never come so far, without
her support and experiences.
I also would like to thank all my professors who have taught us

during this master program for sharing their knowledge and leading us to
be better.
My sincere acknowledgements to Prof. Dr. Ömer Faruk Gençkaya for

his precious time spent on me in order to improve the research quality of
this study.
I would also want to thank Asst. Prof. Dr. I. Esen Yıldırım, for
creating time for me in her busy schedule and giving valuable
recommendations for this study.
My warmest thanks to my colleagues Özge Kasalı and Nesrin

Aslantaş for motivating conversations we had which are really important for
me.
Beyond all these, I would want to thank to my family for believing

me and my work. Also I need to thank all my relatives and friends for their
precious help in collecting the data for this research and supporting me
every time I have felt depressed.
Besides, I would want to thank The Scientific and Technological

Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) for their support during my masters’
education.
ii
GENEL BİLGİLER
İsim ve Soyadı : Ayşe Betül Dede

Anabilim Dalı: : İngilizce İşletme
Programı: : Üretim Yönetimi ve Pazarlama (İngilizce)
Tez Danışmanı: : Prof. Dr. F. Zeynep Bilgin
Tez Türü ve Tarihi: : Yüksek Lisans- Nisan 2010
Anahtar Kelimeler :Yer Geliştirme, Yer Pazarlaması, Kültür,
Kültürel Etkinlikler, Avrupa Kültür Başkenti,
Adaptasyon Süreci.
ÖZET
İSTANBUL’UN 2010 AVRUPA KÜLTÜR BAŞKENTİ

OLMASINA İLİŞKİN ADAPTASYON SÜRECİNİ ETKİLEYEN
FAKTÖRLER- İSTANBUL SAKİNLERİ İLE BİR YER
PAZARLAMASI ÇALIŞMASI
Bu çalışmanın temel konusu İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür

Başkenti seçilmiş olması olup, temel esin kaynağı daha önceden bu unvanı
elde eden şehirlerin sakinlerinin süreç ile ilgili fikir, tutum ve görüşlerine
odaklanan geçmiş çalışmalardır. Bu çalışmalar, Avrupa Kültür Başkenti
seçildikten sonraki sürecin başarısının, söz konusu şehirde yaşayan, çalışan
veya herhangi bir şekilde şehirle bir bağı olan kişilerin sürece katılımları ile
yakından ilişkili olduğunun altını çizmektedir.
Bu bağlamda, İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti seçilmiş

olması ile ilgili olarak, şehir sakinlerinin fikir ve görüşlerini saptamak bu
çalışmanın esasını oluşturmaktadır. Buna ek olarak bu çalışma ile, “İstanbul
şehrinin sakinlerinin yaşadıkları şehir ile ilgili görüş ve düşünceleri nelerdir?,
Şehrin sakinleri genel olarak kültürel etkinliklere nasıl bakmaktadır ve
İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti oluşu ile ilgili fikirleri nelerdir?, Yetkili
mercilerin süreç ile ilgili yaptıkları çalışmalar şehir sakinlerini sürece dahil
etmede ne kadar etkili? Şehir sakinlerinin sürece dâhil olmalarını etkileyen
faktörler nelerdir?” gibi sorulara cevap bulunması hedeflenmiştir.
iii
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Name and Surname :Ayşe Betül Dede

Field: :Business Administration (English)
Programme :Production Management and Marketing (Eng.)
Supervisor :Prof. Dr. F. Zeynep Bilgin
Degree Awarded and Date :Master- April 2010
Keywords :Place Development, Place Marketing, Culture,
Cultural Events, ECoC, Adoption Process.
ABSTRACT
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION PROCESS FOR

ISTANBUL’S BEING THE 2010 EUROPEAN CAPITAL OF
CULTURE- A PLACE MARKETING STUDY WITH
ISTANBUL CITIZENS
This research focused on Istanbul’s being awarded as the European

Capital of Culture (ECoC) in 2010 in terms of its place marketing features.
This study was mainly inspired from the previous studies prepared for the
cities held this title before which point at the success of the process is
heavily related with the people’s participation and incorporation, who live,
work or have some ties with the city in question.
In this context, for Istanbul’s case, learning about the opinions of

people living in the city about the city’s being ECoC constitutes the basis of
this study. In addition to that, this study tries to find out answers to the
questions like: What do the residents of this city think about the place they
live in? How they think about the cultural events in general and in detail
being the city’s ECoC in 2010? How much effective the efforts made by
officials for the process in making the residents involved to the process? Are
there any factors affect the residents’ involving to the process?
iv
TABLE of CONTENTS
TABLE of CONTENTS....................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................ ix
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................... xi
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1
1.1. Main Aim and Objectives of the Study ................................... 1
1.2. Significance of Research Topic in terms of International and
Turkish Concept ............................................................................ 2
1.2.1. Background of Being Chosen as ECoC.............................. 4
1.2.2. Importance of Culture in the History of Istanbul................ 6
1.2.3. Cultural Focus Within Place Marketing ............................. 8
1.3. Scope of the Study............................................................. 9
2. LITERATURE SURVEY .......................................................... 11
2.1. City, Citizenship and Place Development: Formation of a City...12
2.1.1. City As the Major Concept ............................................12
2.1.2. The Place of Citizenship in City Concept ..........................15
2.1.3. Integral Role of Place Development and Auditing the Place 17
2.1.4. Place Marketing and Importance of Different Groups as Part
of the City 22
2.2. Culture and Cultural Events and Their Role in Place Marketing
Activities .....................................................................................24
2.2.1. Big Cultural Events and City Life ....................................25
2.2.2. Interaction of the Relationship Between Residents, Visitors
and City with Cultural Events .......................................................28
2.3. Adoption Process of ECoC as Innovation for Istanbul...............31
2.3.1. Stages for Adoption of an Innovation and Istanbul’s being
ECoC 31
2.3.2. The Determinants Affecting Adoption Rate and Istanbul’s
Case 36
v
2.4. Characteristics of Residents of Istanbul as Adaptors for their
City’s being ECoC .........................................................................39
2.4.1. Lifestyles and Classification for Turkish People’s Lifestyles .40
2.4.2. General Demographic Characteristics of People Living in
Istanbul as Socioeconomic Indicators ............................................42
3. RESEARCH DESIGN and METHODOLOGY .............................. 48
3.1. Research Aim and Objectives ..............................................48
3.2. Theoretical Framework for the Research ...............................49
3.3. Research Hypotheses ........................................................52
3.4. Research Design ...............................................................63
3.5. Data Collection Procedure ..................................................63
3.5.1. Data Collection Method ................................................63
3.5.2. Data Collection Instrument ...........................................64
3.5.3. Variables Used in the Research......................................65
3.6. Sampling Design Process....................................................74
3.6.1. Definition of Target Population ......................................74
3.6.2. Sampling Technique Used.............................................74
3.6.3. Sample Size ...............................................................75
3.7. Data Analysis Techniques Used in the Research .....................76
3.8. General Limitations for the Study ........................................76
4. RESEARCH FINDINGS and ANALYSES .................................. 78
4.1. Profile of the Respondents ..................................................78
4.1.1. Age Interval ...............................................................78
4.1.2. Gender......................................................................79
4.1.3. Education Level ..........................................................80
4.1.4. Total Monthly Household Income Interval........................81
4.1.5. Occupation.................................................................81
4.1.6. Area of Residence in Istanbul ........................................83
4.1.7. Period of Residence in Istanbul......................................84
4.1.8. Distribution of Sample in terms of Community Consciousness
85
4.2. Respondents’ Levels of Adoption for Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC
86
vi
4.2.1. Awareness .................................................................86
4.2.2. Interest and Evaluation ................................................88
4.2.3. Trial..........................................................................89
4.2.4. Adoption....................................................................90
4.3. Relationship Between Socioeconomic Characteristics and Stages
of Adoption for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010.......................................92
4.3.1. Relationship Between Socioeconomic Characteristics and
Awareness 92
Interest 93
Evaluation 96
Trial 99
Adoption 103
4.4. Relationship Between Community Consciousness and Stages of
Adoption ................................................................................... 103
4.4.1. Relationship Between Community Consciousness and
Awareness 103
Interest 105
Evaluation 106
4.4.4. Relationship Between Community Consciousness and Trial
108
4.5. Effects of Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010 on “Interest” Stage in the Adoption Process ............................ 109
4.5.1. Factor Analysis for Grouping Perceived Characteristics .... 110
4.5.2. Impact of Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC
on “Interest” Stage .................................................................. 112
4.6. Relationship Between Different Perspectives about Cultural
Events and Evaluation Stage for Istanbul’s case............................... 113
vii
4.6.1. Factor Analysis for Grouping Perspectives about Cultural
Events 114
4.6.2. Impact of Different Perspectives of Residents’ of Istanbul
about Cultural Events on Evaluation Stage ................................... 117
4.7. Place Audit for Istanbul.................................................... 118
4.7.1. Factor Analysis for Place Audit of Istanbul ..................... 120
4.7.2. Correlation Between Components of Place Audit and Period
of Residence ........................................................................... 121
5. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION........................ 123
6. IMPLICATIONS ................................................................. 129
6.1.1. Implications for Further Studies................................... 129
6.1.2. Implications for ECoC Organizers................................. 130
6.1.3. Implications for Government....................................... 132
7. REFERENCES ..................................................................... 133
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH ............................... 148
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE IN TURKISH ............................... 156
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1: Place Audit Scale ........................................................................................20

Table 2. 2: Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s Being ECoC.........................38
Table 3. 1: Research Hypotheses..................................................... 53
Table 3. 2: Variable List for the Thesis......................................................................66

Table 3. 3: Sample Sizes Used in Marketing Research Studies.........................75
Table 4. 1: Age Intervals of the Sample............................................ 79
Table 4. 2: Gender of the Sample...............................................................................79

Table 4. 3: Education Level of the Sample ..............................................................80
Table 4. 4: Total Monthly Household Income of the Respondents ...................81
Table 4. 5: Occupation Type of the Sample.............................................................82
Table 4. 6: Areas of Residence of the Sample ........................................................83
Table 4. 7: Periods of Residence of the Sample.....................................................84
Table 4. 8: Community Consciousness of Istanbul ...............................................85
Table 4. 9: Awareness of Istanbul Citizens about the..........................................86
Table 4. 10: Sources of Media for Awareness.........................................................87
Table 4. 11: From Most to Least Stated ...................................................................88
Table 4. 12: ‘Trial’ of Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 ................................................89
Table 4. 13: Istanbul Citizen’s Adoption of ..............................................................91
Table 4. 14: Results for Relationship Between .......................................................93
Table 4. 15: Proficiency of the Sample Size and Items of ‘Interest’................94
Table 4. 16: Coefficients for Calculating ...................................................................95
Table 4. 17: Results for Relationship Between .......................................................95
Table 4. 18: Interest Scores among Different Education Levels.......................96
Table 4. 19: Testing the Proficiency of the Sample Size .....................................97
Table 4. 20: Coefficients for Calculating ...................................................................97
Table 4. 21: Results for Relationship Between Socioeconomic Characteristics
and Evaluation...................................................................................................................98
Table 4. 22: Evaluation Scores among Different Education Levels ..................99
Table 4. 23: Relationship Between............................................................................100
Table 4. 24: Distribution of the Participants of Volunteering Program among
Education Levels*...........................................................................................................100
Occupations* ...................................................................................................................101
Table 4. 26: Relationship Between ............................................................................102
Table 4. 27: Results of Relationship Between Community Consciousness and
Being Aware of Volunteering Program for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010........104
Interest..............................................................................................................................105
Table 4. 29: Distribution of Interest Scores among Community
Consciousness Statements..........................................................................................106
Table 4. 30: Results for Relationship Between......................................................107
Table 4. 31: Distribution of Evaluation Scores among .......................................107
ix
Table 4. 32: Results for the Relationship Between Community Consciousness
.............................................................................................................................................108
Table 4. 33: Results for the Relationship Between Community
Consciousness .................................................................................................................109
Table 4. 34: Reasons for Eliminating Items...........................................................110
Table 4. 35: Proficiency of the Sample Size and Items of ................................110
Table 4. 36: Results for Exploratory Factor Analysis ..........................................111
Table 4. 37: Competence of Regression Test Conducted..................................112
Table 4. 38: Significance of the Regression Test Results ..................................112
Table 4. 39: Regression Coefficients for Residents’ Interest for Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010 ............................................................................................................113
Table 4. 40: Result for Removing the Statement P1 ..........................................114
Table 4. 41: Reasons for Eliminating Items...........................................................115
Table 4. 42: Proficiency of the Sample Size and Items of ................................115
Table 4. 43:Results for Exploratory Factor Analysis ...........................................116
Table 4. 44: Competence of Regression Test Conducted..................................117
Table 4. 45: Significance of Regression Test Results .........................................117
Table 4. 46: Regression Coefficients for Residents’ Evaluation.......................118
Table 4. 47: The Obtained (Average)Scores for the Statements of Place
Audit ...................................................................................................................................119
Table 4. 48: Reasons for Eliminating the Items ...................................................120
Table 4. 49: Proficiency of the Sample Size and Items of.................................120
Table 4. 50: Results for Exploratory Factor Analysis ..........................................121
Table 4. 51: Results of Correlation Analysis ..........................................................122
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1: The Representation of the Relationship Between City,

Residents, and Visitors ............................................................................................... 2029
Figure 2. 2: Representation of the Adoption Process and Perceived
Characteristics Effect...................................................................................................... 33
Figure 2. 3: Percentage Distribution of Istanbul’s Population among
Education Levels ...............................................................................................................43
Figure 2. 4: Distribution of Interest to Different Cultural Activities among
Different Education Levels Living in Istanbul ......................................................... 44
Figure 2. 5: Distribution of the Cultural Activities among Different Income
Levels .................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 3. 1: Proposed Research Model ..................................................................... 51
Figure 5. 1: Revised Research Model...................................................................... 126
Figure 5. 2: Revised Research Model – Breakdowns for Community
Consciousness and Different Perspectives about Cultural Events.................. 127
xi
1. INTRODUCTION
In today’s world, marketing is no longer to be seen and practiced

solely in the domain of business firms. With the effects of globalization, the
broadened context of marketing might see its application in politics,
education, public services, planned social change, religion, for every country
in the world. By this point of view the marketing of places in now
widespread both in practice and in academia (Skinner and Kubacki, 2007).
Numerous examples show that the marketing of places has already become
a professional and very well-organised part of the marketing industry
(Gotham, 2002).
As the overall research topic of this study, to market a city, which,

in particular, will be the important players of future (Skinner and Kubacki,
2007), is a considerable issue among the place marketing activities. As Hall,
(2000) indicates, cities will need a different kind of creativity to generate
new urban policy, reinforce the identity of a place or create social
innovations. Each place needs its own solutions to be successful and visions
as the leading star for the development strategy (Skinner and Kubacki,
2007).
Therefore, as a metropolis, Istanbul’s being European Capital of

Culture (ECoC) in 2010 is a good material in terms of marketing the city
focusing on its cultural components. The success of this process will be
affected by lots of factors including opinions of the city’s residents’ about
the event in case they are managed well.
1.1. Main Aim and Objectives of the Study
This study deals with determining the thoughts of people living in

Istanbul about the city’s being European Capital of Culture (ECoC) in 2010.
In the context of this major objective the following objectives have
been defined basically: (1) determining the general thoughts of people
living in Istanbul about the city, (2) determining the thoughts of people
living in the city about cultural events, (3) measuring the levels of adoption
of people living in Istanbul for Istanbul’s being the 2010 ECoC, and (4)
determining the possible relationship between adoption process for
Istanbul’s case and socioeconomic characteristics and lifestyle.
At first, before asking people about Istanbul’s being ECoC, it is

important to learn about their opinions and feelings about the city as the
place they live in. After that, asking them about the different perspectives
for cultural events in general will allow us to have an idea about the
residents’ general mindsets for this kind of activities. Afterwards, it is aimed
to determine their adoption level of Istanbul’s case. On the other hand it is
thought that socioeconomic characteristics can have an influence on the
people’s adoption process for the case, so it is stated as another objective
for this research.
1.2. Significance of Research Topic in terms of

International and Turkish Concept
Since one of the most important elements of the culture of a country

is its population and since every person who lives in a city is an envoy of
the culture of that city, it is important to find out the attitudes and
perceptions of these people towards their living area. Keeping these in mind
and taking them into the research for Istanbul as the ECoC city chosen for
this study, the results aim to help for success of place marketing activities
contributing via improving the brand image, economic and social
development of this metropolis. A good example at this point would be the
study of Tucker (2008): he indicates that, after becoming an ECoC, the
image of Glasgow, which was associated with street violence urban decay,
has turned into being the economic engine. The reason was seen as the
2
citizens’ feelings actively involved in this process. In addition, some other
cultural events were held in a couple of UK cities and towns would be just
as successful in achieving participation by families, young people, and older
visitors and residents (Jiwa, 2009).
On the other hand according to Tucker (2008), in today’s global

climate, one of the most prevalent dimensions in the notion of the cultural
city, where cities essentially market themselves based on both their
traditional and contemporary cultural heritage. He further states that, being
one of the ECoC is a potential catalyst for economic, physical, social and
cultural growth. As Ertur (2008), the Vice President of Council of 2010,
indicates it is important for the sustainable success the issue ECoC being
adopted by the people who live in Istanbul and/or visit Istanbul. The
necessity of working together to get better results and benefit the issue for
both city and residents is also indicated by Perrett (2009).
Similar studies were conducted by Garcia (2009a), Boland (2008),

Hudson and Hawkins (2006), Beyazıt and Tosun (2006), as some to
mention. In her study, Garcia (2009a) discusses the outcomes of Liverpool’s
being nominated as an ECoC in the economic, environmental, social and
cultural areas. Boland (2008) mentions the positive contributions of being
chosen as an ECoC to the image of the Liverpool. As the authors of a study
compares the place marketing strategies of Glasgow and Liverpool which
are both ECoC cities in the previous years, Hudson and Hawkins (2006)
mention the positioning strategies of these cities in terms of being an ECoC.
Beyazıt and Tosun (2006) prepared a study after Istanbul was chosen as an
ECoC. They investigated and evaluated the process of the city’s
preparations for the mission of ECoC. The authors aimed to discuss the
projects’ prepared for ECoC process integrations with the city and their
responsibility of conserving the cultural heritage and contributions the brand
image of the city. Hence at this point it is important to work on this topic for
Istanbul.
3
In addition, since this is the first time for a city of Turkey getting the
title of being an ECoC, this study will be one of the first studies in that area
in Turkish literature. Also the study will be able to useful for academicians,
students who will be interested in that kind of topic in the following years.
On the other hand, the entrepreneurs or the people who think to make
investments in Istanbul can benefit from the study in order to have an idea
about the sensitivity and awareness of the people for the events related
with the city.
1.2.1. Background of Being Chosen as ECoC
The ECoC initiative was launched in 1985 by the Member States

meeting in the Council on the initiative of Greek Culture Minister Melina
Mercouri under the name “The European City of Culture” (European
Commission (EC) Report, 2009). During the German Presidency in 1999,
the European City of Culture was renamed as the ECoC
(www.experiencefestival.com, 2009).
As a major European Union (EU) activity, the ECoC culture initiative

is a way of bringing together people from the EU and the other European
countries who are involved in culture. As it is indicated in the report of EC
(2009), the objective of the initiative is to highlight the diversity of different
European cultures and the features they share, as well as to promote
greater mutual knowledge and understanding among Europe’s citizens.
The Article 4 of Decision 1419/1999/EC made it possible for

European non-member countries to participate in the selection process for
ECoC. There is a structural framework in order to select one or more than
one city as ECoC (EC Report, 2006). For the pre-selection phase, cities
wishing to be ECoC must prepare a cultural program in ten months. They
should prepare a presentation which reflects the European character of the
event and involve the participation of the people who live in there. A panel
is comprised of thirteen people - six experts appointed by the country in
4
question and seven appointed by the European Institutions- selects the
cities which are to be considered further. For the selection phase, which is
nine months after the pre-selection, the chosen cities have to declare their
whole projects for being ECoC (Guide for ECoC, 2009). The cities also can
be awarded with a prize “in honor of Melina Mercouri” at the end of the year
they are selected as ECoC, if they implement all the commitments they
clarified in the selection phase. This aim is also a motivating force for many
cities.
The “European Dimension” of the events and their relation relating

to “City and Citizens” are the considered criteria in order to being selected
as ECoC. Briefly, regarding the first criterion, candidate cities must present
the role they have played in European culture, their links with Europe, their
place in it and their sense of belonging. On the other hand, the second
criterion indicates the necessity of fostering the participation of the
residents of the city, raising their interest as well as the interest of people
from abroad in order to obtain a long-term cultural and social development
of the city (Guide for ECoC, 2009).
The title is then awarded to a city for a chosen year. This supports
the idea about being an ECoC is a marketing project, as the city selected as
ECoC is introduced to the world with its culture amenities through a year.
As Beyazıt and Tosun (2006) indicate, a common consciousness in the
public has been established during this event in most of the cities.
Since 1985, more than 30 cities have been designated European

Capitals of Culture, from Stockholm to Genoa, Athens to Glasgow, and
Cracow to Porto. Athens became the first Capital of Culture in history under
the name of European Capital of Culture in 1985. Since it was a new issue
by that time and is taken on dimensions that would have been unthinkable
in 1985, the term lasted only a few weeks in the summer of 1985 for
Athens. Maybe the most possible contribution of ECoC to a city can be seen
in the Glasgow/Scotland example. As it was mentioned previously (under
1.2.) the city’s image associated with street violence before had changed
5
into the economic engine of Scotland after being ECoC (Tucker, 2008). The
city saw a net economic return of £10.3 to £14.1 million (Myerscough,
1991) and dramatically has become the kind of place that people now want
to visit, to see and be seen in (Urry, 2002). By reason of this feature of the
initiative, ECoC can be seen as a tool of place marketing. For Graz/Austria
being ECOC in 2003 left its prints in the city as an exceptional object of both
art and architecture which is still open to use of public: The Island in the
Mur. The idea of integrating the river Mur into the life of the city comes up
at the beginning of the planning phase for the Cultural Capital, as the river
not only divides the city, but also connects it. This flowing island is still in
use including a theatre, cafes, and a playground for children in it (Graz,
2003).
Over the years, this event has evolved without losing sight of its
primary objective, which is highlighting the diversity of the culture of the
Europe (EC Declaration, 2009). In addition to this, the initiative has
changed a lot in terms of becoming an opportunity for the cities that do not
have a specific cultural feature but have a creative, critical mass (Garcia,
2009b) like Essen /Ruhr Area in Germany which is another ECoC for the
year 2010.
1.2.2. Importance of Culture in the History of

Istanbul
Istanbul has had a closer relation with the European culture

throughout the history with its commercial identity and strategic location
(Beyazıt and Tosun, 2006). The city hosted different civilizations as the
capital of the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. During its history,
the city has had lots of different components for a rich culture such as
different languages spoken by different folks including Bulgarians, Greeks,
Hungarians, Armenians, and Turks. Traditions, religions and beliefs are the
other important elements for forming a diversified culture in the city.
6
After proclamation of the republic, some changes occurred in the
city’s visual appearance. In their study Beyazıt and Tosun (2006) indicate
that, with the developments after 1950, the administration planned to meet
the population increasing in city, by building new houses, opening new
roads, building bridges. During these constructions, some cultural values,
historical artifacts, and historical textures were destroyed. On the other
hand, the empty houses especially in historical areas and forest fields were
started to be used by the immigrants. Natural indifference of the new
population that came with economical concerns, have caused the city’s
visual appearance to become blighted areas. The “gecekondus” (over night
and illegally on state property build small houses) started to increase in the
city. The city’s entering in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985 was the
biggest leap for protection of the cultural inheritance in Istanbul.
In today’s Istanbul, more than 12 million people including Greek,

Roman, Armenian, and Levantine minorities (TUIK, 2008) are living in
peace for years. Different beliefs and religions make an important
contribution to the city’s cultural texture with churches, synagogues,
mosques near to each other. There is wide range of historical and modern
museums with world famous pieces in their collections in addition to pieces
belonging to the Turkish culture. As Kuban (1982) claims Istanbul has had
physical and cultural properties in line with its uniqueness in history.
The city is gradually becoming a place which hosts different cultures

day by day. While world famous stars are coming to perform concerts in the
city, lots of masterpieces like operas, ballet performances, and
presentations are being exhibiting in the theatres around the city. In
addition, important festivals are organized every year or every two years by
Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Art, including International Istanbul
Film Festival, International Istanbul Music Festival, International Istanbul
Jazz Festival, International Istanbul Theater Festival and International
Istanbul Biennial (IKSV, 2009). On the other hand, networking with other
cultures is being promoted through hosting conferences of European and
7
international associations like Eurocities, Water Forum, Alliance of
Civilizations (EC Report, 2009).
According to Beyazıt and Tosun (2006), there is no other city that

dominates the culture of the area around Mediterranean Sea, which is the
cradle of the contemporary civilization: The Historical Peninsula of Istanbul,
Anatolian part and Bosphorus coasts are open air museums in the city
exhibiting the culture and history of the city.
Culture has improved its importance in marketing efforts for a

destination, city or region in recent years (Jansson, 2007; Griffiths, 2006).
With this point of view, the ECoC initiative, which provided many
contributions to many of the cities awarded with that title in terms of long-
term cultural and social developments since 1985, is chosen as topic of this
thesis study keeping in mind its possible important contributions to
Istanbul’s long-term cultural, social and economic development. On the
other hand, that only cities of EU member countries will be allowed to be
awarded with ECoC title as of 2011 as declared by EC in 2009 enhances the
importance of this study. The special focus of this study is one of the two
essential criteria of being ECoC: “City and Citizens”, making the citizens
involved to the process. In this respect focusing on Istanbul citizens’
adoption process for Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010 will make an important
contribution to the process and consequently to the marketing of the city.
1.2.3. Cultural Focus Within Place Marketing
As one of the key factors for distinguishing places, culture is one of

the most powerful ways of establishing place identity. By harnessing the
cultural dimensions of a specific place or a region, place marketers are able
to commodify the ways of living in a place (Hinch and Higham, 2004,
p.109). Hence, cultural instruments have been increasingly used in place
marketing both in practical, as it can observed in the intense competition
between cities to become cultural capital of Europe (Kavaratzis, 2005), and
8
in theoretical area. More detailed explanations related to this issue will be
discussed in the following sections in the literature survey part.
1.3. Scope of the Study
Seven main parts constitute this study. The first part, which is
introduction to the study, starts with the general explanations for the topic
of the study. This part also contains explanations for significance of the
research topic, and main research objectives with general explanations.
Introduction part is followed by the literature survey, which is one of

the most important parts of this study due to the reason containing leading
information for investigating the research topic in terms of all the necessary
contents. Literature survey part also put forward the materials for proposed
research model which is developed by the researcher based on the
information obtained from the literature survey as well as it was took into
account own judgments and contributions of the researcher.
The third part explains about the research design and methodology
used in the research. In contains information about detailed research
objectives of the study, hypotheses related to the objectives, sampling
design, method, and size, data collection instrument and the explanations
about the variable used in the research. It is also discussed about the
general limitations of the research in this part.
The following part, which named as Research Findings and Analyses,

contains the statistical analyses performed in order to test the proposed
research model. It contains the profile information of the sample the data is
obtained from, and various analyses based on the selected statistical
methods to detect the objectives and the relationships stated in the
research model, and their brief interpretations.
9
The fifth part covers the discussions about the findings from the
previous This part also contains the revised version of the research model
based on the findings.
At last, the sixth part explains about implications for further actions
in terms of further studies, strategies for ECoC designers and government
officials as the last words.
The study also has an appendix where the questionnaire used for
the collection of the data is presented both in the original language Turkish
and English.
10
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
According to the definition of Atlantic Center for the Arts (ACA,

1989) as it is stated in the study of Hill et al. (1995), arts make the place
where it is performed a better place to live and work by refreshing the
spirit, touching the lives of people in addition to serving as a stimulus for
economic growth. The meaning of arts products differs for people according
to their life patterns, values, and evaluation of cultural features, creativity
and leisure (Hill et al., 1995).
In the current situation of Istanbul, the interest to the art products

and cultural events is relatively low and mostly limited to going to the
cinema and theatre (TUIK, 2006). Education level, economic conditions, or
lifestyle patterns and custom behaviors can be among the considered
reasons for this issue in Istanbul’s case. On the other hand, with being titled
as an ECoC in 2010, it is expected to increase the interest to the art
products is expected to increase, and the participation the cultural activities
as well as the kinds of activities people attend to broaden (Interview with
agency officials, 2009), as it is observed in the previous examples for
different cities (Garcia, 2009a, 2009b; Graz, 2003).
In fact as a cultural event ECoC process includes so many kinds of

art related events, such as music shows, dance shows, exhibitions of
painting, sculpture, photography, etc. that will be performed around the
city. With this perspective, it is useful to indicate the strong tie between the
community and art products.
Taking into account the interaction between the components culture,

the city as a specific region, and the people, the literature review part of
this study is configured fundamentally based on three parts: (1) place
development, city and people, (2) place marketing with a focus on culture
and its the relationship between different groups of people, (3) residents’
adoption process for Istanbul’s being ECoC and influencing factors for the
process.
11
2.1. City, Citizenship and Place Development:
Formation of a City
For more than a century, making a specific area or a region different

from and more attractive than the others is an important aspect for gaining
economic returns, getting competitive advantage, and creating a positive
image for the places (Rainisto, 2003). In terms of cities, it is still important
to differentiate them from each other for governances, or businesses. For
cities case, the term citizenship plays a significant role to establish a place
identity because of the relationship between the city and its citizens and
because these people have an interaction with a city, being its residents,
visitor, and do businesses there (Yeoman, et al., 2004). In addition, it is
possible to see in the relevant literature some necessary statements for
forming a city identified by several authors. It is possible to find more
detailed explanations for these issues discussed above in the following
sections.
2.1.1. City As the Major Concept
From the beginning of ancient times, people were used to live as

nomadic instead of living in a specific place permanently. In addition to this,
early cities developed in Mesopotamia by a number of communities. After
the ones in Mesopotamia, the most known city in the history is shown by
the city of Catalhoyuk which is a site from 7500-5700 BC and exists in
today’s Konya, a city of Turkey (www.wikipedia.org, 2010). What is meant
by a city in those years is just some rooms near each other separated by
walls (Hodder, 2008). After the first efforts for urbanization, other problems
had arisen like security, and use of shared resources. In order to overcome
these challenges people had needed a system which will keep the security
and determine the rules for using resources, and the borders of individual
rights (www.arwhead.com, 2009).
12
These needs had caused the necessity of a political system (Uçak,
2009), as it is also observed in the ancient Greek city-states. These city-
states presented the first examples of democracy in history with the first
established assembly which consisting of the citizens of Athens and asking
for the opinions about the decisions made by the government
(www.arwhead.com, 2009). If the city concept is thought from a political
approach, it is seen that the political concept like democracy demanded
from its citizens the ability to command and to judge for the whole on the
basis of personal acquaintance with each other and with the environment
they shared (Durrschmidt, 2000) and the city is large enough and diverse
enough to offer more scope and substance for political engagement than
the village or hamlet (Işın, 2000).
Hence, cities are seen not simply as accumulations of buildings and

spaces but as sites of occupation where processes of identity and cultural
formation occur. We can explore the city as a dynamic organism, a form of
consciousness, a realm of experience, and a physical entity, as both rational
and informal (Miles et al., 2004). According to Miles et al. (2004), cities are
both products of culture, which can also have the power to liberate and
constrain its residents and sites where culture is made and received.
Zijderveld (1998) argues, that today’s cities are providing opportunities to
the people, not just functionally in terms of jobs, obligations and practical
pursuits, but also and above all they are catering to the emotions. Different
people from different backgrounds or professions might attach different
meanings to a city. As Miles et al. (2004) indicate an engineer might see a
city as a problem of circulation, a novelist as an accumulation of
interconnected stories, while a criminal sees it as opportunities. At this
point, Orhan Pamuk, who was awarded with Nobel Prize in Literature in
2006, and his novel named “Istanbul” can be a given as a good example for
Miles’ et al. (2004) explanation due to its unique descriptions for the city.
13
But after all, two points are to be considered: what are the
necessary in order to name a place as a city and what should it serve to
people in order to be named as a city.
Starting with the older studies in the literature, Childe (1950)

suggests ten general metrics to define a historic city. These are given as
follows: (1) size and density of the population should be above normal, (2)
differentiation of the population. Not all residents grow their own food,
leading to specialists, (3) payment of taxes to a deity or king, (4)
monumental public buildings, (5) those not producing their own food are
supported by the king, (6) systems of recording and practical science, (7) a
system of writing, (8) development of symbolic art, (9) trade and import of
raw materials, (10) specialist craftsmen from outside the kin-group.
These metrics are consistent and appropriate in also today’s world,

although not all of the today's cities have these metrics all together. As the
author indicates, it is logical to expect a higher population in a city since the
city provides its residents lots of opportunities (Mumford, 1970; Zijderveld,
1998; Miles et al. 2004). Regular payment of taxes is also available in the
republics of today to the municipalities. Nowadays people who are not
producing their own goods are supported by the relevant market system. In
terms of development of arts, the increase of kinds of cultural events can be
mentioned. In terms of trade, finished consumer and individual goods are
available as well as raw materials. And specialists come together and form
independent chambers for different professional groups in this age. In
addition to all, having monumental public buildings and development of
symbolic art might be one of the most important elements of being a world
famous city in today’s world like New York which is famous for Statue of
Liberty and Manhattan area full of skyscrapers, Paris with Eiffel Tower, Pisa
with Leaning Tower of Pisa, and Istanbul with Hagia Sophia etc. But beyond
all these monumental marking points, the most important elements are
their citizens. There is reach culture because of the diversity of nations in
New York and this image makes the city desirable in the view of many
14
tourists. The European cities, like Paris, and Pisa as it was mentioned
above, are well known as the modernity in their public life, with a high level
of welfare. In our case, Istanbul mostly gets its power from the diversity of
its people, the citizens who perceive the city in varied kinds of definition to
be inspired by their way of life.
The study which is written by Bunzel (1964) has the specialty in

picking up the features of a city mentioned before. He claims ten different
characteristics for a place called as a city. Bunzel (1964) presents these
general characteristics of a city as follows: (1) large concentration of
population resulting in changes in patterns of social relationships, (2)
diversity of ethnic and human types, (3) diversification of roles and division
of labor, (4) qualitative differences in occupational structure, (5) movement
from kin-based to territorially-based units, (6) personal anonymity, (7)
personal relationships based on segmental roles, (8) tolerance of different
value systems, (9) proliferation of specialized types (deviants), (10) close
physical contact but distant social contact. Bunzel’s metrics that are
suggested in 1950 are still common for almost every city of today’s world.
In addition to this, traffic, work, and recreation are among the basic
functions of a city (Zijderveld, 1998).
2.1.2. The Place of Citizenship in City Concept
As it is stated previously too, a city may be defined as a relatively

large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous
individuals for sociological purposes. (LeGates and Stout, 2003). And as it is
indicated in Edel’s (1979) study, Gruen (1964) is one of the other authors
who emphasizes the volume and diversity of population in a city, with
settling on compactness and intensity of public life. He says it is important
to notice that all types of human activities are inter-mingled in close
proximity in a city. Wilson (1991) supports this idea saying that there is a
face to face contact of amazing variety and richness in a city.
15
These interactions and social diversity in the cities are strongly
related to the term citizenship, since cities are understood as cultural
entities, places that are shaped by their natural and human heritage, and
product of the values and beliefs of their citizens (Murray and Baeker,
2006). As it is stated in the study of Legates and Stout (2003), Mumford
(1970), who is a historian and one of the most widely read and famous
writers on city to be published during twentieth century (Miles et al., 2004),
defines the city as a theater of social action. He refers to everything else
like art, politics, education, commerce, as the materials only serve to make
the masterpiece much richer, significant, and well-designed. Mumford
(1970) also says that these materials intensify and underline the gestures
of the actors and the action of the play.
There is a strong relationship between the terms city and citizenship

since city is more accessible to its residents, more closely tied to their
interests, and more likely to promote the sense of community that is usually
associated with citizenship. Cities have provided equally hospitable settings
for citizenship. Also, the city and citizenship have in the modern world been
powerful agencies for shaping and forming individual identities (Işın, 2000).
On the other hand, citizenship arises closely related to city concept

with being primarily a political category relating to individuation but it in
turn conferring a juridic identity on individuals. Citizenship can be defined
as a collection of rights and obligations which give individuals a formal legal
identity and it affects and shapes the societies through three forms of
rights: economic rights, which are related to basic needs for food and
shelter; cultural rights, which include both access to welfare and access to
education; and finally political rights, which cover the conventional area of
liberal concern such as individual freedoms and rights to expression through
political means such as parliaments (Işın, 2000). It is within the scope of
this thesis to focus on the utilization of cultural rights of citizens in Istanbul.
If it is needed to sum up, many factors make up a city. We can

define a city as a place which has relatively more population living on it and
16
these people are tied to the place through their emotions as much as
housing, education, job, and other social opportunities. A city gets its
characteristics mostly through its residents although most of them might
have some monumental building or areas reflecting the history or
characteristics of the city. A city gives its people a steady life via its political
structure, and also an interactive communication is possible between
residents and the governance. In case of this study in order to explore what
is a ‘place’, let us have a closer look at the place development process.
2.1.3. Integral Role of Place Development and

Auditing the Place
Any city or location reflects dynamism in its nature since life is

dynamic and is a process. Hence, for any location and basically for cities
and mega-cities, one has to focus on place development.
According to Kotler et al. (2002a), place development means

developing a systematic and long-term marketing strategy which is directed
towards nurturing and developing the natural and potential attributes of an
area or region. In the study of Dingsdale (2002), place development has
been indicated as a process linking spatiality and modernity. Dingsdale
(2002) says that the production of place is a specific development pathway
through spatiality while modernity is mediated by spatiality. On the other
hand, modernity will be experienced differently by all individuals because of
their situation in place and place relation since it is experienced through
place particularities and place relations.
The necessity of developing the places for different marketing

purposes has occurred more than a century ago. The process had started in
the late of 1800s in United States of America with place selling to attract
settlers to the new frontier areas of the ‘Wild West’. British and French
beach resorts were advertised intensively in the early 1900s, to attract
tourists (Rainisto, 2003). Since the end of the 1990s, there is a massive
17
worldwide growth in the practice of place marketing and promotion of
places (Ward, 1998). As it can be seen on these explanations there is an
interconnected relationship between place development, place promotion,
and place marketing. Before place marketing, place selling was a dominant
form of promoting locations. As Rainisto (2003) indicates, place selling is a
more operational approach to promotion, which is strongly based on various
forms of advertising. On the other hand, place marketing recently has
become a prominent feature of place development (Rainisto, 2003).
There are several possible ways for place development. Kotler et al.
(1993) mention about four traditional approaches which are community
service development, urban redesign and planning, economic development,
and strategic market planning. Several other academicians focused in their
studies on these different approaches in the new millennium too. Looking at
these approaches in brief detail reveals the following:
Community development by services generally means creating a

quality environment for citizens living in the community and for the
potential citizens (Rainisto, 2003), who are the external place-buyers
(Kotler et al., 1999). Administrations can work on offering services like new
facilities for social activities, good schools, health facilities and day-care
services (Rainisto, 2003), providing free rides for a specific area of the city,
and issues which contribute to the quality of life in the community. Urban
redesign and planning approach basically depends on the linked elements of
the social, the economic and the environmental. It is the important point in
place development to keep the balance between these elements with urban
redesign and planning approach. According to Rainisto (2003), it is
necessary to pay attention to the institutional factors to strengthen
participation in urban planning. He indicates that an urban planner should
consider the social elements to maintain cohesion, the environmental
elements to constrain the use of resources, and the economic elements to
ensure competitive growth. Therefore, in order to make the places
attractive and more competitive urban redesign and planning focuses on
18
improving the quality of places in terms of their designs, in terms of
architecture, open spaces, land use, and street layout (Rainisto, 2003).
Economic development approach focuses on the place development in terms
of increasing the competitiveness of places (Rainisto, 2003) to get an
economic growth at the same time with potential gains.
For this thesis, the most important aspect among these four
traditional approaches is the last one, which is strategic market planning.
The role of place marketing in place development is stronger in the category
of in this approach (Kotler et al., 1999). Kotler and his colleagues offer a
five-stage strategic market planning process which begins with place-audit.
The aim of the place audit is determining the interests and the things that
people like and the reason behind their choices. This audit can be thought
as a SWOT analysis which should identify the important tangible and
intangible characteristics that define the place. In addition to that, profiling
the philosophies of the citizens, civic leaders, institutions, businesses and
other entities that together constitute the values of the place, is among the
functions of the audit (Ritchie and Crouch, 2003). In addition to
determination of the vision and goals, strategies are formed based on the
results of the audit. Creating the action plan and implementation of the
model are the final steps of this approach (Kotler et al., 1999).
In the auditing process, the different features of the place are

grouped under 4 headlines including ‘comfort and image’, ‘access and
linkages’, ‘uses and activities’, and ‘sociability’. Comfort and image focuses
on overall attractiveness, perceived safety, cleanliness and overall comfort
of the place. Mix of stores and services, amount and frequency of
community activities and events, overall business, and economic vitality of
the area are investigated under the uses and activities headline. Access and
linkages includes the features of the place such as visibility, ease of walking
through the place and transit access, and clarity of information and signage
across the place. It is investigated that the density of people in groups
around the place, personal evidence of volunteerism of the citizen, sense of
19
pride and ownership about the place, and density of children and seniors
around the place under the sociability dimension (Project for Public Spaces,
Inc., 2003, p.1-2).
Table 2. 1: Place Audit Scale

Comfort & Uses &
Poor Fair Good Poor Fair Good
Image Activities
Overall Mix of
1 2 3 1 2 3
attractiveness stores/services
Frequency of
Feeling of safety 1 2 3 community 1 2 3
events/activities
Cleanliness
Overall busy-
Quality of 1 2 3 1 2 3
ness of area
Maintenance
Comfort of places Economic
1 2 3 1 2 3
to sit vitality
Access &
Poor Fair Good Sociability Poor Fair Good
Linkages
Number of
Visibility from a
1 2 3 people in 1 2 3
distance
groups
Ease of walking to Evidence of
1 2 3 1 2 3
the place volunteerism
Sense of pride
Transit access 1 2 3 1 2 3
and ownership
Clarity of Presence of
information/signa 1 2 3 children and 1 2 3
ge seniors
Source: Project for Public Spaces (PPS), Inc., 2003, Place Audit: Rate the
Place, http://www.pioneercourthousesquare.org/Place_audit_pioneerctsq.pdf,
retrieved on 08.02.2010.
Some different statements are developed for each group, and they
are required to rank by the people related with the place as “poor-fair-good”
as it is shown on the Table 2.1. Also it is possible to get the statements
ranked with a “strongly disagree- strongly agree” Likert scale for more
detailed information (PPS, Inc., 2006).
Keeping these explanations from the literature in mind, for a city

awarded as a ‘capital of culture’, the interconnected relationship between
place development, promotion, and marketing might be again available.
20
Because, the activities will be held for this issue, will not be just for
promoting the place in order to sell it, in the meaning in literature; but also
for getting broadened marketing purposes, like creating a brand image,
communicating the amenities of the city with other different cultures for
long-lasting purposes, improving existing social environment and making it
sustainable. So, it is possible to redesign or built new architectural facilities
to contribute to and improve the visual appearance of the city awarded as
‘capital of culture’. New services which will be unique for being a ‘capital of
culture’, can be created to communicate the place effectively with internal,
the people already living in there, and external buyers, who might be willing
to visit, or invest the place. On the other hand, it will be rather possible to
achieve the purposes aimed via developing a place, if the people are
incorporated to the activities by being asked about their opinions or directly
given a responsibility in the activities (Kotler et al., 1999; Uçak, 2009).
Under all circumstances, it is possible that the activities prepared for
developing a place, contribute to the place’s economic development by
attracting both visitors and residents in terms of visiting the city or visiting
the cultural and historical places like museums, art galleries, theatres etc.
and vitalize the local economy (Jiwa et al., 2009).
In short, in a city where dense of population lives all together in

planned rules and a political system, and where there is a lot of
opportunities for its citizens, like a sustainable learning and personal
development from the diversified culture across the city, job, education,
health, and leisure, the sustainability of the relationship between the city
and its citizens highly depends on strategic place development activities
with special emphasize on market planning. With this focus, citizens may
feel more a part of the city, the feeling of connectivity will increase, and
hence the strong ties built which can result in higher level of sharing
responsibilities for the city.
21
2.1.4. Place Marketing and Importance of Different
Groups as Part of the City
As it is mentioned in the section about place development, place

marketing activities have their origins in the U.S.A. in the 1850s via place
selling (Rainisto, 2003). In the following years similar ideas were rapidly
taken up in European cities, most notably in the Netherlands although the
activities were sporadically at first, and Britain (Barke, 1999). With the
developments within the marketing science, the place marketing is widely
practiced today all over the world. Places have been felt a need to
differentiate themselves from each other in order to assert their
individuality and distinctive characteristics in pursuit of various economic,
political or socio-psychological objectives (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2008).
In today’s world they aim to attract new tourists, factories, companies and
talented people, as well as it is important to find new markets for their
exports (Kotler et al., 2002b). Creating an effective image of the place and
improving the image that already exists are among the functions of place
marketing. Previous studies had shown that effective place marketing can
influence perceptions held with regard to town and city centers (Hankinson,
2001; Warnaby, 1998; Page and Hardyman, 1996). It is a powerful strategy
complementing the efforts of authorities to foster the physical
attractiveness of the area in question (Hospers, 2004).
Place marketing is used for multiple goals like building a positive

image for an area, city, region etc. and attracting enterprises, tourists, and
institutions. On the other hand there is a difference when setting the goals
of place marketing compared to other marketing activities. The primary goal
of place marketing is to construct a new image of the place to replacing
vague or negative images previously held by current or potential residents,
investors and visitors (Law, 2002). Unlike the usual perspective of
marketing goal is making profit, place marketing activities have or should
have longer-term, specialized marketing goals (Buhalis, 2000), in which
profit has more social, and often cultural values (Yeoman et al., 2004).
22
In order to achieve an effective marketing process for a place, it is
crucial to determine the target markets to make them involved to the
process. Since place marketing means designing the place to satisfy the
needs of its target markets (Kotler et al., 2002a), segmentation is a core
task in the place marketing to decide about who are the targeted customers
(Rainisto, 2003) and focus on the right groups.
According to Hospers (2004), there are three groups of customers

for a place: (1) inhabitants that wish for an appropriate place to live, work
and relax, (2) companies looking for a place to locate their production
facilities, do business and recruit employees, and (3) visitors seeking leisure
facilities in terms of culture and entertainment. To visitors one can add
people who came for short intervals once or repetitively to study or work.
Kotler et al. (1999)’s definition lets having a closer view to the segmenting
the target markets by grouping them as visitors, residents and employees,
business and industry, and export markets.
Visitors refer to people come to place either for business or non

business purposes. The business visitors may come for conventions, or
business meetings and they evaluate the place with respect to meeting
facilities, their capacities, accessibility of the city, availability of supporting
services and their costs. The non- business visitors may be tourists and
travelers. The evaluation criteria for these might be the climate, recreation
facilities, tourist attractions, and again the costs of them (Gürkaynak,
2007). Her dissertation (Gürkaynak, 2007) gives a clear and broaden
picture to the inhabitants or customers in a city via indicating that residents
and employees such as professionals, skilled or unskilled workers, wealthy
individuals, investors, entrepreneurs, or retirees, are the group having
expectations most from the place they live. They seek for good
opportunities in terms of education, job, leisure and social activities. In
addition to these, high level of welfare and a fair cost of living are among
the expectations and evaluation criteria for that group. This group is also
the targeted area for this thesis study keeping the statement in mind, a
23
city’s resident population is strategically the most valuable segment among
those targeted and the residents’ quality of life and their satisfaction with
their city of residence should be the ultimate aim of place management
(Insch and Florek, 2008). Business and industry judges a place by land
costs, availability of skilled labor, energy costs, and taxes. And finally
export markets include the importers from other domestic localities or
international markets who care about productive resources and
employment, and knowledge and intellectual training (Gürkaynak, 2007).
After defining and determining the needs of each target group, the
place product must be adapted to fit the needs of place customers (Kotler et
al., 1999). Each place should define and communicate its special features
and competitive advantages effectively by finding the ways to differentiate
and position themselves for their target markets.
2.2. Culture and Cultural Events and Their Role in

Place Marketing Activities
The dynamic, organic structure of a city reveals the importance of

culture within itself for a worldwide recognition and acceptance. Because as
the studies of Edinburgh also reveal, culture is the mechanism through
which individuals, communities and nations define themselves (City of
Edinburgh, 1999). As a social heritage, it relates to a social group’s shared
values, customs, norms, ways of life, typical patterns of behavior, cognitive
constructs, and rules, systems of meaning and modes of discourse (Gold
and Gold, 2005). Further, it is a continually evolving issue through
synthesizing old ideas with the new ones (Solomon et al., 2006).
In the current era of globalization and informationalization, and with

the increase in place marketing activities; many cities have turned to
culture to revitalize town and city centers by involving residents and visitors
through culture and the arts (Jiwa et al., 2009) and gain competitive
advantage (Jansson, 2007; Griffiths, 2006). They are realizing the economic
24
potential of their cultural products and are looking strategically at
positioning and supporting those. The use of culture and cultural events
have become an ever more important economic and culture drive factor for
towns and cities (Knight and Robertson, 2004). A well developed cultural
program offers a good opportunity to tap into market the place and the
potential and creativity of arts and culture remain as an important resource
in national and local development (Jiwa et al., 2009).
Culture, arts and entertainment are becoming more central to the

regeneration of many cities (Couch et al., 2003). Culture is central to
promoting the continued renaissance of the city and has role to play in
creating a more inclusive and sustainable community. It creates jobs,
attracts investment and enriches the lives of people who live and work in
and visit the city. Culture brings distinction to the image and profile of the
city (Yeoman et al., 2004). Cultural revitalization can also help to promote
civic identity and improve the image of a particular area (Couch et al.,
2003).
2.2.1. Big Cultural Events and City Life
It is the main focus and scope of this thesis to analyze the role of
the cultural events and Istanbul’s being ECoC in city life.
The spectacular place marketing efforts like festivals, congresses

and exhibitions are often understood as a “cure-all” within urban
development to cultural assets (Jansson, 2007). Festivals and events are
often closely related to term ‘arts’ while the arts are seen to be an integral
part of any celebration of a country’s, or a specific region’s history and
culture. The word festival derives from feast and implies a time for
celebration, while events are defined as activities implemented in a unique
moment in time with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific needs (Derrett,
2004). As an essential part of city life, events have both a worldwide basis
and national levels, such as the Olympic Games and the World Expo, The
25
European Capital of Culture and a locality and city levels such as The
Carnivale in Rio de Janeiro (Yuan and Chong, 2007).
Cultural festivals and events traditionally are seen to incorporate

works and activities such as classical music, opera, theatre, ballet, fine arts
including painting and sculpture. They can also include wider collection of
activities such as contemporary dance, film, popular music and the various
components of the visual arts (Knight and Robertson, 2004). In their study
the same authors state that, culture can range from ‘high’ culture such as
the arts to ‘popular’ and ‘contemporary’ culture which can include such
diverse activities as football, music and television.
On the other hand, this study uses the term ‘culture’ in a broad
sense of include a range of activities which is not limited to the traditional
components, but follows the definition of culture formulated by UNESCO,
which indicates culture consists of all distinctive, spiritual and material,
intellectual and emotional features which characterize a society or social
group. The cultural events do not includes only the arts and letters, but also
modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems,
traditions and beliefs (UNESCO, 1982).
Cultural festivals and events provide an opportunity for community

development. These activities play a number of significant roles in a city or
region (Derrett, 2004). They can attract possible visitors and be catalysts
for further development of the place in question. They can lengthen tourist
seasons, or can introduce a new industry in the life of a community (Getz,
1997) like the Oktoberfest in Germany which is started in 1810 just to allow
residents to celebrate a royal marriage and with the subsequent additions of
horse races, and funfair amusements while it is now attracting seven million
visitors each September to Munich (Derrett, 2004).
The economic development and gains are one of the major and
important contributions of cultural events. As the research topic of this
study, each city applies for being ECoC, draws attention to the economic
26
benefits that culture can bring to the city (Griffiths, 2006). The one of the
main concern of the host cities has been to gain the economic benefits
associated with increased numbers of visitors, image enhancement, urban
revitalization, and expansion of the creative industries (Palmer, 2004). As a
supporting figure, it is declared that Glasgow, an ECoC in 1990, saw a net
economic return to its regional economy of £10.3 to 14.1 million
(Myerscough, 1991) while it is indicated that Liverpool got a return for £2.8
million in the ECoC official Opening Weekend in January 2008 (Garcia,
2009a). As an another example to the economic effects of cultural activities,
China, who is now holding the World Exposition (EXPO) in 2010, was
expected to attract a total of 70 million visitors during this event as stated
by Guoqiang in 2008. Cultural activities, can also improve the infrastructure
of the city or region as in the example of Barcelona. Before the Olympics,
which is an event fundamentally has its origins in Greek culture and history,
in 1992, Barcelona was struggling with the problems related to
transportation, infrastructure, and cleaning around the city. With regards to
Olympic Games, the Catalans had renewed the infrastructure of the city,
built new subway lines and redesigned the street layout (Kutukoglu, 2009).
The feature of producing a positive place image which is supposed

to generate synergies through cultural assets (Jansson, 2007) is another
important outcome of cultural events, since image is a part of a strategic
process to change the perception of a place in order to receive appropriate
interest from visitors, residents, or businesses. It is also a contributing
factor to appropriating the best potential for the place to continue to
succeed in the future, to facilitate both city and regional long-term
development (Yeoman et al., 2004). In terms of positive image creating
China can be an example again. After Olympics were held in China in 2008,
in their classification of world cities, Derudder et al. (2003), classed Beijing
as a ‘major regional world city’, a second tier of the hierarchy of world
cities. With the gains through Olympics in 1992, Barcelona has started to be
perceived as one of the world’s most beautiful cities. It also possible to
27
reverse the negative image of the city (Yuan and Chong, 2007) as in the
Glasgow example discussed in the previous sections.
2.2.2. Interaction of the Relationship Between

Residents, Visitors and City with Cultural Events
As it is already mentioned while city concept was being explaining,

there is a strong relationship between the city and the people living in it.
This relationship can be seen in the definition of Uçak (2009), which
indicates that a city just can be a real city if it inspires residents to feel
emotional connections as well as physical connection with the city. This
approach is also in line with Rousseau’s (1973, p.175) definition; “Houses
make a town, but citizens make a city”.
The contribution of cultural events to this relationship provides an

opportunity for community cultural development and strengthens their ties
to the city (Garcia et al., 2008). Such events allow local people or residents
to satisfy their leisure needs (Derrett, 2004, p.34). They can have a
responsibility as a volunteer in implementation for the projects prepared for
cultural event with the primary motivations like civic pride (Garcia et al.,
2008) and so strengthen their connection with the city both physically and
emotionally. Attending various activities also strengthen their ties with the
city.
In the case of city and its visitors’ relationship, we can see the
interactions which can be investigated under both destination and place
marketing disciplines. As it mentioned before too, in 1800s there were kinds
of attempts both from governance and business areas to attract some
specific places or regions for just economic benefits like improving tourism
sector. In terms of just being touristic, the relationship that has benefits for
both the visitors and city is the field of interest of destination marketing,
which is focusing on marketing tourist destinations for economic purposes.
On the other hand, developing this approach by adding also social and
28
political purposes in order to market specific places, regions or countries
belong to place marketing (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2008; Hankinson,
2001; Warnaby, 1998; Page and Hardyman, 1996).
As an effective instrument for marketing a place or a region for just

economic purposes or with an attention paid to the social and political ones,
the arts and cultural industries, especially through festivals and special
events have an impressive role. For destination marketing, they can offer
something for the tourism sector to exploit experience (Derrett, 2004).
These cultural events in turn become the content of the tourism experience
for visitors and encourage them for further use of that space. On the other
hand for place marketing purposes, they allow showing the amenities of the
place from a cultural perspective (Yeoman et al., 2004). Hence, visitors can
have chance to focus on the cultural and historical assets of the place and
their perception and attitude towards the place can be affected positively
due to these events (Zhang and Zhao, 2009, p.6).
Figure 2. 1: The Representation of the

Relationship Between City, Residents
and Visitors
Source: Adopted from Yeoman et al., (2004)
29
Inherently, there will be a cultural interaction between residents and
visitors when they meet in the host place. Visitors have possibility to learn
about different lifestyles, habits, and modes of discourses of the residents.
On the other hand, because of the strong relationship between the residents
and the city they live in, the real interaction between residents and visitors
occurs with the involvement of the city through cultural events projected in
(Yeoman et al., 2004). Like consumers of many experiences, individuals
participating as audience at a festival or special event wish to satisfy their
curiosity about place and people. Usually they want to do what locals
(residents) do and hope this experience will give them entrée to the ways of
life of particular place (Derrett, 2004). Cultural events also is a way for
communities to share their culture due to its feature to link landscape to
lifestyle in simple and complex ways by introducing the human dimension to
static spaces that become animated. Residents are able to work for visitors
to get a sense of local values and hence can have the chance to meet locals
in formal and less formal ways, breaking down the host-guest gulf. That is
another way to get sense of local values and interests for visitors. A sense
of community which visitors can feel when they participate in a festival is an
intangible amalgam of services and experiences (Derrett, 2004). All these
relationships and interactions can be seen on the Figure 2.1 above.
In a brief content, place marketing has increasingly become

important for countries for achieving some economic, political and social
purposes. Since the place selling activities and promotions to attract tourists
in 1800s through kinds of promotional activities (Rainisto, 2003), the
process has improved by using different tool and become a way to get
sustainable developments. As well as in basic marketing concept, it is
important to define the target markets and address their needs, wants and
expectations in place marketing as well.
In case of this thesis study, the potential target markets are defined
as residents and employees of Istanbul. Contributions of the cultural events
to the life, consequently the citizens’ lives were realized. Their features like
30
developing the local economy through increasing the number of visitors and
expanding the creative industries, revitalizing the urban area via
infrastructural improvements; especially their role in being a bridge for the
citizens’ personal development are in the context of this thesis study.
2.3. Adoption Process of ECoC as Innovation for

Istanbul
Rogers (1983, p.11), who has studied the diffusion of innovations,

defines “an innovation as any idea, practice, or object that is perceived as
being new by an individual or other unit of adoption”. It is similar with
Kotler’s (2000) definition which describes the innovation as any good,
service, or idea that is perceived by someone as new.
Interesting to observe was an old article of Bourne (1959), which is

in Baker’s book (2001) as a separate chapter. According to Bourne (1959),
the decision to adopt a new product or service is not something that
happens all at once (Bourne, 1959). Keeping this in mind, when it is
considered that being ECoC for Istanbul is a new issue for residents and
people related to the city, it is expected to observe a process for people to
being involved to this initiative. In terms of determining the awareness and
level of people’s adoption of being ECoC for Istanbul, i.e. where the citizens
feel themselves in the adoption process, it is necessary to take a look to the
different concepts for adoption studied in the literature.
2.3.1. Stages for Adoption of an Innovation and

Istanbul’s being ECoC
The framework for exploring consumer acceptance of new products

and services is drawn from the area of research known as the diffusion of
innovations (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2004). It is studied and developed
31
mostly by Bourne (1959) in Baker (2001); Rogers (1962; 1983; 1995;
2003) in Nabih et al., (1997); and Lionberger (1968) in Campbell and
Barker (1997). And they further reflect that the process tries to describe the
behavior of consumers as they purchase/adopt new products and services.
Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) refer in the same textbook to different

definitions and state that the terms ‘diffusion of innovations’ and ‘adoption
process’ are used interchangeably (Wu, 2005; Li, 2004; Daghfous, 1999;
Nabih et al., 1997). But with a detailed view, it is indicated that diffusion is
a macro process concerned with the spread of an innovation from its source
to the consuming public, an aggregate behavior. In contrast adoption is a
micro process that focuses on the stages through which an individual
consumer passes when deciding to accept or reject a new product or service
(Schiffman and Kanuk, 2004; Hisrich and Peters, 1978).
The literature also refers to a behavior in concept of adoption most.

The behavior most commonly referred to is ‘the acceptance and the
continued use’ (Robertson, 1971, p.56, in Nabih et al., 1997) or repeated
purchase/use of an innovation. There is a hierarchical process for
consumers in order to implement the behavior in question which is quite
similar also in the adoption for different kinds of innovations as previous
studies had shown (Bourne, 1959, in Baker, 2001). This process has five
different stages with the mostly known names including awareness,
interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption which can be seen on the Figure 2.2
below (Bourne, 1959, in Baker, 2001; Rogers, 1962, 1983, 1995, 2003, in
Nabih et al. 1997; Lionberger, 1968, in Campbell and Barker, 1997).
32
Realizing the existence of Perceived
the innovation. Characteristics of
1.Awareness Innovation
Seeking for more
information and Relative
developing an attitude advantage
towards the innovation
2.Interest based on the knowledge
obtained. +
Compatibility
Evaluating the +
information learned
about the innovation in
3.Evaluation
order to contribute to - Complexity
choice to reject or adopt
it.
+
Implementing the
4.Trial innovation in his/her own Observability
life pattern, a small scale +
use of the innovation.
Triability
Accepting the innovation

5.Adoption and the emergence of the
entegration with the
innovation for following
uses.
Figure 2.2: Representation of the Adoption Process and Perceived

Characteristics Effect
Source: Based on Rogers, (1995); Pereira, (2002); Wang, (2008); and

Schiffman and Kanuk, (2004).
Awareness (Knowledge) is the first step that an individual or other

decision-making unit (DMU) is exposed to an innovation’s existence (Wang,
2008). Socioeconomic characteristics can have an affect on awareness
stage (Rogers, 1995). The individual or other DMU forms an attitude
towards the innovation in the interest (persuasion) stage (Pereira, 2002) via
starting to seek for more information about the innovation. As Pereira
(2002) indicates formation of this attitude is dependent upon the opinions
of peers and their experiences with the innovation, as well as perceived
characteristics of the innovation are influential factors on this stage (Rogers,
33
1995). In the evaluation (decision) stage there is a mental application for
processing the knowledge and interest in order to lead a choice to adopt or
reject the innovation (Bourne, 1959, in Baker, 2001; Wang, 2008). As the
last stage before adoption, trial (implementation) is defined as applying the
new idea by an individual or a DMU on a small scale in order to determine
its utility in his or her own situation (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971, in Nabih
et al., 1997). The individual or other DMU uses the product on a limited
basis in this stage (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2004). Finally, in the adoption
(confirmation) stage the individual or DMU confirms the new idea and
repeat purchase/use takes place but it is needed to reinforce the decision
already made, because of the possibility to reverse the idea if the individual
or DMU exposes to conflicting messages about the innovation (Wang,
2008).
From the point in time when an individual first hears of an

innovation to the point of adoption, a decision for an individual or another
DMU, there occurs a systematic process as it is explained above. Also it
should be noted that any innovation may be rejected at any stage of this
process (Hisrich and Peters, 1978). On the other hand, as it is stated in the
study of Nabih et al. (1997), Gatignon and Robertson (1989) say that
rejection is not the mirror image of adoption, since it can occur before
experiencing the product. It is a behavior which can also occur after an
individual has adopted it, which is referred to as a discontinuance (Hisrich
and Peters, 1978).
In terms of focus of this thesis study, looking at activities and

strategies for each stage and comparing them to being ECoC of for a city
reveals the following: For example Liverpool, which is accepted as a city
who successfully managed the process for being ECoC in 2008 (Tucker,
2008; Hudson and Hawkins, 2006) started its promotional activities in 2003
through celebrating being awarded as ECoC. The governance of the city
kept on assigning a topic to every year and associating them with being
ECoC until 2008 and gathering innovations for further developments
34
(Donert, 2008). In Istanbul’s case, the people who live in the city have been
exposed to variety of information regarding Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010
through various kinds of activities. The agency, which is responsible for
developing projects for Istanbul’s being ECoC and managing the whole
process, started the promotional campaigns in the middle of 2009 in order
to make the people aware about Istanbul’s case. The web site,
“www.istanbul2010.org” was established by the agency again in the middle
of 2009 to give information about the initiative and Istanbul’s case. There
were a couple advertisements on TV which is shown not so frequently. In
addition, as it is indicated by the terms of EC, a volunteering program was
started to accept volunteers on August 2009 from people of all ages and
occupations living in the city. Over the end of the 2009 a new advertising
campaign started using the broadcast media focusing on reinforcing
residents to visit the cultural and historical places with the slogan “Having
the Energy from Istanbul”. Small booklets about being ECoC were available
in English in the entrance of headquarter of the agency, which is in Atlas
Arcade in Beyoglu by the end of the year. But the most massive
promotional campaign was implemented for meeting the 2010, on 16th of
January via the official opening for Istanbul’s being ECoC. The opening
activities were announced through the advertisements on the official web
site, banner advertisements on the other web sites, print ads, live TV
broadcastings and advertisements on billboards as well as public relations
attempts in all TV and radio channels in diverse news and programs. Still, it
is possible to see the advertisements on TV and print media, follow the
events being held in city everyday on the official website, attend the
volunteering program and take a role in the activities, which can be the
various source for learning about ECoC and Istanbul’s case and to get
informed about the issue.
On the other hand, Sonmezısık (2010) believes though that despite

these activities mentioned, the people living in the city have not made a
significant progress totally more than being aware of the issue for Istanbul.
If it is thought applying to the agency in order to be a volunteer for having
35
a responsibility in the projects is in the following stages of adoption process,
the figures shows that the amount is just totally 560 registered people
(including active and passive volunteers) (Istanbul 2010 Agency, 2009).
The findings of the research that is conducted for this study will clarify the
adoption process of Istanbul’s being ECoC for the residents of the city, the
efficiency of the projects and activities which have a leading role for the
process, and will try to find new alternatives and recommendations for a
successful bid for Istanbul from the perspectives of its residents.
2.3.2. The Determinants Affecting Adoption Rate

and Istanbul’s Case
Following an extensive review of the literature, five attributes of

innovations were found out that consistently proved to be determinants of
the adoption rate of an innovation (Hernandez and Mazzon, 2007) which are
relative advantage, compatibility, triability, observability, and complexity
(Hisrich and Peters, 1978, p.186; Rogers, 2003, p.264-265). Rogers (2003)
explains these characteristics from the consumer perspectives, indicating
that they belong to what are the consumers perceive (for example: The
expensive feeling) rather than the actual characteristic of the innovation
(for example: Product price) and these perceived attributes or
characteristics of the innovation may regulate the rate at which diffusion
occurs (Hisrich and Peters, 1978, p. 186).
As the first of these perceived characteristics, relative advantage

refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the
things it supersedes (Wu, 2005). Compatibility is defined as the extent to
which the innovation is perceived as in line with the existing values, needs
and experiences of a society in terms of capturing prospective adopters. A
new product whose perceived image is not consistent with cultural norms
will diffuse less rapidly (Hisrich and Peters, 1978). Triability means the
degree to which the innovation is available for DMUs to being experimented
36
by them on a limited basis, while observability is defined as the extent to
which the visibility of the results of the innovation (Rogers, 2003), also it
refers the degree to which information regarding the innovation may be
easily communicated to other people in the marketplace (Hisrich and Peters,
1978). And finally complexity refers to the degree to which the innovation
may be complex, hard to understand, use or participate (Rogers, 2003).
Except of ‘complexity’ the relationship between each of these characteristics
and the intention to adopt an innovation is positive, while ‘complexity’ bears
a negative effect to the intention to adopt. Also Rogers (1983) indicates
that the perceived characteristics of an innovation are influential on DMU’s
forming an attitude toward the innovation, in other words on interest stage
of adoption process.
The people’s perception of these characteristics for being ECoC is

again effective on their adoption of the “service” and involvement to the
process. In terms of Istanbul’s case, the relative advantage of being ECoC
can be considered according to the other independent, temporary cultural
activities performed across the city. The planned projects prepared for
being ECoC which will be performed periodically, can bring out a
competition in local economy driven by culture such as various art
exhibitions, theatres, concerts etc., which will be performed regularly during
the whole year. And they will better contribute to vitalize the cultural
economy compared to the other temporary events. The whole process also
has a better affect in terms of making its citizens involved to the process
through events which might be performed everywhere in the city
(Interviews with 2010 Agency officials).
37
Table 2. 2: Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s Being ECoC
Affecting
Link to Istanbul’s being ECoC Source
Factor
Superiority to the other culture Interviews with 2010

Relative
driven events due to its planned Agency officials,
Advantage
feature. (2010)
Interviews with
Consistency with historical
Compatibility residents, (2009);
background and daily life.
Sonmezısık, (2010).
The volunteering program, various
kinds of activities and projects
Developed by the
Triability performed within the context of the
researcher
process that people easily attend,
even for free.
Changes in the visual appearance of
Istanbul, the website of the Sonmezısık, (2010);
Observability Istanbul’s 2010 process, use of social Developed by the
media, the small offices called as researcher
“Open Box”.
Lack of knowledge about the
meaning and scope of ECoC, and Sonmezısık, (2010);
Complexity ambiguity in the functions and Interviews with the
contributions of the process to the residents, (2009).
city.
Source: Created by the researcher
Interviews with different people contribute to this part with their

new visions. Since the old years form the history of the city, people have
been used to live with different kinds of cultures and have relationships with
them, in terms of business, neighbourhood, friendship or even marriage.
They used to see the monumental places built by other nations lived in the
city before and still in the use of public like the most of the buildings in
Beyoglu, Istiklal Street. As stated by some people living in Istanbul, now,
38
being an ECoC gives the chance to present this diversified culture to the
whole Europe or even the world and most of the residents are proud of it.
On the other hand, some of them are not thinking it is important and
necessary while the city needs more vital things like improved economic
conditions, job opportunities, managing crow, crime, and pollution
(Sönmezışık, 2010). In addition to this in terms of complexity, most of the
people living in the city are struggling with the meaning and functions of
being ECoC (Interviews, 2009; Sönmezışık, 2010). But perceived triability
and observability are the ones might positively affect most the adoption
rate, because people, who see the restoration of some historical buildings,
which is one of the projects related to the being ECoC, is thinking being
ECoC should be a useful thing and will make the city better, as it is stated in
the interview of Sönmezışık, 2010. Also, it will be easier to involve to the
process through being a volunteer or attending and activity, or visiting a
museum etc. via some of the projects of the Istanbul 2010 Agency. The
project “Open Box”, small architectural offices that put different areas of the
city in order to give information about being ECoC and activities held in the
city, accept volunteering applications, and sell tickets for events, is being
expected to improve the resident’s adoption. Also the internet is being used
effectively in order to communicate the process with the people. The
website which is prepared for the process is providing information about all
the events, projects and activities performed around the city and the groups
established on some social mediums like Facebook are contributing the
observability feature of the Istanbul’s case.
2.4. Characteristics of Residents of Istanbul as

Adaptors for their City’s being ECoC
Adopters’ characteristics in a society are one of the factors that

influence the intentions to adopt an innovation, because a social system
affects the diffusion of the innovation in terms of its social structure, norms
(Li, 2004), traditions. Within this perspective two important traits lifestyle
39
and socioeconomic characteristics of the adopters will be discussed and
associated with Istanbul’s case in the following sections.
2.4.1. Lifestyles and Classification for Turkish

People’s Lifestyles
Lifestyle factors have been used effectively in determining the

consumers’ buying behaviors and adoption of the innovations (Belch and
Belch, 2007; Lee et al., 2009; Wei, 2006; Wu, 2005). As general meaning
indicates, lifestyle can simply be defined as ‘how someone lives’. However,
as one of the psychographic characteristics of customers’, lifestyle describes
the behavior of individuals (Kucukemiroglu, 1999), relates to the economic
level at which people live, how they spend their money, and how they
allocate their time (Anderson and Golden, 1984). In addition, the unique
contribution of lifestyles lies in their visibility, because individuals express
themselves partly by developing different types of lifestyles (Lee et al.,
2004) based on behaviors showing their views of themselves and world
around them, and consumption patterns as a possible indicator of their
interests (Kucukemiroglu, 1999).
According to the literature the term lifestyle can have at least three
different meanings, including first, the values that a person expresses with
reference to a limited number of basic dimensions like equality, freedom,
justice, etc. Secondly and as commonly used is sum of activities, opinions,
and interests of individuals (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2004). And the patterns
of behavior, which means active leisure time activities involving sports, a
work in a non-profit organization, etc. is the last one of the meaning the
lifestyle covers (Sjöberg and Engelberg, 2005).
As the kinds of psychographic segmentation, there are different

alternatives to measure lifestyles such as values and lifestyles (VALS)
program, Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), and activity-interest-opinion (AIO)
as some to mention. VALS, which is the most well-known and widely used
40
lifestyle segmentation system in America (Solomon et al. 2006), is
developed by the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and focuses on the
dimensions like education, income, health, self-confidence and degree of
consumerism (Belch and Belch, 2007, p.570). The other widely used tool for
measuring lifestyles in marketing studies, RVS (Munson and McQuarrie,
1988) is developed by social psychologist Milton Rokeach in 1968 and
instrumentalised in 1973. It is aimed at classifying people based on their
terminal values which are like the goals they would like to achieve during
their lifetime, and instrumental values referring their modes of behavior
(Johnston, 1995).
In the concept of this study, it is focused on the dimensions activity-

interest-opinion (AIO) inventory as the one that most widely used (Janjua,
2006; Li, 2004; Lawson and Todd, 2002; Kucukemiroglu, 1999) for lifestyle
measurements. On the other hand although some studies (Wei, 2006)
incorporate demographics as another dimension of the lifestyle,
demographic characteristics will be examined under its own headline in this
study.
The AIO process, which is one of the psychographic segmentation,

basically classifies consumers based on their activities which refer to the
actual behaviors, interests thought as the extent to which they pay
attention to certain matters, and opinions referring to the views and
expectations customers have toward an issue (Li, 2004.). With a detailed
view, it can be said that the things that a person used to do everyday in
terms of ways of spending time in work, entertainment, leisure, and
shopping are covered by activities. Interest statements are related to the
importance placed by a person to different activities performed daily, such
as fashion, recreation, and media, while opinions indicate a person’s views
on social issues, products, and interests as some to mention (Wells and
Tigert, 1971; Lee et al., 2009).
In terms of Turkish consumers, eight different kinds of lifestyles

were determined in the literature for the people living in Istanbul
41
(Kucukemiroglu, 1999). Based on 56 different AIO rating statements and
with 532 usable questionnaires which is conducted during the winter of
1995 in Istanbul by the author, different lifestyles were grouped under eight
headlines including; ‘fashion consciousness’, ‘leadership’, ‘family concern’,
‘health consciousness’, ‘carefreeness’, ‘community consciousness’, ‘cost
consciousness’, and ‘practicality’. Fashion consciousness refers to being
awake for latest trends in clothing and personal expenses. Leadership refers
to the ability of individuals having an influence on others’ decisions and
choices about products or brands. People consuming, saving, and living
based on the needs of their kids primarily, having much more time at home
with family rather than being outside are included by ‘family concern’ group.
Health consciousness refers to paying attention to what to eat, consuming
on sport activities or healthy food, or materials. Carefreeness includes not
to giving priority to the household chores or don’t like to do. Community
consciousness refers to paying attention to the issues for community
benefit, being willing to be a volunteer for a non-profit organization or work
in a campaign for an issue, while cost consciousness indicates to being
sensitive about prices of products or services, try to save money and not to
like spend money on except vital things. And as last type of lifestyles
determined for Turkish consumers practicality refers to priority for attending
to the activities, which is not necessary to spend too much time for it,
especially available in purchasing behaviors (Kucukemiroglu, 1999). For this
study, the focus is limited to community consciousness regarding the
speciality of the topic as of Istanbul citizens’ being involved in the adoption
process of their city’s being ECoC for 2010.
2.4.2. General Demographic Characteristics of

People Living in Istanbul as Socioeconomic Indicators
Keeping their relationship with lifestyle through socioeconomic

characteristics, education level, income, and occupation characteristics of
42
people living Istanbul will be examined as the most influential demographic
variables.
2.4.2.1.Education Level
Education level is defined as a means by which access to a particular

occupation is granted (Kotler and Amstrong, 2000) and has an important
effect on influencing consumers’ product/service choices and lifestyles (Wu,
2005). This situation can be explained by the strong relationship between
education level and income. The level of education can affect strongly to the
ability to generate income through the being accepted for better paying jobs
and this can also affect the consumers’ spending potential (Schiffman and
Kanuk, 2004). More educated consumers have more money available to
spend, due to better education, and this affects their lifestyles (Wu, 2005).
In addition to these, education level is an important factor due to mostly
being one of the indicators for being receptive to the new ideas, products/
services or any kind of innovations (Palmer et al., 2003). It is mostly the
same also in terms of adoption of cultural activities as Garcia et al. (2008)
indicates the 51% of the volunteers for Liverpool’s being ECoC has
undergraduate or postgraduate degrees.
A: Uneducated (Not finished any

school)
G
F 0%
B: Graduated from five years
H A
1% primary school
9% 10%
E C: Graduated from secondary
9% school or 8 years elementary
education
D: Graduated from high school
E: Graduated from 2 years
B college, or 4 years university
D 36%
23% F: Graduated from a graduate
program
C
12%
G: Graduated from a doctorate
program
Figure 2.3: Percentage Distribution of

Istanbul’s Population among Education
Levels
Source: TUIK (2008). Population According to Education
Levels. www.tuik.gov.tr, retrieved on 10.11.2009
43
According to the figures indicated by TUIK (2008), which includes
the education levels of people higher than eighteen years old, has shown on
Figure 2.3 above, the general education level is relatively low in Istanbul.
More than the half of the population has an education lower than high
school degree and range between 5 to 8 years, or uneducated.
often rarely often rarely

Percentage Percentage
49,8
50 35 33,9
37,5 30
40
25 19,6
30 21,9 20
20 15 9
7,5 14,8 3,8
11,6 10
10
1 4,1 5 5,9
0,3 1,2 3,5
0 0
A A
B B
C Education Level C
D+E D+E Education Level
Going to the cinema Going to the theatre
often rarely
Percentage
25 24,3
20
15,3
15 10,2
10 5 10,6
5 3,4 5,1
1,6
0
A
B
C
D+E Education Le vel
Having a responsibility in a non-profit organization
Figure 2.4: Distribution of Interest to Different Cultural

Activities among Different Education Levels Living in Istanbul
Source: TUIK, (2006). Household Composition

Survey. www.tuik.gov.tr, retrieved on 10.11.2009
44
While the education level of the population is low in Istanbul, a
megacity of 12.5 million people (www.ibb.gov.tr), participation in cultural
activities is still higher among the people highly educated compared to
lower educated people as it can be seen on Figure 2.4. This situation can
be thought as in line with the principle of the 80/20 Rule, which is first
claimed by an Italian economist (Pareto) in 1897 and indicates 80% of the
consequences is created by 20% of the entries (Yılmaz, 2006). Even though
the ratios are not exactly the same, since this educated and smaller percent
of the population is the pioneering group for most of the economic and
cultural developments around the city, they are expected to be involved in
the process of Istanbul’s ECoC.
2.4.2.2.Income Level
Income is a popular demographic variable because income levels

influence consumer wants and determines their buying power (Lamb, et al.
2000). Well educated, intelligent people may be better able to evaluate
more complex information and make informed decisions, however should
they be faced with financial constraints this could well effect their
motivation to act out these decisions (McCarthy and Perreault, 1993).
45
often rarely often rarely
Percentage Percentage
45 41,2
38,4
35 32
40
35 30,8 30
30
25
25 19,8
18
20 13,7 22 20
15 15
7
10 7,5 9,1
2,7 10
5
5 7,5
0 0,7 2,2 3,4
1-600 0
601-1200
1201-2500
2501+ Income 1-600 Income
601-1200
1201-2500
2501+
Going to the cinema
Going to the theatre
often rarely
30 28,2
25
20 17
15,5
Percentage 15
7
10 10,9
6,2 5,9
5 1,7
0
1-600
601-1200 Income
1201-2500
2501+
Having a responsibility in a non-profit organization

Figure 2.5: Distribution of the Cultural
Activities among Different Income Levels Living
in Istanbul
Source: TUIK, (2006). Household Composition
Survey. www.tuik.org.tr, retrieved on 10.11.2009.
Despite the fact that income level is not included the measurements
of Socioeconomic Status (SES) in Turkey any more since in some cases
people without formal education have much higher earnings and income
compared to well educated ones, it can have a role affecting the
participating in cultural activities when it is considered as purchasing power
46
(Wu, 2005). As it is shown in Figure 2.5, it can be observed that there is a
positive correlation between income level of the residents of Istanbul and
their participation in cultural activities.
2.4.2.3. Occupation
As another determinant of socioeconomic status, occupations are

also commonly used to describe different kind of consumers (Wu, 2005).
Due to occupations’ being closely related to income level in a cause-

and-effect relationship, high level occupations usually rewarded with high
level of incomes and this can let people to spending more on cultural
activities. For the people living in Istanbul, there are eighteen different
occupation groups identified related with medical science, technical works,
cultivation, mathematics, social sciences, legal system and commerce
(TUIK, 2006).
47
3. RESEARCH DESIGN and METHODOLOGY
This part covers different chapters, starting with the main aim and
different and detailed objectives for the study and discusses also the
hypothesis assigned to these objectives. Further, explanations about
research design, data collection procedure and instrument are the following
chapters. In this context, the list of variables used in the research are given
under the research design headline. Also the target population, sampling
process, technique and sampling size were explained under a separate
headline in this part. And finally, limitations for the study are discussed.
3.1. Research Aim and Objectives
The main objective of this study is determining what the residents of

Istanbul think about the city’s being 2010 ECoC.
In this context, after an extensive literature review and some

interviews with residents, some issues revealed to analyze related to the
main research purpose of this study. These are stated as follows:
1. to measure the level of adoption of Istanbul’s being ECoC by

its residents.
2. to determine the relationship between socioeconomic

characteristics (education level, income level, and occupation for this
study), and stages of adoption for Istanbul’s being ECoC.
3. to determine the relationship between community

consciousness and stages of adoption for Istanbul’s being ECoC.
4. to measure the effects of perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s

being ECoC on Interest stage.
48
5. to measure the effects of different perspectives about the
cultural events on Evaluation stage.
6. to audit the city in terms of its residents’ perspectives in

general.
7. to determine the correlation between the results of place audit

and the period of residence.
3.2. Theoretical Framework for the Research
When the Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010 is thought in terms of a

marketing tool, the literature supported the idea that it is possible to
achieve a better success via a marketing project for the city Istanbul, when
people who are in relation to the city participate and internalize this process
(Jiwa, 2009; Perrett 2009, Ertur, 2008). In order to reveal a framework for
the study, a literature review is conducted from a broaden perspective, and
following the research questions are determined.
As the Figure 3.1 shows, the framework of the study says that the
perceived characteristics of the Istanbul’s being ECoC, which are relative
advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability and triability have an
effect on Interest stage as literature indicates. It is necessary to state at
this point, that complexity will have a negative effect on interest while other
characteristics have positive effects.
Secondly, the socioeconomic characteristics including education

level, income level, and occupation; and community consciousness are
reflected as having an influence on all stages of the adoption process, both
based on the literature and some own judgments of the researcher, such as
these characteristics can cause differences among trial and continued use of
service because of the possibility in different thinking for innovations as an
effect of education and economic conditions. And finally due to the opinions
49
measured through perspectives of residents about culture and cultural
events, it is logical to think these thoughts can affect the evaluation about
Istanbul’s case.
Details for the links between the different components of the model
are already explained in the literature survey and in short also as a
summary at the end of the related part of the thesis.
50
Relative
Advantage
+
Perceived
Compatibility D
Characteristics Education Level
+ of Istanbul’s e
being ECoC m
Complexity
- 2010 o
Income Level
g
Observabilit + r
a
Occupation
Triability p
+ h
Adoption Stages i
for Istanbul’s c
being ECoC 2010 s
Different Awareness
Perspectives
About Cultural
Events
Interest
Community
Evaluation Consciousness
D Trial
Education Level
e
m
o
Income Level Adoption
g
r
a
Occupation
p
h
i
c
s
Figure 3. 1: Proposed Research Model
Source: Created by the researcher
51
3.3. Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses for this research were grouped under five of the
objectives stated above under 3.1 and they are shown on Table 3.1 below.
For reasons of simplicity and to avoid the repetitive reflection of the
hypotheses in the findings part of the thesis, the statistical outcomes
related to rejection or acceptance of the hypotheses are also stated here.
At this point, it is necessary to indicate that the hypotheses between

H6.11 and H6.81 were added after the questionnaires were collected back.
Because the questionnaire for the study have not been prepared available
to measure the relationship between “community consciousness” and
“awareness” stage of adoption process, but after the questionnaires were
collected back, it is found out that every respondent had passed the filter
question, hence all the sample answered all the questions related to the
awareness and community consciousness, hence the relationship between
these two variables were decided to be examined additionally.
52
Table 3. 1: Research Hypotheses
# of
HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS RESULT
Objective
H1.11: There is a significant relationship between education level and ‘awareness of
None N/A
Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H1.21: There is a significant relationship between and income level and ‘awareness of
None N/A
H1.31: There is a significant relationship between occupation and ‘awareness of Istanbul’s
None N/A
being ECoC’
H1.41: There is a significant relationship between education level and ‘awareness of

Not Supported
existence of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
OBJECTIVE #2
H1.51: There is a significant relationship between income level and ‘awareness of

CHI-SQUARE Not Supported
existence of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H1.61: There is a significant relationship between occupation and ‘awareness of existence
Not Supported
of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H2.11: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among education levels. Supported
H2.21: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among income levels. Not Supported
H2.31: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among occupations. ONE WAY Not Supported
H3.11: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among education levels. ANOVA Supported
H3.21: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among income levels. Not Supported
H3.31: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among occupations. Not Supported
H4.11: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘attending the
CHI-SQUARE Supported
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
# of
Objective
H4.21: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘attending the
Not Supported
CHI-SQUARE
H4.31: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘attending the
Supported
H4.41: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘having a
responsibility as a volunteer in any event organized in the context of Istanbul’s being None N/A
ECoC’
H4.51: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘having a
responsibility as a volunteer in any event organized in the context of Istanbul’s being None N/A
ECoC’
OBJECTIVE #2
H4.61: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘having a responsibility

None N/A
as a volunteer in any event organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H4.71: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘participating in

Not Supported
any events organized in the context of the Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H4.81: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘participating in any
CHI-SQUARE Not Supported
events organized in the context of the Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H4.91: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘participating in any
Not Supported
events organized in the context of the Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H4.101: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘creating any
None N/A
event/project for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H4.111: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘creating any
event/project for Istanbul’s being ECoC’ None N/A
54
# of
Objective
H4.121: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘creating any
N/A
event/project for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H5.11: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘frequency of
N/A
attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H5.21: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘frequency of
N/A
attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H5.31: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘frequency of attending
N/A
the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H5.41: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘number of events
N/A
that respondent had a responsibility in as a volunteer’
OBJECTIVE #2
H5.51: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘number of events
None N/A
that respondent had a responsibility in as a volunteer’
H5.61: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘number of events that
N/A
respondent had a responsibility in as a volunteer’
H5.71: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘number of events
N/A
organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC that respondent participated in’
H5.81: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘number of events
N/A
organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC that respondent participated in’
H5.91: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘number of events
organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC that respondent participated in’ N/A
H5.101: There is a significant relationship between education levels and ‘number of

N/A
events/projects that respondent created for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
55
# of
Objective
H5.111: There is a significant relationship between income levels and ‘number of
OBJECTIVE
N/A
#2
H5.121: There is a significant relationship between occupations and ‘number of

N/A
H6.11: There is a significant relationship between ‘being active member of one/more than
N/A
one volunteer organization’ and ‘awareness of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
None
H6.21: There is a significant relationship between ‘doing volunteer work for volunteer
N/A
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘awareness of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H6.31: There is a significant relationship between ‘enjoying working on community
N/A
projects’ and ‘awareness of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
H6.41: There is a significant relationship between ‘being already worked on at least one
N/A
community project’ and ‘awareness of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
OBJECTIVE #3
one volunteer organization’ and ‘awareness of existence of the volunteering program for Not Supported
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘awareness of existence of the volunteering program Not Supported
for Istanbul’s being ECoC’ CHI-SQUARE
projects’ and ‘awareness of existence of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being Not Supported
ECoC’
Not Supported
community project’ and ‘awareness of existence of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s
56
# of
Objective
H7.11: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘being active member of
Supported
one/more than one volunteer organization’.
H7.21: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘doing volunteer work for
volunteer organizations on a regular basis’. Supported
H7.31: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘enjoying working on
Not Supported
community projects’.
H7.41: Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘being already worked on at
INDEPENDENT Not Supported
least one community project’
H8.11: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘being active member of T-TEST
Not Supported
OBJECTIVE #3
one/more than one volunteer organization’.

H8.21: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘doing volunteer work for
Not Supported
volunteer organizations on a regular basis’.
H8.31: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘enjoying working on
Not Supported
community projects’.
H8.41: Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs among ‘being already worked on
at least one community project’. Supported
one volunteer organization’ and ‘attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being Not Supported
ECoC’.
CHI-SQUARE
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s Not Supported
being ECoC’.
57
# of
Objective
H9.31: There is a significant relationship between ‘enjoying working on community Not Supported
projects’ and ‘attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
CHI-SQUARE
community project’ and ‘attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’. Not Supported
one volunteer organization’ and ‘having a responsibility as a volunteer in any event N/A
organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘having a responsibility as a volunteer in any event
N/A
OBJECTIVE #3
organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC’.

None
projects’ and ‘having a responsibility as a volunteer in any event organized in the context N/A
of Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
community project’ and ‘having a responsibility as a volunteer in any event organized in N/A
the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
one volunteer organization’ and ‘participating in any events organized in the context of Not Supported
the Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
CHI-SQUARE
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘participating in any events organized in the context Not Supported
of the Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
58
# of
Objective
projects’ and ‘participating in any events organized in the context of the Istanbul’s being Not Supported
ECoC’.
H9.121: There is a significant relationship between ‘being already worked on at least one CHI-SQUARE
community project’ and ‘participating in any events organized in the context of the
Not Supported
Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
H9.131: There is a significant relationship between ‘being active member of one/more

than one volunteer organization’ and ‘creating any event/project for Istanbul’s being N/A
ECoC’.
OBJECTIVE #3
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘creating any event/project for Istanbul’s being N/A
ECoC’
N/A
projects’ and ‘creating any event/project for Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
None
N/A
community project’ and ‘creating any event/project for Istanbul’s being ECoC’
than one volunteer organization’ and ‘frequency of attending the volunteering program for N/A
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘frequency of attending the volunteering program for N/A
59
# of
Objective
N/A
projects’ and ‘frequency of attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
community project’ and ‘frequency of attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s N/A
being ECoC’.
than one volunteer organization’ and ‘number of events that respondent had a N/A
responsibility in as a volunteer’.
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘number of events that respondent had a N/A
OBJECTIVE #3
responsibility in as a volunteer’.
H10.71: There is a significant relationship between ‘enjoying working on community None
N/A
projects’ and ‘number of events that respondent had a responsibility in as a volunteer’
community project’ and ‘number of events that respondent had a responsibility in as a N/A
volunteer’.
than one volunteer organization’ and ‘number of events organized in the context of
N/A
Istanbul’s being ECoC that respondent participated in’.
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘number of events organized in the context of N/A
Istanbul’s being ECoC that respondent participated in’.
60
# of
Objective
projects’ and ‘number of events organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC that N/A
respondent participated in’.
community project’ and ‘number of events organized in the context of Istanbul’s being N/A
ECoC that respondent participated in’.
OBJECTIVE #3
than one volunteer organization’ and ‘number of events/projects that respondent created N/A
for Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
None
organizations on a regular basis’ and ‘number of events/projects that respondent created N/A
for Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
projects’ and ‘number of events/projects that respondent created for Istanbul’s being N/A
ECoC’.
community project’ and ‘number of events/projects that respondent created for Istanbul’s N/A
being ECoC’.
H11.11: Relative advantage of Istanbul’s case affects the interest. Supported
OBJECTIVE #4
H11.21: Compatibility of Istanbul’s case affects the interest. LINEAR Supported

H11.31: Triability of Istanbul’s case affects the interest. MULTIPLE Supported
H11.51: Complexity of Istanbul’s case affects the interest. REGRESSION
Supported
H11.61: Observability of Istanbul’s case affects the interest. Supported
61
# of
Objective
OBJECTIVE# H121: Different perspectives about cultural events affect the evaluation for Istanbul’s LINEAR
5 case. MULTIPLE Supported
REGRESSION
OBJECTIVE# H131: There is a correlation between the results of place audit and period of residence.
CORRELATION Supported
7
62
3.4. Research Design
An exploratory study was conducted via literature survey in order to

gain insight into the main research objective and to explore the related
issues for the research framework at first. For the primary data collection
the selected interviews with residents and selected official people
contributed to the literature review, helping to shape the objectives of the
study and they also constitute the exploratory design of the thesis. After
research framework revealed, the main data for the research is collected
through a descriptive research, which is customer survey. The data was
collected in form of a cross sectional field survey.
3.5. Data Collection Procedure
In this part, the data collection method and instrument are

discussed in detail. Based on the literature review the variables retrieved for
shaping the questionnaire are reflected under Table 3.2.
3.5.1. Data Collection Method
For this research, the quantitative data collection procedure is

chosen. The data collection method is face to face and e-mail interviews.
The primary data is collected via self administered questionnaires in both
cases. The questionnaires are applied to the people living in Istanbul. The
period in which the data was collected is 18th of March and 1st of April,
2010. Two of the non-probability sampling methods, convenience sampling
and snowball sampling were chosen as sampling method. Sampling process
will be explained in its own section.
63
3.5.2. Data Collection Instrument
The necessary data for the research was collected via self
administrated questionnaires which are filled by the people higher than 18
years old and already live in Istanbul (see Appendix for both English and
Turkish versions of the questionnaire). The questionnaire has mainly six
different parts and 75 questions, including the questions for place audit,
different perspectives about cultural events, community consciousness,
stages of adoption of Istanbul’s being ECoC, perceived characteristics of
Istanbul’s being ECoC, and socioeconomic characteristics and some
demographics. These questions were prepared based on the research
objectives via both using the scales that already exist in the literature and
statements which are developed by the researcher or adapted from the
literature.
Prior to main study, the questionnaire was checked with some

academicians from different faculties of the Marmara University in order to
assure the understandability and proper wording of the questions for the
items to be measured. After some important modifications were applied to
the questionnaire, it has been performed to 25 people as a pilot study.
During this pilot survey, the respondents were followed and they were
observed if there is ambiguity in understanding the questions. After these
processes 4 questions were reworded and the real survey has been started.
The questionnaire starts with a filter question (Q1) which aims to

determine the awareness about Istanbul’s case at the same time. The
respondents, whose answers are ‘No’ to the first question, were required to
respond only to the questions between Q69 and Q75 on the last page. The
second question, Q2 asks to the people about the source of media that they
learned about Istanbul’s being ECoC and Q3 asks about the period of time
of residence in Istanbul. Statements between Q4 and Q19 are related to the
place audit and have been adapted from the literature. The following
statements between Q20 and Q39 try to determine the different
perspectives of people about the cultural events and these questions were
64
developed by the researcher based on the literature survey. Questions
between Q40 and Q43 are related to measure being community conscious
or not and are also adapted from the literature. Questions between Q44 and
Q54b are the questions related to the stages of adoption and both
developed by the researcher and adapted from the literature. Questions
between Q55 and Q68 are related to perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s
being ECoC. And finally Q69 is the second question asking about awareness
for Istanbul’s case, while the questions between Q70 and Q75 are for
determining socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the people
interviewed.
3.5.3. Variables Used in the Research
The questions explained below are asked in the context of

measuring some variables. These variables used in the research can be
seen on the following table (Table 3.2).
65
Table 3. 2: Variable List for the Thesis
Ques. Var. Variable Variable
Scale Question/Statement Resource
# No. Grouping Dependency
1 A-1 Awareness Dependent Nominal Do you know that Istanbul’s being ECoC? Developed by the researcher
Source of
2 Independent Nominal How did you learn about Istanbul’s being ECoC? Developed by the researcher
Media
Period of
3 Independent Ratio For how many years have you been living in Istanbul? Developed by the researcher
Residence
4 PA1 Istanbul is an attractive city.
5 PA2 Istanbul is a clean city.

Adapted from PPS, Inc.
6 PA3 The cultural texture of the city is being kept well.
(2006); TBP, (2001)
7 PA4 Istanbul is a city that you can live in confidence.
(Totally Disagree- Totally Agree)

It is easy to find places to sit and relax open to public in
8 PA5
Istanbul.
9 PA6 It is easy to live in Istanbul. Developed by the researcher
PLACE AUDIT
Independent
Likert Scale
Many different types of cultural events are organized in

10 PA7
Istanbul.
It is possible to see people from different regions in
11 PA8
various places in Istanbul.
It is easy to reach the centers where cultural events Adapted from PPS, Inc.
12 PA9
performed in Istanbul. (2006); TBP, (2001)
It is easy to be informed about the cultural events
13 PA10
performed in Istanbul.
I easily find the events in Istanbul which are suitable to
14 PA11
my interests for my leisure time.
I would want my friends/relatives who live in other cities
15 PA12
to see Istanbul.
There are places in Istanbul that I can show the others
16 PA13
PLACE AUDIT proudly. Adapted from PPS, (2006);
Independent
It is easy to communicate with people in Istanbul for any TBP, (2001)
17 PA14
reason.
There are people from different ages, sexes, and
18 PA15

ethnicities in Istanbul.
I would want to participate to the events organized for
19 PA16 Developed by the researcher
Istanbul.
Likert Scale
Adapted from Jiwa et al.,
Cultural events organized in a city are important to vitalize (2009); Palmer (2004);
20 P1
Perspectives About Cultural Events
the life in the city. Adapted from Couch et al.,

(2003).
Adapted from Griffiths,
Cultural events organized in a city vitalize the economy in
Independent
21 P2 (2006); Knight and

the city.
Robertson, (2004)
Cultural events organized in a city make the residents of Adapted from Jiwa et al.,
22 P3
the city closer to the culture and art. (2009).
Cultural events organized in a city provide superiority to Adapted from Jansson,
23 P4
the city compared to other cities. (2007); Griffiths, (2006).
Cultural events organized in a city make the residents Adapted from Yeoman et al.,
24 P5
living in the city integrated to the city. (2004).
67
Ques.
Var. Variable Variable
# Scale Question/Statement Resource
No. Grouping Dependency
Cultural events organized in a city create different job Adapted from Yeoman et al.,
25 P6
opportunities. (2004).
Cultural events organized in a city attract the ones who

26 P7
think to invest to the city. Adapted from Yeoman et al.,
Cultural events organized in a city improve the welfare of (2004).

27 P8
the residents of the city.

Cultural events organized in a city provide a distinctive Adapted from Yeoman et al.,
28 P9
image to the city. (2004); Palmer, (2004).
Independent
Likert Scale
Adapted from Derrett,
Cultural events organized in the city improve social life of
29 P10 (2004); Garcia et al.,
the community.
(2008).
Cultural events organized in a city attract the people who Adapted from Getz, (1997);
30 P11
want to visit the city. Palmer, (2004).
Cultural events organized in a city improve the existing Adapted from Couch et al.,
31 P12
image of the city. (2003).

32 P13 Cultural events organized in a city create new industries.
(2004); Palmer, (2004).
Cultural events organized in a city make positive
33 P14 contribution to the construction and infrastructure of the Kutukoglu, (2009).
city.
68
Cultural events organized in a city strengthen the ties of Adapted from Garcia et al.,
34 P15
residents with the city. (2008).
Cultural events organized in a city are important
35 P16 alternatives for satisfying the leisure needs of the
(2004).
residents living in the city.

Adapted from Jiwa et al.
Cultural events organized in a city are good opportunities
36 P17 (2009); Adapted from
to promote and develop the city.
Independent
Likert Scale
Yeoman et al., (2004).
Adapted from Yuan and
The negative image of a city can be reversed by the Chong, (2007); Yeoman et
37 P18
cultural events organized in the city. al., (2004); Derudder et al.,
(2003).
The unique features and values of a city can be promoted Adapted from Yeoman et al.,
38 P19
via the various cultural events. (2004).
The characteristics of a community in a city can be

39 P20 communicated with others via cultural events organized in
(2004).
the city.
Are you an active member of one/more than one volunteer

40 CC1
Community organization?
Adapted Kucukemiroglu,
Consciousnes Independent Nominal Do you do volunteer work for volunteer organizations on a
41 CC2 (1999).
s fairly regular basis?
42 CC3 Do you like to work on community projects?
69
Community
Have you ever personally worked on at least one Adapted Kucukemiroglu,
43 CC4 Consciousnes Independent Nominal
community project? (1999).
s
Adapted from Zaichkowsky,
44 I-1 It makes a sense to me that Istanbul's being ECoC.
(1985).

Adapted from Lastovicka and
45 I-2 I am interested in Istanbul's being ECoC.
Gardner, (1979).
Interest Dependent
I have searched the sources of information to get more
Likert Scale
46 I-3 Developed by the researcher
information about Istanbul's being ECoC
I am feeling an interest to the events which is organized in Adapted from Lastovicka and
47 I-4
the context of Istanbul's being ECoC. Gardner, (1979).
48 E-1 Being ECoC is a beneficial issue for Istanbul. Adapted from Jain and
49 E-2 It is an important issue that Istanbul's being ECoC. Srinivasan, (1990).
Evaluation Dependent
Participating in the events organized in the context of
50 E-3 Developed by the researcher
Istanbul’s being ECoC can contribute my own life.
Have you already attended the volunteering program for
51.a T-1 Developed by the researcher
Istanbul's being ECoC?
Have you already had a responsibility as a volunteer in an
Nominal
event organized in the context of Istanbul's being ECoC?

Trial Dependent
Have you already participated in any event that organized
in the context of Istanbul's being ECoC?
Have you already performed/created any event or project
for Istanbul’s being ECoC?
70
Please indicate that how many times you attended the
51.b Ad-1 Developed by the researcher
volunteering program.
Please indicate the number of the events you had a
responsibility as a volunteer.
Ratio
Adoption Dependent
Please indicate the number of the events you participated
in.
Please indicate the number of the events you
performed/created.
Being ECoC is a way which improves the communication
55 PC1
between the residents living in Istanbul and the city more.
Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s case
Istanbul's being ECoC is encouraging me more to

56 PC2 (Totally Disagree- Totally Agree)
participate in cultural events organized in the city.
Istanbul’s being ECoC will improve the cultural economy in 2010 Agency Official,
57 PC3 the city more compared to the cultural events which are (2010); Developed by the
Independent
Likert Scale
organized in the city in regular times. researcher

The cultural events which are organized/will be organized
in the context of Istanbul's being ECoC are more
58 PC4
diversified from the other cultural events organized in the
city
59 PC5 Being awarded as ECoC is suitable with Istanbul’s identity. Adapted from the interviews
with residents, (2009);
The overall social conditions of Istanbul are suitable for
60 PC6 Developed by the researcher
city's getting the title ECoC.
71
I can make many connections or associations between my Adapted from Lastovicka and
61 PC7
daily life and being lived in a city awarded as ECoC. Gardner, (1979).
The cultural events organized in the context of Istanbul's
Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s case being ECoC are affordable.

It is easy to reach to the places that the cultural events
63 PC9 performed which are organized in the context of Istanbul's Developed by the researcher
being ECoC.
Independent
Likert Scale
It is possible to see the effect of Istanbul’s being ECoC on
the city's construction and infrastructure.
It is easy to learn about the process of Istanbul’s being
ECoC.
66 PC12 It is easy to understand exactly what is being ECoC. Adapted from the interviews
with residents, (2009);
It is easy to involve to the process of Istanbul’s being
67 PC13 Interviews with residents as
ECoC.
it is stated in Sonmezısık,
It is easy to learn about the events organized in the
68 PC14 (2010)
context of Istanbul’s being ECoC.
Do you know about the existence of volunteering program
69 A-2 Awareness Dependent Nominal Developed by the researcher
for Istanbul's being ECoC?
Adapted from Palmer et al.,
Education
70 Independent Ordinal Please mark your education level (2003); Garcia et al.,
Level
(2008); Wu, (2005).
72
71 Age Ratio Please mark the box that includes your age Developed by the researcher
72 Occupation Nominal Please write down your occupation Wu, (2005)
Adapted from Lamb et al.,

Independent
Please mark the box that includes your total household (2000); McCarthy and
73 Income Level Ordinal
income Perreault, 1993); Wu,
(2005).
74 Gender Nominal Please indicate your gender
Developed by the researcher.
75 County Nominal Please write down the county you lived in
73
3.6. Sampling Design Process
Under this headline, the target population for the study, sampling
technique used, and the total sample size will be explained.
3.6.1. Definition of Target Population
According to Malhotra (2007), the target population defined as the

“collection of the elements or objects that possess the information sought
by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made” (Malhotra,
2007, p.336). So for this study, the target population is defined as the
whole people who are 18 years old or older than 18, already living in
Istanbul and has discretion.
3.6.2. Sampling Technique Used
Two of the nonprobability sampling methods, snowball and

convenience sampling method were used as sampling technique for this
research. For snowball sampling as Malhotra (2007, p.345) indicates, an
initial of group of 38 people were selected and the questionnaire was
emailed to them. After that, these 38 people were asked to email the
questionnaire to the people who belong the target population. 117
questionnaires were collected through snowball sampling. On the other
hand, 194 questionnaires collected through convenience sampling. These
194 questionnaires were collected as hard copies from some members of
social organizations, like Türkiye Gazeteciler Cemiyeti, Yazarlar Birliği,
Türkiye Eğitim Gönüllüleri Vakfı, mall-intercept interviews, and people on
the public areas as Malhotra (2007, p.341) indicates while explaining
examples of doing convenience sampling.
3.6.3. Sample Size
According to the Malhotra (2007, p.338) sample size differs based

on the importance of the decision, the nature of the research, the number
of variables, the nature of the analysis, sample size used in the similar
analyses, incidence rates, completion rates, and some resource constraints.
In order to make it easy to understand, the author has determined the
usual sample sizes used in different types of research based on the his
experiences which can be seen on Table 3.3 below.
Table 3. 3: Sample Sizes Used in Marketing Research Studies
Minimum Typical
Type of the Study
Size Range
Problem identification research (e.g. market
500 1000-2500
potential)
Problem-solving research (e.g. pricing) 200 300-500
Product tests 200 300-500
Test-marketing studies 200 300-500
TV/radio/print advertising (per commercial or ad
150 200-300
tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20 stores
Focus groups 2 groups 6-15 groups
Source: Malhotra, (2007, p.339)
For the purpose of this study, which is determining the possible

effects/relationships of/between some issues already determined in the
literature on/and the people’s living in Istanbul adoption process for
Istanbul’s being ECoC, this research can be thought as a problem solving
research. The sample size for this research is 311. But after the damaged
questionnaires extracted before the analysis – 7 questionnaires collected via
email, and 38 questionnaires collected as hard copy- there were 266
questionnaires available for the data analysis.
75
3.7. Data Analysis Techniques Used in the Research
In order to test the significance of the relationships/effects

determined before, some statistical analyzing methods were performed
using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0.
Statistical methods were chosen based on the measurement scales and type
of the issue analyzed, which are, Chi-Square Analysis, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), T-Test, Factor Analysis, Regression Analysis, and Correlation
Analysis.
3.8. General Limitations for the Study
There are some limitations of this research which are explained as

the follows:
First of all, amount of sample and sampling technique can be a

limitation for this study. Although representativeness of the sample was
considered during the sampling, it would be more representative when one
of techniques such as stratified or clustered sampling would have been
used. But because of the time and money constraints these techniques were
not available to use for this study.
As second, the way the data collected through can be considered as

a limitation. Although a pilot study was conducted prior to the main
research, they might be still some misunderstanding and biases in questions
on the questionnaires, since they were self administered by the
respondents. In addition it can be considered as another limitation which is
the existence of statements/questions that are developed by the
researcher. Because of the lack of the studies which investigates the similar
relationships with this study, it was a necessity to develop some own
statements.
76
And also, it was found out that there is no adopted respondents to
the process and it caused to not to be able to test the hypotheses related to
Adoption stage. Since it has been only a couple months after official
opening of Istanbul’s being ECoC, the analyses would be resulted different
and more realistic if they are repeated towards the end of the year 2010.
77
4. RESEARCH FINDINGS and ANALYSES
In this part of the research study first, the profile of the respondents
are reflected including their socioeconomic characteristics, selected
demographics, and community consciousness. The second chapter of the
frequency analyses deals with the stages in the adoption process for
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 for the respondents.
In order to analyze the relationships stated on the proposed

research model, chi-square analysis, exploratory factor analyses, linear
multiple regression analysis, correlation analysis, analysis of variances
(ANOVA), and T-test were conducted, and stated between headlines 4.3 and
4.7. All of these analyses were performed with 95% confidence, and all the
missing values were replaced with mean value.
4.1. Profile of the Respondents
In order to reveal the profile of the sample of this research, the

distribution of some demographic characteristics such as age interval,
gender, education level, total monthly household income interval,
occupation, and some other characteristics obtained like the area and
period of residence that respondents has been lived, and community
consciousness are shown in the following tables.
4.1.1. Age Interval
Five different age intervals were given to the respondents as it is

seen on the Table 4.1. The greatest part of the sample fall under the group
18-24 ages with a percentage of 34.6% of the total sample.
78
Table 4. 1: Age Intervals of the Sample
Cumulative
N Valid Percent Percent
Valid 18-24 92 34,6 34,6
25-34 84 31,6 66,2
35-49 49 18,4 84,6
50-64 40 15,0 99,6
65 and higher 1 ,4 100,0
Total 266 100,0
Mean 2,15
Median 2,00
Mode 2,00
The median (where the half of the values falls above and other half
below that value) and mode (most frequently occurring value) of the age
statistics reveal that it is the second group between the ages 25 and 34.
4.1.2. Gender
The distribution of gender between males and females are shown on

the Table 4.2 below. Around 46% of the 266 respondents are female, while
nearly 54% is male.
Table 4. 2: Gender of the Sample

Cumulative
Valid Women 123 46,2 46,2
Men 143 53,8 100,0
Total 266 100,0
79
4.1.3. Education Level
On the questionnaire forms, eight different choices, including (1) not

finished any school, graduated from (2) primary school, (3) secondary
school or eight years elementary education, (4) high school, (5) two years
college, (6) graduated from 4 years university, (7) a masters’ program, and
(8) a doctorate program were given to the respondents and they were
asked to mark the appropriate one for them.
Table 4. 3: Education Level of the Sample

Valid Cumulative
N Percent Percent
Valid Graduated from primary school 15 5,6 5,6
Graduated from secondary
school or 8 years elementary 14 5,3 10,9
education
Graduated from high school 87 32,7 43,6
Graduated from 2 years college 32 12,0 55,6
Graduated from 4 years
97 36,5 92,1
university
Graduated from a masters’
15 5,6 97,7
program
Graduated from a doctorate
6 2,3 100,0
program
Total 266 100,0
Mean 4,96
Median 5,00
Mode 5,10
As Table 4.3 shows, the minimum education level of the sample is

being graduated from primary school and covers the 5.6% of the whole
sample, while the maximum education level is being graduated from a
doctorate program with a percentage 2.3%. The majority of the
respondents are graduated from four years university education and they
cover the 36.5% of the sample. The mean education level of the sample is
two years college.
80
4.1.4. Total Monthly Household Income Interval
The income level was grouped under four different groups. Table 4.4
shows the distribution for the total monthly household income level for the
respondents.
Table 4. 4: Total Monthly Household Income of the Respondents

Cumulative
N Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0-600 TL 12 4,5 4,5 4,5
601-1200 TL 62 23,3 23,5 28,0
1201-2500 TL 97 36,5 36,7 64,8
Higher than
93 35,0 35,2 100,0
2501 TL
Total 264 99,2 100,0
Missing 2 0,8
Total 266 100,0
Mean 3,03
Median 3,00
Mode 3,00
Two of the respondents did not indicate their total monthly

household income levels. For the remaining 264 respondents, 36.7% of
them have an income covered by the third group which is 1201.00-2500.00
TL as the largest group in the sample. The average total monthly household
income level of the respondents is included to the third group (1201.00 TL
and 2500.00 TL).
4.1.5. Occupation
The occupation question was an open ended question and the

respondents were asked to write down their occupations. After
questionnaires collected back, these occupations were grouped by the
researcher under ten different groups. These groups and number of
respondents they covered for the sample are shown on the Table 4.5.
81
The group ‘professional private occupation’ includes specific
occupations such as teacher, doctor, lawyer, engineer, financial specialist,
journalist, actor, architect, statistician, and biologist. The respondents
having occupations covered by this group constitute nearly 27% of the total
sample. The following greatest group is ‘workers in private sector’ with a
percentage of about 22% of the total sample including the employees in
different sectors like food and beverage, textile, security etc.
Table 4. 5: Occupation Type of the Sample

Valid Cumulative
N Percent Percent
Valid Professional Private Occupation 71 26,7 26,7
Small Business 3 1,1 27,8
Tradesman 4 1,5 29,3
Public worker (officer-blue collar) 20 7,5 36,8
Private Sector (white collar) 22 8,3 45,1
Private Sector (blue collar) 58 21,8 66,9
Retired 17 6,4 73,3
Housewife 11 4,1 77,4
Student 53 19,9 97,4
Independent/Temporary 7 2,6 100,0
Total 266 100,0
‘Small business’ includes the occupations such as managing own

business which can be named as a Small Medium Enterprise (SME).
Occupations in the sample which belong to the group ‘tradesman’ describe
doing trade in small scale in food, clothing or leisure sector. The group
‘public worker’ includes officers and blue collar workers while the group
‘private sector’ includes white collar workers like, managers, and assistant
managers. And the respondents whose occupation belongs to the group
‘independent/temporary’ have no specific occupation.
82
4.1.6. Area of Residence in Istanbul
For this research the questionnaires collected from 266 people from
32 counties of Istanbul. Table 4.6 shows the distribution of people according
to their areas of residence.
Table 4. 6: Areas of Residence of the Sample

Cumulative
Valid Arnavutköy 2 0,8 0,8
Ataşehir 2 0,8 1,5
Avcılar 2 0,8 2,3
Bağcılar 8 3,0 5,3
Bahçelievler 14 5,3 10,5
Bakırköy 14 5,3 15,8
Başakşehir 5 1,9 17,7
Bayrampaşa 20 7,5 25,2
Beşiktaş 8 3,0 28,2
Beylikdüzü 8 3,0 31,2
Beyoğlu 5 1,9 33,1
Büyükçekmece 4 1,5 34,6
Çekmeköy 1 ,4 35,0
Esenler 3 1,1 36,1
Eyüp 34 12,8 48,9
Fatih 22 8,3 57,1
Gaziosmanpaşa 22 8,3 65,4
Güngören 5 1,9 67,3
Kadıköy 18 6,8 74,1
Kağıthane 4 1,5 75,6
Kartal 4 1,5 77,1
Küçükçekmece 6 2,3 79,3
Maltepe 3 1,1 80,5
Pendik 2 0,8 81,2
Sancaktepe 2 0,8 82,0
Sarıyer 4 1,5 83,5
Sultangazi 3 1,1 84,6
Şişli 10 3,8 88,3
Tuzla 1 ,4 88,7
Umraniye 5 1,9 90,6
Üsküdar 12 4,5 95,1
Zeytinburnu 13 4,9 100,0
Total 266 100,0
83
In descending order most of the sample live in Eyüp (34 people),
Bayrampaşa (20 people), Gaziosmanpaşa (22 people), Fatih (22 people),
Kadıköy (18 people), Bahçelievler (14 people), and Bakırköy (14 people).
There are participants from all parts of Istanbul.
4.1.7. Period of Residence in Istanbul
Respondents were asked to write their period of residence in

Istanbul since it was an open ended question. After the questionnaires
collected back the raw data were grouped under 5 groups as it is shown in
the Table 4.7.
Table 4. 7: Periods of Residence of the Sample

in Istanbul
Valid Cumulative
N Percent Percent
Valid 0,5-4 27 10,1 10,1
5-14 30 11,2 21,4
15-29 136 51,1 72,5
30-49 55 20,6 93,2
50-70 18 6,7 100,0
Total 266 100,0
Mean 23,25
Median 23,00
Mode 23,30
According to the results indicated on the Table 4.7 more than half of
the sample (about 51%) has been living in Istanbul 15 up to 30 years. The
periods of residence of remaining sample are range between 0,5 to 14; and
30 up to 70 years. In addition to that the average duration of residence of
the sample is 23 years.
84
4.1.8. Distribution of Sample in terms of Community
Consciousness
In order to determine the community consciousness of the sample

four questions (Q40, Q41, Q42, and Q43) were asked.
Table 4. 8: Community Consciousness of Istanbul

Citizens*
Valid
N Percent
Like to work on community Yes 152 57,1
projects
Already worked on at least Yes 125 47,0

one community project
Active membership of Yes 46 17,3

volunteer organizations
Doing volunteer work for Yes 37 13,9

volunteer organizations
*Missing value=0, The responses which are “No” are not indicated
The results are reflected on the Table 4.8 above. Since there were
no missing values, only the answers with acceptance are shown and the
total for the table is higher than sample size 266, since multiple responses
observed. According to the results, about 17% of the sample Istanbul
citizens are active members of one or more than one volunteer
organizations, while about 14% of the sample are doing volunteer work for
a volunteer organization or different volunteer organizations on a fairly
regular basis. In addition, about 57% of the sample indicated that they like
to work on community projects, while 47% of the sample said that they
have already worked on at least one community project.
A short look at the composition of the people contacted for the study
reveals that slightly more than half of the group are men, the largest
groups are falling in the age categories 18-24 and 25-34 (with 35 and 32%
respectively) and have an education background of college, university
degree and higher (56%) and nearly 65% of the sample earn a net income
85
of at most up to 2500.00 TL. Also people participated in this research have
been living in Istanbul 0,5 years up to 70 years, while area they lived in
comprising 32 different districts of the city.
4.2. Respondents’ Levels of Adoption for Istanbul’s

being 2010 ECoC
This part includes the results obtained for the first objective, which
is ‘measuring the adoption levels of residents of Istanbul’s for the Istanbul’s
being the 2010 ECoC’.
4.2.1. Awareness
The questions Q1 and Q69 were asked to measure the awareness of

residents’ for Istanbul’s case, i.e. the city’s being the ECoC in 2010.
Table 4. 9: Awareness of Istanbul Citizens about the

City’s being ECoC in 2010
Valid
N Percent
Being aware of Istanbul Yes 266 100,0
ECoC 2010 No 0 0
Being aware of Yes 74 27,8
volunteering program for
Istanbul ECoC 2010 No 192 72,2
All of the 266 in the sample, whom the questionnaire was sent to,
are aware of Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010. As Table 4.9 indicates, about
72% of the respondents are not aware of the volunteering program for
Istanbul’s case while just nearly 28% of them know about existence of the
volunteering program.
86
An additional question aimed to detect the source of media where
the residence of the city constituting the sample learned about Istanbul’s
being ECoC in 2010, Table 4.10 shows the distribution of the sources of
media through which residents have learned about Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010.
Table 4. 10: Sources of Media for Awareness

about Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Valid
N Percent
TV 217 81,6
Internet 95 35,7
Newspaper/Magazine 83 31,2
WOM
24 9,0
Billboards
24 9,0
Other: Via being solution 5 1,9

partner
Total more than 266 and

100% since multiple
responses were allowed
Accordingly, television and internet are the major sources of media

that respondents learned about Istanbul’s case (nearly 82% and 36%).
About 31% of the sample indicated that they learned about Istanbul’s case
from newspapers or magazines. The impact of word of mouth, learning from
people around and billboards are rather low (9% respectively). On the other
hand five people that cover 2% of the whole sample learned about the case
since they are working in a company/organization which is a solution
partner of Istanbul 2010 Agency. The total amount of the answers is again
higher than sample size 266 for the results indicated above, since multiple
responses observed.
87
4.2.2. Interest and Evaluation
Table 4.11 shows the results of the answers of residents contacted

for the statements (Q 44-50) to measure interest and evaluation for
Istanbul’s case.
Table 4. 11: From Most to Least Stated

Statements for ‘Interest’ and ‘Evaluation’
Std.
N Mean
Deviation
Interest I am interested in Istanbul's 266
being ECoC. 3,94 0,04
It makes a sense to me that 266

Istanbul's being ECoC 3,84 0,23
I am feeling an interest for 266

the events organized/will be
organized in the context of 3,49 ,019
Istanbul's being ECoC
I have searched the sources 264 2,86 ,013

of information to get more
information about Istanbul's
being ECoC
Evaluation Being ECoC is a beneficial 263 4,22 0,67

issue for Istanbul.
It is an important issue that 266 4,08 0,09

Istanbul's being ECoC.
Participating in the events 264 3,38 0,05

organized in the context of
Istanbul's being ECoC can
make a positive contribution
to my own life.
1=Totally Disagree, 5= Totally Agree
According to the results, it can be said that the respondents care

about Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010, they are interested in the case
(mean=3.94) this has a meaning to them (mean=3.84), they further feel
interested in the events organized/will be organized in the context of
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 (mean=3.49). Nevertheless, the results also
shows that the people have not searched for information related with
Istanbul’s case yet, as much as they are interested in the process.
88
In terms of “evaluation” stage for the adoption process the residents
think Istanbul’s being ECoC shows is an important issue (mean=4.08) and
beneficial for the city (mean=4.22). On the other hand, in terms of
evaluating the case for their personal lives, they are thinking that this
process will not affect neither positive nor negative their lives (mean=3.38).
Also the standard deviation results indicate that, the mean values
obtained for each statement are consistent and can only range between
lower and higher as the standard deviation (the cut-off for the standard
deviation is determined as 1).
4.2.3. Trial
Q51a, Q52a, Q53a, and Q54a were asked to the residents in order
to determine whether the residents in the sample made a trial for the
Istanbul’s being ECoC or not, i.e. becoming an active participant in the
events.
Table 4. 12: ‘Trial’ of Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010*

Valid
N Percent %
Participating in any event Yes 14 5,3
organized for Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010
Attending the volunteering Yes 3 1,1

for Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010
Having a responsibility as a Yes 0 0

volunteer in any event
organized for Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010
Performing/Creating any
event/project for Istanbul’s Yes 0 0
being ECoC 2010
*Missing value=0, The responses which are “No” are not indicated
89
According to the results stated on Table 4.12, in terms of making a
trial of Istanbul’s being the 2010 ECoC, sample of this study indicated that
trial is very low: Only 3 people have attended the volunteering program for
Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC and only 14 people have participated in any
event organized for the case (with 1 and 5% respectively). On the other
hand, no one from the sample made a trial of Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC,
i.e. neither working as a volunteer for any event organized in the context of
the case nor performing or creating any event or project for the case. Hence
the forward analyses related to the Trial stage will be conducted over the
first and third statements given above.
4.2.4. Adoption
For the respondents of this research it is not possible to talk about

having adopted to the Istanbul’s being ECoC for 2010. Because there is no
continued attendance to the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010 and participation to any event related to this case, which were made a
trial by respondents. The respondents would be determined as having
adopted or not based on the frequencies they indicate in questions Q 51b-
54b. As it was explained in Trial section, respondents have not even had a
responsibility as a volunteer for events organized in the context of
Istanbul’s being ECoC or performed/create any event/project for the case,
hence these statements are not even discusses in Adoption part.
Afterwards, when it is examined whether there is continuation for the issues
which were made a trial by respondents (‘Attending the volunteering for
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010’, and ‘Participating in any event organized for
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010’) it was found out those respondents indicated
that they attended the volunteering program or participated to any event in
the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC only once.
90
Table 4. 13: Istanbul Citizen’s Adoption of
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010*
Valid
N Percent %
Attending the volunteering for 1 3 1,1
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Participating in any event 1 14 5,3
organized for Istanbul’s being
ECoC 2010
As Table 4.13 indicates, the people who participated in this research

have only attended the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010 once and these covers the 1.1% of the sample. In terms of
participating in any events organized in the context of Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010, the frequency is again only once and refers the 5,3% of the sample.
Hence it is not possible state that the residence in the sample has
completed the adoption process for Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010 and
hence it will not be able to test the hypotheses related to the Adoption
stage.
As a review of the results for the Istanbul citizens’ level of adoption

of Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010, the people participated in this research all
know that Istanbul is the ECoC in 2010. It is also can be said that they are
interested in Istanbul’s being ECoC for 2010 and find it is important and
significant in general, although they have not been involved to the process
as much as they interested in, except very few of them having attended
some events which are organized in the context of Istanbul’s case.
The ways that the respondents have experienced Istanbul’s being

ECoC 2010 were found out as attending the volunteering program organized
by Istanbul 2010 Agency for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010, and participating
in any kind of events that are performed in the context of Istanbul’s being
ECoC in 2010. Only about 1 and 5% of the sample are the ones who have
experienced Istanbul’s being ECoC via attending the volunteering program
or participating in the events, respectively. In addition to these, the highest
91
point that residents whom were contacted for the research achieved is the
Trial stage of adoption process.
4.3. Relationship Between Socioeconomic

Characteristics and Stages of Adoption for Istanbul’s being
ECoC 2010
Searching for the second objective of this study, analyses were

performed for determining the possible relationship between socioeconomic
characteristics, which are defined as education level, income level, and
occupation for this study, and stages of adoption of the Istanbul’s case.
In order to analyze this relationship, chi-square and one way ANOVA

analyses were conducted according to the measurement scales of the data.
Dependent variables for the analyses were stages of adoption, and
independent variables were the socioeconomic characteristics. Chi-square
analyses were conducted where both dependent and independent variables
are discrete, while one way ANOVA was performed where the dependent
variables are continuous.
4.3.1. Relationship Between Socioeconomic

Characteristics and Awareness
In this part, the relationship between the dependent variable

Awareness and each of the independent variables education level, income
level, and occupation will be analyzed. Since all the variables are discrete
Chi-Square analyses were performed.
Dependent variable Awareness was measured with two questions.

As it is explained before, since every respondent knows that Istanbul is
chosen as ECoC in 2010, the hypotheses H1.11, H1.21, and H1.31 are not
relevant to analyze in this study. In addition, the analyses in this part and
92
other following analyses conducted related to Awareness were performed
over the second question of Awareness, which is about ‘being aware of the
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010’ and indicated as A-2.
The analyses will be continued through testing the hypothesis H1.41,

H1.51, and H1.61.
Table 4. 14: Results for Relationship Between

Socioeconomic Characteristics and A-2
Socioeconomic Pearson Chi- Asyp. Sig (2
df
Characteristic Square sided)
Education Level 7,594 6 0,269
Income Level 2,526 3 0,471
Occupation 15,326 9 0,082
According to the results shown on Table 4.14, the p values (Asyp.

Sig.) for education level, income level, and occupation will be compared to
the 0.05, since the analyses were conduct with 95% confidence (Turanlı and
Güriş, 2000). All the p values are greater than 0.05, hence the H1.41,
H1.51, and H1.61 are all rejected.
As a result, it is identified that none of the socioeconomic

characteristics has a statistically significant effect on respondents’
awareness for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010.

Characteristics and Interest
One way ANOVA was performed in order to analyze the relationship

between Interest and each of the variables education level, income level
and occupation, since the measurement scale of dependent variable is
interval scale and the independent variables have more than two levels.
General hypothesis H21, which is “interest for Istanbul’s being ECoC
significantly differs among socioeconomic characteristics”, will be analyzed
at this section.
93
Before stating the results of the one way ANOVA, it is necessary to
indicate that exploratory factor analysis was performed to compute an
Interest score for each respondent. It is aimed to get regression coefficients
for each statement which was asked to measure the interest, because
calculating a score based on the different weights of each statement, is a
better way than calculating an arithmetical mean via using the answers for
each statement. Reliability analysis which is conducted before factor
analysis for the Interest scale resulted with a Cronbach’s Alpha value which
is 0.752 shows that the reliability for the interest scale is quite high (Tonta,
2008).
Table 4.15 and 4.16 shows the results for factor analysis conducted
for Interest scale.
Table 4. 15: Proficiency of the Sample Size and Items of ‘Interest’

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. ,682
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 378,646
df 6
Sig. ,000
As it is shown on Table 4.15, the amount of the sample is quite high

to perform factor analysis according to the KMO coefficient (0.682) and the
Bartlett’s test result shows that the four items ‘Interest’ includes are
correlating with each other (p value 0.000<0.05), which is a must for
performing factor analysis (Tonta, 2008).
Table 4.16 shows the regression coefficients that will be used to

calculate Interest scores for each respondent.
94
Table 4. 16: Coefficients for Calculating
Interest score
Component
1
It makes a sense to me that
,370
I am interested in Istanbul's
,382
being ECoC.
I have searched the sources
of information to get more
,211
information about Istanbul's
being ECoC.
I am feeling an interest for
the events organized in the
,308
context of Istanbul's being
ECoC.
After the Interest scores were computed for each respondent, its
possible relationships with education level, income level and occupation
were analyzed through one way ANOVA.

Socioeconomic Characteristics and Interest
Levene’s Test for

ANOVA Homogenity of
Variances
Sum of Mean Levene’s

df F Sig. Sig.
Squares Square Statistic
Between
19,271 6 3,212 2,536 0,021
Groups
Education
Within 1,777 0,183
Level 324,227 256 1,267
Groups
Total 343,498 262
Between
0,255 3 0,085 0,064 0,979
Groups
Income
Within 0,995 0,396
Level 340,297 257 1,324
Groups
Total 340,552 260
Between
13,808 9 1,534 1,177 0,310
Groups
Occupation Within 1,127 0,289
329,690 253 1,303
Groups
Total 343,498 262
95
As Table 4.17 indicates, all the significance values of Levene’s
statistics are greater than 0.05. Hence equality of variances is assumed.
According to the results shown on the Table 4.17, only Education

Level has a p value lower than 0.05 (0.021<0.05). So the hypothesis H2.11
is accepted. In other words Interest for Istanbul’s case significantly differs
among education levels.
Table 4. 18: Interest Scores among Different Education Levels

Std.
N Mean
Deviation
Graduated from primary school 15 4,400 0,071
Graduated from secondary school or 8 14 3,947 0,167
years elementary education
Graduated from 4 years university 97 3,857 0,197
Graduated from a masters’ program 15 3,505 0,507
Graduated from a doctorate program 6 3,000 0,249
Total 266 3,790 0,314
According to the results indicated on the Table 4.18, respondents

from lower education levels have higher interest scores.

Characteristics and Evaluation
One way ANOVA was conducted in order to measure the relationship

between Evaluation and each of the independent variables education level,
income level, and occupation. General hypothesis H31, which is “evaluation
for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 significantly differs among socioeconomic
characteristics”, will be analyzed in this part.
96
The same process was conducted for Evaluation, in order to
compute Evaluation scores for each respondent before performing ANOVA.
Reliability analyses for the Evaluation scale, which contains three
statements, resulted with a Cronbach’s Alpha value which is 0.791 and
shows that the scale is quite reliable. Table 4.19 shows that factor analysis
for Evaluation is valid since the KMO value is higher than 0.05 (0.623>0.05)
and the Bartlett’s test score’s p value is lower than 0.05 (0.000<0.05).
Table 4. 19: Testing the Proficiency of the Sample Size

and Items of ‘Evaluation’
df 3
Sig. ,000
The coefficients shown in Table 4.20 will be used for calculating

evaluation scores for each respondent.
Table 4. 20: Coefficients for Calculating

‘Evaluation’ Score
Component
1
Being ECoC is a beneficial
,419
issue for Istanbul.
It is an important issue that
,424
Participating in the events
organized in the context of
Istanbul's being ECoC can ,326
make a positive contribution
to my own life.
After the Evaluation scores were computed for each respondent, its
possible relationships with education level, income level and occupation
were analyzed through one way ANOVA. Table 4.21 shows the results of the
analysis.
97
Table 4. 21: Results for Relationship Between Socioeconomic Characteristics and
Evaluation
Levene’s Test for

ANOVA Homogenity of
Variances
Sum of Mean Levene’s

df F Sig. Sig.
Squares Square Statistic
Between
33,183 6 5,531 4,832 0,000
Groups
Education
Within 1,297 0,064
Level 295,313 258 1,145
Groups
Total 328,497 264
Between
4,199 3 1,400 1,123 0,340
Groups
Income
Within 0,708 0,548
Level 322,671 259 1,246
Groups
Total 326,689 262
Between
18,076 9 2,008 1,650 0,102
Groups
Occupation Within 1,915 0,061
310,421 255 1,217
Groups
Total 328,497 264
Since all the significance values of Levene’s statistics are greater

than 0.05, equality of variances is assumed. After that, let us to look the
significance of each characteristic in terms of its relationship between
Evaluation for Istanbul’s case.
According to the results shown on the Table 4.21, only Education

Level has a p value lower than 0.05 (0.000<0.05). So the hypothesis H3.11
is accepted, which means Evaluation for Istanbul’s case significantly differs
among education levels.
98
Table 4. 22: Evaluation Scores among Different Education Levels
Std.
N Mean
Deviation
Graduated from primary school 15 3,500 0,191
Graduated from secondary school or 8 14 3,600 0,291
years elementary education
Graduated from 4 years university 97 4,333 0,211
Graduated from a masters’ program 15 4,425 0,869
Graduated from a doctorate program 6 4,666 0,487
Total 266 4,101 0,115
In an ascending order, as the results shown on Table 4.22, the

respondents from higher education levels have higher evaluation score in
contrast to the situation observed for Interest scores.

Characteristics and Trial
The general hypothesis H41, in other words the relationship between

dependent variable ‘Trial’ and each of the independent variables education
level, income level, and occupation were analyzed in this part. Since both
dependent and independent variables are discrete, Chi-Square tests were
performed.
Although Trial for Istanbul’s case was measured through four

questions, the analyses in this part were performed over two of them, which
are indicated as T-1 and T-3, because of the reason explained under the
headline 4.2.3.Trial. In addition, all the following analyses related to the
Trial in this study, will be analyzed over these two questions as its
mentioned before too.
99
Table 4.23 shows the chi-square test results for the relationship
between socioeconomic characteristics and T-1, which is ‘attending the
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC’.
Table 4. 23: Relationship Between Socioeconomic Characteristics and T-1

Socioeconomic Pearson Chi- Asymp. Sig (2
df
According to the results shown on Table 4.23 p values of Education

Level, and Occupation are lower than 0.05 (0.001<0.05; 0.006<0.05), so
H4.11 and H4.31 are accepted. It can be said that there is a significant
relationship between attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s
being ECoC and independent variables education level, and occupation.

Education Levels*
Have you already
attended the
volunteering program
for Istanbul's being
ECoC?
Yes No Total
Education Graduated from primary school Count 2 13 15

level
Expected Count ,2 14,8 15,0
Graduated from secondary Count 0 14 14
school or 8 years elementary
education
Graduated from high school Count 1 86 87
Expected Count 1,0 86,0 87,0
Graduated from 2 years Count 0 32 32
college
Graduated from 4 years Count 0 97 97
university
Graduated from graduate Count 0 15 15
(master) programs
Graduated from doctorate Count 0 6 6
programs
Total Count 3 263 266
*For cells where responses are less than 5 no significance, interpretation should be done with care
100
Table 4.24 shows the distribution of the respondents who attend the
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC in terms of their education
levels. According to the results reading them as row wise, respondents from
lower education levels attend the volunteering program (2 people graduated
from primary school, 1 people graduated from high school), while there is
not any respondent with education higher than high school graduation who
attends the program.

Occupations*
Have you already
attended the
volunteering program
for Istanbul's being
ECoC?
Yes No Total
Occupation Professional Private Count 0 71 71

Type Occupation
Small Business Count 0 3 3
Tradesman Count 0 4 4
Public worker Count 2 18 20
Private Sector Count 0 22 22
Worker (Private Sector) Count 0 58 58
Retired Count 0 17 17
Housewife Count 1 10 11
Student Count 0 53 53
Independent/Temporar Count 0 7 7
y
Total Count 3 263 266
*For cells where responses are less than 5 no significance, interpretation should be done with care
101
Table 4.25 shows the distribution of the respondents who attend the
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC in terms of their
occupations. According to the results reading them row wise, respondents
who have lower qualified occupations and which are blue-collar workers (2
people) and housewives (1 person) are the ones who attend the
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC.
Table 4.26 shows the Chi-square test results for the relationship
between socioeconomic characteristics and other component of Trial (T-3),
which is participating in any events organized in the context of Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010.
Table 4. 26: Relationship Between

Socioeconomic Characteristics and T-3
Socioeconomic Pearson Chi- Asymp. Sig (2
df
According to the results shown on Table 4.26 there is not any

statistically significant relationship between any of the socioeconomic
characteristics and participating in any events organized in the context of
the Istanbul’s being ECoC since all the p values are greater than 0.05.
As a short summary of this part, it can be said that some of the

relationships between socioeconomic characteristics and stages of adoption
process are approved statistically. In detail, education level was revealed as
a statistically significant influential factor on Istanbul citizens’ Interest,
Evaluation and Trial stages for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010. People, who
have higher educational background, have higher Evaluation scores, or in
other words more eligible to evaluate Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 better
than the ones from lower education levels. In contrast, people from lower
102
education levels have higher Interest scores and they are the ones who
made a trial of the case. In addition to education level, occupation was
found out as an effective factor to Trial of Istanbul’s being ECoC, where
people has lower qualified jobs were revealed as the ones who attend the
volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010.

Characteristics and Adoption
Any analyses were able to be conducted for dependent variable

‘Adoption’, because of the reason that the highest stage of the respondents
of this research achieved is Trial. Hence, all the hypotheses related to the
dependent variable Adoption are not available to test for this study. This
situation can be seen more detailed under the headline 4.2.4.Adoption.
4.4. Relationship Between Community Consciousness

and Stages of Adoption
For the third objective of this study which aims to analyze the
possible relationship between community consciousness and stages of
adoption, chi-square tests and independent T-tests were performed
according to the type of the scales that variables measured.
4.4.1. Relationship Between Community

Consciousness and Awareness
Examining the relationship between the stage Awareness and

community consciousness were not included to the objectives of this study
in fact. Because of the reasons explained under the Research Hypotheses
part (p. 50) this analyses were also decided to conduct. Since the entire
103
sample is aware of Istanbul’s being ECoC it is not necessary to analyze the
lifestyle effect on this awareness. Hence in this part, the relationship
between the dependent variable “awareness of existence of volunteering
program for Istanbul’s being ECoC” and each of the statements that refer to
the community consciousness as independent variables were analyzed. In
other words hypotheses H6.51, H6.61, H6.71, and H6.81 were tested. Chi-
square analyses were performed since the all variables are discrete.
Table 4.27 shows the results of the analyses for community

consciousness and being aware of the existence of volunteering program for
Istanbul’s being ECoC.
Table 4. 27: Results of Relationship Between Community Consciousness and Being

Aware of Volunteering Program for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Pearson
Community Consciousness Asyp.
Chi- df Sig (2
Statement
Square sided)
Being an active member of one/

more than one volunteer 0,087 1 0,768
organization
Doing volunteer work for
volunteer organizations on a 2,544 1 0,111
regular basis
Enjoying working on community
0,112 1 0,737
projects
Being already worked on at least
0,753 1 0,386
Since p values of all statements are greater than 0.05 as it is shown

on Table 4.27, hypotheses H6.51, H6.61, H6.71, and H6.81 are rejected.
In short, it is found out that there is no statistically significant

relationship between community consciousness and awareness of the
existence of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being the ECoC 2010.
104
Consciousness and Interest
Independent T-tests were performed in this part since the

dependent variable Interest score is a continuous variable, and the
statements of community consciousness have only two levels. The general
hypothesis H71, which is “Interest for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
significantly differs among community consciousness”, was analyzed in this
part.

Interest
Levene’s Test for
Equality of T-test Result
Variances
Sig (2-
F Sig. t df
tailed)
Being an active member of
one/ more than one volunteer 0,859 0,354 -2,988 261 0,003
organization
volunteer organizations on a 2,419 0,12 -2,706 261 0,007
regular basis
Enjoying to work on
0,229 0,632 -0,155 261 0,877
community projects
Being already worked on at
1,943 0,164 -0,677 261 0,499
least one community project
As it is indicated on Table 4.28, all the significance values of

Levene’s Test are greater than 0.05, equality of variances is assumed.
Than, according to the results of the analyses, it was found out that there is
a difference between respondents’ Interest scores in terms of ‘being an
active member of one or more than one volunteer organizations’ and ‘doing
volunteer work for volunteer organizations on a regular basis’, since their p
values are lower than 0.05. Hence the hypotheses H7.11 and H7.21 are
accepted.
105
Table 4. 29: Distribution of Interest Scores among Community Consciousness
Statements
Std.
Std.
N Mean Error
Deviation
Mean
volunteer organizations on 37 3,78 1,29560 0,10543
a regular basis
one/ more than one 45 3,73 1,34796 0,12154
volunteer organization
least one community 123 3,33 1,49241 0,22247
project
Enjoying to work on
151 3,32 1,49172 0,24524
community projects
As Table 4.29 indicates, respondents who are active member of

one/more than one volunteer organization and doing volunteer work for
these kind of organizations have higher Interest values compared to the
other respondents.

Consciousness and Evaluation
Independent T-tests were performed in order to analyze the possible

difference between respondents’ Evaluation scores in terms their
community consciousness. The hypothesis H81, which is “Evaluation for
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 significantly differs among community
consciousness”, was analyzed in this part.
106
Community Consciousness and Evaluation
Levene’s Test
for Equality T-test Result
of Variances
Sig (2-
F Sig. t df
tailed)
Being an active member of more
0,041 0,839 0,049 263 0,961
than one volunteer organization
Doing volunteer work for volunteer
0,001 0,982 -0,437 263 0,663
organizations on a regular basis
1,074 0,301 0,410 263 0,682
projects
0,528 0,468 2,159 263 0,032
All the significance values of Levene’s test are greater than 0.05,
hence equality of variances are assumed. According to the results shown on
Table 4.30, there is a difference between respondents’ Evaluation values in
terms of ‘being already worked on at least one community project’, i.e.
H8.41, since only the p value of this statement is lower than 0.05
(0.032<0.05).
Table 4. 31: Distribution of Evaluation Scores among

Community Consciousness Statements
Std.
Std.
N Mean Error
Deviation
Mean
least one community 124 4,258 0,98667 0,08861
project
Enjoying to work on
151 4,125 1,14487 0,09317
community projects
one/ more than one 46 4,108 1,13975 0,16805
volunteer organization
volunteer organizations on 37 4,027 1,16634 0,19175
a regular basis
As it can be seen on Table 4.31, respondents who already worked

on at least one community project have higher Evaluation values compared
to the other respondents.
107
Consciousness and Trial
In this section, H91, which is “there is significant relationship

between community consciousness and Trial of Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010”
were analyzed with chi-square analyses due to the reason discrete
variables.

and Attending the Volunteering Program for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Pearson
Chi- df Sig (2
Statement
Square sided)

organization
regular basis
0,112 1 0,737
projects
0,227 1 0,634
According to the results seen on Table 4.32, it can be said that there
is no statistically significant relationship between community consciousness
and attending the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being ECoC. H9.11,
H9.21, H9.31, and H9.41 are rejected. Hypotheses between H9.51 and H9.81;
and H9.131 and H9.161 are not available to analyze because of any data
obtained for related questions (Q 52a and Q 54a).
Table 4.33 shows the results for the hypotheses H9.91, H9.101,
H9.111, and H9.121.
108
and Participating in Any Events Organized for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Pearson
Chi- df Sig (2
Statement
Square sided)

organization
regular basis
0,308 1 0,579
projects
1,132 1 0,287
Since all the statements have p values greater than 0.05 as it is

indicated in Table 4.33, none of the statements have significant relationship
with participating in any event organized in the context of Istanbul’s being
ECoC. The hypotheses H9.91, H9.101, H9.111, and H9.121 are all rejected.
In short, community consciousness was only found out as a

statistically significant influential factor on Interest and Evaluation for
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 but not on Trial.
4.5. Effects of Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s

being ECoC 2010 on “Interest” Stage in the Adoption Process
Fourth objective of this study was measuring the effects of

perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC on Interest stage. In
order to find out the effects linear multiple regression analysis was
conducted, where the perceived characteristics are independent variables
and Interest score is the dependent variable.
109
4.5.1. Factor Analysis for Grouping Perceived
Characteristics
Exploratory factor analysis was applied to the independent variable

perceived characteristics, which includes 14 statements.
Before performing factor analysis, the reliability of the scale is

tested in order to check if it is appropriate to perform factor analysis or not.
The reliability of the data measured with Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient. The
test resulted with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient 0.834 and there were not
any statements which reduce the reliability of the whole scale. So, the
factor analysis was relevant to conduct.
The factor analysis was repeated 4 times, due to existence of

statements with double factor loading, and factor loading less than 0.50.
After the problematic statements removed the analysis was repeated for
each time. As one of the results of the 4 factor analyses 5 statements were
removed from the scale. The removed statements and reasons for removal
are shown in Table 4.34.
Table 4. 34: Reasons for Eliminating Items

Factor
Double
Loading
Factor
Less Than
Loading
0.50
PC9 PC2
PC11 PC4
PC7
Table 4. 35: Proficiency of the Sample Size and Items of

‘Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010’
df 45
Sig. ,000
110
The sample size is quite available to conduct factor analysis since
the KMO score is 0.888 (0.888>0.50), and the significance value for
Bartlett’s test is lower than 0.05 (0.000<0.05). As result of the factor
analyses performed, 4 factors obtained including 9 items in total. Table 4.36
shows the factors obtained after 4 times factor analyses, items they
contained, factor loadings, and the variances explained.
Table 4. 36: Results for Exploratory Factor Analysis

for ‘Perceived Characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC’
Factor Variance # of
Loading Explained items
Factor 1: Relative Advantage 17,847 2

Being ECoC is a way which improves the 0,825
communication between the residents
living in the city more.
Istanbul’s being ECoC will improve the 0,755
cultural economy in the city more than
cultural events which are organized in
the city in regular times.
Factor 2: Compatibility 15,385 2
Being awarded as ECoC is suitable with 0,640
Istanbul’s identity.
The overall social conditions of Istanbul 0,558
are suitable for city’s getting the title
ECoC.
Factor 3: Triability-Observability 14,004 3
Cultural events organized in the context 0,790
of Istanbul’s being ECoC are affordable.
It is possible to see the effects of 0,599
Istanbul’s being ECoC on the city’s
construction and infrastructure.
It is easy to learn about the events 0,793
performed in the context of Istanbul’s
being ECoC.
Factor 4: Complexity 9,095 2
It is easy to understand exactly what is 0,755
meaning of being ECoC.
As a resident it is easy to participate in 0,622
the process of Istanbul’s being ECoC.
Total 56,331 9
As a result of the factor analysis, triability and observability were

grouped under the same factor. These four factors have ability to explain
about 56% of the total variance. When the reliability analysis was repeated
111
for the remained items, the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was found 0.779,
which shows that the scale is still quite reliable.
4.5.2. Impact of Perceived Characteristics of

Istanbul’s being ECoC on “Interest” Stage
Here a regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of

perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC on people’s interest for
the Istanbul’s case. Factors obtained from the factor analysis performed in
the previous section, are the independent variables for this regression
analysis. The contribution of regression analysis will be determining whether
there is a statistically significant relationship between the factors and the
weight of the characteristics on resident’s interest for Istanbul’s case. The
general hypothesis H111, which is “perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010 affects the Interest to the Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010”
was tested in this part.
Table 4. 37: Competence of Regression Test Conducted

for Residents’ Interest for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Adjusted R
Model R R Square Square
1 ,750 ,563 ,557
As R square value shows in Table 4.37, perceived characteristics

explain the 56% of the residents’ Interest for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010.
Table 4. 38: Significance of the Regression Test Results

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 27,409 4 6,852 5,658 ,000
Residual 316,089 262 1,211
Total 343,498 266
112
The analysis which is conducted in this part is statistically significant
since the p value of regression is lower than 0.05 (Table 4.38).
Table 4. 39: Regression Coefficients for Residents’ Interest for Istanbul’s being
ECoC 2010
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 3,791 ,070 54,113 ,000
Factor1 ,251 ,080 ,221 3,163 ,002
Factor2 ,172 ,073 ,162 2,367 ,019
Factor3 ,336 ,074 ,295 4,518 ,000
Factor4 -,150 ,064 -,141 -2,359 ,019
According to the results shown on the Table 4.39 above, all of the
perceived characteristics have a statistically significant effect on Interest for
Istanbul’s case, since the p values lower than 0.05 (0.002; 0.019; 0.000;
0.019< 0.05). And regression equation between perceived characteristics
and Interest is as stated below:
Interest = 3.791 + 0.251 Relative Advantage + 0.172 Compatibility

+ 0.336 Triability & Observability – 0.150 Complexity
As the equation also indicates that, all the perceived characteristics

were revealed having a positive effect on Interest for Istanbul’s case,
except the Complexity.
4.6. Relationship Between Different Perspectives

about Cultural Events and Evaluation Stage for Istanbul’s
case
Fifth objective of this study, which is measuring the effects of

different perspectives about the cultural events on Evaluation of Istanbul’s
case, was analyzed in this part. In order to find out the effects linear
113
multiple regression analysis was conducted again, where the components of
‘perspectives about cultural events’ are independent variables and
Evaluation score is the dependent variable.
4.6.1. Factor Analysis for Grouping Perspectives

about Cultural Events
In this part, 20 statements which were given to the respondents in

order to determine their perspectives about cultural events were subjected
to the factor analysis in order to group them.
Before performing factor analysis, the reliability of the scale is

tested. The reliability test resulted with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient 0.847
and after the analysis one statement, which is “cultural events organized in
a city are important to vitalize the life in the city” (P1), was removed from
the scale because of reducing the reliability of the whole scale. This
situation is shown on the Table 4.40.
Table 4. 40: Result for Removing the Statement P1

Cronbach's
Scale Mean if Scale Variance if Corrected Item- Squared Multiple Alpha if Item
Item Deleted Item Deleted Total Correlation Correlation Deleted
P1 79,53 96,998 ,071 ,023 ,925
Since the new Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient is 0.925, it is said that

the reliability for the sentences is quite high. There were no more
statements which reduce the reliability of the whole scale. So, the factor
analysis was available to conduct.
The factor analysis was repeated 6 times, due to existence of

statements with double factor loading, and factor loading less than 0.50.
For each of these problems, the analysis was repeated and 9 statements
were removed from the scale. Removed statements and reasons for
removal are shown in Table 4.41.
114
Table 4. 41: Reasons for Eliminating Items
Double Factor
Cronbach’s
Factor Loading Less
Alpha Value
Loading Than 0.50
P3 P4 P1
P9 P5
P13 P14
P16
P17
P18

‘Perspective of Residents about Cultural Events’
df 55
Sig. ,000
The sample size is quite available to conduct factor analysis since

the KMO score is 0.884 (0.884>0.50). And the p value of the Bartlett’s test
results is lower than 0.05 (Table 4.42), so there is a correlation between the
items.
As result of the 6 factor analysis performed, 10 items covered by 3

components were obtained. Table 4.43 shows the factors obtained after 6
times factor analysis, items they contained, factor loadings, and the
variances explained.
115
Table 4. 43:Results for Exploratory Factor Analysis
for ‘Perspectives of Residents about Cultural Events’
Factor1: Contribution to the Own 23,503 3

Life
Cultural events organized in a city 0,721
strengthen the ties of residents with the
city.
improve the welfare of the residents of
the city.
Cultural events organized in the city 0,694
improve social life of the community.
Factor2: Promoting the City 22,017 4
The characteristics of a community in a 0,818
city can be communicated with others
via cultural events organized in the city.
The unique features and values of a city 0,799
can be promoted via the various cultural
events.
improve the existing image of the city.
attract the people who think to visit the
city.
Factor3: Vitalizing the Economy in 19,236 3
the city
vitalize the economy in the city.
Cultural events organized in a city create 0,734
different job opportunities.
attract the ones who think to invest to
the city.
Total 64,756 10
These three factors have ability to explain approximately 65% of the

total variance. When the reliability analysis was repeated for the remained
items, the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was found 0.872, which is still quite
high and shows that the scale is quite reliable.
116
4.6.2. Impact of Different Perspectives of Residents’
of Istanbul about Cultural Events on Evaluation Stage
Here a regression analysis was conducted to analyze the impact of

different perspectives of residents about cultural events, determined via
factor analysis previously, on their evaluation for Istanbul’s ECoC. The
contribution of regression analysis will be determining whether there is a
statistically significant relationship between the dependent and independent
variables and the weight of each perspective on evaluation of Istanbul’s
case. H121, which is “different perspectives about cultural events affects
differently the evaluation for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010”, was tested in this
part.
Table 4. 44: Competence of Regression Test Conducted

for Residents’ Evaluation for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Adjusted R
Model R R Square Square
1 ,660 ,436 ,425
Table 4. 45: Significance of Regression Test Results

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 11,980 3 3,993 3,306 ,021
Residual 316,516 262 1,208
Total 328,497 265
As it is shown on Table 4.45 the regression analysis for evaluation

has a significance value (0.021) that is lower than 0.05, the regression
analysis conducted is statistically significant. And approximately 44% of
residents’ evaluation for Istanbul’s case can be explained by these different
perspectives (Table 4.44)
117
Table 4. 46: Regression Coefficients for Residents’ Evaluation
for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 2,316 ,298 7,776 ,000
Factor1 ,236 ,077 ,207 3,068 ,002
Factor2 ,147 ,072 ,138 2,041 ,042
Factor3 ,194 ,078 ,182 2,477 ,014
According to the results shown on the Table 4.46, each of the three
different perspectives have a statistically significant effect on Evaluation for
Istanbul’s being ECoC, since the all p values lower than 0.05 (0.002; 0,042;
0.014<0.05). And regression equation between these perspectives and
Evaluation is as stated below:
Evaluation = 2.316 + 0.226 Contribution to the own life + 0.147

Promoting the city + 0.194 Vitalizing the economy
According to the regression equation for Evaluation, the most

effective factor in terms of different perspectives about cultural events is
their feature contributing the respondents’ own lives. The second most
effective factor is thinking that they promotes the city held in, while the
third most effective one is thinking that cultural events vitalize the economy
in the city.
4.7. Place Audit for Istanbul
In this part the sixth objective for this research will be analyzed.
Table 4.47 shows mean values for the answers given to the each statement
that place audit contains.
118
Table 4. 47: The Obtained (Average)Scores for the Statements of Place Audit
Std.
Statements Mean
Deviation
PA1 Istanbul is an attractive city. 4,63 ,609
PA2 Istanbul is a clean city. 2,64 1,008
PA3 The cultural texture of the city is being kept well. 2,70 1,103
PA4 Istanbul is a city that you can live in confidence. 2,45 ,966
PA5 It is easy to find places to sit and relax open to public in
3,43 1,062
Istanbul.
PA6 It is easy to live in Istanbul. 1,87 ,849
PA7 Many different types of cultural events are organized in
3,80 1,112
Istanbul.
PA8 It is possible to see people from different regions in various
4,15 ,804
places in Istanbul.
PA9 It is easy to reach the centers where cultural events
3,41 1,046
PA10 It is easy to be informed about the cultural events
3,36 1,037
PA11 I easily find the events in Istanbul which are suitable to my
3,64 ,996
interests for my leisure time.
PA12 I would want my friends/relatives who live in other cities to
4,51 ,641
see Istanbul.
PA13 There are places in Istanbul that I can show the others
4,52 ,664
proudly.
PA14 It is easy to communicate with people in Istanbul for any
3,74 ,972
reason.
PA15 There are people from different ages, sexes, and ethnicities
4,54 ,609
in Istanbul.
PA16 I would want to participate to the events organized for
3,71 1,028
Istanbul.
According to the results, respondents are commonly agreed with

that Istanbul is an attractive city. In addition to that again the respondents
are thinking living in Istanbul is not easy and safe in terms of confidence.
They are agreed with lot of cultural activities and events are
organized across the city but they are not wholly agreed it is easy to learn
about and reach them. Also the respondents confirmed the cosmopolite
structure and diversity in the city in terms of cultures, while also they think
that communicating with the people around for any reason might be easy.
Also the respondents indicated that they might be willing to participate to
the events organized for Istanbul.
119
4.7.1. Factor Analysis for Place Audit of Istanbul
In order to identify the distribution of the answers under some

specific groups exploratory factor analysis was performed over the 16
statements that place audit includes. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for
the scale is 0.777.
The analysis was repeated 5 times after the problematic statements

were removed for each time. The removed statements and reasons for
removal are shown in the Table 4.48.
Table 4. 48: Reasons for Eliminating the Items

Defining Factor
the factor Loading Less
alone Than 0.50
PA6 PA9
PA16 PA12
PA1 PA13
PA5
PA3

‘Place Audit’
df 15
Sig. ,000
Table 4.49 shows that factor analysis for Place Audit is valid since
the KMO value is greater than 0.50 (0.816>0.50) and the Bartlett’s test
score’s p value is lower than 0.05 (0.000<0.05).
As a result of the 5 times factor analyses three factors contains 8

items in total were obtained. Table 4.50 indicates the factors, the items
they include, factor loadings, and variances they explained.
120
Table 4. 50: Results for Exploratory Factor Analysis
for ‘Place Audit’
Factor1: Uses&Activities 29,051 3

Many different types of cultural events 0,565
are organized in Istanbul.
It is easy to be informed about the 0,790
cultural events performed in Istanbul.
I easily find the events in Istanbul which 0,630
are suitable to my interests for my
leisure time.
Factor2: Sociability 24,655 3
It is easy to communicate with people in 0,502
Istanbul for any reason.
There are people from different ages, 0,576
sexes, and ethnicities in Istanbul.
It is possible to see people from different 0,749
regions in various places in Istanbul.
Factor3: Comfort&Image 19,756 2
Istanbul is a clean city. 0,658
Istanbul is a city that you can live in 0,733
confidence.
Total 73,472 8
As a result of the factor analyses, three factors obtained at they

named as Uses& Activities, Sociability, and Comfort& Image with keeping in
mind the explanations in the literature, and the remaining items have a
Cronbach’s Alpha value which is 0,691 and indicates the reliability of the
scale.
4.7.2. Correlation Between Components of Place

Audit and Period of Residence
As the final research objective of this research the possible

correlation between the results of place audit and the period of residence
was analyzed in this part. The correlation analyses conducted over the
factors obtained from the factor analysis in the previous section and period
of residence. The general hypothesis H131, which is “there is a correlation
between the results of place audit and period of residence”, is tested in this
section.
121
Table 4. 51: Results of Correlation Analysis
for Place Audit*Period of Residence
Period of Residence
Factors Pearson Sig (2-

Correlation tailed)
Uses and Activities 0,11 0,431

Sociability 0,84 0,005
Comfort and Image 0,38 0,023
According to the results of the correlation analyses conducted for

the results of the place audit and period of residence shown on Table 4.51,
there is a strong statistically significant correlation between period of
residence and Sociability component. Also there is a statistically significant
correlation between the component Comfort and Image and period of
residence, but it is a weak correlation.
As a quick review of the analyses related to the place audit for

Istanbul, In general it can be grouped the thoughts of Istanbul citizens
through indicating that, they pointed out the diversity of the cultural events
organized in the city, the city’s cosmopolite structure, and quality of the
conditions to live in the city. In more detailed, the mostly cited things for
the city are the city’s attractiveness. People who have been living in
Istanbul less than a year up to 70 years, mostly agreed on the fact that
they would want their friends, relatives, who are not familiar with the city,
to come and see this city, and they can introduce the city to these people
proudly. The cosmopolite structure of the city was confirmed by the
respondents through the statements mostly cited by them which discuss
about the diversity of ethnicities, sexes, and ages, hence diversity of people
in Istanbul.
On the other hand, the ease of living and security issues in Istanbul,
lack of overall cleanliness of the city, and conservation of the historical and
cultural texture of the city are the most revealed issues on the negative
side.
122
5. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION
The participants of this study, who were the residents of Istanbul,

reveal that slightly more than half of the group are men. The average
education level of the sample is graduation from two years college while
56% of them have an education background of college, university degree
and higher. The largest groups are falling in the age categories 18-24 and
25-34 (with 35 and 32% respectively), and nearly 65% of the sample earn
a net income of at most up to 2500.00 TL. In terms of area of residence in
the city, respondents from the 32 different districts of Istanbul were
reached to for the research.
As the results for the Istanbul citizens’ level of adoption of Istanbul’s

being ECoC in 2010, the people participated in this research all know that
Istanbul is the ECoC in 2010. On the other hand about 72% of the people is
not aware of the existence of the volunteering program for Istanbul’s being
ECoC, which have been organized by the Istanbul 2010 Agency. In terms of
Interest and Evaluation stage of adoption process for Istanbul’s being ECoC
in 2010, the residents of Istanbul are interested in Istanbul’s being ECoC in
2010 and put an importance and significance on the case in general,
although they have not been involved in the process as much as they feel
interested in, except attending some events which are organized in the
context of Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010. In other words, for Trial stage of
adoption, it was found out under the boundaries of this study that only very
limited number of the respondents of this research made a trial of Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010 through attending the volunteering program (3 people,
about 1% of the sample) and participating in only the official openings
which held in 16th January, 2010 as an event organized in the context of
Istanbul’s case (14 people, about 5% of the sample). There are no
continuity stated for neither the attendance to the volunteering program nor
participating in the any kind of events organized in the context of Istanbul’s
being ECoC, so this revealed that it is not possible to talk about Istanbul’s
residents’ participating in this study as constituting the sample, having
123
completed the adoption process (by adoption of the Istanbul’s being 2010
ECoC); the highest stage they achieved is Trial which is even quite low with
very few people as stated above. Due to the this reason, none of the
hypotheses, which were stated prior to the research, related to the Adoption
stage were available to test, because there were no “adopted” respondents
observed.
In terms of the relationships stated on the proposed research model

only some of the relationships between socioeconomic characteristics and
stages of adoption process are approved statistically. It was found out
during the literature survey that the socioeconomic characteristics (or some
selected demographics) have an affect on Awareness stage, while any
statistically significant relationship between these variables were approved
in this research. In the proposed research model, it was stated that these
socioeconomic characteristics might affect the other stages of the adoption
process for Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC (See Figure 5.1), although only
education level, and occupation were revealed as influential factors for
Interest, Evaluation, and Trial stages. In detail, education level was
revealed as a statistically significant influential factor on Istanbul citizens’
Interest, Evaluation and Trial stages for Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010. People,
who have higher educational background, have higher Evaluation scores, or
in other words more eligible to evaluate Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010 better
than the ones from lower education levels. In contrast, people from lower
education levels have higher Interest scores and they are the ones who
made a trial of the case. In addition to education level, occupation was
found out as an effective factor to Trial of Istanbul’s being ECoC, where
people has lower qualified jobs (blue collar workers and housewives) were
revealed as the ones who attend the volunteering program for Istanbul’s
being ECoC 2010, in other words made a trial of Istanbul’s being ECoC
2010. This situation might be explained by the respondents have higher
education levels can be workers of more qualified jobs, and has time
constraints to attend the volunteering program.
124
In terms of community consciousness, only a relationship between
Interest and Evaluation stages were revealed. ‘Being an active member of
one or more than one organizations’ and ‘doing volunteer work for volunteer
organizations’ are the ones which have a significant effect on residents’
interest for the Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010. In terms of evaluation of
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010, only ‘being already worked community
projects’ appeared as the influential factor, which can be explained through
personal experiences related to the community issues might cause better
evaluations for Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC. On the other hand, none of the
community consciousness indicators were found out as influential factors on
Trial stage.
As another relationship stated on the literature, the effects of

perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC on people’s interest for
Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC were analyzed and it is statistically supported
that all the perceived characteristics have an effect on Interest for
Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC. The way of the relationship is positive, except
the relationship that Complexity caused, which is negative.
In terms of the impact of residents’ different perspectives about

cultural events on their evaluation for Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC, the
relationship was found out statistically significant. As a result of the
analyses conducted, the residents in the sample of this research have three
main idea about cultural events, ordering them according to their strengths
to affect the Evaluation for Istanbul’s being 2010 ECoC (1) cultural events
contributes to the people’s life who live in the city in question, (2) cultural
events are the way to promote the city that they are held in, and (3)
cultural events vitalizes the economy in the city they organized in. All these
perspectives were found out as the statistically significant factors that affect
the evaluation for Istanbul’s case positively. At the end of all these analyses
the proposed research model is upgraded and stated as in the Figure 5.1
shows.
125
Relative
Advantage
+
+ Perceived
Compatibility
Characteristics
of Istanbul’s
being ECoc
Complexity
2010
-
Triability-
Observability
+
Adoption Stages
for Istanbul’s
being ECOC 2010
Awareness
Interest +
-
+ Community
+ Evaluation Consciousness
Education Level
-
Trial
Occupation +
-
Different
Perspectives
Adoption
About Cultural
Events
Figure 5.1: Revised Research Model

Source: Created by the Researcher
126
Adoption Stages Community
for Istanbul’s Consciousness
being ECOC 2010
Being an active member of one/more than one volunteer organizations.

+
Awareness
Doing volunteer work for volunteer organizations.
+
Interest
Being already worked on at least one community project.
+
Evaluation
+
Trial
Adoption
Contribution to the residents’ own lives

Different
Perspectives A way to promote the city
About Cultural
Events
Vitalize the economy in the city
Figure 5.2: Revised Research Model – Breakdowns for Community Consciousness and Different
Perspectives about Cultural Events
Source: Created by the Researcher
127
In addition to these findings, as a result of the place audit for
Istanbul in general, it can be grouped the thoughts of Istanbul citizens
through indicating that, they pointed out the diversity of the cultural events
organized in the city, the city’s cosmopolite structure, and quality of the
conditions to live in the city. In more detailed, the mostly cited things for
the city are the city’s attractiveness. People whose period of residence
range between less than a year up to 70 years, mostly agreed on the fact
that they would want their friends, relatives, who are not familiar with the
city, to come and see this city, and they can introduce the city to these
people proudly. The cosmopolite structure of the city was confirmed by the
respondents through the statements mostly cited by them which discuss
about the diversity of ethnicities, sexes, and ages, hence diversity of people
in Istanbul. On the other hand, the ease of living and security issues in
Istanbul, lack of overall cleanliness of the city, and conservation of the
historical and cultural texture of the city are the most revealed issues on
the negative side. In addition, there is a positive correlation identified
between period of residence and some of the thoughts revealed from place
audit. As long as the period of residence increases, the idea about ease of
communicating with people around the city, or thinking that Istanbul is a
highly cosmopolite structured city increases at the same time.
With the point of view that culture has become one of the key
factors for distinguishing places, the ECoC initiative and its being perceived
by the residents of Istanbul were tried to investigate in this study, with
taking into account the points identified from literature survey and
interviews with selected residents and officials. Since it is a new issue for
Turkey, this study is a new featured study for Turkish academic literature.
And it is hoped that it will contribute to the further studies.
128
6. IMPLICATIONS
In this part, implications for further research, ECoC organizers, and

government will be presented.
6.1.1. Implications for Further Studies
Being selected as an ECoC for a city of Turkey is a new issue for the
country, hence in the Turkish academic literature; it is not possible to find
any studies related to this topic, till the year 2000s. Since the preparation
for suggesting the city as ECoC in 2010, officials had started to work on this
in 2003 and some related academic studies had been started to reveal
towards the end of the 2000s. Hence this study will be one of the studies
related to the ECoC initiative, which are not so common yet in Turkish
academic literature, and can be a guiding study for further studies related
to the topic. After the period for Istanbul’s being ECoC ends, it is expected
an increase of the quantity of the studies on this topic, hence some
suggestions can be made for these:
The Istanbul’s residents’ adoption process for Istanbul’s being ECoC

was investigated from the some selected perspectives in this study. Further
studies can focus on only specific stages of adoption process to the issue
from a more broaden perspective, with taking into account additional
affecting factors, or they can only focus on determining what the mostly
affecting factors are for each stage in more detailed way. They can use
qualitative research methods for investigating this as well as quantitative
methods. For the ones who are interested to research something similar to
this research, can differentiate the questions, make the sample more
representative, and make the sample size higher. They can also ask not
only the residents of Istanbul about their opinions, but also the permanent
visitors both from other local locations as well as from other countries. Or
they can investigate the opinions and strategies of business environment
129
such as hospitality sector for Istanbul’s being ECoC. Further studies also can
focus on the affects of other different lifestyles in addition to community
consciousness on peoples’ perception about and adoption process for
Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010. Also it is possible to investigate whether the
perceived characteristics of Istanbul’s being ECoC is an affecting factor of
the other stages too, or not.
When it is thought as one of the limitation of this study, no one

observed as having completed the adoption to the process, so any analyses
were available to conduct for adoption of Istanbul’s being ECoC 2010. So
that, in terms of advising for further studies, the analyses would be resulted
different and maybe more realistic if they are repeated towards end of the
year 2010.
6.1.2. Implications for ECoC Organizers
As it was pointed out in the literature too, distinguishing the cities,

gaining competitive advantage through establishing a distinctive image, or
reversing the negative image integrated to the city, and as a result gaining
an economic development are the main goals of ECoC initiative. In order to
achieve these objectives, ECoC organizers should pay attention to attract as
many people as possible in terms of both local and outside the boundaries
of the city or even country. It is important to make the own people, who are
in relation somehow with the place, involved to the process of the city in
question at first, because of a healthy success. Because it is not logical to
expect being perceived as a desirable place by people from outside, without
making the own people of the place involved into the process. Both the
public and local business environments should be made involved in the
process before and during the ECoC year, with their projects, with their
ideas, or just with their participation to the events organized in the context
of being ECoC and maybe through leading them to be volunteers for city’s
being ECoC. In order to achieve this participation, the communication
130
should be open to everyone, not just to the workers in the background for
the bid, or just for volunteers of the issue. ECoC organizers should plan
their communication strategies well enough prior to the ECoC year, and
upgrade them during the year in question if it is needed.
For example Linz, Austria, which was the ECoC for the year 2009,
had prepared booklets, magazines in both German and English, telling
about the program for Linz bid in 2009, as was observed in that city. They
prepared small presents for giving to the people on the streets, in order to
attract them. For the bid of Genoa, Italy in 2004, a consultative team was
formed of participants from different sectors involving 2500 issues.
Workshops were performed by 300 numbers of associations to discuss the
projects for Genoa 2004 (Beyazıt and Tosun, 2006).
In terms of Istanbul’s bid, the official agency had been accepting

projects from public and business sectors since July 2006, until they
announced they stopped accepting projects as of December, 2009. The
collaboration with other official departments is a little bit weak, which can
be observed through the problems occurred for the permissions necessary
to get from municipality for some projects related to the Istanbul’s being
ECoC 2010 (Istanbul 2010 Agency Officials, 2009). In terms of
communicating the process or events has been organizing for the Istanbul’s
being ECoC in 2010, the official agency has been communicating mostly
with volunteers through e-mail groups or meetings. In order to improve the
communication between public for Istanbul’s being ECoC they should use
other examples like Linz ECoC 2009 from Austria, as well as they should use
the website for 2010, or broadcast media.
One step ahead, improving international dialog for long lasting

relations must be taken into account by ECoC organizers. As one of the
main objectives of getting the title ECoC is gaining competitive advantage,
hence attracting the foreign visitors to the city or country in question, it is
quite important to conduct communication campaigns on outside of the
boundaries of the country. In this context, Istanbul is being positioned with
131
the slogan “Istanbul: the most inspiring city in the world” on abroad. The
photograph of the silhouette of the historical peninsula of Istanbul is
photographed by the world famous artist for silhouette photographs, Rainer
Strattman, is being used on the outdoor advertisings in Europe from San
Marco, Venice to Gare du Nord, Paris (www.istanbul2010.org, 2010).
6.1.3. Implications for Government
Onwards the decision occurred that suggesting Istanbul as th ECoC

for 2010, the name of Istanbul has been and will be associated with culture
and the arts, even all over the world. This can have a positive affect on
Turkey’s move with the process of its candidacy for the EU, the projects
that have been and will be realized will or should demonstrate interaction
between Turkey and European culture.
Another important implication for government should be managing

the cultural and historical heritage of the city in a suitable manner with
paying extra attention due to being ECoC, improving the urban quality, and
working for achieving long lasting gain in the fields of urban renewal, urban
living, and environmental and social development.
Also the collaboration between different administrators should be

realized in order to make things easier for the Istanbul 2010 Official Agency
in implementing the projects, as well as it is important to share the
knowledge and experiences in order to be better and sustainable.
132
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APENDICES
147
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH
Bu araştırma MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ ÜRETİM

YÖNETİMİ ve PAZARLAMA BÖLÜMÜ yüksek lisans öğrencisi tarafından YÜKSEK
LİSANS TEZİ kapsamında yürütülmektedir. Anket kapsamında ad, soyad gibi
herhangi bir bilgi istenmeyecektir. Verdiğiniz cevaplar sadece araştırma
kapsamında kullanılacaktır. Lütfen soruları dikkatlice okuyup size uygun
seçenekleri işaretleyiniz.
Ankette yer alan “kültürel etkinlikler” ifadesi sinema, tiyatro, opera, konser gibi
sahne sanatları, çeşitli sergiler, söyleşiler, fuarlar, müze ziyaretleri vs. gibi faaliyetleri; “kültürel
ekonomi” ifadesi ise bu faaliyetlerden etkilenen ekonomiyi ifade etmektedir.
1. Do you know that Istanbul’s being ECoC in 2010?

( ) Yes ( ) No
If your answer is “No”, please ONLY answer the questions on the last page (Between 69-75)
2. How did you learn about Istanbul's being ECoC??

( ) Television ( ) Magazine
( ) Radio ( ) Friend/Relatives
( ) Internet ( ) Billboards
( ) Newspaper ( ) Other .......................................
3. For how many years have you been living in Istanbul?

..................................................................
 Please mark the boxes near the statements given below according to your own opinions
after reading them carefully.
I have no idea about this

Neither Agree nor
Totally disagree
Totally Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
issue
4 Istanbul city an attractive city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 Istanbul is a clean city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 The cultural texture of the city is being kept well. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 Istanbul is a city that you can live in confidence 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 It is easy to find places to sit and relax open to public in
1 2 3 4 5 6
Istanbul.
9 It is easy to live in Istanbul. 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 Many different types of cultural events are organized in
1 2 3 4 5 6
Istanbul.
11 It is possible to see people from different regions in various
1 2 3 4 5 6
places in Istanbul.
12 It is easy to reach the centers where cultural events
1 2 3 4 5 6
13 It is easy to be informed about the cultural events
1 2 3 4 5 6
14 I easily find the events in Istanbul which are suitable to my
1 2 3 4 5 6
interests for my leisure time.
15 I would want my friends/relatives who live in other cities to
1 2 3 4 5 6
see Istanbul.
16 There are places in Istanbul that I can show the others
1 2 3 4 5 6
proudly.
Neither Agree nor
Totally disagree
Totally Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
issue
17 It is easy to communicate with people in Istanbul for any
1 2 3 4 5 6
reason.
18 There are people from different ages, sexes, and ethnicities
1 2 3 4 5 6
in Istanbul.
19 I would want to participate to the events organized for
1 2 3 4 5 6
Istanbul.
 Please mark the boxes near the statements given below according to your own opinions after
read them carefully.
Neither Agree nor Disagree

Totally disagree
Totally Agree
Disagree
Agree
issue
CULTURAL EVENTS organized in a city;

20 Are important to vitalize the life in the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
21 Vitalize the economy in the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
22 Make the residents of the city closer to the culture and art. 1 2 3 4 5 6
23 Provide superiority to the city compared to other cities. 1 2 3 4 5 6
24 Make the residents living in the city integrated to the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
150
Neither Agree nor Disagree

Totally disagree
Totally Agree
Disagree
Agree
issue
25 Create different job opportunities. 1 2 3 4 5 6
26 Attract the ones who think to invest to the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
27 Improve the welfare of the residents of the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
28 Provide a distinctive image to the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
29 Improve social life of the community. 1 2 3 4 5 6
30 Attract the people who want to visit the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
31 Improve the existing image of the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
32 Create new industries. 1 2 3 4 5 6
33 Make positive contribution to the construction and

1 2 3 4 5 6
infrastructure of the city.
34
Strengthen the ties of residents with the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
35 Are important alternatives for satisfying the leisure needs of

1 2 3 4 5 6
the residents living in the city.
36 Are good opportunities to promote and develop the city. 1 2 3 4 5 6
37
The negative image of a city can be reversed by the cultural
1 2 3 4 5 6
events organized in the city.
38 The unique features and values of a city can be promoted

1 2 3 4 5 6
via the various cultural events.
39 The characteristics of a community in a city can be
communicated with others via cultural events organized in 1 2 3 4 5 6
the city.
151
40. Are you an active member of one/more than one volunteer organization?
( ) Yes ( ) No
41. Do you do volunteer work for volunteer organizations on a fairly regular basis?
( ) Yes ( ) No
42. Do you like to work on community projects?

( ) Yes ( ) No
43. Have you ever personally worked on at least one community project?
( ) Yes ( ) No
 Please mark the boxes near the statements given below according to your own
opinions after read them carefully.
I have no idea about

Neither Agree nor
Totally disagree
Totally Agree
this issue
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
44 It makes a sense to me that Istanbul's being ECoC. 1 2 3 4 5 6
45 I am interested in Istanbul's being ECoC. 1 2 3 4 5 6

46 I have searched the sources of information to get more
1 2 3 4 5 6
information about Istanbul's being ECoC
47 I am feeling an interest to the events which is organized in
1 2 3 4 5 6
the context of Istanbul's being ECoC.
48 Being ECoC is a beneficial issue for Istanbul. 1 2 3 4 5 6
49 It is an important issue that Istanbul's being ECoC. 1 2 3 4 5 6
50 Participating in the events organized in the context of

1 2 3 4 5 6
Istanbul’s being ECoC can contribute my own life.
152
51.a) Have you already attended the volunteering program for Istanbul's being ECoC?
( ) Yes ( ) No
If “Yes”;
b) Please indicate that how many times you attended the volunteering program:
........................................................................................................................................
52. a) Have you already had a responsibility as a volunteer in an event organized in the
context of Istanbul's being ECoC?
( ) Yes ( ) No
If “Yes”;
b) Please indicate the number of the events you had a responsibility as a volunteer:
........................................................................................................................................
53. a) Have you already participated in any event that organized in the context of
Istanbul's being ECoC?
( ) Yes ( ) No
If “Yes”;
b) Please indicate the number of the events you participated in:
........................................................................................................................................
54. a) Have you already performed/created any event or project for Istanbul’s being ECoC?
( ) Yes ( ) No
If “Yes”;
b) Please indicate the number of the events you performed/created:
..................................................................................................................................
153
 Please mark the boxes near the statements given below according to your own opinions
after read them carefully.

Neither Agree nor
Totally disagree
Totally Agree
this issue
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
55 Being ECoC is a way which improves the communication
1 2 3 4 5 6
between the residents living in Istanbul and the city more.
56 Istanbul's being ECoC is encouraging me more to
1 2 3 4 5 6
participate in cultural events organized in the city.
57 Istanbul’s being ECoC will improve the cultural economy in
the city more compared to the cultural events which are 1 2 3 4 5 6
organized in the city in regular times.
58 The cultural events which are organized/will be organized
in the context of Istanbul's being ECoC are more diversified 1 2 3 4 5 6
from the other cultural events organized in the city
59 Being awarded as ECoC is suitable with Istanbul’s identity. 1 2 3 4 5 6
60 The overall social conditions of Istanbul are suitable for

1 2 3 4 5 6
city's getting the title ECoC.
61 I can make many connections or associations between my
1 2 3 4 5 6
daily life and being lived in a city awarded as ECoC.
62 The cultural events organized in the context of Istanbul's
1 2 3 4 5 6
being ECoC are affordable.
63 It is easy to reach to the places that the cultural events

performed which are organized in the context of Istanbul's 1 2 3 4 5 6
being ECoC.
64 It is possible to see the effect of Istanbul’s being ECoC on
1 2 3 4 5 6
the city's construction and infrastructure.
65 It is easy to learn about the process of Istanbul’s being
1 2 3 4 5 6
ECoC.
66 It is easy to understand exactly what is being ECoC.
154
Neither Agree nor
Totally disagree
Totally Agree
this issue
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
67 It is easy to involve to the process of Istanbul’s being ECoC. 1 2 3 4 5 6
68 It is easy to learn about the events organized in the context

1 2 3 4 5 6
of Istanbul’s being ECoC.
69. Do you know about the existence of volunteering program for Istanbul's being ECoC
in 2010?
( ) Yes ( ) No
70. Education level
( ) Not finished any school

( ) Graduated from 5 years primary school
( ) Graduated from secondary school or 8 years elementary education
( ) Graduated from high school
( ) Graduated from 2 years college
( ) Graduated from 4 years university
( ) Graduated from a masters’ program
( ) Graduated from a doctorate program
71. Please indicate the interval that your age belongs.
( ) 18- 24 ( ) 25- 34 ( ) 35-49 ( ) 50- 64 ( ) higher than 65
72. Please your occupation.

.......................................................................................................................................
73. Total monthly income of your house:
( ) 0 – 600 ( ) 601- 1200 ( ) 1201- 2500 ( ) higher than 2501
74. Gender
( ) Woman ( ) Man
78. Please indicate the area that you have been living.
......................................................................................................................................
THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THE RESEARCH
155
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE IN TURKISH
Bu araştırma MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ

ÜRETİM YÖNETİMİ ve PAZARLAMA BÖLÜMÜ yüksek lisans öğrencisi
tarafından YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ kapsamında yürütülmektedir. Anket
kapsamında ad, soyad gibi herhangi bir bilgi istenmeyecektir. Verdiğiniz
cevaplar sadece araştırma kapsamında kullanılacaktır. Lütfen soruları
dikkatlice okuyup size uygun seçenekleri işaretleyiniz.
Ankette yer alan “kültürel etkinlikler” ifadesi sinema, tiyatro, opera, konser
gibi sahne sanatları, çeşitli sergiler, söyleşiler, fuarlar, müze ziyaretleri vs. gibi faaliyetleri;
“kültürel ekonomi” ifadesi ise bu faaliyetlerden etkilenen ekonomiyi ifade etmektedir.
1. İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olduğunu biliyor musunuz?

( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
Cevabınız “hayır” ise lütfen SADECE en son sayfadaki soruları cevaplayınız. (69-75 arası)
2. İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olduğunu nereden öğrendiniz?

( ) Televizyon ( ) Çevremdeki kişilerden
( ) Radyo ( ) Afişler/Duvar İlanları
( ) İnternet ( ) Diğer ...........................
( ) Gazete/Dergi
3. Kaç yıldır İstanbul’da yaşıyorsunuz?

..................................................................
156
 Lütfen aşağıdaki her bir ifadeyi okuduktan sonra, kendi fikrinize yakınlık derecesine göre
ifadenin yanındaki kutucuklardan birini işaretleyiniz.
Bu konu hakkında
Hiç Katılmıyorum
Katılmıyorum
bir fikrim yok

Katılıyorum
Katılıyorum
Tamamen
Kararsızım
4 İstanbul çekici bir şehirdir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 İstanbul temiz bir şehirdir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 İstanbul’un kültürel dokusu iyi korunmaktadır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 İstanbul güvenle yaşanılacak bir şehirdir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 İstanbul’da oturup dinlenecek halka açık yerleri bulmak
1 2 3 4 5 6
kolaydır.
9 İstanbul’da yaşamak kolaydır.
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 İstanbul’da farklı türlerde birçok kültürel etkinlik

1 2 3 4 5 6
düzenlenmektedir.
11 İstanbul’da çeşitli mekanlarda farklı kesimlerden insanlara
1 2 3 4 5 6
rastlanır.
12 İstanbul’da kültürel etkinlik merkezlerine ulaşmak kolaydır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
13 İstanbul’da düzenlenen kültürel etkinliklerden haberdar
1 2 3 4 5 6
olmak kolaydır.
14 İstanbul’da ilgi alanıma uygun ve boş zamanımı
1 2 3 4 5 6
değerlendirebileceğim etkinlikleri kolaylıkla buluyorum.
15 Öteki şehirlerde yaşayan arkadaş/akrabalarımın bu şehri
1 2 3 4 5 6
görmesini isterim.
16 İstanbul’da başkalarına gururla gösterebileceğim yerler var. 1 2 3 4 5 6
17 İstanbul’da herhangi bir nedenle insanlarla iletişim kurmak
1 2 3 4 5 6
kolaydır.
18 İstanbul’da çok çeşitli yaş, cinsiyet ve etnik gruptan insan
1 2 3 4 5 6
bulunmaktadır.
19 İstanbul için düzenlenecek organizasyonlarda gönüllü olarak
1 2 3 4 5 6
çalışmak isterim.
157
 Lütfen aşağıdaki ifadeleri herhangi bir şehre göre düşünerek, kendi fikrinize yakınlık derecesine
göre değerlendiriniz.
Bu konu hakkında bir

Hiç Katılmıyorum
Katılmıyorum
Katılıyorum
Katılıyorum
Tamamen
Kararsızım
fikrim yok
Bir şehirde düzenlenen KÜLTÜREL ETKİNLİKLER;
20 O şehirdeki hayatı canlandırmak için önemlidir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
21 O şehrin ekonomisini canlandırır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
22 O şehirde yaşayanları kültür ve sanata yakınlaştırır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
23 O şehre diğer şehirlere göre üstünlük sağlar. 1 2 3 4 5 6
24 O şehirde yaşayan toplumu şehir ile bütünleştirir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
25 O şehirde çeşitli iş fırsatları yaratır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
26 O şehre ticari yatırım yapmak isteyenleri teşvik eder. 1 2 3 4 5 6
27 O şehirde yaşayanların refah düzeyini artırır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
28 O şehre farklı bir imaj kazandırır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
29 O şehrin toplumsal yaşamını geliştirir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
30 O şehri ziyaret etmeyi düşünen insan sayısını artırır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
31 O şehrin var olan imajını geliştirir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
32 O şehirde yeni ticaret alanları yaratır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
33 O şehrin imar ve alt yapısına olumlu katkı sağlar. 1 2 3 4 5 6
34 O şehirde yaşayanların şehirle olan bağlarını kuvvetlendirir. 1 2 3 4 5 6
35 O şehirde yaşayanların boş vakit değerlendirme ihtiyaçlarını
1 2 3 4 5 6
gidermede önemli bir seçenektir.
36 O şehrin tanıtımı ve geliştirilmesi için iyi bir fırsattır. 1 2 3 4 5 6
37 Bir şehrin sahip olduğu kötü imaj, o şehirde düzenlenen
1 2 3 4 5 6
kültürel etkinlikler ile iyi bir imaja çevrilebilir.
38 Çeşitli kültürel etkinlikler aracılığıyla, bir şehrin sahip olduğu
1 2 3 4 5 6
farklı değer ve niteliklerin tanıtımı yapılabilir.
39 Bir toplumun özellikleri, düzenlenen kültürel etkinlikler ile
1 2 3 4 5 6
başkalarına anlatılabilir.
40. Bir veya birden çok gönüllü kuruluşun faal üyesi misiniz?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
41. Farklı gönüllü kuruluş/ kuruluşlar için düzenli olarak gönüllü çalışıyor musunuz?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
42. Toplumsal projelerde çalışmaktan hoşlanır mısınız?

( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
43. Şu ana kadar herhangi bir toplumsal projede çalıştınız mı?

( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
Bu konu hakkında
Hiç Katılmıyorum
Katılmıyorum
bir fikrim yok

Katılıyorum
Katılıyorum
Tamamen
Kararsızım
44 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması benim için bir
1 2 3 4 5 6
anlam ifade ediyor.
45 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması ilgimi çekiyor. 1 2 3 4 5 6
46 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması ile ilgili daha
1 2 3 4 5 6
fazla bilgi edinmek amacıyla çeşitli kaynakları araştırdım.
47 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması kapsamında
1 2 3 4 5 6
hazırlanan etkinliklere ilgi duyuyorum.
48 Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olmak, İstanbul için yararlı bir
1 2 3 4 5 6
durumdur.
49 İstanbul ‘un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması önemli bir
1 2 3 4 5 6
durumdur.
1 2 3 4 5 6
hazırlanan etkinliklere katılmak hayatıma katkı sağlayabilir.
159
51.a) Şu ana kadar, İstanbul 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti gönüllülük programına
katıldınız mı?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
“Evet” ise;
b) Lütfen gönüllük programına şu ana kadar kaç kez katıldığınızı belirtiniz:
........................................................................................................................................
52. a) Şu ana kadar, İstanbul 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti kapsamında hazırlanan bir
etkinlikte gönüllü olarak görev aldınız mı?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
“Evet” ise;
b) Lütfen şu ana kadar kaç etkinlikte görev aldığınızı belirtiniz:
...........................................................................................................................................
53. a) Şu ana kadar, İstanbul 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti kapsamında hazırlanan bir
etkinliğe katıldınız mı?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
“Evet” ise;
b) Lütfen şu ana kadar kaç etkinliğe katıldığınızı belirtiniz:
...........................................................................................................................................
54. a) Şu ana kadar, İstanbul 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması kapsamında, kendiniz
bir proje/etkinlik geliştirdiniz mi?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
“Evet” ise;
b) Lütfen kaç adet proje/etkinlik geliştirdiğinizi belirtiniz:
...........................................................................................................................................
160
Bu konu hakkında
Hiç Katılmıyorum
Katılmıyorum
bir fikrim yok

Katılıyorum
Katılıyorum
Tamamen
Kararsızım
55 Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olmak, İstanbul ile şehirde
1 2 3 4 5 6
yaşayanlar arasındaki iletişimi daha fazla artıran bir yoldur.
56 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması, beni bu şehirde
düzenlenen kültürel etkinliklere katılmaya daha fazla teşvik 1 2 3 4 5 6
ediyor.
57 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması, şehirdeki
kültürel ekonomiyi, şehirde her zaman düzenlenen kültürel 1 2 3 4 5 6
etkinliklere göre daha fazla geliştirecektir.
58 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması sebebiyle şehirde
düzenlenen/düzenlenecek kültürel etkinlikler her 1 2 3 4 5 6
zamankinden daha farklıdır.
59 Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olmak, İstanbul’un kimliği ile
1 2 3 4 5 6
örtüşen bir unvandır.
60 Genel olarak İstanbul’daki yaşam koşulları, şehrin Avrupa
1 2 3 4 5 6
Kültür Başkenti unvanını alması için uygundur.
61 Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olan bir şehirde yaşıyor olmak ile
günlük yaşantım arasında birçok ilişki ve ortaklık 1 2 3 4 5 6
kurabilirim.
62 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti oluşu kapsamında
hazırlanan kültürel etkinliklere parasal yönden güç 1 2 3 4 5 6
yetirilebilir.
63 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti oluşu kapsamındaki
1 2 3 4 5 6
kültürel etkinliklerin düzenlendiği yerlere ulaşmak kolaydır.
64 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti oluşunun etkilerini
şehrin imar veya altyapı düzenlemesinde görmek 1 2 3 4 5 6
mümkündür.
161
Tamamen Katılıyorum
Bu konu hakkında bir

Hiç Katılmıyorum
Katılmıyorum
Katılıyorum
Kararsızım
fikrim yok
65 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti oluşu süreci ile ilgili bilgi
1 2 3 4 5 6
edinmek kolaydır.
66 Avrupa Kültür Başkenti kavramının tam olarak ne olduğunu
1 2 3 4 5 6
anlamak kolaydır.
67 İstanbul’un Avrupa Kültür Başkenti oluşu sürecine dahil
1 2 3 4 5 6
olmak kolaydır.
1 2 3 4 5 6
düzenlenen etkinlikler ile ilgili bilgi edinmek kolaydır.
162
69. İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti olması kapsamında bir gönüllülük
programı olduğunu biliyor musunuz?
( ) Evet ( ) Hayır
70. Eğitim durumunuz
( ) Herhangi bir okul bitirmemiş ( ) Ön lisans/ Meslek yüksek okulu mezunu

( ) İlkokul mezunu ( ) Lisans (üniversite ) mezunu
( ) Ortaokul veya ilköğretim mezunu ( ) Yüksek lisans (master) mezunu
( ) Lise mezunu ( )Doktora mezunu
71. Lütfen yaşınızın ait olduğu aralığı işaretleyiniz.

( ) 18- 24 ( ) 25- 34 ( ) 35-49 ( ) 50- 64 ( ) 65 üstü
72. Lütfen mesleğinizi belirtiniz.

.......................................................................................................................................
73. Hanenizin toplam aylık geliri:

( ) 0 – 600 ( ) 601- 1200 ( )1201- 2500 ( ) 2501 üstü
74. Cinsiyet:
( ) Kadın ( ) Erkek
75. Lütfen yaşadığınız ilçeyi belirtiniz.

.................................................................................................................................................
VAKİT AYIRDIĞINIZ İÇİN ÇOK TEŞEKKÜR EDERİM
163

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION PROCESS FOR ISTANBUL’S

Yüksek Lisans Tezi

AYŞE BETÜL DEDE

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION PROCESS FOR ISTANBUL’S

Yüksek Lisans Tezi

AYŞE BETÜL DEDE

Danışmanı: Prof. Dr. F.ZEYNEP BİLGİN

I would like to express my heart-felt thanks to my dearest advisor

I also would like to thank all my professors who have taught us

My sincere acknowledgements to Prof. Dr. Ömer Faruk Gençkaya for

My warmest thanks to my colleagues Özge Kasalı and Nesrin

Beyond all these, I would want to thank to my family for believing

Besides, I would want to thank The Scientific and Technological

İsim ve Soyadı : Ayşe Betül Dede

İSTANBUL’UN 2010 AVRUPA KÜLTÜR BAŞKENTİ

Bu çalışmanın temel konusu İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür

Bu bağlamda, İstanbul’un 2010 yılı Avrupa Kültür Başkenti seçilmiş

Name and Surname :Ayşe Betül Dede

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADOPTION PROCESS FOR

This research focused on Istanbul’s being awarded as the European

In this context, for Istanbul’s case, learning about the opinions of

Table 2. 1: Place Audit Scale ........................................................................................20

Table 3. 2: Variable List for the Thesis......................................................................66

Table 4. 2: Gender of the Sample...............................................................................79

Figure 2. 1: The Representation of the Relationship Between City,

In today’s world, marketing is no longer to be seen and practiced

As the overall research topic of this study, to market a city, which,

Therefore, as a metropolis, Istanbul’s being European Capital of

1.1. Main Aim and Objectives of the Study

This study deals with determining the thoughts of people living in

At first, before asking people about Istanbul’s being ECoC, it is

1.2. Significance of Research Topic in terms of

Since one of the most important elements of the culture of a country

On the other hand according to Tucker (2008), in today’s global

Similar studies were conducted by Garcia (2009a), Boland (2008),

1.2.1. Background of Being Chosen as ECoC

The ECoC initiative was launched in 1985 by the Member States

As a major European Union (EU) activity, the ECoC culture initiative

The Article 4 of Decision 1419/1999/EC made it possible for

The “European Dimension” of the events and their relation relating

Since 1985, more than 30 cities have been designated European

1.2.2. Importance of Culture in the History of

Istanbul has had a closer relation with the European culture

In today’s Istanbul, more than 12 million people including Greek,

The city is gradually becoming a place which hosts different cultures

According to Beyazıt and Tosun (2006), there is no other city that

Culture has improved its importance in marketing efforts for a

1.2.3. Cultural Focus Within Place Marketing

As one of the key factors for distinguishing places, culture is one of

1.3. Scope of the Study

Introduction part is followed by the literature survey, which is one of

The following part, which named as Research Findings and Analyses,

According to the definition of Atlantic Center for the Arts (ACA,

In the current situation of Istanbul, the interest to the art products

In fact as a cultural event ECoC process includes so many kinds of

Taking into account the interaction between the components culture,

For more than a century, making a specific area or a region different

2.1.1. City As the Major Concept

From the beginning of ancient times, people were used to live as

Hence, cities are seen not simply as accumulations of buildings and

Starting with the older studies in the literature, Childe (1950)

These metrics are consistent and appropriate in also today’s world,